BSC 1 Math 2

B.Sc.
First Year
Mathematics, Paper - II
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS
MADHYA PRADESH BHOJ (OPEN) UNIVERSITY - BHOPAL

Reviewer Committee
1. Dr (Prof) Piyush Bhatnagar 3. Dr Rajkumar Bhimtae
Professor Assistant Professor
Govt. MLB College, Bhopal Govt. College, Vidisha, MP
2. Dr (Prof) Anil Rajput

Professor
Govt. C.S. Azad (PG) College, Sehore
Advisory Committee
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Hon'ble Vice Chancellor Professor
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal Govt. MLB College, Bhopal
2. Dr H.S.Tripathi 5. Dr (Prof) Anil Rajput

Registrar Professor
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal Govt . C.S. Azad (PG) College, Sehore
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Dy Director Printing Assistant Professor
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COURSE WRITERS
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Units: (1, 2, 3.3-3.11, 4, 5)
V K Khanna, Formerly Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi
S K Bhambri, Formerly Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi
Unit: (3.0-3.2)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Calculus and Differential Equations
UNIT-I: Successive Differentiation and Asymptotes Unit-1: Successive Differentiation and

Successive Differentiation, Leibnitz Theorem, Maclaurin and Taylor Asymptotes
Series Expansions, Asymptotes. (Pages 3-46)
UNIT-2: Curvature
Curvature, Tests for Concavity and Convexity, Points of Inflection, Unit-2: Curvature
Multiple Points, Tracing of Curves in Cartesian and Polar (Pages 47-104)
Coordinates.
UNIT-3: Integration of Transcendental Functions, Reduction, Unit-3: Integration of Transcendental

Quadrature and Rectification Functions, Reduction, Quadrature
Integration of Transcendental Functions, Definite Integrals, and Rectification
Reduction Formulae, Quadrature, Rectification. (Pages 105-178)
UNIT-4: Differential Equations

Linear Differential Equations and Equations Reducible to the Linear Unit-4: Differential Equations
Form, Exact Differential Equations, First Order Higher Degree (Pages 179-224)
Equations Solvable for x, y and p, Clairaut's Equation and Singular
Solutions, Geometrical Meaning of a Differential Equation,
Orthogonal Trajectories.
Unit-5: Linear Differential Equations Unit-5: Linear Differential Equations and

Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients, Method of Variation of Parameters
Homogeneous Linear Ordinary Differential Equations, Linear (Pages 225-258)
Differential Equation of Second Order, Transformation of Equations
by Changing the Dependent Variable / the Independent Variable,
Method of Variation of Parameters.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND ASYMPTOTES 3-46
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Successive Differentiation
1.3 Leibnitz Theorem
1.4 Maclaurin and Taylor Series Expansions
1.4.1 Taylor’s Infinite Series
1.4.2 Maclaurin’s Infinite Series
1.4.3 Application of Taylor’s Infinite Series to Expand f(x + h)
1.5 Asymptotes
1.5.1 Asymptotes Parallel to Axes of Co-Ordinates
1.5.2 Oblique Asymptotes
1.5.3 Total Number of Asymptotes of a Curve
1.5.4 Miscellaneous Methods of Finding Asymptotes
1.5.5 Intersection of a Curve and Its Asymptotes
1.5.6 Asymptotes of Polar Curves
1.6 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Reading
UNIT 2 CURVATURE 47-104

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Curvature
2.2.1 Radius of Curvature for Cartesian Curves
2.2.2 Radius of Curvature for Polar and Pedal Equations
2.2.3 Radius of Curvature at the Origin
2.2.4 Centre of Curvature
2.2.5 Chord of Curvature
2.3 Tests for Concavity and Convexity
2.4 Points of Inflection
2.5 Multiple Points
2.6 Tracing of Curves in Cartesian and Polar Coordinates
2.8 Summary
2.9 Key Terms
UNIT 3 INTEGRATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS,
REDUCTION, QUADRATURE AND RECTIFICATION 105-178
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Integration and Definite Integrals
3.3 Reduction Formula
3.3.1 Walli’s Formula
3.3.2 Reduction Formulae for  tan x dx and  cot x dx

n n
3.3.3 Gamma Function

3.4 Integration of Transcendental Functions
3.5 Quadrature
3.6 Rectification
3.8 Summary
3.9 Key Terms
UNIT 4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 179-224

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Linear Differential Equations
4.2.1 Geometrical Meaning of a Differential Equation
4.2.2 Solving Linear Differential Equations
4.3 Equations Reducible to the Linear Form
4.4 Exact Differential Equations
4.5 First Order Higher Degree Equations Solvable for x, y and p
4.6 Clairaut’s Equation
4.7 Singular Solutions
4.8 Orthogonal Trajectories
4.10 Summary
4.11 Key Terms
UNIT 5 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND
METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS 225-258
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
5.3 Homogeneous Linear Ordinary Differential Equations
5.4 Linear Differential Equation of Second Order
5.5 Method of Variation of Parameters
5.7 Summary
5.8 Key Terms
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is the most important subject for achieving excellence in any field of
Science and Engineering. Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or ‘the NOTES
calculus of infinitesimals’, is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the
same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of
generalizations of arithmetic operations. Calculus is that branch of mathematics
that focusses on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals and infinite series. Calculus
has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus. The differential
calculus studies instantaneous rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while
integral calculus concerns accumulation of quantities, and areas under or between
curves. These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem
of calculus, and they make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite
sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.
Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century
by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Today, calculus has widespread
uses in science, engineering, and economics. In mathematics, calculus denotes
courses of elementary mathematical analysis, which are mainly devoted to the
study of functions and limits, propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of
variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus. Knowledge of calculus is,
therefore, significant in mathematical analysis.
In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation that relates one or
more functions and their derivatives. Differential equations first came into existence
with the invention of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. He solved these examples
and others using infinite series and discussed about the non-uniqueness of solutions.
Jacob Bernoulli proposed the Bernoulli differential equation in 1695.
Differential equations can be divided into several types. Apart from describing
the properties of the equation itself, these classes of differential equations can help
inform the choice of approach to a solution. Commonly used distinctions include
whether the equation is ordinary or partial differential equations, linear or non-
linear differential equations, and homogeneous or heterogeneous differential
equations. In applications, the functions generally represent physical quantities,
the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the differential equation defines
a relationship between the two. Because such relations are extremely common,
differential equations play a prominent role in many disciplines including engineering,
physics, economics, and biology.
This book, Calculus and Differential Equations, is designed to be a
comprehensive and easily accessible book covering the basic concepts of calculus
and differential equations. It will help readers to understand the basics of successive
differentiation and asymptotes, Leibnitz theorem, Maclaurin and Taylor series,
curvature, tests for concavity and convexity, points of inflection, multiple points,
tracing of curves, integration of transcendental functions, reduction, quadrature
and rectification, differential equations, linear differential equations, exact differential
equations, Clairaut’s equation and singular solutions, geometrical meaning of a
Self - Learning
Material 1
Introduction differential equation, orthogonal trajectories, linear differential equations with
constant coefficients, homogeneous linear ordinary differential equations, linear
differential equation of second order, transformation of equations by changing the
dependent variable and the independent variable, and method of variation of
NOTES parameters. The book is divided into five units that follow the self-instruction mode
with each unit beginning with an Introduction to the unit, followed by an outline of
the Objectives. The detailed content is then presented in a simple but structured
manner interspersed with Check Your Progress Questions to test the student’s
understanding of the topic. A Summary along with a list of Key Terms and a set of
Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit
for understanding, revision and recapitulation. The topics are logically organized
and explained with related mathematical theorems, analysis and formulations to
provide a background for logical thinking and analysis with good knowledge of
calculus. The examples have been carefully designed so that the students can
gradually build up their knowledge and understanding.
Self - Learning
2 Material
Successive Differentiation
UNIT 1 SUCCESSIVE and Asymptotes
DIFFERENTIATION AND
ASYMPTOTES NOTES
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Successive Differentiation
1.3 Leibnitz Theorem
1.4 Maclaurin and Taylor Series Expansions
1.4.3 Application of Taylor’s Infinite Series to Expand f(x + h)
1.5 Asymptotes
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Successive differentiation is the process of differentiating a given function
successively n times and the results of such differentiation are called successive
derivatives. The higher order differential coefficients are of utmost importance in
scientific and engineering applications.
We know that the derivative f  of a differentiable function f is a function and
is called the derived function of f. The concept of differentiation was motivated by
some physical concepts (like the velocity of a moving particle) and also by
geometrical notions (like the slope of a tangent to a curve). The second and higher
order derivatives are also similarly motivated by some physical considerations
(like the acceleration) and some geometrical ideas (like the curvature of a curve).
We shall also expand some functions in terms of infinite series by using these
theorems.
Leibnitz Theorem is basically the Leibnitz Rule defined for derivative of the
anti-derivative. As per the rule, the derivative on nth order of the product of two
functions can be expressed with the help of a formula. Therefore, the Leibnitz
Theorem gives us a formula for finding the nth derivatives of a product of two
functions.
Self - Learning
Material 3
Successive Differentiation In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance
and Asymptotes
between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the x or y
coordinates tends to infinity. Principally, an asymptote is a line that a curve
approaches, as it heads towards infinity. There are three types horizontal, vertical
NOTES and oblique. This involves taking limits as x   or y   . Before discussing
the concept of asymptotes, first we shall study the branches of a curve and meaning
of P   (where P is a point on an infinite branch).
If in an equation, y has two or more values for every value of x, then we can
suppose that we are given two or more distinct functions. Generally, the curves
corresponding to these functions are regarded as different branches of one curve, and
not as different curves. For example, if x 2  y 2  a 2 , then y   a 2  x 2 and thus
y  a 2  x 2 and y   a 2  x 2 are the two branches of the curve x + y = a

2 2 2
(circle), which is called the upper half and lower half of the circle. We know that
the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is bounded by a square whose sides are x   a, y   a .
Therefore, we say that the two branches of the circle are finite. Now, consider the
x2 y 2 b 2
hyperbola 2  2  1 . Solving for y, we get y  x  a2 and
a b a
b 2
y x  a 2 . Here, x   and thus y   . Therefore, we say that the
a
two branches of the hyperbola are infinite.
If any point P(x, y) on an infinite branch of a curve P moves along the
branch of the curve, then it is said to tend to  along the curve. In this case one at
least of x and y   or –  .
In this unit, you will study about successive differentiation, Leibnitz Theorem,
Maclaurin and Taylor series expansions, and asymptotes.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand successive differentiation
 Calculate higher order derivatives of a given function f
 Find the nth order derivatives of products of functions using Leibnitz theorem
 Expand the functions in the form of Maclaurin and Taylor infinite series
 Define asymptotes and obtain their equations parallel to the axes
 Understand the oblique asymptotes and generate its equation
 Use different methods for finding asymptotes
 Prove the concept of intersection of a curve and its asymptotes
 Learn the asymptotes of polar curves
Self - Learning
4 Material
1.2 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION and Asymptotes
dy
If y be a function of x, then is said to be the first differential coefficient or first
dx NOTES
dy
derivative of y with respect to x. Since, is a function of x, therefore, it can be
dx
dy
further differentiated. The differential coefficient of is called the second
dx
differential coefficient or second derivative of y with respect to x and is denoted
d2 y d2 y
by . Similarly, the differential coefficient of is called the third differential
dx 2 dx 2
d3 y
coefficient or third derivative of y with respect to x and is written as 3 and so
dx
on.
In general, the nth differential coefficient of y or nth derivative of y with
dn y
respect to x is denoted by .
dx n
This process of finding differential coefficients of a given function is known
as successive differentiation and these coefficients are called successive differential
coefficients of y.
Note: The successive differential coefficients of y can be denoted by any one of
the following ways:
dy d 2 y d 3 y dn y
(i) , 2 , 3 ,… n
dx dx dx dx
(ii) y1 , y2 , y3 , ..., yn
(iii) y ', y '', y ''', ..., y n
(iv) f '( x), f ''( x), f '''( x), ..., f ( n ) ( x)
(v) Dy, D 2 y, D3 y, ..., D n y
The ‘nth’ Differential Coefficient of Some Functions
Differential coefficient of a function is what is also called as derivative, the
multiplicative factor or coefficient of the differential.
nth Differential Coefficient of xm
Let y = xm
By the successive differentiation of the given function with respect to x, we
have
y1 = mxm – 1
y2 = m(m – 1)x m – 2
Self - Learning
Material 5
Successive Differentiation y3 = m(m – 1)(m – 2) x m – 3
and Asymptotes
…………….
..……………
NOTES yn = m(m – 1)(m – 2) … (m – n + 1) xm – n
If m is a positive integer, then
yn  m(m  1)(m  2)....(m  n  1) x m  n
m( m  1)(m  2)...( m  n  1)(m  n) ...3.2.1 m  n
 x
(m  n)(m  n  1)...3.2.1
m!
 xmn
 m  n !
m!
mm
Corollary: If n = m, then ym   m  m  ! x = m!
nth Differential Coefficient of (ax + b)m

Let y = (ax + b)m
By the successive differentiation of the given function with respect to x, we
have
y1 = m(ax + b)m – 1 a
y2 = m(m – 1)(ax + b)m – 2 a2
y3 = m(m – 1)(m – 2)(ax + b)m – 3 a3
………………
……………..
yn = m(m – 1)(m – 2) … (m – n + 1)(ax + b)m – n an
If m is a positive integer, then
yn  m( m  1)(m  2)....(m  n  1)(ax  b) m  n a n

m( m  1)(m  2)...(m  n  1)(m  n) ...3.2.1
 (ax  b)m  n a n
(m  n)(m  n  1)...3.2.1
m!
 ( ax  b)m  n a n
 m  n !
m! mm m
Corollary: If n = m, then ym   m  m  ! (ax  b) a = m!am
And if m < n, then yn = 0

1  b
nth Differential Coefficient of ax  b ,  x   a 
 
1
Let y
ax  b
Self - Learning
6 Material
(1) a
y1  and Asymptotes
(ax  b) 2
(1)(2) a 2
y2 
(ax  b)3 NOTES
(1)(2)(3)a 3
y3 
(ax  b)4
……………………
……………………
(1)(2)(3) ... ( n) a n (1)n n  a n
yn  
(ax  b) n 1 (ax  b) n 1
( 1)n n  a n
Hence, yn 
(ax  b )n 1
nth Differential Coefficient of log (ax + b)
Let y = log (ax + b)
a
y1 
ax  b
(1)a 2
y2 
(ax  b)2
(1)(2)a 3
y3 
(ax  b)3
……………….
……………….
(1)( 2)(3) ... [(n  1)]. a n
yn 
(ax  b) n
(1)n 1 1.2.3.... (n  1). a n (1)n 1 (n  1) a n
 
(ax  b) n (ax  b) n
( 1) n1 ( n  1)  a n
Hence, yn 
(ax  b ) n
(1)n 1 (n  1) 
Corollary 1: If y = log (x + a), then yn 
( x  a) n
(1)n 1 (n  1) 
Corollary 2: If y = log x, then yn 
xn
nth Differential Coefficient of amx
Let y = amx
 y1 = mlog a. amx
y2 = (mlog a)2. amx
Self - Learning
Material 7
Successive Differentiation y3 = (mlog a)3. amx
and Asymptotes
………………
………………
NOTES yn = (mlog a)n. amx
Corollary: If y = e mx , then yn  mn emx
nth Differential Coefficient of sin (ax + b)

Let y = sin (ax + b)
 
y1  a cos ( ax  b)  a sin  ax  b  
 2
   
 sin  2     cos 
   
       
y2  a 2 cos  ax  b    a 2 sin  ax  b     a 2 sin  ax  b  
 2  2 2  2 
     
y3  a 3 cos  ax  b    a sin  ax  b 
3

 2   2 
…………………………
…………………………
 n 
Thus, yn  a sin  ax  b 
n

 2 
nth Differential Coefficient of cos (ax + b)
Let y = cos (ax + b)
     
 y1  a sin (ax  b)  a cos  ax  b    cos  2      sin 
 2     
       
y2   a 2 sin  ax  b    a 2 cos  ax  b     a 2 cos  ax  b  
 2  2 2  2 
     
y3  a 3 sin  ax  b    a cos  ax  b  
3
 2   2 
…………………………...
…………………………..
 n 
Thus, yn  a cos  ax  b 
n

 2 
nth Differential Coefficient of eax sin bx

Let y = eax sin bx
 y1 = eax (a sin bx + b cos bx)
Put a = r cos f and b = r sin f, so that
r2 = a2 + b2 and f = tan–1 b/a
Self - Learning
8 Material
 y1 = r eax (cos f sin bx + sin f cos bx) = r eax sin (bx + f) Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
y2 = r eax [a sin(bx + f) + b cos (bx + f)] = r2 eax sin (bx + 2f)
y3 = r3 eax sin (bx + 3f)
………………………. NOTES
…………………………
yn = rn eax sin (bx + nf)
Thus yn = (a2 + b2)n/2 eax sin (bx + n tan–1b/a)
Corollary: If y = eax sin (bx + c), then
yn = (a2 + b2)n/2 eax sin (bx + c + n tan–1b/a)
nth Differential Coefficient of eax cos bx
Let y=eax cos bx
 y1 =eax (a cos bx – b sin bx)
Put a=r cos f and b = r sin f, so that
r2 =a2 + b2 and f = tan–1 b/a
 y1 =r eax (cos f cos bx – sin f sin bx) = r eax cos (bx + f)
y2 =r eax [a cos(bx + f) – b sin (bx + f)]
=r eax [r cos f cos(bx + f) – r sin f sin (bx + f)]
=r2 eax cos (bx + 2f)
y3 =r3 eax cos (bx + 3f)
……………………….
………………………..
yn =rn eax cos (bx + nf)
Thus yn =(a2 + b2)n/2 eax cos (bx + n tan–1b/a)
Corollary: If y = eax cos (bx + c), then
yn = (a2 + b2)n/2 eax cos (bx + c + n tan–1b/a)
d 2 p a 2 b2
Example 1.1: If p2 = a2 cos2  + b2 sin2, prove that p   3 .
d 2 p
Solution: Given, p 2  a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2 

