ECE-A

TEAM 9

1. WAVE PROPAGATION IN FREE

SPACE:
Now let’s consider electromagnetic waves in free
space, and even let us consider the medium is
source less (ρν = J = 0).
 Maxwell’s equations may be written in terms of
E and H as,
----(1)
----(2)
----(3)
----(4)
Considering equation (2), the curl of E reduces to a single term,
----(5)

Using the y-directed magnetic field and Simplifying equation (1) we get,
----(6)

Equations (5) and (6) can be written as

----(7)

----(8)
Now we need to differentiate (7) with respect to z
----(9)

Equation (8) is differentiated with respect to t

----(10)

Substituting (10) into (9) we get,

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TEAM 9

----(11)

From Eq. (11) we get the propagation velocity

----(12)

Differentiating (7) with t and (8) with z , we get a wave equation for the
magnetic field

----(13)

The solutions to equations (11) and (13) will be forward- and backward-
propagating waves having the general form

----(14)

Because the waves are sinusoidal, we denote their velocity as the phase
velocity, νp. The waves are written as,

----(15)

The wavenumber in free space is defined as,

----(16)

Let’s consider spatial phase shifts by 2π radians, then


----(17)

Considering the mth crest of the wave,

Our condition becomes,

----(18)
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Using the forward-propagating field in equation (15), we get

----(19)

where c.c. denotes the complex conjugate, and where we identify the phasor
electric field as Exs = Ex0 e− jkoz.
As we see in equation (19), Ex0 is the complex amplitude.

2. WAVE PROPAGATION IN DIELECTRICS:

The medium is assumed to be homogeneous and
isotropic.
The Helmholtz equation is
----(1)
Where the wavenumber is a function of the material properties, as described by
µ and
----(2)

For we have,

----(3)

Now we write the general solution for equation (3) in terms of real
and imaginary parts as
jk = α + jβ ----(4)
The solution to equation (3) will be,
----(5)
Multiplying (5) by e jωt we get,
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TEAM 9

----(6)
The ways in which physical processes in a material can affect the wave electric
field are described through a complex permittivity of the form,

----(7)
We can substitute (7) into (2), we get
-----(8)
Now α and β are found by taking the real and imaginary parts of jk from (8).
We get
----(9)
----(10)

From (6) that the wave phase velocity is given by,

----(11)

For phase change of 2π radian,

βλ = 2π

 ----(12)

In a uniform plane wave, the magnetic field is given b,

----(13)
Where the intrinsic impedance is a complex quantity that is given as
----(14)

From (9), this leads to α = 0, and from (10),

----(15)
With α = 0, the real field will be
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TEAM 9

----(15)
We can represent this as a wave traveling in the +z direction at a phase velocity
νp, where

Now the wavelength is

----(16)
where λ0 is the free space wavelength.

Now magnetic field intensity is

where the intrinsic impedance is ----(17)

3. Skin Effect in Transmission Line Skin effect:

The non-uniform distribution of electric current over the sources or skin of the
conductor is called the skin effect.
Factors affecting the skin effect:
• Shape of the conductor:
Skin effect is much smaller in stranded conductors than solid conductors that’s
why stranded conductors like ACSR are used in high-voltage transmission lines.
• Type of conductor material:
The skin effect increases with the permeability of the material.
• Frequency:
Skin effect increases with the increase in the frequency of the system. There is
no skin effect on DC transmission lines having zero frequency.
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TEAM 9

PROPAGATION IN GOOD CONDUCTORS:

The general expression for the propagation constant is,

After simplifying we get,

Or

But,

We know that,

Therefore,
----(1)
Hence
----(2)

Now regardless of the parameters µ and σ of the conductor or of the frequency

of the applied field, α and β are equal. If we again assume only a component
traveling in the +z direction, then
-
- ----(3)

At the boundary surface z = 0, (3) becomes

Since displacement current is negligible,

J = σE
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TEAM 9

Thus, the conduction current density at any point within the conductor is
directly related to
----(4)
The exponential factor is unity at z = 0 and decreases to = 0.368 when

This distance is termed skin depth and is denoted by δ

----(5)
Let us consider copper, σ = 5.8 × 107 S/m, at several different frequencies.
Then the magnitude of skin depth is written as

Now, let us determine expressions for the velocity and wavelength within a
good conductor. From (5), WKT

Since,

Wavelength can be written as

----(6)
Recalling that,

Therefore, we have

----(7)