Differentiating with respect to , we get
dp
2p  2a 2 cos  sin b 2 sin  cos 
d
= (b2 – a2) sin 2q … (i)
Again differentiating, we get
2
d2 p  dp 
2 p 2  2    2(b 2  a 2 ) cos 2
d  d 
2
d 2 p  dp 
 p 2     (b 2  a 2 ) cos 2
d  d 
Self - Learning
Material 9
Successive Differentiation Multiplying by p2, we get
and Asymptotes
2
d2 p  dp 
p 3
 p 2 (b 2  a 2 ) cos 2   p 
d 2
 d 
NOTES (b 2  a 2 ) 2 sin 2 2
 p 2 (b 2  a 2 )(cos 2   sin  ) 
4
d2 p
p3  p 2 (b2 cos 2   a 2 sin 2 )  p 2 (a 2 cos 2   b 2sin  )  (a 4  b 4  2a 2b 2 )sin 2  cos  
d 2
 (a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2 )(b 2 cos 2   a 2sin )  p 4  (a 4  b 4  2a 2b 2 ) sin 2  cos  
 a 2b 2 (cos 4   sin 4    sin 2  cos  )  p 4
 a 2b 2 (cos 2   sin 2   p 4  a 2b 2  p 4
d2 p d 2 p a 2b2
p p
4
a b 
2 23
p   3
d 2 d 2 p
‘nth’ Derivative by the Use of Partial Fractions
Fractional expressions whose numerators and denominators are both rational
algebraic expressions are differentiated n times by splitting them into partial fractions.
To split a given rational fraction into its partial fractions, the degree of the
numerator of the function must be less than the degree of the denominator. In case
if it is not so, then divide the numerator by the denominator and resolve the
denominator into simple factors, linear or quadratic as possible.
x3
Example 1.2: If y = , prove that for x = 0, n > 1
x2  1
yn = 0, if n is even
= – (n!), if n is odd.
x3 x
Solution: Let y = 2 = x  x2  1
x 1
1 1 1 
 y = x  2  x 1  x 1
 
[By Partial fractions]
Differentiating n time with respect to x, we get
1  (1)n n ! (1)n n ! 
yn = 2  n 1
 
 ( x – 1) ( x  1) n  1 
(1) n n!  1 1 
=  n 1
 
2  ( x  1) ( x  1)n  1 
(1)n n !  1 
 When x = 0, yn =  n 1
 1
2  ( 1) 
Case 1. If n is even, n + 1 is odd
n!
 yn = [1  1] = 0
Self - Learning 2
10 Material
Case 2. If n is odd, n + 1 is even Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
n!
 yn = – [1  1] = – n!.
2
NOTES
Check Your Progress
d2y 
1. If x = 2 cos t – cos 2t and y = 2 sin t – sin 2t; find 2 when t = .
dx 2
2. If y = sin (m sin -1 x) , then find the value of (1 – x 2 ) y2 – xy1 + m2 y .
3. Find the nth derivative of sin 2 x cos3 x .
1
4. Find the nth differential coefficient of .
1  5x  6x2
5. Find the nth derivative of cot 1 x .
1.3 LEIBNITZ THEOREM

This theorem is used to find the nth differential coefficient of the product of two
functions.
Statement: It states that if u and v are any two functions of x possessing derivatives
upto nth order, then
Dn(uv) = (Dn u) v + nC1 Dn–1 u D v + nC2 Dn–2 u D2 v + …. + nCr Dn–r uDrv +
…. + u Dn v
Proof: We shall prove this theorem by mathematical induction.
By actual differentiation, we have
D (uv) = (Du) v + uD v = (Du)v + nC1 uDv, where n = 1
Differentiating again
D2(uv) = (D2u)v + D(u)D(v) + D(u)D(v) + uD2v
= (D2u)v + 2D(u)D(v) + uD2(v)
= D2(u)v + 2C1 D(u)D(v) + 2C2 uD2(v)
Thus, the theorem is true for n = 1, 2.
Let us assume that theorem is true for a particular value of n, say m.
i.e., Dm(uv) = Dm(u)v + mC1 Dm – 1 uDv + mC2 Dm – 2 uD2v + … + mCr
Dm – r uDrv + … + uDmv
Again differentiating this result, we get
Dm+ 1(uv) = Dm + 1(u)v + DmuDv + mC1{DmuDv + Dm – 1 uD2v}
+ mC2{Dm– 1uD2v + Dm – 2 uD3v} + …
+ mCr{Dm– r + 1 uDrv + Dm – r uD r + 1v}
+… … …
+ {DuDmv + uDm + 1 v}
By rearranging the above terms, we get
Dm+ 1(uv)= (Dm + 1u)v + (1 + mC1)DmuDv + (mC1 + mC2)Dm– 1uD2v + …
+ (mCr–1+ mC r )Dm – r+1
uDrv + … + uDm + 1v
Self - Learning
Material 11
Successive Differentiation As we know that mCr–1+ mC r = m + 1C r
and Asymptotes
Putting r = 1, mC0 + mC 1 = m + 1C 1;
Putting r = 2, mC1 + mC 2 = m + 1C 2 etc.
NOTES
D m1 (uv)  ( D m 1u )v  m 1
C1 D m uDv  m 1
C2 D m1uD 2 v  .....  m 1
C D m r 1uD r v  .....  u.D m 1v
D m1 (uv)  ( D m 1u )v  m 1

C D m uDv  m 1
C D m1uD 2 v  .....  m 1
Cr D m r 1uD r v  .....  u.D m 1v
This shows that if the theorem is true for n = m, it is also true for n = m + 1.
But the theorem is true for n = 1; therefore by the principle of mathematical
induction, the theorem is true for every positive integral value of n.
Note: In applying this theorem we take u as that function whose nth derivative is
known and v as that function which is of the form xn.
Example 1.3: If y = a cos (log x) + b sin (log x), then show that
(a) x 2 y2  xy1  y = 0
(b) x 2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  (n 2  1) yn = 0

Solution: We have y = a cos (log x) + b sin (log x)
1 1
 y1 =  a sin (log x)  b cos (log x) .
x x
 xy1 =  a sin (log x)  b cos (log x )
Differentiating again, we have
1 1
xy2  y1 =  a cos (log x) .  b sin (log x) .
x x
 x 2 y2  xy1 =  a cos (log x )  b sin (log x) = – y
 x 2 y2  xy1  y =0 …(i)
This proves the first part.
Again differentiating Equation (i) n times by Leibnitz’s Theorem, we have
n (n  1)
x 2 yn  2  nyn  1 2 x  . yn 2  yn  1 x  n. yn  yn = 0
2!
 x 2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  (n 2  1) yn = 0
Example 1.4: If y = [log {x  (1  x 2 )}]2 , prove that
(1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  n2 yn = 0.
Self - Learning
12 Material
Solution: Given, y = [log {x  (1  x 2 )}]2 , and Asymptotes
 

y1= 2 log x  (1  x 2 ) .  1
. 1 
x  (1  x 2 ) 
2x 
2 (1  x 2 )  NOTES
 x  1  x2 
 2
= 2 log x  (1  x ) .  1
.
x  (1  x 2 )  1  x2



2 1
 y1 = 2 log {x  (1  x )}.
(1  x 2 )
Cross-multiplying and squaring both sides, we get

2
(1  x 2 ) y12  4  log( x  1  x 2   4 y
 
Differentiating both the sides with respect to x, we get
(1  x 2 ) . 2 y1 y2  2 xy12 = 4 y1
 (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1 = 2 [Dividing by 2y1]
Differentiating n times by Leibnitz’s theorem, we get
(1  x 2 ) yn  2  2nxyn  1  n (n  1) yn  xyn  1  nyn = 0
 (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  n2 yn = 0
Calculation of ‘nth’ Derivative at x = 0

Sometimes it is difficult to calculate the nth derivative of a function in general. In
that case its value can be calculated at x = 0 by the application of Leibnitz’s
Theorem.
Working Rule:
(i) Let the given function be y.
dy
(ii) Find and then, take L.C.M, if possible.
dx
(iii) If square roots are present, square both sides and then try to get y in R.H.S.
(iv) Find the equation in y2, y1, y by differentiating both sides of the equation
obtained in Step (iii).
(v) Differentiate the equation so obtained n times, by Leibnitz’s Theorem.
(vi) Put x = 0 in equation obtained in all the steps above from Step (i) to
Step (v).
(vii) Put n = 1, 2, 3, 4 in the last equation of Step (vi).
(viii) Discuss the cases when n is even or odd.
Self - Learning
Material 13
and Asymptotes Example 1.5: If y = [ x  (1  x 2 )]m , find ( yn )0 .
Solution: We have y= [ x  (1  x 2 )]m …(i)

NOTES  2x 
2 m 1
 y1 = m [ x  (1  x )] 1  
 2 (1  x 2 ) 
 
m
= [ x  (1  x 2 )]m
2
(1  x )
my
 y1 = …(ii)
(1  x 2 )
 (1  x 2 ) y12 = m 2 y 2
Differentiating again, we have
(1  x 2 ) 2 y1 y2  2 xy12 = 2m 2 yy1
i.e., (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1 = m 2 y
… (iii)
Differentiating Equation (iii) n times by Leibnitz’s Theorem, we have
n (n  1)
(1  x 2 ) yn  2  nyn  1 (2 x)  2 yn  xyn  1  nyn = m 2 yn
1.2
 (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  ( n 2  m 2 ) yn = 0 …(iv)
Putting x = 0 in Equations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
( y )0 = 1, ( y1 )0 = m, ( y2 )0 = m 2 ,
( y n  2 ) 0 = ( m 2  n 2 ) ( yn ) 0 . …(v)
Case 1: When n is odd. Putting n = 1, 3, 5,… in Equation (v), we have
( y1 )0 = m.
( y3 )0 = (m 2  12 ) ( y1 )0 = (m 2  12 ) m ,
( y5 )0 = (m 2  32 ) ( y3 )
= (m2  32 ) (m 2  12 ) m, … … ….
( yn )0 = [m 2  (n  2) 2 ] … (m 2  32 ) (m 2  12 ) m.
Case 2: When n is even. Putting n = 2, 4, 6,… in Equation (v), we have
( y2 ) 0 = m 2 .
( y 4 ) 0 = ( m 2  2 2 ) ( y2 ) 0 = ( m 2  2 2 ) m 2 ,
( y6 )0 = (m 2  4 2 ) ( y4 )0
= ( m 2  4 2 ) ( m 2  22 ) m 2 , … … ….
( yn )0 = [m 2  (n  2) 2 ] … (m 2  4 2 ) (m 2  22 ) m 2
Self - Learning
14 Material
Example 1.6: If y = (sin -1 x)2 , prove that and Asymptotes
(a) (1  x) 2 y2  xy1  2 = 0
(b) (1  x)2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  n 2 yn = 0 NOTES
yn  2
Deduce that lim = n 2 and find yn (0) .
x 0 yn
Solution: Given, y = (sin 1 x)2

1
 y1 = 2 (sin 1 x ) . … (i)
1  x2
 1  x 2 y1 = 2sin 1 x
Squaring both sides, we have
(1  x 2 ) y12 = 4 (sin 1 x) 2 = 4 y
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we have
(1  x 2 ) 2 y1 y2  2 xy12 = 4 y1
 (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1  2 = 0 [Dividing both sides by 2 y1 ] …(ii)
Which proves (a).
Differentiating (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1  2 = 0 n-times by Leibnitz’s Theorem, we get
n (n 1)
yn  2 (1  x 2 )  nyn  1 (2 x)  yn ( 2)  [ yn  1 x  nyn .1] = 0 …(iii)
2!
 (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  n 2 yn = 0
x n 2 yn
 yn  2  (2n  1) yn  1 1  x2
=
1  x2
 yn  2  n2
lim 
When x  0, x0 y  lim
= x 0 = n2
 n  1  x2
From Equation (i), when x = 0, y1 (0) = 0

From Equation (ii), when x = 0, y2 (0) = 2
From Equation (iii), when x = 0, yn  2 (0) = n 2 yn (0)
From Equation (iv), when n = 1, y3 (0) = 12 y1 (0) = 0
n = 2, y4 (0) = 22 y2 (0) = 22 . 2
n = 3, y5 (0) = 32 y3 (0) = 0
n = 4, y6 (0) = 42 y4 (0) = 42 . 22 . 2
 If n is odd, yn (0) = 0
and if n is even, yn (0) = 2 . 22 . 42 . 62 ... (n  2) 2 .
Self - Learning
Material 15
and Asymptotes Check Your Progress
6. Find the nth derivative of x 3e ax .
NOTES 7. If y = x 2 sin x , then find the value of yn.

8. If y = sin 1 x, find ( yn ) x = 0.
9. If u = tan-1x, prove that (1 + x)2u2 + 2xu1 = 0,
(1  x 2 )un  2  2( n  1) xun 1  n( n  1)un  0
and hence determine the values of all the derivatives of n with respect to x,
when x = 0.
1.4 MACLAURIN AND TAYLOR SERIES

EXPANSIONS
A set of terms which are connected by positive or negative signs and are arranged
according to some fixed definite law are called a series. There are two types of
series, finite series and infinite series according to the number of terms (finite or
infinite) it contains.
For example, 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 is a finite series containing five terms
1 1 1
whereas 1     ...  is an infinite series.
2 4 6
If Sn = a1  a2  a3  ...  an , then (Sn ) is called the sequence of partial
sums of the series. If {an } is a sequence, then a1  a2  a3  ...  an  .... is called

an infinite series which is written as  an .

n 1

Theorem 1.1: Let f(x) be a function such that:
(a) It has continuous derivatives of all order in the open interval (a, a + h) and
hn n
(b) Taylor’s remainder, Rn = f (a  h) , 0 <  < 1 tends to 0 as n  
n!
h2 hn n
then f (a + h) = f (a )  hf (a )  f ( a)  ...  f ( a)  ...  …(1)
2! n!
Proof: Let f(x) be a function, which possesses continuous derivates of all order in
the open interval (a, a + h). Then, for every integer n, however large, there is a
corresponding Taylor’s development with Lagrange’s form of remainder, i.e.,
h2 hn  1 n 1
f (a + h)= f (a)  hf ( a )  2! f (a)  ...  (n  1)! f (a)  R n ,
Self - Learning
16 Material
hn n
where Rn = f (a  h), 0 <  < 1 and Asymptotes
n!
We can write the above expression as f (a + h) = Sn  R n ,
NOTES
h2 hn  1 n  1
where Sn = f ( a )  hf ( a )  f ( a )  ...  f (a) .
2! (n  1)!
Suppose, Rn tends to 0 as n   . Then, we have

2
lim Sn = f (a )  hf (a )  h f (a)  ...  
n 2!
h2
And hence f (a + h) = f (a)  hf (a)  f (a)  ...  
2!
Hence proved.
This theorem expands f (a + h) to an infinite series of ascending integral powers of
h and the infinite series thus obtained is called Taylor’s infinite series.
Expressing Taylor’s Infinite Series in Different Forms
(1) On putting a = x in Equation (1), we get
h2 hn n
f (x + h) = f ( x)  hf ( x)  f ( x )  ...  f ( x)  ...
2! n!
(2) On putting a + h = b or h = b – a in Equation (1), we get
f(b)
(b  a )2 (b  a ) n n
= f (a)  (b  a) f (a)  f (a )  ...  f ( a )  ...
2! n!
(3) On putting a + h = x or h = x – a, we get
( x  a)2 ( x  a)n n
f(x) = f (a)  ( x  a) f (a)  f ( a )  ...  f (a )  ...
2! n!
Here, we get the expansion of f(x) to an infinite series of ascending integral powers
of (x – a).
Let f(x) be a function such that
(a) It has continuous derivatives of all orders in the open interval (0, x), and
xn n
(b) Maclaurin’s remainder R n = f (x)  0 as n  
n!
x2 xn n
then f (x) = f (0)  xf (0)  f (0)  ....  f (0)  ... .
2! n!
Self - Learning
Material 17
Successive Differentiation This is called Maclaurin’s infinite series.
and Asymptotes
We can obtain the above expression by putting a = 0, and h = x in Taylor’s infinite
series.
NOTES Note: Let the function f (x) be denoted by y, then the above expansion can be
written as:
x2 xn
y = y (0)  x. y1 (0)  y2 (0)  ...  yn (0)  ...
2! n!
where y (0), y1 (0), y2 (0) ,..., yn (0) are the values of y, y1 , y2 ,..., yn respectively
at x = 0.
Example 1.7: Expand sin (e x  1) upto and including the term of x 4 .
x2 x3 x4
Solution: We know that e x = 1  x     ...
2! 3! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4
e 1= x 
x    ... = t (say)
2! 3! 4!
t3 t5
 sin (e x  1) = sin t = t    ...
3! 5!
3
 x 2 x3 x 4  1 x 2 x3 x 4 

= x     ... 
  
 x     ...   ...
 2 6 24  6 2 6 24 
 x 2 x3 x4  1 3 2  x
2
x3 

= x     ... 
   x  3 x 
   ...    ...
 2 6 24  6   2 6  
1 2 5 4
= x x  x  ...
2 24
Example 1.8: Expand sin x and cos x in powers of x and hence find cos 18º upto
four decimal places.
Solution: (a) Let f(x) = sin x  f(0) = 0
Now f ( x) = cos x  f  (0) = 1
f ( x) = – sinx  f (0) = 0
f ( x ) =  cos x  f (0) = –1
f iv ( x) = sin x  f iv (0) = 0
f v ( x) = cos x  f v (0) = 1
………………….
By Maclaurin’s expansion, we have
x2 x3
f (x) = f (0)  xf (0)  f  (0)  f  (0)  ...
2! 3!
Self - Learning
18 Material
x2 x3 x4 x5
 sin x = 0  x.1  .0  (1)  .0  .1  ... and Asymptotes
2! 3! 4! 5!
x3 x5
= x   ...
3! 5! NOTES
(b) Let f(x) = cos x  f(0) = 1
Now f ( x) = – sin x  f  (0) = 0
f ( x) = – cos x  f (0) = –1
f ( x ) = sin x  f (0) = 0
f iv ( x) = cos x  f iv (0) = 1
f v ( x) = – sin x  f v (0) = 0
f vi ( x) = – cos x  f vi (0) = –1
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
 cos x = 1  x . 0  ( 1)  . 0  .1  .0  . ( 1)  ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
x2 x4 x6
= 1    ...
2! 4! 6!

Let x = 18º = = 0.314
10
2 4 6
1  1  1
 cos 18º = 1           ...
2!  10  4!  10  6!  10 
1 1 1
= 1 (0.314) 2  (0.314)4  (0.314)6  ...
2! 4! 6!
= 1 – .04929 + .00040 + …
= .9511 (upto four decimal places)
1.4.3 Application of Taylor’s Infinite Series to Expand
f(x + h)
1. Let f (x + h) be the given function.
2. Obtain f(x) by putting h = 0.
3. Differentiate f(x) a number of times and obtain f  ( x), f  ( x), f ( x), ... , etc.
4. Substitute the values of f  ( x), f  ( x), f ( x), ... in
h2 h3
f (x + h) = f ( x)  hf ( x)  f ( x)  f  ( x)  ...
2! 3!
 9
Example 1.9: If f(x) = x3  2 x 2  5 x  11, find the value of f   with the help
 10 
of Taylor’s series for f(x + h).
Self - Learning
Material 19
and Asymptotes Solution: f (x) = x3  2 x 2  5 x  11
Now by Taylor’s Theorem, we have
h2 h3
NOTES f(x + h) = f ( x)  hf ( x)  f ( x )  f  ( x )  ... ...(i)
2! 3!
1
Putting x = 1 and h =  in Equation (i), we get
10
2 3
 1 1 1 1 1 1
f  1   = f (1)  f (1)     f (1)     f  (1)  ... …(ii)
 10  10 2!  10  3!  10 
Here, f(x) = x3  2 x 2  5 x  11  f(1) = 9
Now, f ( x) = 3x 2  4 x  5  f  (1) = 2
f ( x) = 6x + 4  f  (1) = 10
f ( x ) = 6  f (1) = 6
Putting these values in Equation (ii), we have
 9 1 1 1
f   = 9  (2)  (10)  (6)
 10  10 200 6000
= 9  0.2  0.05  0.001 = 8.849

Example 1.10: Expand log sin x in powers of (x – 2).
Solution: Let f(x) = log sin x
log sin x = f(x) = f(2 + (x – 2)]
= f(2 + h) (where, h = x – 2)
By Taylor’s Theorem for x = 2, we have
h2 h3
f(2 + h) = f (2)  hf '(2)  f ''(2)  f '''(2)  ... … (i)
2 
Now, f(x) = log sin x  f(2) = log sin 2
cos x
f ‘(x) =  cot x , f (2) = cot 2
sin x
f (x) = – cosec2 x,  f (2) = – cosec2 2
f (x) = – 2cosec x(– cosec x cot x) = 2 cosec2 x cot x
 f(2) = 2cosec2 2 cot 2
…………………
 From Equation (i), we have
( x  2)2 ( x  2)3
log sin x  log sin 2  ( x  2)cot 2  cos ec 2 2  2cos ec 2 2cot 2  ...
2 3
Self - Learning
20 Material
Solutions Using Differential Equations Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
Example 1.11: Show that
1 a 2 x 2 a(a 2  1) 3 a 2 (a 2  22 ) 4 a (a 2  1)(a 2  32 ) 5
e a sin x
 1  ax 
 x  x  x  ...
2   
  NOTES

and hence deduce that e  1  sin   sin   sin   
2 3
 
Solution: Let y = e a sin 1
x … (i)
1
e a sin x .a ay
 y1   … (ii)
1  x2 1  x2
By squaring and cross multiplying,
(1 – x2)y12 = a2y2
Differentiating again, we get
(1 – x2)2y1y2 – 2xy12= a2 2yy1  (1 – x2)y2 – xy1 – a2 y = 0 … (iii)
Differentiating the Equation (iii), n times by Leibnitz’s Theorem, we have
yn+2(1 – x2) + nC1yn + 1(–2x) + nC2yn (–2) –[yn + 1x + nC1yn.1]= a2yn
 (1 – x2)yn+2 – (2n + 1)xyn+1 – (n2 + a2)yn = 0
Putting x = 0, we have yn+2(0) = (n2 + a2)yn(0) … (iv)
From Equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
y(0) = 1, y1(0) = a, y2(0) = a2,
Now, putting n = 1, 2, 3, …, in Equation (iv), we get
y3(0) = a(a2 +12),
y4(0) = a2(a2 + 22),
y5(0) = a(a2 +12) (a2 +32) …………………………..
Thus, by Maclaurin’s Theorem,
x2 x3 x4 x5
y  y (0)  xy1 (0)  y2 (0)  y3 (0)  y4 (0)  y5 (0)  ....
2   
1 a 2 x 2 a(a 2  12 ) 3 a 2 (a 2  22 ) 4 a(a 2  12 )(a 2  32 ) 5
  e a sin x
 1  ax   x  x  x  ...
2   
a 2 x 2 a(a 2  12 ) 3 a 2 (a 2  22 ) 4 a(a 2  12 )(a 2  32 ) 5
 1  ax   x  x  x  ... To get the second part, let a = 1 and x = sin q,
   
1 2 5
e  1  sin   sin 2   sin 3   sin 4   ...
2  
Solutions Using Differentiation and Integration Method
1 x3 1.3 x5
Example 1.12: Expand log  x + 1  x  = x  . 
2
.  ...
2 3 2.4 5
Self - Learning
Material 21
and Asymptotes Solution: Let y = log[ x + (1 + x 2 )].
1  2x  1
 y1 =  1   = = (1 +x2)–1/2
x  1  x 2  2 1  x 2  1  x2
NOTES
Expanding by binomial theorem, we get
1 2 1.3 4
y1  1  x  x  ...
2 2.4
Integrating both sides w.r.t x within the limits 0 to x, we get
1 x3 1.3 x5
y = x .  .  ...
2 3 2.4 5
1 x3 1.3 x5
 log  x + 1  x 2  = x  .  .  ...
  2 3 2.4 5
Check Your Progress

 
10. Expand tan x in power of  x   upto first four terms.
4 
1.5 ASYMPTOTES
A straight line at a finite distance from the origin, is said to be an asymptote to an
infinite branch of a curve, if the perpendicular distance of any point P on that
branch from the straight line tends to be zero as P tends to infinity along the branch
of the curve.
We can also define asymptotes as a straight line which is at a finite distance
from the origin and cuts a curve in two points at an infinite distance from the origin.
1
For example, the co-ordinate axes are asymptotes of the curve y = . The
x
1
graph of the curve y = is given in the Figure 1.1
x
Y
P
O X
Fig. 1.1 Graph of the Curve
Self - Learning
22 Material
Asymptotes are usually classified as the following: Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
 Vertical Asymptotes
 Horizontal Asymptotes
 Oblique Asymptotes NOTES
Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes
 Vertical Asymptotes: The asymptotes parallel to y-axis are called vertical
asymptotes.
A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of a curve if either
lim f ( x)   or lim f ( x)   .
x a  x a 
 Horizontal Asymptotes: The asymptotes parallel to x-axis are called
horizontal asymptotes.
A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of a curve y = f(x) if either
lim f ( x ) = b or lim f ( x)  b .
x  x 

An asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve and the
line approaches zero as they tend to infinity.
Asymptotes Parallel to y-Axis of the Curve y = f(x)
Let the line x = c … (2)
Parallel to y-axis be an asymptote of the curve y = f(x).
Now, it is required to determine the value of c (Refer Figure 1.2).
M P(x, y)
O A N X
Figure 3.2
Fig. 1.2 Asymptotes Parallel to y-Axis
Let PM =  be the distance of a point P(x, y) on the curve from the line
x = c.
  = xc
Self - Learning
Material 23
Successive Differentiation (Perpendicular distance of a point (x1, y1) from the line,
and Asymptotes
ax1  by1  c
ax + by + c = 0 is )
a2  b2
NOTES Then, by the definition of an asymptote, if line Equation (2) is an asymptote of the
curve, then   0 as P  .
As
P  ,  = x  c  0 or x  c.
P(x, y) is tend to infinity, y co-ordinate must tend to  (+  or  )
 lim x  c , i.e., x  c as y   … (3)

y 
Thus, to find the asymptotes parallel to y-axis, we find from the given equation,
the definite values c1, c2, … to which x tends, as y  +  or  . Then
x = c1, x = c2,… are the asymptotes of the curve parallel to y-axis.
Corollary: Similarly, to find asymptotes parallel to x-axis, we find the definite
values d1, d2, … from the equation of the curve to which y tends as x  +  or
 . Then, the asymptotes parallel to x-axis are y = d1, y = d2, and so on.
Asymptotes Parallel to the Axes for an Algebraic Curve
Asymptotes Parallel to the y-Axis
Let the equation of the curve be,
( a0 y n  a1 y n 1 x  a2 y n  2 x 2  ...  an 1 yx n 1  an x n )  (b1 y n1  b2 y n 2 x  ...  bn 1 yx n  2  bn x n 1 )
 (c2 y n  2  c3 y n 3 x  ...  cn 1 yx n 3  cn x n  2 )  0
(0, 2)
y=1
O X
Figure 3.3
Fig. 1.3 Asymptotes Parallel to the Axis for an Algebraic Curve
It can be arranged in descending powers of y as follows:

a0 y n  (a1 x  b1 ) y n 1  (a2 x 2  b2 x  c2 ) y n  2  ....  0
y n 0  x)  y n 1  x)  y n  2 2  x)  ....  n  x)  0 … (4)
Where,   x), 1  x),..., n  x) are polynomials in x.
Self - Learning
24 Material
Dividing Equation (4) by y n , we have and Asymptotes
  
0  x)    x)  2 2  x)  ....  n n  x)  0 ...(5)
y y y
NOTES
Let x = c be an asymptote of Equation (4) parallel to y-axis, then ylim xc.

Therefore, Equation (3) gives 0(c) = 0, so that c is a root of the equation

0(x) = 0.
Working Rule: Asymptotes parallel to the axis of y can be obtained by
equating to zero the coefficient of the highest degree term of y in the equation of
the curve.
If the coefficient of the highest powers of y is a constant or if its linear
factors are all imaginary, there will be no asymptote parallel to y-axis.
Asymptotes Parallel to the x-Axis
Working Rule: Asymptotes parallel to the axis of x can be obtained by equating
to zero the coefficient of the highest degree term of x in the equation of the curve.
If the coefficient of the highest powers of x is a constant or if its linear
factors are all imaginary, there will be no asymptote parallel to x-axis.
Example 1.13: Find all the asymptotes, parallel to the axes of the given curve
a2 b2
 1.
x2 y 2
a2 b2
Solution: The given curve is x 2  y 2  1
 x 2 y 2  b2 x 2  a 2 y 2  0 … (i)
As Equation (i) is of fourth degree, it cannot have more than four asymptotes.
 In order to find out the asymptotes parallel to x -axis, equating the coefficient
of highest power of x, i.e., x2 in (i) to zero
y 2  b 2 = 0  y = ± bi
Which gives the imaginary asymptotes.
Again equating to zero, the coefficient of highest power of y, i.e., y2 in (i),
the asymptotes parallel to the y-axis are given by x2 – a2 = 0,  x = + a which
gives two real asymptotes parallel to y-axis.
Hence, the only asymptotes are x = + a.
An asymptote which is neither parallel to x-axis nor parallel to y-axis is called an
oblique asymptote of the curve (Refer Figure 1.4).
Self - Learning
Material 25
and Asymptotes Y
P(x, y)
M
NOTES
O X
Figure 3.4
Fig. 1.4 Oblique Asymptote
Theorem 1.2: If y = mx + c is an asymptote to the curve f(x, y) = 0, prove that

 y
m  lim   and c  lim ( y  mx )
x   x  x 
Proof: Let y = mx + c, be an oblique asymptote to the curve f(x, y) = 0,

where m and c are both finite.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the infinite branch of the curve f(x, y) = 0. If PM = p,
be the perpendicular distance of the point P from the line y = mx + c. Then
y  mx  c
PM  p  … (6)
1  m2
In this case, the abscissa x tends to infinity as P(x, y)   along the infinite
branch of the curve.
Now, from Equation (6), y  mx  c  p 1  m2

On dividing both sides by x , we get
y c p
  m  1  m2
x x x
Since, y = mx + c is an asymptote, it follows from the definition that p  0 as
x  .
 y  c p 
 lim    lim  m   1  m2   m
x   x  x   x x 
 y
Hence, xlim  m … (7)
 x  
2
Again from Equation (6), y  mx  c  p 1  m
 lim ( y  mx)  lim (c  p 1  m2 )

x  x 
p 0
Thus, lim ( y  mx)  c … (8)

x 
Self - Learning
26 Material
Thus, if y = mx + c is an oblique asymptote to any curve f(x, y) = 0, then Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
 y
m  lim   and c  lim ( y  mx) .
x   x  x 
Oblique Asymptotes of the General Algebraic Curves NOTES

Let the general algebraic equation of the curve of nth degree be
(a0 y n  a1 y n 1 x  a2 y n  2 x 2  ...  an x n )  (b1 y n 1  b2 y n  2 x  b3 y n 3 x 2  ...  bn x n 1 )

 (c1 y n  2  c2 y n 3 x  c3 y n  4 x 2  ...  cn x n 2 )  ...  (ax  by )  c  0
The above equation can be put into the form
 y  y  y  y
x n  n    x n 1 n 1   x n  2  n  2    ...   0    0 … (9)
 
x  
x  
x x
 y y
where  n   represents an expression of nth degree in .
x x
Let y = mx + c … (10)
be an asymptote of the curve, where m and c are finite,
 y
where, m  lim   and c  lim ( y  mx )
x   x  x 
Dividing both sides of Equation (9) by xn, we get

 y 1  y 1  y 1  y
 n     n 1   2  n  2   ....  n  0   0
x x x x x x x
 y
Taking limit x  , xlim    m on both sides, we get
  x 
 n ( m)  0 … (11)
which is in general an nth degree polynomial equation in m. The real values of m
obtained from Equation (11) give slopes of the asymptotes. If m = 0 is a root of
Equation (11), then it corresponds to an asymptote parallel to x-axis.
 lim ( y  mx)  c 
Let y  mx = p, so that p  c as x  .  x  
Now, y = mx + p
y p
Dividing both sides by x ,we get m
x x
y
On substituting the value of in Equation (9), we get
x
 p  p  p
x n  n  m    x n 1 n 1 m    x n  2  n  2  m    ....  0 … (12)
 x  x  x
Self - Learning
Material 27
Successive Differentiation By Taylor’s theorem, we know that
and Asymptotes
h2
f ( x  h)  f ( x )  hf '( x )  f ''( x )  ....
2
NOTES On expanding the Equation (12) by Taylor’s theorem, we get
 p p2 1   p p2 1 
xn  n (m)   'n (m)  2 .  ''n (m)  ...  xn1  n1(m)   'n1 (m)  2 .  ''n1 (m)  ...
 x x 2   x x 2 
 x  n2(m)  ...  ....  0
n2
Arranging the above equation in descending powers of x, we get

 p2 
x n  n ( m)  x n1  p 'n ( m)   n 1(m)  x n  2   ''n ( m)  p 'n 1 (m)  n  2 (m)   ...  0
 2 
… (13)
From Equation (13) the asymptotes n (m) = 0
 p2 
 x n 1  p 'n (m)   n 1(m)  x n  2   ''n (m)  p 'n 1 ( m)  n 2 (m)   ...  0
 2 
Dividing both the sides by xn  1, we have
1  p2 
 p 'n (m)   n1(m)    ''n (m)  p 'n 1 (m)  n  2 (m)   ...  0
x  2 
Taking limits as x  , so that p  c, we get
cn (m) +  n – 1 (m) = 0 … (14)
 If n(m)  0, which will be the case if  n(m) = 0 has no repeated roots, then
we get
 n 1(m)
 c … (15)
 'n ( m)
Thus, if m1, m2, m3, … are the distinct roots of  n(m) = 0 and c1, c2, c3, … are
the corresponding values of c determined from Equation (15), then the asymptotes
are given by
y  m1 x  c1 , y  m2 x  c2 , y  m3 x  c3 ,...
When n(m) = 0 for m = m1 (say) and n - 1(m)  0, then there is no any asymptote
in this case.
Case of Two Parallel Asymptotes
Let n (m) = 0 and  n – 1 (m) = 0 for m = m1 (say). Since m1 is a repeated root
of n(m) = 0, thus for m = m1, there are two parallel asymptotes. Substituting
these values of n (m) and  n  1 (m) in Equation (13), we get
 p2 
x n  2   ''n ( m)  p 'n 1 ( m)  n  2 ( m)   ...  0
 2 
Self - Learning
28 Material
Dividing both sides by xn – 2, we get Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
 p2 
  ''n (m)  p 'n 1 (m)  n  2 (m)   ...  0
 2 
NOTES
Taking limits as x  , so that p  c, we get
c2
 ''n (m)  c 'n 1 (m)   n  2 (m)  0
2
The above equation, being a quadratic in c, gives two values of c, say c1
and c2 corresponding to two values of m (i.e., m = m1).
Thus, there are two parallel asymptotes y = m1x + c1 and y = m1x + c2
corresponding to m = m1.
Working Rule to Find Oblique Asymptote of an Algebraic Curve
of nth Degree
1. Find  n (m). This can be obtained by putting x = 1, y = m in nth degree
terms (highest degree terms) of the given equation of the curve. Similarly,
find out all the lower degree terms by putting x = 1, y = m .
2. Equate  n (m) = 0 and solve for m. Then its roots m1, m2, … are the slope
of the asymptotes.
 n 1(m)
3. For all the distinct roots of  n (m) = 0, find c from the equation c  
 'n ( m)
corresponding to each values of m. Then the required asymptotes are
y = m1x + c1, y = m2x + c2, …
4. If n(m) = 0 for some values of m and n  1  0 then there will be no
asymptote corresponding to that values of m.
5. If n(m) = 0 and  n  1(m) = 0 for some values of m, then find the values
c2
of c from the quadratic equation  ''n (m)  c 'n 1 (m)   n  2 (m)  0 which
2
gives two values of c. Thus, there are two parallel asymptotes corresponding
to this value of m.
6. If n(m) = 0,  n  1(m) = 0 and  n  2(m) = 0 for some values of m, then
the values of c are determined from the equation
c3 c2
 '''n ( m)   ''n 1 (m)  c ' n  2 ( m)  n 3 (m)  0 which gives three values
3 2
of c. Thus, there are three parallel asymptotes corresponding to this value
of m.
Note: Before finding the oblique asymptotes of a curve, first find the asymptotes
parallel to the axes if any.
Self - Learning
Material 29
and Asymptotes
As the equation  n (m) = 0 is a polynomial of degree n, we can get n value of m.
In general one value of m gives one asymptote. Hence, a curve of degree n cannot
NOTES have more than n asymptotes (real or imaginary) or we can say that the total
number of asymptotes of a curve cannot exceed the degree of a curve.
Example 1.14: Find the asymptote to the curve
2x3 – x2y – 2xy2 + y3 + 2x2 – 7xy + 3y2 + 2x + 2y + 1 = 0
Solution: The given curve is
2x3 – x2y – 2xy2 + y3 + 2x2 – 7xy + 3y2 + 2x + 2y + 1 = 0 ... (i)
Since, the co-efficients of x3 and y3 are constants, therefore there are no
asymptotes parallel to the co-ordinate axes.
To find the oblique asymptotes, substitute x = 1, y = m in the third, second
and first degree terms, one by one in Equation (i), we get
3(m) = 2 – m – 2m2 + m3 …(ii)
2(m) = 2 – 7m + 3m2 …(iii)
1(m) = 2 + 2m
Now, by differentiating Equation (ii) with respect to x, we get
3(m) = –1 – 4m + 3m2
Slopes of asymptotes are obtained by equating 3(m) = 0
 2  m  2 m 2  m3  0
 m2(m – 2) – (m – 2) = 0
 (m – 2)(m2 – 1) = 0, which gives m = 2, 1, –1
 2 ( m) 3m 2  7 m  2
Now, c is given by c =  
3 ( m) 3m 2  4m – 1
12  14  2
 Substituting m = 2, c=  0
12  8  1
37  2 2
For m = 1, c =     1
3  4 1 2
3 7  2
For m = –1, c=   2
3  4 1
By substituting the values in y  mx  c , the asymptotes are y = 2x, y = x
– 1 and y = –x – 2.
The asymptotes can also be determined by the following methods:
 First Method: Let us consider a non-repeated factor y – mx, of the highest
degree terms of the equation of the curve.
Self - Learning
30 Material
If Pn – 1 is an homogeneous polynomial of degree (n – 1) only and Fn – 1 is a Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
polynomial of degree n – 1 in x and y, then the equation of the curve can be
written in the form
( y  mx) Pn 1  Fn 1  0 … (16) NOTES
Here m is a root of n(m) = 0. Thus, y = mx + c will be an asymptote of the
curve Equation (16), where
c  lim( y  mx)
x 
Fn 1
From Equation (16), c  lim( y  mx)  lim 
x  x  Pn 1
 One asymptote of the curve Equation (16) is
 F   y 
y  mx  lim   n 1   Put lim  m
x 
 Pn 1   x  x

Corollary: If ax + by + c be a factor of the polynomial of degree n, then
the equation of the curve of nth degree is written as,
(ax  by  c) Pn 1  Fn 1  0 … (17)
where both Pn – 1 and Fn – 1 are polynomials of degree n – 1.
 One of the asymptote of Equation (17) is
Fn 1
ax  by  c  lim 
x  Pn 1
 y a
 Put lim  
 x  x b
 Second Method: Let the equation of the curve is of the form
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, so that every non-repeated linear factor of Fn equated to
zero is an asymptote of the curve.
Suppose ax + by + c is a factor of Fn. Then, the equation of the curve can
be put in the form
(ax  by  c) Pn 1  Fn  2  0
Fn  2
As in first method one asymptote is ax  by  c   lim
x  Pn 1
By dividing the numerator and denominator of the above equation by xn– 1,
we see that 1 is a factor of the numerator..

x
1
 When x  , then 0
x
Hence, in general, the line ax + by + c = 0 is an asymptote.
Self - Learning
Material 31
Successive Differentiation But if (ax + by + c)2 is a factor of Fn , then there will be two parallel
and Asymptotes
asymptotes given by
Fn  2
 ax  by  c 
2
  lim .
x  P
NOTES n 2
Third Method: Let (y – mx)2 is a factor of the highest degree terms of the
equation of the curve.
So, the equation of the curve is written as
( y  mx ) 2 Pn  2  Fn 1  0 … (18)
We see that here no asymptote exists corresponding to the repeated factor
(y – mx).
If (y – mx) is also a factor of terms of (n – 1)th degree of the equation of the
curve, then the equation of the curve is written as
( y  mx) 2 Pn  2  ( y  mx) Fn  2  Gn  2  0
where Pn – 2, Fn – 2 and Gn – 2 are the polynomial of degree n – 2, then the
asymptote parallel to y – mx = 0 are given by
Fn  2 G
( y  mx) 2  ( y  mx ) lim  lim n  2  0
x  Pn  2 x  Pn  2

Theorem 1.3: Any asymptote of an algebraic curve of nth degree cuts the curve
in (n – 2) points.
Proof: Let y = mx + c … (19)
be an asymptote of the curve given by
 y  y  y
x n n    x n 1n 1    x n 2 n  2    ...  0 … (20)
x x x
Now, eliminating y from Equations (19) and (20), the abscissae of the points
of intersection are given by
 c  c  c
x n n  m    x n 1n 1  m    x n  2 n  2  m    ...  0
 x  x  x
Expanding each term by Taylor’s theorem and arranging in descending
powers of x, we get
 c 
x n n (m)  x n 1cn '(m)  n 1 (m)]  x n  2  n ''( m)  cn  '( m)  n  2 (m)   ...  0
 2 
… (21)
Since, Equation (19) is an asymptote of (20), the coefficients of xn and
xn–1 are both zero.
 m and c are given by the equations
n(m) = 0 and cn(m) + n–1(m) = 0
Self - Learning
32 Material
Putting these values in Equation (21), we get Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
 c 
x n  2  n ''( m)  cn  '( m)  n  2 ( m)   x n 3 [...]  ...  0
 2 
which is of degree (n – 2) and this gives (n – 2) values of x. NOTES
Hence an asymptote of a curve of nth degree cuts the curve in (n – 2) points.
Cor. I: If a curve of nth degree has n asymptotes, then the point of intersection of
a curve and its asymptotes are n(n – 2).
Cor. II: Let the joint equation of n asymptotes be given by
Fn = 0 … (22)
and the equation of the curve be
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0 … (23)
The Equations (22) and (23) hold simultaneously at the points of intersection of
the curve and its asymptotes. Hence for such points, we have
Fn – 2 = 0
Thus, Fn – 2 = 0 is a curve on which lie all the points of intersection of the
curve and its asymptotes.
Example 1.15: Show that the point of intersection of the curve
2 y 3  2 x 2 y  4 xy 2  4 x 3  14 xy  6 y 2  4 x 2  6 y  1 = 0
and its asymptotes lie on the straight line 8x + 2y + 1 = 0
Solution: The equation of the given curve is
2 y 3  2 x 2 y  4 xy 2  4 x 3  14 xy  6 y 2  4 x 2  6 y  1 = 0 …(i)
The curve has no asymptotes parallel to x-axis or y-axis.
( the co-efficients of x3 and y 3 , the highest degree terms in x and y are constants)
To obtain the oblique asymptote, substitute x = 1, y = m in the two highest (i.e.,
third and second) degree terms
n (m) = 3 (m) = 2m3  2m  4m2  4
and n  1 (m) = 2 (m) = 14m  6m 2  4
The slopes of the asymptotes are given by n (m) = 0  3 (m)  0
 2 m3  2 m  4 m 2  4 = 0
 2m ( m 2  1)  4 ( m2  1) = 0
 (2m  4) (m 2  1) = 0
 m = 2, 1, –1
Self - Learning
Material 33
and Asymptotes
Also n (m) = 3 (m) = 6m 2  2  8m
 n  1 ( m)
2 ( m) (14m  6m 2  4)

c =   (m) =  (m) = 
n 3 6m 2  2  8m
NOTES
7 m  3m 2  2
=
3m 2  4m  1
14  12  2
When m = 2, c = = 0,
12  8 1
73 2 2
When m = 1, c = = = – 1.
3  4 1 2
When m = – 1,
7  3  2
c = 3  4 1 = – 2
Putting these values of m and c in y = mx + c, the asymptotes are
y = 2x + 0, y = x – 1, and y = –x –2
 2x – y = 0, x – y – 1 = 0 and x + y + 2 = 0.
Thus, the three asymptotes will cut the curve again in 3(3 – 2) = 3 points.
The joint equation of the asymptotes is
(2 x  y ) ( x  y  1) ( x  y  2) = 0
 y 3  x 2 y  2 xy 2  2 x3  7 xy  3 y 2  2 x 2  2 y  4 x = 0
Multiplying by 2
2 y 3  2 x 2 y  4 xy 2  4 x 3  14 xy  6 y 2  4 x 2  4 y  8 x = 0.
Now the equation of the curve is
2 y 3  2 x 2 y  4 xy 2  4 x 3  14 xy  6 y 2  4 x 2  6 y  1 = 0
which can be re-written as
[2 y 3  2 x 2 y  4 xy 2  4 x 3  14 xy  6 y 2  4 x 2  4 y  8 x]  [2 y  8 x  1] = 0
which is of the form Fn  Fn  2 = 0
Hence, the points of intersection lie on the curve
Fn  2 = 0 or 2 y  8 x  1 = 0 or 8 x  2 y  1 = 0
which is the required straight line.
Theorem 1.4: If the equation of the polar curve be r = f(), then the equation of
the asymptote is given by
P  r sin(  )
Self - Learning
34 Material
where P  lim d   u  1  and  is a root of the equation obtained by putting and Asymptotes
 du
 r
u = 0 (Refer Figure 1.5).
NOTES
L 
X

 – /2
O T’
Fig. 1.5 Asymptotes of Polar Curves
Proof: Let P(r,  ) be any point which recedes to the infinity along the curve. Then
1
 remains finite. Also, let r  , then   1 (say). So, by putting u  , we get
r
u  0 and   1
And let the asymptote to the curve be
p  r cos(  ) …(24)
where p and  are finite quantities such that the Equation (24) lies at a finite
distance from the pole.
By definition of asymptote, we have
 = p – r cos (  ) ;   0 as r   …(25)
where  = PL is the length of perpendicular from P(r,  ).
Dividing Equation (25) by r, we get
 p
  cos(  )
r r
Let r  , so that   0 as   1 (say)
 cos(1  ) = 0
 
 1       1  …(26)
 
Again, if we put r  ,   0 and   1 in Equation (25), we get
0  p  lim r cos(  )
θ  θ1
cos(  ) 1
 p  lim , where u
θ  θ1 u r
 sin(  ) dθ
Applying L’Hospital rule, p  θlim   lim …(27)
θ1 du θ θ1 du
dθ
Self - Learning
Material 35
Successive Differentiation By putting the values of p and  from Equations (27) and (26), respectively in
and Asymptotes
Equation (24), we get
dθ   π  dθ
 lim  r cos θ   θ1      r sin  θ  θ1   lim  r sin  θ  θ1 
NOTES du
θ  θ1
  2  θ θ1 du
This is the required equation of the asymptote in polar co-ordinates.

Working Rule for Finding Asymptotes of Polar Curves
1
1. Put r = in the given equation.
u
2. If the given equation has trigonometric ratios, convert them to sin  and
cos . Find the limit of  as u  0. Let 1, 2, …… n be the limits
obtained.
 d 
lim  –
3. Find p =   for each of the i, obtained in step 2.
u 0
 du 
i
4. The corresponding asymptotes are given by the equation p = r sin (i – ).
2a
Example 1.16: Find the asymptotes of the curve r = .
1+2cos 
1
Solution: Putting, u = , the equation of the curve becomes
r
2au = 1 + 2 cos  i
1 2
When u  0, then cos1 = –  cos
2 3
2
 1 = 2n ± ; n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3….
3
Differentiating Equation (i) with respect to , we get
du d
2a = –2 sin  = –a cosec
d du
  d
 lim  –
p =    lim a cosec  = a cosec
 du  
1 1
 2  2 2a
 2 n     a cosec 
 3  3 3
The equation of asymptotes is p = r sin (1 – ).
2a  2   2 
  = r sin  2n  –    r sin   – 
3  3   3 
2a  2 
 = r sin    
3  3 
2a  2 
Hence, the asymptotes are  r sin    .
3  3 
Self - Learning
36 Material
Example 1.17: Find the asymptotes of Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
rn fn() + rn – 1 fn – 1 () + …. + f0() = 0
1
Solution: Changing r into , the given equation becomes NOTES
u
fn() + ufn – 1() + u2fn – 2() + … + unf0() = 0 …(i)
Now u  0 gives fn()  0
Let 1 be any root of fn() = 0
Differentiating Equation (i) with respect to u, we get
du
fn() + fn – 1() + ufn-1() + (terms containing power of u) = 0
d
Taking u = 0, we get
du du – f n ()
fn() + fn – 1() =0 = f ( )
d d n –1
d f n – 1 (1 )
 lim 
p =  =
1 du f n (1 )
Thus, the equation of asymptote is p = r sin (1 –  )
f n –1 (1 )
 = r sin [1 – ]
f n (1 )
where 1 is any root of equation fn () = 0.
Check Your Progress

11. Find the asymptotes parallel coordinate axes for the curve
x2y2 – a2(x2 + y2) – a3(x + y) + a4 = 0.
12. Find the asymptote of the following curve x3 + 3x2y – 4y2 – x + y + 3 = 0.
13. Find all the asymptotes of the curve y 2 ( x 2  a 2 )  x 2 ( x 2  4a 2 )
14. Find the equation of the quartic curve which has x = 0, y = 0, y = x and y
= –x for asymptotes and which passed through (a, b) and which cuts its
asymptotes again in eight points that lie on a circle whose centre is origin
and radius a.
15. Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve
x3  6 x 2 y  11xy 2  6 y 3  x  y  1  0 which touches the axis of y at the
origin and passes through the point (3, 2).
16. Show that the eight points of intersection of the curve
x 4  5 x 2 y 2  4 y 4  x 2  y 2  x  y  1 = 0.
and its asymptotes lie on a rectangular hyperbola.
17. Find the asymptotes of the curve r = a.
18. Find the asymptotes of the curve r cos  = a sin .
Self - Learning
Material 37
and Asymptotes 1.6 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
3
1. 
NOTES 2
2. 0
1  n  5n  n  3n  n 
3. cos  x   cos  5 x   cos  3 x  
8  2  16  2  16  2 
n  2n 1 3n 1 
4. (  1) n !  n 1
 n 1 
.
 (2 x  1) (3x  1) 
5. (1)n (n  1)!sin ny sin n y, where y = cot 1 x
6. e ax [ a n x3  3nx 2 a n 1  3n (n  1) xa n 2  n (n 1) (n  2) a n  3 ]
 n   n 
7.  x  n  n  sin  x    2 nx cos  x 
2 2
.
 2   2 
8. (n  2) 2 . (n  4) 2 .... 52 . 32 .1.
9. (- 1)(n - 1)/2 (n - 1) !
2 3
    8 
10. 1  2  x    2  x     x    ...

4  4  3 
4  
11. x = ± a
12. x – y = 0, x + 2y – 1 = 0 and x + 2y + 1 = 0
13. y = + x, x = + a
a( a 2  b2 ) 2
14. xy( x 2  y 2 )  .( x  y 2  a 2 ) = 0
b
15. x3  6 x 2 y  11xy 2  6 y 3  x  0
16. The given curve is,
x4  5x2 y 2  4 y 4  x2  y 2  x  y  1 = 0 ... (i)
 ( x4  5x2 y 2  4 y 4 )  ( x2  y 2 )  ( x  y)  1 = 0
 4 (m) = 1  5m 2  4m 4 ,  '4 (m) = 10m  16m3 and 3 (m) = 0
Equating n (m) to zero, we get
4m 4  5m 2  1 = 0
 (m 2  1)(4m 2  1) = 0
1
 m = 1, 
2
Self - Learning
38 Material
We know that Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
n 1 ( m) 3  ( m)
c =   ' ( m) =   ' ( m ) = 0
n 4
[ 3 (m) = 0]
NOTES
1 
Hence the asymptotes are y = ± x and y =   x 
2 
 y  x = 0, y  x = 0, 2 y  x = 0 and 2 y  x = 0.
The combined equation of the asymptotes is

( y  x)( y  x)(2 y  x )(2 y  x ) = 0
 x4  5x2 y 2  4 y 4 = 0 …(ii)
Subtracting Equation (ii) from Equation (i), we get the points of intersection
for the curve and its asymptotes lie on x 2  y 2  x  y  1 = 0, which
represents a rectangular hyperbola, and the sum of coefficients of x 2 and
y 2 is zero.
The asymptotes cut the curve in n(n – 2), i.e., 4(4 – 2)  8 points.
17. r sin  = a
18. r cos  =  a
1.7 SUMMARY
 If any function can be differentiated upto nth terms, then the differential
coefficients are called successive differential coefficients and this process of
finding the differential coefficients is called successive differentiation.
 The fractional expressions whose numerators and denominators are both
rational algebraic expressions are differentiated n times by splitting them
into partial fractions.
 If the denominator of algebraic fraction cannot be resolved into real linear
factors then solve it by splitting it into imaginary factors.
 If u and v are any two functions of x possessing derivatives upto nth order,
then Dn(uv) = (Dn u) v + nC1 Dn–1 u D v + nC2 Dn–2 u D2 v + …. +
n
Cr Dn–r uDrv + …. + u Dn v. This is called Leibnitz’s theorem.
 The nth derivative of a function can also be calculated at x = 0 by the
application of Leibnitz’s theorem.
 Taylor’s infinite series: Let f(x) be a function such that
(a) it has continuous derivatives of all order in the open interval (a, a + h)
and
Self - Learning
Material 39
hn n
and Asymptotes (b) Taylor’s remainder, Rn = f (a  h) , 0 <  < 1 tends to 0 as
n!
n 
h2 hn n
NOTES then f (a + h) = f (a)  hf (a)  f ( a)  ...  f (a)  ...  .
2! n!
 Taylor’s infinite series can be expressed in different forms.
h2 hn n
(a) f (x + h) = f ( x)  hf ( x)  f ( x )  ...  f ( x)  ... ,
2! n!
where a = x
(b  a) 2 (b  a) n n
(b) f(b) = f (a)  (b  a) f (a )  f (a )  ...  f (a)  ... ,
2! n!
where a + h = b or h = b – a
( x  a)2 ( x  a) n
(c) f(x) = f (a)  ( x  a) f (a)  f ( a )  ...  f n ( a)  ... , where
2! n!
a + h = x or h = x – a . This is the expansion of f(x) to an infinite
series of ascending integral powers of (x – a).
 Maclaurin’s infinite series: Let f(x) be a function such that
(a) it has continuous derivatives of all orders in the open interval (0, x) and
xn n
(b) Maclaurin’s remainder R n = f (x)  0 as n  
n!
x2 xn n
then f (x) = f (0)  xf (0)  f (0)  ....  f (0)  ... .
2! n!
 Asymptotes are classified as vertical asymptotes, horizontal asymptotes
and oblique asymptotes.
 A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of a curve of either lim f ( x)   or
x a 
lim f ( x)   .
x a 
 A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of a curve y = f(x) if either lim f ( x)

x 
or lim f ( x )is b .
x 
 If y = mx + c is an oblique asymptote to any curve f(x, y) = 0, then

 y
m  lim   and c  lim ( y  mx ) .
x   x  x 
 The general algebraic equation of the curve of nth degree be

 y  y  y  y  y
x n  n    x n 1 n 1   x n 2  n  2   ...   0   0 where  n 
 
x  
x  
x x x
y
represents an expression of nth degree in .
x
 The general nth degree polynomial equation in m is n (m)  0 .
Self - Learning
40 Material
 The value of c corresponding to a value of m is given by the equation Successive Differentiation
 n 1(m) and Asymptotes
c
 'n ( m) .
 If n (m) = 0 and  n – 1 (m) = 0, then there are two parallel asymptotes. In
this case the value of c is given by the equation NOTES
c2
 ''n (m)  c 'n 1 (m)   n  2 (m)  0 .
2
 The total number of asymptotes of a curve cannot exceed the degree of a
curve.
 If y = mx + c be an asymptote of the curve
 y  y  y
x n n    x n 1n 1    x n  2 n  2    ...  0
x x x
then an asymptote of a curve of nth degree cuts the curve in (n – 2)
points.
Then equation of degree (n –2) is given by
 c 
x n  2  n ''( m)  cn  '( m)  n 2 ( m)   x n 3 [...]  .........  0
 2 
 If the joint equation of n asymptotes is Fn = 0 and the equation of the curve
is Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, then Fn – 2 = 0 is a curve on which lies all the points of
intersection of the curve and its asymptotes.
 If the equation of the polar curve be r = f(), then the equation of the
asymptote is given by p = r sin(  ) , where P  lim d   u  1  and  is

 du  r
a root of the equation obtained by putting u = 0.
1.8 KEY TERMS

 Successive differentiation: If y = f (x) be a function of x and it can be
further differentiated with respect to x upto nth terms, then the differential
coefficients are called successive differential coefficients of y and this process
of finding the differential coefficients of a function is called successive
differentiation.
 Leibnitz theorem: In leibnitz theorem, If u and v are any two functions of
x possessing derivatives upto nth order, then Dn(uv) = (Dn u) v + nC1 Dn–1
u D v + nC2 Dn–2 u D2 v + …. + nCr Dn–r uDrv + …. + u Dn v
 Infinite series: Infinite series are a set of terms, which are connected by
positive or negative signs and are arranged according to some fixed definite
law.
 Asymptotes: A straight line at a finite distance from the origin, is said to be
an asymptote of an infinite branch of a curve, if the perpendicular distance
of any point P on that branch from the straight line tends to zero as P tends
to infinity along the branch of the curve.
Self - Learning
Material 41
Successive Differentiation  Vertical asymptotes: The asymptotes parallel to y-axis are called vertical
and Asymptotes
asymptotes.
 Horizontal asymptotes: The asymptotes parallel to x-axis are called
horizontal asymptotes.
NOTES
 Oblique asymptotes: An asymptote which is neither parallel to x-axis nor
parallel to y-axis is called an oblique asymptote of the curve.
1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
d4y 12 x 2  3
1. If y = 1  x , prove that
2 = .
dx 4 (1  x 2 )7 / 2
log x d2y 2 log x  3

2. If y = , show that 2 = .
x dx x3
d2y 
3. If x = a (  sin ) , y = a (1  cos ) , find 2at  = .
dx 2
 1  x2  1    2
4. If y = tan 
1   tan 1  2 x  ; prove that d y = 5 x .
 x   1  x2  dx 2 (1  x 2 ) 2
   
5. If y = ae mx  be  mx ; prove that y2  m2 y = 0.
6. If y = (tan 1 x)2 , prove that ( x 2  1) 2 y2  2 x ( x 2  1) y1 = 2.

7. If x = sin t, y = sin pt, prove that (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1 + p 2 y .
8. If y = log (1  cos x) , prove that y3  y1 y2 = 0
d 2x dx
9. If x = (a  bt ) e  nt , show that 2
 2n  n2 x = 0
dt dt
d2y
10. If x1/ 2  y1/ 2 = a1/ 2 , find the value of for x = a.
dx 2
11. If y = A [ x  1  x 2 ]n , prove that ( x 2  1) y2  xy1  n 2 y = 0.
12. Find the asymptotes, parallel to coordinate axes of the following curves:
(i) y = tan–1 x
(ii) y  e x2
(iii) y = xe1/x  1
(iv) y = sec x
(v) y = cosec x
Self - Learning
42 Material
(vi) x2y2 = a2(x2 + y2) Successive Differentiation
and Asymptotes
(vii) y = x(x – 2)(x – 3)
x
(viii) y = 2
x –1 NOTES
13. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
(i) x4  y4 + xy = 0
(ii) x3 + 4x2y + 5xy2 + 2y3 + 2x2 + 4xy + 2y2  x  9y + 1 = 0
(iii) x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3 + x + y + 1 = 0
(iv) 4x3 – 3xy2 – y3 + 2x2 – xy  y2  1 = 0
(v) x3 – 2y3 + xy (2x – 1) + y(x – 1) + 1 = 0 (vi) y2 (x – 2a) = x3 –
a3
(vii) (x2 – y2) 2 – 4x2 + x = 0
(viii) (x – 1) (x – 2) (x + y) + x2 + x + 1 = 0
(ix) (x2  y2) (2x + 3y) (3x + 2y) + 2x2 + 3y2 – 6 = 0
(x) (x + y + 1)2 (x2 + y2 – xy) + 3xy – 7x2 – 2y2 – 7x + 8 = 0
14. Prove that the asymptotes of the curve x2y2 = a2(x2 + y2) are the sides of a
square.
15. Find the asymptotes of the curve x2y – xy2 + xy + y2 + x – y = 0 and show
that they cut the curve in three points on the straight line x + y = 0.
16. Find the equation of the curve on which lie the points of intersection of the
curve (x2 – 4y2) (x2 – y2) + 2x3 – 2xy2 + 2x2 – 2xy – 2x – 2y + 1 = 0 and
its asymptotes.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Find the nth derivatives of the following :
1 x4
(i) x 2  5 x  6 (ii) ( x  1) ( x  2)
x 1 x2
(iii) 6 x 2  7 x  3 (iv)
( x  1)3 ( x  1)
1
(v) ( x 2  a 2 ) ( x 2  b 2 )
2. Find the nth derivatives of the following :

1 1 x 1 1
(i) tan 1  x (ii) x 4  a 4 (iii) x 2  x  1
1 2x  1
[Hint. Let  = cot ]
3
3. Find the nth derivatives of the following:
(i) e ax [a 2 x 2  2nax  n (n  1)] (ii) e x log x
(iii) x n e x (iv) x3 sin ax
(v) x 2 eax cos bx
Self - Learning
Material 43
Successive Differentiation 4. Find the nth derivative of
and Asymptotes
2 d2y dy
(i) (1  x ) 2
x  a 2 y = 0 (ii) x 2 y2  xy1  y = 0.
dx dx
NOTES n!
5. If y = x n log x , show that yn  1 = .
x
6. If y = tan 1 x , prove that
(i) (1  x 2 ) y2  2 xy1 = 0
(ii) (1  x 2 ) yn  1  2nxyn  n (n  1) yn  1 = 0
7. If y = e m sin 1 x prove that

(i) (1  x 2 ) y2  xy1 = m 2 y
(ii) (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  (n 2  m2 ) yn = 0.
8. If y = em cos1 x , prove that (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  (n 2  m2 ) yn

= 0.
9. If y = ( x 2  1)n , prove that ( x 2  1) yn  2  2 xyn  1  n (n  1) yn = 0.
n
1  y x
10. If cos   = log   ; prove that x 2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  2n 2 yn = 0.
b n
sin 1 x
11. If y = , prove that (1  x 2 ) yn  2  (2n  3) xyn  1  (n  1) 2 yn = 0.
1  x2
12. If y = (sin h 1 x)2 , prove that (1  x) 2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  n2 yn = 0.

Also find yn (0) .
13. Show by means of Maclaurin’s infinite series expansion that:
 x x 2 x3
(i) tan 1 (1  x) =     ...
4 2 4 12
x x2 x4
(ii) log e (1  e x )  log 2     ...
2 8 192
x2 3x 4
(iii) esinx = 1  x    ...
1.2 1.2.3.4
ex 2 x2 4 x3
(iv) 1 x    ...
cos x 2! 3!
x 2 2 x 4 16 x 6
(v) log cos x =     ...
2! 4! 6!
14. Prove that:
x 2 2 x3 7 x 4
(i) log(1  tan x)  x     ...
2 3 12
Self - Learning
44 Material
1  x2  1 1 x3 x5 x 7  and Asymptotes
(ii) tan 1 
= 2 x     ... 
x  3 5 7 
1  2 x
2   2 x 6 x10 
(iii) sin  1  x 4  =  x  3  5 ...
  2 NOTES
   
x 2 2 x3 x 4 x5 2 x 6 x 7 x8
(iv) log (1  x  x 2 ) =  x        ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15. Expand the following by Maclaurin’s infinite series expansion in the powers
of x as far as the term containing x3
(i) e x sec x
(ii) e x log(1  x )
(iii) log [1 + log (1 + x)]
(iv) log [1 – log (1 – x)]
16. Expand e ax sin bx as an infinite series of ascending powers of x. Give also
the (n + 1) term of the series.
17. Expand log (1  sin 2 x) in powers of x as far as terms containing x 4 .
18. Find the approximate value of 26 to three decimal places by Taylor’ss

expansion.
19. Expand the following:
(i) a x in powers of (x – a)
(ii) log x in powers of (x – k)
(iii) 4 x 2  7 x  5 in powers of (x + 2)
 
(iv) tan 1 x in the powers of  x  
 4
2
 x2  x  x  1
f
20. Prove that    f ( x)  f '( x)    . f ''( x)  ...
 1  x  1  x  1  x  2
21. Find the asymptotes of the curve xy(x2 – y2) + x2 + y2 – a2 = 0. Show that
the eight points of intersection of the curve with its asymptotes lie on a circle
whose centre is at the origin.
22. Find all the asymptotes of curve (x + y + 1) (y + 2x + 2) (y + 3x + 3)
(y – x) + x2 + y2 – 8x = 0 and show that the eight points of intersection of
the curve and its asymptotes lie on a circle. Find also the centre and the
radius of the circle.
23. Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve
x3 – 6x2y – 11xy2 – 6y3 + x + y + 4 = 0 and which passes through (0, 0),
(2, 0) and (0, 2).
Self - Learning
Material 45
Successive Differentiation 24. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
and Asymptotes
(i) r2 = a2
a
(ii) r =
 1
NOTES
a
(iii) r =
1  cos 
2a
(iv) r =
1  2cos 
(v) r(1 – e) = a
(vi) r( + ) = ae
(vii) r log  = a
(viii) r cos  = a cos 2
(ix) r cos  = a cos2
(x) r cos  = a sin2 
(xi) r = a cosec  + b cot 
(xii) r = a + b cot n
(xiii) r2 = a2(sec2  + cosec2 )
3a sin  cos 
(xiv) r =
sin 3   cos3 
(xv) rn sin n = an
1.10 FURTHER READING

Prasad, Gorakh. 2016. Differential Calculus. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Prasad, Gorakh. 2015. Integral Calculus. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Murray, Daniel A. 1967. Introductory Course in Differential Equations. India:
Orient Longman.
Coddington, Earl A. 1987. An Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations.
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Coddington, Earl A. and N. Levinson. 1972. Theory of Ordinary Differential
Equations. New Delhi: Tata Mc Graw-Hill.
Boyce, W.E. and Richard C. DiPrima. 1986. Elementary Differential Equations
and Boundary Value Problems. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Gelfand, J.M. and S.V. Fomin. 1963. Calculus of Variations. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Ross, S. L. 1984. Differential Equations, 3rd Edition. New York: John Wiley
and Sons.
Somasundaram, D. 2002. Ordinary Differential Equations. Chennai: Narosa
Publishing House.
Self - Learning
46 Material
Curvature
UNIT 2 CURVATURE
Structure NOTES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Curvature
2.2.3 Radius of Curvature at the Origin
2.3 Tests for Concavity and Convexity
2.4 Points of Inflection
2.5 Multiple Points
2.6 Tracing of Curves in Cartesian and Polar Coordinates
2.8 Summary
2.9 Key Terms
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, curvature is any of several strongly related concepts in geometry.
Spontaneously, the curvature is the amount by which a curve deviates from being
a straight line, or a surface deviates from being a plane. For curves, the canonical
example is that of a circle, which has a curvature equal to the reciprocal of its
radius. Smaller circles bend more sharply, and hence have higher curvature.
The numerical measures of the sharpness of the bending of a curve at a
point is called the curvature of the curve at that point. Here, curvature of PA is
greater than that of PB. If we roughly regard PA and PB as arcs of circles then we
see that radius of PA is less than the radius of PB. Thus we can say that radius of
circle would be small when curvature is large and vice-versa.
Curve tracing or curve sketching means how to draw the rough sketch of
the given curve. Principally, curve tracing helps in finding the approximate shape of
a curve without plotting a large number of points. Mathematically, the term curve
tracing includes techniques that can be used to produce a rough idea of overall
shape of a plane curve given its equation without computing the large numbers of
points required for a detailed plot. Many properties of the curve can be determined
easily by knowing its graph. The theory of curves method is typically used to trace
a curve whose equation is given in Cartesian, polar or parametric equations.
In this unit, you will study about curvature, tests for concavity and convexity,
points of inflection, multiple points, tracing of curves in Cartesian and polar
coordinates.
Self - Learning
Material 47
Curvature
2.1 OBJECTIVES
NOTES  Define curvature and obtain the radius of curvature for intrinsic and Cartesian
curves
 Derive the equation of radius of curvature for polar and pedal equations
 Use different methods to find the radius of curvature at the origin
 Define the centre of curvature and the meaning of evolute and involute
 Understand the chord of curvature and generate its equation for Cartesian
co-ordinates
 Explain the test of concavity as well as convexity
 Define point of inflexion
 Define singular point and multiple points
 Define double points and its different types like node and conjugate point
 Determine the nature of origin in case it is a double point
 Explain the condition for the existence of double point on the curve
 Trace some curves whose equations are given in Cartesian, parametric or
polar forms
2.2 CURVATURE
The curvature is the amount by which a curve deviates from being a straight line,
or a surface deviates from being a plane. For curves, the canonical example is that
of a circle, which has a curvature equal to the reciprocal of its radius. Smaller
circles bend more sharply, and hence have higher curvature.
The curvature at a point of a differentiable curve is the curvature of its
osculating circle, i.e., the circle that best approximates the curve near this point.
The curvature of a straight line is zero. The curvature of a curve at a point is
normally a scalar quantity such that it is expressed by a single real number.
The curvature of a differentiable curve was originally defined through
osculating circles. A French mathematician, engineer, and physicist Augustin-Louis
Cauchy showed that the center of curvature is the intersection point of two infinitely
close normal lines to the curve.
Y C
Q 
N 
s
R
P
s
A
  + 
O X
Self - Learning Fig. 2.1 Curvature

48 Material
In Figure 2.1, Let P, Q be two neighbouring points on a curve AB. Let arc Curvature
AP = s and arc AQ = s + ds so that the length of the arc PQ = ds, A being the fixed
point on the curve, from where arc is measured. Let the tangents at P and Q make
angles y and y + dy, respectively with a fixed line say x-axis. Then, angle dy
through which the tangent turns as its point of contact travels along the arc PQ is NOTES
called the total curvature of arc PQ.
δψ
The ratio represents the average rate of change in the angle y per unit of
δs
arc length along the curve. It is called the average curvature of arc PQ.
The limiting value of the average curvature when Q  P is called the curvature
of the curve at the point P.
δψ dψ
In general, the ratio approaches a limit as s  0.
δs ds
  d 
Thus, the curvature at a point P = Qlim  lim  .
P s s 0 s ds
The curvature of a curve C at a point (x, y) on C is usually denoted by the
d
Greek letter  (kappa). It is given by the equation κ = where s is the arc
ds
length measured along the curve and  is the angle made by tangent line to C at
(x, y) with positive x-axis.
The reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at P, is called the radius of
1 ds
curvature of the curve at P and is usually denoted by . Thus, ρ  κ  d 
If PC is normal at P and PC = , then C is called the centre of curvature of

the curve at P.
The circle with centre C and radius PC =  is called the circle of curvature
of the curve at P.
The length of the chord drawn through P, intercepted by the circle of curvature
at P, is called a chord of curvature.
dψ
Note: A straight line does not bend at all (because is zero as  is constant).
ds
Therefore, the curvature of a straight line is zero (Refer Figure 2.2).

r
s Q

P T
Fig. 2.2 Chord of Curvature
Self - Learning
Material 49
Curvature Curvature of a Circle
Let O and r be the centre and radius of a circle, respectively. Let P and Q be two
points on the circle.
NOTES So that, arc PQ = s and the tangent at Q make an angle  with the tangent
at P. Then, POQ = . Therefore, s (= arc PQ ) = r .
ds
Differentiating with respect to , we get d = r
dψ 1
 Curvature = = (constant)
ds r
Thus, the curvature at every point of the circle is equal to the reciprocal of
its radius and therefore, it is constant.
Note: Circle is the only curve of constant curvature.
Radius of Curvature for Intrinsic Curves
Y C
Q 
N 
s
R
P
s
A
  + 
O X
Fig. 2.3 Radius of Curvature for Intrinsic Curves
Let P, Q be two neighbouring points on a curve AB. Let the lengths of arc
AP = s and arc AQ = s + s.
Therefore, the length of the arc PQ = s.
Let angles made by the tangents at P and Q with x-axis be  be + s,
respectively. Also let the normals at P and Q intersect at N. Join P and Q.
PNQ = 
From the triangle PQN, by sine-rule, we get
PN chord PQ

sin PQN sin 
chord PQ
 PN  .sin PQN
sin 
chord PQ s 
 . . .sin PQN
s  sin 
If  be the radius of curvature, then we have
  lim PN
QP
Self - Learning
50 Material
chord PQ s  Curvature
 lim . . .sin PQN
s  0 s  sin 
chord PQ 
[ s  0,   0, lim  1 , PQN   and  1]
s0 s 2 sin  NOTES
ds
 
d
The angle between the tangents to the curve at P and Q, i.e.,  is called
the angle of contingence of the arc PQ. The relation between s and  for a curve
is called its intrinsic equation.
Thus, we can say that at a point P
arc PQ
lim .
Q P Angle of Contigence of arc PQ

Analytical measure of the radius of curvature in Cartesian co-ordinates include the
general conic, cissoid and conchoid.
Radius of Curvature for Explicit Equation y = f(x)
Equation of the curve is y = f(x).
Let  be the angle which the tangent at any point P(x, y) on the curve
makes with the x-axis.
dy dx dy
Then  sin ,  cos   tan  ...(1)
ds ds dx
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get,
d  ds  1   dy   d  . ds
2
d2y d
 (sec )
2
 (1  tan  )
2
.    
dx 2 dx ds dx   dx   ds dx
[using Equation (1)]
1
d 1 ds
1
  dy  2  2

But dx  and = sec   (1  tan 2
 ) 2
= 1+   
dx   dx  
1
d 2 y   dy   1   dy   2
2 2
Using these, 2  1     1    
dx   dx      dx  
3
  dy   2
2
1    
  dx  
Hence,  
d2y
dx 2
3
The above formula can also be written as  

1  y  1
2 2
y2
Self - Learning
Material 51
Curvature Note: This formula is not appropriate when the tangent is parallel to y-axis,
dy
i.e., when is infinite.
dx
NOTES Since, the value of radius of curvature depends only on the curve and not
on the axes, therefore in such cases we can interchange the axes of x and y and
3
  dx  2  2
1    
  dy  
we get   
d2x
dy 2
Radius of Curvature for Parametric Equations x = f(t), y = (t)
The equations of curve are given by x = f(t), y = (t),
dy dy dx dy y '
Then  / , i.e., 
dx dt dt dx x '
where x  and y  denotes the differential coefficients of x and y with respect to t,
respectively.
d 2 y d  y ' d  y '  dt x ' y '' y ' x '' 1
Also, 2
     .  .
dx dx  x '  dt  x '  dx x '2 x'
 dt 1  x ' y '' y ' x ''
 dx  x  
  x '3
dy d2y
Putting the values of and 2 in the equation
dx dx
3
  dy 2  2
1    
   dx  
,we get
d2y
dx 2
3
  y '  2  2
1    
  x '   ( x '2  y '2 )3 / 2
   
x ' y '' y ' x '' x ' y '' y ' x ''
x '3
Radius of Curvature for Implicit Equation f(x, y) = 0
Equation of the curve is f(x) = 0
At a point where, fy  0, we get
dy f
 x
dx fy
d2y f xx f y2  2 f x f y f xy  f yy f x2
and 
dx 2 f y3
Self - Learning
52 Material
3 Curvature
3
  dy     f 2  2
2 2   3
1      . f y
x
1    
Since,   dx     f y  
   2
d2y f xx f y  2 f x f y f xy  f yy f x2
NOTES
dx 2
3
 f x2  f y2  2
 
f xx f y2  2 f x f y f xy  f yy f x2
Radius of Curvature when x and y are Function of s

dx
We know that, cos   … (2)
ds
dy
and sin   … (3)
ds
By differentiating Equation (2) with respect to s, we get
d d 2 x
 sin 
 … (4)
ds ds 2
dy

dy 1 d 2 x ds
  .  2   d2x
ds  ds
ds 2
Now, differentiating Equation (3) with respect to s, we have
d d 2 y
cos   … (5)
ds ds 2
dx
dx 1 d 2 y ds
 .     d 2 y
ds  ds 2
ds 2
By squaring and adding Equations (4) and (5), we get
2 2 2
 d   d x   d y 
2 2
  
  2  2
 ds   ds   ds 
2 2
1  d2x   d2y 
     ….(6)
2  ds 2   ds 2 
dy dy d  1 dy
Again, sin    .  ….(7)
ds d  ds  d 
dx dx d  1 dx
And cos    .  ….(8)
ds d  ds  d 
2 2
 dx   dy 
By squaring and adding Equation (7) and (8), we get     
2

 d   d 
Example 2.1: Prove that for the curve x  a cos3 , y  a sin 3  or the curve
x 2 / 3  y 2 / 3  a 2 / 3 at  a cos , a sin 3  ;   3a sin  cos  .

3
Self - Learning
Material 53
Curvature
Solution: The equation of the curve is x  a cos3 , y  a sin 3  …(i)
dx
 x'   3a cos2 .sin 
d
NOTES dx
y'   3a sin 2 .cos 
d
Also, x ''  3a cos   2sin 2   cos 2   ,
y ''  3a sin   2cos 2   sin 2   ,
 x '2  y '2 
3/ 2
    x ' y '' x '' y '

 
 9a sin 2  cos 2    cos   sin 2  
2 3/ 2 2 3/ 2
 
9a 2 sin 2  cos 2   2cos 2   sin 2   2sin 2   cos 2 
   9a 2 sin 2  cos 2    2cos 2   sin 2   2sin 2   cos 2  

 3a sin  cos  (numerically)
Example 2.2: If 1 ,  2 be radii of curvature at the extremities of a pair of semi-
conjugate diameters of an ellipse, prove that
 1 2 / 3   2  2 / 3   ab 2 / 3  a 2  b 2 .
 
x2 y2
Solution: Let the ellipse be  1
a2 b2
Its parametric equations are x  a cos , y  b sin 
 x '   a sin , y '  b cos  ; x    a cos , y   b sin 
a sin 2   b 2 cos 2  
2 3/ 2
   a cos , b sin 

3 3

ab sin 2   ab cos 2 
a sin 2   b 2 cos 2  
2 3/ 2
 … (i)
ab
Let CP and CD be two semi-conjugate diameters. If the co-ordinates of P
    
are  a cos , b sin   , then co-ordinates of D are  a cos  2    , b sin  2    
    
If 1 is the radius of curvature at P, then
a sin 2   b 2 cos 2  
2 3/ 2
1 
ab
Changing        , we get
2 
Self - Learning
54 Material
a cos 2   b 2 sin 2  
Curvature
2 3/ 2
2 , the radius of curvature at D 

ab
a sin   b cos 
2 2 2 2
a cos 2   b 2 sin 2 
2
  1    2 
2/3 2/3
 
 ab   ab  NOTES
2/3 2/3
  1 
2/3
  2 
2/3
  ab 2 / 3  a 2  sin 2   cos 2    b 2  cos 2   sin 2     a 2  b 2

The radius of curvature of a curve at a point is the radius of the osculating circle at
that point.
Polar Equations
P(r, )

 
O T X
p
Figure 4.5
Fig. 2.4 Polar Equations
The radius of curvature for the curve r = f() or f(r, ) = 0 is given by

3

r 2
 r12  2
.
r 2  rr2  2r12
Let the tangent at any point P(r,) to the curve make an angle  with the initial line
OP, then
rdθ rdθ dr
tan   , sin   and cos   , … (9)
dr ds ds
Again, if the tangent at any point P(r,) to the curve make an angle  with the
initial line OX, then
From the Figure 2.4,
=+
Differentiating with respect to s, we get
d d d d d d d  d  
     .  1 … (10)
ds ds ds ds d  ds ds  d  
d r r
Now, tan   r  
dr dr r1
d
Self - Learning
Material 55
Curvature Again differentiating with respect to , we get
d  r1r1  rr2 r12  rr2

sec 2  .  
d r12 r12
NOTES
d  r12  rr2 r12  rr2 r12  rr2
  2  
d  r1 sec 2  r12 (1  tan 2   r2 
r12  1  2 
 r1 
 r r12  rr2
 tan     2 … (11)
 r1  r1  r 2
d 1
Also, r  sin  
ds cos ec
d 1 1 1
  .  … (12)
ds r 1  cot 
2
r  r12
2
From Equations (10), (11) and (12), we get

d 1  r12  rr2  r 2  rr2  2r12
 1  2 
ds r1  r 2  3
r  r12
 1
2
 r 2
 r 2 2
 
ds

 r 2  r12  2
d  r 2  rr2  2r12
dr d 2r
Where r1  and r2  
d d
1
Corollary: If the equation of the curve is in the form u = f() where u  , then
r
(u 2  u12 )3 / 2
ρ= .
u 3 (u  u2 )
1 1
Proof: Given, u  r
r u
Differentiating it with respect to  , we get
1 du u du
r1   2
  12 , where u1 
u dθ u dθ
u 2u2  u1.2uu1 2u12  uu2 d 2u
and r2    , where u2 
u4 u3 dθ 2
3
 1 u12  2
 2  4
(r 2  r12 )3 / 2  u u 
 ρ= 
r 2  rr2  2r12 1 2u12  uu2 2u12
 
u2 u4 u4
(u 2  u12 )3 / 2
 ρ=
u 3 (u  u2 )
Self - Learning
56 Material
Radius of Curvature for Pedal Equations Curvature
Theorem 2.1: If  be the radius of curvature for the curve

dr
p = f(r), then   r . NOTES
dp
Proof: Let the tangent at any point to the curve make an angle  with the initial
line OX.
Then,  =  + 
d d d
   ... (13)
ds ds ds
Also, p = r sin …(14)
Differentiating Equation (14) with respect to r, we get
dp d
 r cos .  sin 
dr dr
dr d  d
 r. . r
ds dr ds
 d  dr 
 sin   r ds ,cos   ds 
 
 d d d
r    r ds [Using Equation (13)]
 ds ds 
dp 1 dr
  r.    r
dr  dp
Rules to Transform Polar Equation to Pedal Equation
d
1. Use the relation tan   r and find  .
dr
2. Put this value of  in p  r sin 
3. Eliminate  to get the equation in Pedal form.
2a
Example 2.3: Find the radius of curvature for the parabola  1  cos .and
r
show that the square of the radius of curvature varies as the cube of the focal
distance.
2a
Solution: Given, the equation of parabola is  1  cos  …(i)
r
1
Putting u  in (i), we get 2au  1  cos  …(ii)
r
Differentiating (ii) with respect to  we have 2 au1   sin  …(iii)
Self - Learning
Material 57
Curvature
Differentiating (iii) with respect to  , we have 2 au2   cos 
3/ 2
 1  cos   2 sin 2  
   
u 
2 3/ 2
 u12  2a  4a 2 
NOTES  
 
 
3
u 3 u  u2 2  1  cos   1  cos  cos  
  
 2a   2 2a 
1
 2 1  cos   
3/ 2
3  4 2a 2 3/ 2
 8a   r
1  
3/ 2
1  cos 
3 1  cos  a
16a 4
4
   r
2 3
a
2a
In the given equation of the parabola, i.e.,  1  cos  , the pole is at the
r
focus. Therefore, the focal distance of the point on the parabola is r. Hence, the
square of the radius of curvature varies as the cube of the focal distance.
Example 2.4: Find the radius of curvature for the curve r n  a n cos n.
Solution: The equation of the curve is r n  a n cos n. …(i)
 n log r  n log a  log cos n
n dr 1 d
Differentiating, .   n sin n   r   cot n
r d  cos n dr
d
Also, tan   r   cot n
dr
  
 tan   tan  n      n …(ii)
 2  2
  r n
Now, p  r sin   r sin   n   r cos n  r. n

2  a
r n1
 Pedal equation of the given curve is p  …(iii)
an
dr an an
 r  r. 
dp  n  1 r n  n  1 r n 1
Self - Learning
58 Material
Radius of Curvature for the Polar Tangential Equations p = f() Curvature
B NOTES
P(x, y)
L
p


O A X
Figure 4.6
Fig. 2.5 Radius of Curvature for Polar Tangential Equation
A polar tangential or tangential polar equation is a relation between p and  with

usual notations.

From the Figure 2.5, we have     ...(15)
2
The equation of the line AB in normal form is
X cos   Y sin   p ...(16)
   
From Equations (15) and (16), p  X cos      Y sin    

2  2  
 X sin   Y cos 
Since P (x, y) lies on this line
 p  x sin   y cos  ...(17)
Differentiating both sides with respect to  , we get
dp dx dy
 x cos   sin .  y sin   cos .
d d d
dx ds dy ds
 x cos   y sin   sin . .  cos . .
ds d  ds d 
 x cos   y sin   sin .cos .  cos  sin .
 dx dy 
 ds  cos  and dx  sin  
 
 x cos   y sin 
Self - Learning
Material 59
Curvature Again differentiating with respect to  , we have
d2 p dx dy
  x sin   cos .  y cos   sin 
d 2
d d
NOTES dx ds dy ds
   x sin   y cos    cos  .  sin . .
ds d  ds d 
  p  cos 2 .  sin 2 .   p  
d2 p
    p 
d 2
Example 2.5: If  be the angle which the radius vector of the curve r = f()
r  d 
makes with the tangent, prove that ρ  sin  1  dθ  , where  is the radius of
 
curvature. Apply this result to show that
a
 for the circle r = a cos .
2
Solution: We know that  =  + 
Differentiatng with respect to s
d d d d d d d  d 
    .  1
ds ds ds ds d  ds ds  d  
1 sin   d 
 1  
ρ r  dθ 
 d
 sin   r ds 
 
r  d 
  sin  1   … (i)
ρ  dθ 
Now, equation of the circle is r = a cos 
Differentiatng with respect to , we get
dr
 a sin 
d
d a cos   
tan  = r    cot   tan    
dr a sin  2 
 d
   1
2 d
r  d 
 From (i), ρ  sin  1  dθ 
 
r cos ec
  = 1  d  
 dθ 
Self - Learning
60 Material
Curvature
 
a cos .cos ec    
 2   a cosθsecθ = a a a
    1+1 2
 cos  sec  
2 2 2
2.2.3 Radius of Curvature at the Origin NOTES
The following methods are used to find the radius of curvature at the origin.
Method of Direct Substitution
In this method, we put x = 0 and y = 0 directly in the the formula,
3

1  y 1
2 2
.
y2
dy d2y
We can also find first the values of and 2 at (0, 0) and then substitute
dx dx
these values in this formula.
Method of Expansion
When the x-axis or the y-axis is not the tangent at the origin, we use the method of
expansion.
Let the equation of the curve be y = f(x)
Since it passes through the origin (0, 0)
 f(0) = 0.
By Maclaurin’s Expansion, we have
x2 x3
y  f (0)  xf '(0)  f ''(0)  f '''(0)  ...
2 
x2 x3
  y  xf '(0)  f ''(0)  f '''(0)  ... …. (18)
2 
If the equation of the curve is such that y can be expanded in powers of x by
trignometrical or algebraic methods, then we have
1 2 1 3
y  px  qx  rx  ... …. (19)
2 
On comparing Equations (18) and (19), we get
p = f (0) = (y1)0 ; q = f (0) = (y2)0, etc.
1
Now differentiating Equation (19) with respect to x, y1  p  qx  rx  ...
2
2
Differentiating again y2  q  rx  ...
 At the origin, y1 = p and y2 = q
i.e., (y1)0 = p and (y2)0 = q

3 3
1   y12   2 1  p 2  2
  at the origin   0

 y2  0 q
Self - Learning
Material 61
Curvature Newton’s Method
T heor em 2.2: If the curve passes through the origin and axis of x is the tangent at
the origin, then
NOTES  x2 
lim  
 (at the origin) = x0  2 y 
y 0
Proof: Since, x-axis is the tangent at the origin, then

 dy 
f(0) = 0, f (0) = 0 and f (0) =  dx 
  (0,0)
Hence, by Maclaurin’s expansion,
x2 x3
y  f (0)  xf '(0)  f ''(0)  f '''(0)  ...
2 
x2 x3
 0  0x  q  r...,above
2 3
x2 x3
 q  r...
2 
2y x
 2
 q  r ...terms of x
x r
2y
At the origin x  0, y  0 so that q  lim
x 0 x 2
y 0
3
1  y12  2 1
Hence     y1  0
y2 y2
1

q
 x2 
  lim
 x 0  2 y 
y 0  
Note: Similarly, if the curve passes through the origin and y-axis is the tangent at
the origin, then the radius of curvature at the origin is given by
 y2 
  lim   .
x 0 2 x
y 0  
Curvature at the Origin when Polar Equation of the Curve is Given
If the initial line, i.e.,   0 is a tangent to the curve r  f    , then
x2 r 2 cos 2 
 lim  lim
 (at the pole) x 0 2 y 0 2r sin 
y 0 r 0
(Changing to polar co-ordinates)
Self - Learning
62 Material
Curvature
 r   r   
 lim  . .cos 2    lim
 0 2 sin   0 2  lim  1
r 0   r 0  0 sin 
 
By L’ Hospital’s rule,
 1 dr  NOTES
 lim  
0 2 d 
r 0  
Corollary: Tangents at the origin.
Let the equation of the curve which passes through the origin be
 ax  by    a1 x 2  b1 xy  c1 y 2   ....  0 …(20)
x2 x3
Let y  px  q  r  .... be its Maclaurin’s expansion.
2! 3!
Putting this value of y in Equation (20), we get
2
 x2   x2 
ax  b  px  q  ...   a1 x 2  b1 x  px  q  ....   ...  0, an identity..
 2!   2! 
Equating the co-efficients of x on both sides, we get
a
a  bp  0  p   , b  0
b
a
Since, p  , where p  f '  0  is the slope of the tangent at the origin,
b
thus the equation of the tangent at the origin is
a
y0  x  0   ax  by  0
b
which are the lowest degree terms of the equation of the curve equated to zero.
Similarly, if the terms of the first degree in x and y are wanting in the
equation of the curve, then the tangents at the origin are given
by a1 x 2  b1 xy  c1 y 2  0 which are again the lowest degree terms of the equation
equated to zero and so on.
Note: Newton’s method for finding the radius of curvature shall be applied only
when either x-axis, i.e., y  0 or y-axis, i.e., x  0 is a tangent to the curve at the
origin.
Example 2.6: Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the curve
2 x 4  4 x3 y  xy 2  6 y 3  3 x 2  2 xy  y 2  4 x  0.
Solution: Since, the equation does not contain any constant term, therefore, the
curve passes through the origin, and the tangent at the origin is x  0,
i.e., y-axis is a tangent at the origin. Thus, by Newton’s method,
y2
lim
 (at the origin) = x 0 2 x
y 0
Self - Learning
Material 63
Curvature Dividing both sides of the given equation by 2x, we get
y2  y2  3 y2
x3  2 x 2 y   6.   . y  x  y  20
2  2x  2 2x
NOTES y2
Taking limits when x  0, y  0 and x 0 2 x   , we get
lim
y 0
  2  0    2.

In Figure 2.6, point C is the centre of curvature and the circle with centre
C and radius  is called the circle of curvature of the curve at P.
Let C(, ) be the centre of curvature corresponding to any point P(x, y)
on the curve y = f(x).
Then CP = .
Draw CN and PM perpendiculars on the axis of x and then draw PL
perpendicular on CN.
Let the tangent PT at P to the curve make an angle  with x-axis.
PCL = 90 – CPL
= 90 – (90 – LPT)
D
Y
C (, )


L P (x, y)
X O T N M X
Y
Figure 4.7
Fig. 2.6 Centre of Curvature
=LPT = PTX = 
 PCL=
dy
Also tan =  y1
dx
y1 1
 sin   , cos  
1  y  1
2
1  y 
1
2
3
1  y12  2
And 
y2
Self - Learning
64 Material
Now, = ON = OM – NM = OM – PL Curvature
= x – CP sin  = x –  sin  [from LPC]

3
x
1  y 1
2 2
.
y1
= y2 1 …(21) NOTES
1  y  1
2 2
 = CN = CL +LN = CL + PM
3
y
1  y 
1
2 2
1
= y + CP cos  = y +  cos  = . 1
y2
1  y 1
2 2
1
or  y
y2

1  y12  …(22)
ds dy dx
Corollary 1: Putting ρ  dψ ,sin ψ  ds ,cos ψ  ds , we get
ds dy dy ds dx dx
ξ x .  x and  y .  y
d  ds d d  ds d
Corollary 2: The equation of the circle of curvature at a given point of the curve.
Let  be the radius of curvature and (, ) the centre of curvature at the given
point. Then, the equation of the circle of curvature is given by
(x – )2 + (y – )2 = 2.
Evolute and Involute
The locus of the centre of curvature of the given curve is called the evolute of the
curve and the curve itself is called the involute of its evolute.
Example 2.7: Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point
(x, y) of a parabola y2 = 4ax. Also find the equation of the evolute of the parabola.
Solution: Equations of the parabola is y2 = 4ax
2a 2a 4a 2
 2 yy1  4a or y1  and y2   2 . y1   3
y y y
If (, ) is the centre of curvature, then
a  4 a 2 
1  2 
y1 y  y 
ξ  x  1  y1   x 
2
y2 4a 2
[ y2 = 4ax]
 3
y
= 3x + 2a … (i)
2
4a
1
3/ 2
1 y 2   2x
And η  y  1  y12   y  … (ii)
y2 4a 2 a
 3
y
 2 x3 / 2 

 The centre of curvature at (x, y) is  3 x  2 a ,  
 a 
Self - Learning
Material 65
Curvature To find the evolute, we have to eliminate x from Equations (i) and (ii).
3
4 x 3 4  ξ  2a 
2
Now, η      27 aη  4(ξ  2a )
2 3
a a 3 
NOTES
The locus of (, ), i.e., the evolute of the parabola is
27ay2 = 4(x  2a)3
Any chord drawn through P intercepted by the circle of curvature at P, is known
as the chord of curvature.
Let PQ be any chord through P making an angle  with CP, the radius of
curvature at P.
Join DQ, where PD is the diameter, thus PD = 2
π
From  PQD,  PQD = and DPQ  
2
PQ = 2 cos
Cartesian Coordinates
Chords of curvature can be parallel to the axes (Refer Figure 2.7).
Let the tangent at P make an angle  with the x-axis. Then, chord of curvature PA
parallel to x-axis makes angle 90 –  with CP, the radius of curvature at P and
the chord of curvature PB, parallel to y-axis, make angle  with CP.
Y
D B
Cy
C 
Cx
A  P(x,y)
90–

O T X
Fig. 2.7 Chords of Curvature Parallel to the Axis
Cx = Length of the chord of curvature PA, parallel to x-axis

= PD cos (90 – ) = 2 sin 
 tan   y1 
(1  y12 )3/ 2 y1  
= 2 .  sin   y1 
y2 1  y12 
 1  y12 
y1 (1  y12 )
=2 y2
Self - Learning
66 Material
Cy = Length of the chord of curvature PB, parallel to y-axis Curvature
= PD cos  = 2 cos 
(1  y12 )3 / 2 1 (1  y12 )
=2 y2
.
1  y12
= 2
y2 NOTES
y1 (1  y12 )
Hence, chord PA (parallel to x-axis) = 2 sin  = 2 y2
(1  y12 )
and chord PB (parallel to y-axis) = 2 cos  = 2 y2
Example 2.8: If Cx and Cy be the chords of curvature parallel to the axis of x and
1 1 1
y respectively at any point of the curve y = aex/a, prove that C 2  C 2  2aC .
x y x
Solution: Equation of the curve is y = aex/a

1 y 1 y
 y1  ae x / a .  , y2  . y1  2
a a a a
tan  = y1
y1
 sin  =
a  y12
2
a
cos  =
a  y12
2

  
2 32
 P  1  y1
3
2.1  y1  2
y1 
Cx = 2 sin  =   y2 
1  y 
1
y2 2 2  
1
y  a2  y2 
 2.
y1
y2

1  y12  2.  1  2 
a y  a 
 a2  y2  2 a2  y2
 2  a  2    
 a  a
1  y 
3
2 2
1 1
 2. 
Cy = 2 cos ψ
1  y 
1
y2 2 2
1
 y2 

2. 1  y12  
2.  1  2 

2
a  2. a  y

2
 
 y y
y2
a2
1 1 a2 y2 a2  y 2
    
C x 2 C y 2 4(a 2  y 2 ) 2 4(a 2  y 2 ) 2 4(a 2  y 2 )2
Self - Learning
Material 67
Curvature
1

4( a 2  y 2 )
1  2(a 2  y 2 ) 
NOTES
  C x  
2aC x  a 
Check Your Progress

x
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point of the catenary y  c cosh .
c
y
2. Show that for the curve s  8ay , ρ  4a 1  .
2a
3. Find  at any point of the cycloid x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1  cos ).
4. Find the radius of curvature of x  y  a , at the point where the line
y = x cuts it.
2 2 2 a 2b 2
5. Find the radius of curvature for the hyperbola r  a  b  .
p2
6. Find the radius of curvature of the curve r = f().
  dθ 2 d 2 r  dθ
7. Prove that for curve with usual notations ρ  r    2   r .
  ds  ds  ds
8. Find the radius of curvature at the origin of the curve

x2  6 y2  2x  y  0
9. Show that the chord of curvature parallel to y-axis for the curve y = a log
 x
sec   is of constant length.
 
a
2.3 TESTS FOR CONCAVITY AND CONVEXITY
Fig. 2.8 Concavity Curve
Let f be any function continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on

an open interval (a, b). Then,
 The graph of f is concave upwards or convex downwards on [a, b] if,
throughout (a, b), it lies above the tangent lines of f, i.e., if f  is increasing
Self - Learning in the interval.
68 Material
 The graph of f is concave downwards or convex upwards on [a, b] if, Curvature
throughout (a, b), it lies below the tangent lines of f, i.e., if f  is decreasing
in the interval.
Conditions for the Concavity or Convexity of the Curve in the NOTES
Upward Direction
Y Y = f (x) Y
B [x+h, f(x+h)]
C
(x,y)
B A
C C B[x+h, r (x+h)]
A
B
C (x,y) y = f(x)
0 N N X 0 N N X
Fig. 2.9 (a) Fig. 2.9 (b)
Let B[x + h, f(x + h)] be a point close to the point A(x, y) of the curve.
Draw a line BN perpendicular to the x-axis. Suppose the tangent at A meet the
ordinate in C. As, C lies on the ordinate BN, hence the abscissa of C is the same
as that of B (Refer Figure 2.9(a) and 2.9(b)).
Let the ordinate of C be yt and that of B be yc .
Then, yc  f  x  h  … (23)
The equation of the tangent to the curve y  f  x  at A(x, y) is
dy
Y y (X  x)  Y = f ( x)  f ( x )(X  x ) … (24)
dx
Since point C lies on the tangent at A, hence the co-ordinates of
C(x + h, yt ) must satisfy Equation (24).
 yt  f ( x )  hf ( x ) … (25)
We can see from the Figure 2.9 (a) and (b), that the curve is concave or convex
upwards at A(x, y) depending upon whether yc  yt  0 or yc  yt  0 ,
respectively.
So, by subtracting Equation (25) from Equation (23), we get
yc  yt  f ( x  h)   f ( x )  hf ( x ) 
h2
= f ( x)  hf ( x)  f ( x  h)   f ( x)  hf ( x)
2!
h2
= f ( x  h) … (26)
2!
Let f ( x ) be a continuous function of x, hence for very small value of h, the sign
of f ( x  h) is the same as that of f ( x ) . Therefore, the sign of yc  yt depends
Self - Learning
Material 69
Curvature
h2
upon f ( x ) because is always positive. Thus, the curve is concave or convex
2!
in upwards direction depending upon whether yc  yt > 0 or
NOTES
d2 y d2 y
yc  yt < 0, i.e.,  0 or 0.
dx 2 dx 2
Similarly, the curve is concave or convex in the positive direction of x-axis depending
upon whether
d2x d2x
 0 or 0.
dy 2 dy 2
Note: The above proof can also be generalized for f n ( x) . In this case, the curve
is concave or convex in the upward direction depending upon whether
f n ( x)  0 or f n ( x)  0 , n being even.
2.4 POINTS OF INFLECTION

A point of inflexion is a point on a curve at which the curve changes from being
concave upwards to concave downwards or vice-versa.
If P(x, y) is a point of inflexion on the curve, then on one side of P, the curve
is concave and on the other side it is convex. At the point of inflexion, the tangent
crosses the curve at that point.
Test for Point of Inflexion
If  c, f (c)  is a point of inflexion on the graph of f, then either f (c)  0 or f  does

not exist at c. The converse may not necessarily be true.
d2 y
Thus, a point is said to be a point of inflexion, if  0 at this point and
dx 2
d2 y d3 y
changes sign while passing through this point, i.e.,  0 at this point.
dx 2 dx3
Steps for finding point of inflexion

(i) Find all the numbers at which f ( x)  0
(ii) Use the test of concavity
(iii) There is an inflexion point, if the concavity changes; otherwise, there is no
inflexion point.
Self - Learning
70 Material
Curvature
Example 2.9: Find the points of inflexion of the curve y  ( x  2)6 ( x  3)5 .
Solution: The given curve is y   x  2 6  x  35 . ...(i)
dy NOTES
  x  2  .5  x  3   6  x  2   x  3
6 4 5 5

dx
  x  2   x  3 5  x  2   6  x  3    x  2   x  3 11x  28 
5 4 5 4
d2y
  x  2   x  3 .11   x  2  11x  28 .4  x  3   x  3 11x  28  .5  x  2 
5 4 5 3 4 4
dx 2
=  x  2   x  3 11 x  2  x  3  4  x  2 11x  28  5  x  3 (11x  28 

4 3
  x  2   x  3 110 x 2  560 x  710

4 3
 10  x  2   x  3 11x 2  56 x  71
4 3
3 28  3   28  3 
 10  x  2   x  3  x 
4
 x  
 11   11 
d2y 28  3
At the points of inflexion 2  0  x  2,3, .
dx 11
d2y
At x  2, 2 does not change sign as the corresponding factor  x  2 
4
dx
remains +ve whether x  2 or x  2.
 x  2 does not correspond to the point of inflexion.
d2y 28  3
Also, changes sign at x  3 and x  .
dx 2 11
Thus, these correspondences to the abscissa of the points of inflexion of the
given curve.
Check Your Progress

10. Show that the curve y = log x is convex upwards everywhere.
11. Determine the point of inflexion on the curve
x  a(2  sin ), y  a (2  cos )
2.5 MULTIPLE POINTS

Singular point is a point on a curve at which the curve shows an extraordinary or
unusual behaviour. Now, in this unit, we shall study about two particular types of
singular points: multiple points and points of inflexion.
Self - Learning
Material 71
Curvature If more than one branch of a curve passes through a point on the curve,
then this point is said to be a multiple point of the curve.
If two branches of the curve pass through a point on the curve, then this
NOTES point is called a double point.
There are two tangents, one to each branch can be drawn at the double
points of the curve. The tangents drawn may be real and distinct, real and coincident
or imaginary.
Types of Double Points
Depending upon whether the tangents at the double points are distinct, coincident
or imaginary, these double points are classified into the following three categories:
 Node: If the two tangents at the double point are real and distinct, then the
double point is known as a node. (Refer Figure 2.10)
 Cusp: If the two tangents at the double point are real and coincident, then
the double point is known as a cusp. (Refer Figure 2.11)
 Conjugate or Isolated Point: If there are no real points of the curve in the
neighbourhood of the point, then this point P is called a conjugate or an
isolated point of the curve. (Refer Figure 2.12)
Fig. 2.10 Node
Remark 1: Normally the tangents at the isolated points are imaginary. In

some cases, they are real but then the two branches of the curve are imaginary.
Fig. 2.11 Cusp Fig. 2.12 Conjugation Isolated Point
Remark 2: In case the curve passes through the origin, if you equate the
lowest degree terms of x and y to zero, you will get the equations of the
tangents to the curve at the origin.
Rules to Determine the Nature of the Origin, if it is a Double Point
(1) (i) In case the two tangents at the origin are imaginary, the conjugate or an
isolated point of the curve is origin.
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72 Material
(ii) In case the two tangents at the origin are real and distinct, the origin Curvature
may be a node or a conjugate point depending upon the two branches

through the origin real or imaginary.
(iii) In case the two tangents at the origin are real and coincident, the origin
NOTES
may be a cusp or a conjugate point depending upon the two branches
through the origin real or imaginary.
(2) When you have doubt about the nature of the double points as in (ii) and
(iii) above, use the following methods for testing the nature of the curve at
the double point.
(i) If a cuspidal tangent at the origin is given by x = 0, then neglect cubes
and higher powers of x and solve the equation to get the value of x. If
x is real for small enough values of y, then the branches of the curve
through the origin are real, otherwise they are imaginary.
(ii) If a cuspidal tangent at the origin is given by y = 0, then neglect cubes
and higher powers of y and solve the equation to get the value of y. If
y is real for small enough values of y, then the branches of the curve
through the origin are real, otherwise they are imaginary.
Note: While neglecting cubes and higher powers of x or y, keep in mind
that the reduced equation of the curve may not coincide with that of the
joint equation of the two tangents at the origin.
Example 2.10: Show that the point (1, 2) is a node on the curve y(x – 1)2
= x(y – 2)2 and also determine the equations of the tangents to the curve at this
point.
Solution: Shift the origin to the point (1, 2) by putting x – 1 = X and y – 2 = Y, we
get
(Y + 2)X2 = (X + 1)Y2 … (i)
So, the tangents at this new origin are
2X2 = Y2 Þ Y =  2X
Thus, the new origin is either a conjugate point or a node.
Now, equation (i) can also be rewritten as,
(X + 1)Y2 – X2Y – 2X2 = 0
By solving it for Y, we get
X 2  X 4  8(X +1)X 2
Y=
2(X + 1)
The quantity given in above equation will have positive sign for small value
of X. Hence, y is real.
Thus, the two branches of the curve which pass through the origin are real
and so the new origin, i.e., the point (1, 2) is a node.
Self - Learning
Material 73
Curvature Now, the tangents at the new origin are
Y= 2X and Y =  2X
 y–2= 2( x  1) and y – 2 =  2( x  1)
NOTES
 y= 2x  2  2 and y =  2x  2  2
Condition for the Existence of a Double Point on a Curve
Suppose the equation of the curve is given by f (x, y) = 0 … (27)
f f dy
By differentiating it with respect to x, we get x  y dx  0 … (28)
dy
Equation (28) is a first degree equation in and hence gives only one
dx
value at any point P(x, y) on the curve. We know that there are two tangents to
dy
the curve at double point. Hence, should have two values which satisfy Equation
dx
(28) But this is possible only if,
f f
= 0 and y = 0 … (29)
x
On solving Equation (29) for x and y simultaneously, we get the possible
double points. As P(x, y) which lies on the curve f(x,y), therefore only those value
of x and y are to be considered as double point that satisfy Equation (27) also.
We now see the nature of the double point that is obtained from the above.
d  f  d  f dy 
By differentiating Equation (28), x, we get dx  x   dx  y dx   0
   
2 f  2 f dy f d 2 y dy   2 f  2 f dy 
      0
x 2 y x dx y dx 2 dx  xy y 2 dx 
f
Using y = 0 from Equation (27) in the above equation, we get
2 f
2
 2 f dy  2 f  dy   2 f 2 f 
2    0   
x 2 xy dx y 2  dx   xy yx 
2
 2 f  dy   2 f dy  2 f
    2  0 … (30)
y 2  dx  xy dx x 2
dy dy
Equation (30) is a quadratic equation in and hence gives two values ,
dx dx
which provides the slopes of the tangents at the double point of the curve. These
tangents may be real and distinct, real and coincident or imaginary depending
upon whether the discriminant (D) of Equation (30) is positive, zero or negative.
Self - Learning
74 Material
Curvature
2
 f 
2
 f  f2 2
i.e.,    2 . 2 >, = or < 0, respectively … (31)
 xy  y x
Now, if NOTES
(i) D > 0, double point is a node or a conjugate point
(ii) D = 0, double point is a cusp or conjugate point
(iii) D < 0, double point is a conjugate point.
Example 2.11: Find the position and nature of the double points on the curve
y 2  ( x  2)2 ( x  1)
f  x, y    x  2   x  1  y 2  0
2
Solution: Let …(i)
f
Then   x  2   2  x  2  x  1
2
x
and f
 2 y
y
f f
For the double points  0 and 0
x y
  x  2  x  2  2 x  2  0
4
 x = 2 and x =
3
And y=0
4 
Thus, the possible double points are (2, 0) and  , 0  . But only (2, 0) satisfies
3 
Equation (i). Therefore (2, 0) is the only double point.
Shifting the origin at (2, 0), Equation (i) transforms into
Y2 = X2(X + 1) …(ii)
The tangents at the new origin are Y2 = X2 i.e., Y =  X
Thus the new origin is either a node or a conjugate point,
Solving Equation (ii) for Y, we get Y   X X  1 which gives Y real for
small values of X. Thus, the branches of the curve near the new origin are real.
Therefore, the new origin or the point (2, 0) on Equation (i) is a node.
Check Your Progress

12. Find the nature of the origin for the curve a 4 y 2  x 4 ( x 2  a 2 ).
13. Find the position and nature of the double points of the curve
x3  x 2  y 2  x  4 y  3  0 .
Self - Learning
Material 75
Curvature
2.6 TRACING OF CURVES IN CARTESIAN
AND POLAR COORDINATES
NOTES The procedure of tracing a curve in Cartesian coordinates is as follows (Refer
Figure 2.13 (a) (b) (c) (d) and (e).
1. Symmetry. Apply the following rules to ascertain whether the given curve
is symmetrical about any line or not:
(i) Symmetry about the x-Axis: If the equation of a curve remains
unaltered when y is changed to – y, i.e., if all the powers of y in the
given equation are even, the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.
For example, since in the parabola y2 = 4ax, power of y is even,
hence it is symmetrical about the x-axis.
(ii) Symmetry about the y-Axis: If the equation of a curve remains
unaltered when x is changed to – x, i.e., if all the powers of x are even
in the given equation, the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis. For
example, since the curve x2 = 4ay has the even power of x, hence it is
symmetrical about the y- axis.
(iii) Symmetry about both Axes: If all the powers of both x and y are
even in the given equation, the curve is symmetrical about both the
x2 y2
axes. For example, since in the ellipse   1 , powers of both
a2 b2
x and y are even, thus it is symmetrical about both the axes.
(iv) Symmetry in Opposite Quadrants: If the equation of the curve
remains unchanged when x and y are changed to –x and –y,
respectively, the curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants. For
example, the hyperbola xy = c2 and the curve y = x3 are symmetrical
in opposite quadrants.
(v) Symmetry about the Line y = x: If the equation of the curve is
unchanged when x and y are interchanged (i.e., x is changed to y and
y to x), the curve is symmetrical about the line y = x. For example, the
curve x3 + y3 = 3axy is symmetrical about the line y = x.
3
y=x Y
2
Y y = 4ax 2
x = 4ay Y
(x, y) (x, y)
(–x, y) (x, y)
O X O X
(x, –y) O X (–x, –y)
(a) (b) (c)
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76 Material
Y Curvature
Y
(y, x)
(x, y)
(–2, 2)
(–y, –x)
O NOTES
(x, y) X X
x + Y + 4x – 4y + 1 = 0 O
2 2
(d) (e)
Fig. 2.13 Tracing a Curve in Cartesian Co-ordinates
(vi) Symmetry about the Line y = –x: If the equation of the curve is
unchanged when x is changed to –y and y is changed to –x, the curve
is symmetrical about the line y = –x. For example, the curve x2 + y2 +
4x – 4y + 1 = 0 is symmetrical about the line y = –x.
Note: The curve which has symmetry about both the axes also has
symmetry in opposite quadrants but the converse is not true. For
x2 y2
example, in ellipse   1 (symmetrical about both the axes), the
a2 b2
equation of the curve remains unchanged when x and y are changed
to –x and –y, respectively. Thus, it is symmetrical in opposite quadrants
1
also. But the curve y  x  (symmetrical in opposite quadrants) does
x
not have even powers of x or y. Thus, it is not symmetrical about both
the axes.
2. Origin: Find whether the curve passes through the origin or not.
(i) It will pass through the origin if the equation of the curve does not
have any constant term. In this case, find the equation of the tangents
at the origin by equating the lowest degree terms (present in the equation
of curve) to zero.
(ii) If the origin is a double point, then find its nature. The origin is a node
if the tangents are real and distinct; cusp if the tangents are real and
coincident; and conjugate point if the tangents are imaginary.
3. Asymptotes: To find the direction in which the curve extends to infinity,
find the following asymptotes:
(i) Asymptotes parallel to x-Axis or y-Axis: Find the asymptotes
parallel to x-axis or y-axis by equating the co-efficients of highest
powers of x or y (in the equation of the curve) to zero.
(ii) Oblique Asymptotes: Put x = 1 and y = m in the highest degree
terms of x and y to find fn(m). Then, equate fn(m) to zero and solve to
get the values of m, which gives the slopes of the asymptotes. Put
x = 1 and y = m in the next lower degree terms of x and y to find
fn–1(m) and similarly find fn–2(m) and obtain the values of m.
Self - Learning
Material 77
Curvature
n 1 (m)
If m has real and distinct values, then find c using c    and
n (m)
if m has real and equal values, then find c using
NOTES
c 2 
n (m)  cn1 (m)  n  2 (m)  0 .
2!
Finally, find the oblique asymptotes by putting the values of m and c in
the equation y = mx + c.
4. Point of Intersection with the Axes
(i) Find the points where the curve meets the co-ordinate axes. If the
curve meets the x-axis, then on putting y = 0, we get the real values of
x. Similarly, examine for y-axis where x = 0.
(ii) Shift the origin to all such points and find the tangents at all such points
(new origin) by equating to zero the lowest degree terms. If any one
of them is a double point, find its nature.
(iii) Find the points of intersection of the curve with the lines y = ± x if the
curve is symmetrical about these lines.
5. Region: Find the region to which curve is bounded in the quadrants using
the following steps:
(i) Solve the equation of the curve for y. Find the corresponding values
of x for which y is real. The curve lies between these obtained values
of x.
(ii) Ignore the values of x and y for which L.H.S. and R.H.S. of the
equation has opposite sign.
(iii) Put x = 0. Examine how y varies when x increases and tends to ,
keeping in mind those values of x for which y = 0 or y  .
(iv) Examine how y varies when x decreases from 0 and tends to –. If
the curve is symmetrical about y-axis, take only the positive values of
x and trace the curve for negative values of x by symmetry.
6. Special Points:
(i) Find the points on the curve where:
dy
(a)  0 , i.e., the points where the tangents are parallel to the x-
dx
axis.
dy
(b)   , i.e., the points where the tangents are parallel to the
dx
y-axis.
dy
(c) is positive, i.e., the points where the curve is increasing or
dx
dy
(d) is negative, i.e., the points where the curve is decreasing.
dx
(ii) Find the points on the curve where:
Self - Learning
78 Material
Curvature
d2y
(a) is positive, i.e., the points where the curve is concave
dx 2
upward
d2y
NOTES
(b) is negative, i.e., the points where the curve is concave
dx 2
downward
(iii) Find points of inflexion on the curve by equating
d2y d3x
to zero where 0
dx 2 dy 3
Some Elementary Curves

Some curves which are useful in drawing the approximate shape of the curves
near the origin when either x-axis or y-axis is a tangent at the origin as given in
Figure 2.14(a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g) and (h).
These figure display the cubic parabola.
Figure 2.15(a), (b), (c) and (d) show semi-cubic parabola.
2 2
y = 4ax y = –4ax
Y Y
(x, y)
Axis Axis
X΄ X X΄ X
O O
S (a, 0) S (–a, 0)
Y΄ Y΄
(a) (b)
2
x = 4ay
Y Axis 2
x = –4ay
Y
S (0, a)
X´ X X´ X
O O
S (0, – a)
Axis
Y´
Y´
(c) (d)
3
y=–x 3
x=y
Y
Y
X´ X X´ X
O O
Y´ Y´
(e) (f)
Self - Learning
Material 79
Curvature Y x=–y
3
X´ X
NOTES X´
O
X
Y´ Y´
(g) (h)
Fig. 2.14 Cubical Parabola
2 3 2 3
x =y y =–x
Y Y
X´ X X´ X
O O
Y´ Y´
(a) (b)
2 3
x =–y
Y
Y
X´ X
X´ X O
O
Y´
Y´
Fig. 2.15 Semi-Cubical Parabola
Example 2.12: Trace the curve y2(2a – x) = x3.

Solution: The given equation of the curve is y2(2a – x) = x3 …(i)
I. Symmetry: Since (i) contains even powers of y, the curve is
symmetrical about x-axis.
II. Origin: The curve passes through the origin. Equating the lowest
degree terms to zero, the tangents at the origin are given by y2 = 0 or
y = 0, i.e., the two tangents are real and coincident. Thus, origin is a
cusp and y = 0, i.e., x-axis is the tangent.
III. Asymptotes: Equating to zero the coefficient of y2 (the highest degree
term in y), the asymptote parallel to y-axis is x – 2a = 0 or x = 2a.
There is no other asymptote of the curve.
IV. Point of Intersection with Co-Ordinate Axes: The curve meets
x-axis and y-axis at the origin (0,0) only.
Self - Learning
80 Material
Curvature
x3 x
V. Region: From (i) , we have y  or y  x
2
2a  x 2a  x
We see that the y is real for x < 2a or 0 < x < 2a, i.e., the whole curve
lies between lines x = 0 and x = 2a. NOTES
x3
VI. Special Points: Differentiating y 2  w.r.t x,
2a  x
dy 3(2a  x ) x 2  x3 (1)
2y 
dx (2a  x) 2
dy
  0 when 3(2a  x) x 2  x3 (1) = 0 which gives x = 0, 3a.
dx
When x = 3a, y is imaginary. So, reject x = 3a. Thus, the tangent is parallel
to x-axis at x = 0.
2/3 2/3
Example 2.13: Trace the curve    y

x
  1
a   b
2/3 2/3
x  y
Solution: The given equation of the curve is     1 …(i)
a   b
2 2
 x 1/ 3   y 1/ 3 
I. Symmetry: Equation (i) can be written as  a     b    1 .
     
Clearly, the equation contains even power of both x and y and hence the
curve is symmetrical about both the axes.
II. Origin: The curve does not pass through the origin.
III. Asymptotes: There is no asymptote of the curve since it is a closed curve.
IV. Points of Intersection with Co-Ordinate Axis: The curve meets x-axis
2
x
where y = 0, i.e., which gives    1
a  
  x 1/ 3 
2

obtain by cubing both sides of    1
  a    or x   a. . Similarly, it
 
meets y-axis where x = 0, which gives y  b.
2/3 2/3
 y x
V. Region: From Equation (i), we have   1  
b a
a  x2 / 3 
1/ 3 2/3 2/3 3/ 2
 y x b 2/3
y   a  x2 / 3 
3/ 2
    1   y
b a b a a
We see that y is real only when | x |  a . Thus, the whole curve lies between
the lines x   a. . Similarly, expressing the equation in terms of x, we see
Self - Learning
Material 81
Curvature
that the whole curve lies between the lines y  b. Thus, the whole curve
lies between the rectangle formed by the lines x   a and y  b .
Y
NOTES (0, b)
X´ O X
(–a, 0) (a, 0)
Y´ (0, –b)
VI. Special Points: Differentiating Equation (i) with respect to x,

1/ 3 1/ 3
2 x  1 2 y  1 dy
     0
3 a  a 3 b  b dx
dy b 2 / 3 y1/ 3
  .
dx a 2 / 3 x1/ 3
dy
Since  0 , thus y  0
dx
2/3
x
    1  x  a
a
Thus, x-axis is tangent to the curve at (a, 0) and (–a, 0). As the curve is
symmetrical about x-axis, thus x-axis is a cuspidal tangent at both these points.
Similarly, y-axis is a cuspidal tangent at the points (0, b) and (0, –b). Also, on
d2y d2y
finding we can observe that when both x and y are positive,  0 and
dx 2 dx 2
hence the curve is concave upwards in the Quadrant I.
Since, the curve is symmetrical about both the axes, thus the shape of the
curve is as shown in the above Figure.
1
Example 2.14: Trace the curve y  x  .
x
1
Solution: The given equation of the curve is y  x  or xy  x 2  1 …(i)
x
I. Symmetry: Since Equation (i) remains unchanged on replacing x by –x
and y by –y, thus the curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
Self - Learning
82 Material
II. Origin: The curve does not pass through the origin. Curvature
x=0
Y
y=x
(1, 2) NOTES
dy
=0
dx
O
X´ X
dy
=0
dx
(–1, –2)
Y´
III. Asymptotes: Equation (i) is the equation of second degree in x and y and
the term y2 is absent. Since, the co-efficient of y is x, thus x = 0, i.e., y-axis
is an asymptote. The expansion of the equation in the form
A B
y  mx  c    ... gives asymptote as y = mx + c. Thus, the
x x2
1
asymptote of y  x  is y  x . Also if the ordinates of the curve and the
x
1 1
asymptotes are yc and ya , then yc  ya  . When x > 0, yc  ya  is
x x
positive and when x < 0, it is negative.
IV. Points of Intersection with Co-Ordinate Axes: The curve does not meet
any of the axes.
V. Region: Since, when x > 0, then y > 0 and when x < 0, then y < 0, thus,
the curve lies in I and II quadrants. From step III, it is clear that the curve
lies above the asymptote y = x in I quadrant and it lies below the asymptote
in III quadrant.
VI. Special Points: When x = –1 and x = 1, the maximum and minimum
dy
values of y are –2 and 2. Also,  0 at (1, 2) and (–1, –2).
dx
Thus, the shape of the curve is as shown the above Figure.
Tracing of Parametric Curve
Let us learn to trace a curve whose equations are of the form x = f(t) and y = (t),
where t is the parameter.
Method 1. We try to eliminate the parameter t if it can be easily eliminated.
The equation, thus, obtained is the corresponding Cartesian equation of the curve.
These curves can then be easily traced.
For example,
a (1  t 2 ) 2bt
(i) Ellipse: x = a cos t, y = b sin t or x  ,y 
1 t 2
1 t2
x y x (1  t 2 ) y 2t
  cos t ,  sin t or  , 
a b a 1 t b 1 t2
2
Self - Learning
Material 83
Curvature Eliminating t by squaring and adding, we get
x2 y2
  1 , which is an ellipse.
a2 b2
NOTES a (1  t 2 ) 2at
(ii) Circle: x = a cos t, y = a sin t or x  ,y 
1 t 2
1 t2
Eliminating t by squaring and adding, we get
x2 + y2 = a2, which is a circle.
sin 3 t
(iii) Cissoid: x  a sin t , y  a
2
cos t
x  a sin 2 t  x3  a 3 sin 6 t
x
x  a sin 2 t  x  a 1  cos t   cos t  1  a
2 2
Or
x3
3 6
ya
sin t
y2  a2
sin t y2  a y2 
x3
cos t
 2 
cos t x  ,
1 ax
a
which is called Cissoid.
(iv) Astroid: x  a cos3 t , y  a sin 3 t
2 2 2 2
 x 3  a 3 cos 2 t , y 3  a 3 sin 2 t
Eliminating t by adding, we get
2 2 2
x 3  y 3  a 3 , which is called Astroid.
(v) Hypocycloid: x  a cos3 t , y  b sin 3 t
2 2
x y  x 3  y 3
   cos t ,  sin t     cos 2 t ,    sin 2 t
3 3
a b a b
Eliminating t by squaring and adding, we get
2 2
 x 3  y 3
      1 , which is called Hypocycloid.
a b
1
(vi) Simple Curve: x  t , y  t  t
2 3
3
2
1  1 
y  t  t 3  y 2  t 2 1  t 2 
3  3 
Eliminating t by putting t2 = x, we get
2
 x
y  x  1    9y2 = x(x – 3)2, which is a form of a simple curve.
2
 3
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84 Material
Curvature
3at 3at 2
(vii) Folium of Descartes’: x  ,y
1 t 3
1  t3
y
Dividing, we get t
x NOTES
3at
Putting this value of t in x  , we get
1  t3
x3 + y3 = 3axy, which is called Folium of Descartes’.
a (t  t 3 ) a (t  t 3 )
(viii) Lemniscate of Bernoulli: x  , y 
1 t4 1 t4
Eliminating t, we get (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 – y2), which is called Lemniscate of
Bernoulli.
Method 2. When the parameter t cannot be easily eliminated, then we adopt the
following steps to trace the curve:
I. Symmetry:
(i) Symmetry about x-Axis: The curve is symmetrical about x-axis if by
replacing t by –t or t by  – t, y changes to –y and x remains unchanged.
For example, the parabola x = at2, y = 2at is symmetrical about x-axis.
(ii) Symmetry about y-Axis: The curve is symmetrical about y-axis if by
replacing t by –t or t by  – t, x changes to –x and y remains unchanged.
For example, the ellipse x = a cos t, y = b sin t is symmetrical about
y-axis.
(iii) Symmetry in Opposite Quadrants: The curve is symmetrical in opposite
quadrants if by replacing t by –t, x changes to –x and y changes to –y.
c
For example, the rectangular hyperbola x = ct, y = is symmetrical in
t
opposite quadrants.
II. Origin: Find whether the curve passes through the origin. The curve passes
through the origin if the same real value of t satisfies both f(t) = 0 and (t) = 0.
III. Asymptotes:
(i) Asymptotes Parallel to Co-Ordinate Axes: Obtain the asymptotes
parallel to x-axis by finding the values b1, b2, … to which y tends as x 
 or x  – . We get y = b1, y = b2 as asymptotes. Similarly, obtain the
asymptotes parallel to y-axis by finding the values a1, a2, … to which x
tends as y   or y  – . We get x = a1, x = a2 as asymptotes.
(ii) Oblique Asymptotes: y = mx + c is an oblique asymptote if for some
value of t (say t  t 0 ), both x and y tends to   and
y
lim  m and lim( y  mx)  c .
t  t0 x t t0
Self - Learning
Material 85
Curvature IV. Points of Intersection with Co-Ordinate Axes: The curve meets the x-
axis where y = (t) = 0 and it meets the y-axis where x = f(t) = 0.
V. Region: For some real values of t, find the greatest and the least values of x
and y if possible. This gives the lines parallel to the axes of the co-ordinate, between
NOTES
which the curve lies or does not lie.
dy dx dy
VI. Special Points: Find and . Divide them to get , which is the slope
dt dt dx
dy
of the tangent at the point [f(t), (t)]. Then obtain the points where = 0 or ,
dx
i.e., the points where the tangent is parallel to x-axis or y-axis. If required, also
d2y
find 2 and discuss the concavity or convexity and points of the inflexion on the
dx
curve.
1
Example 2.15: Trace the curve x  t , y  t  t .
2 3
1
Solution: The given equation of the curve is x  t , y  t  t . Eliminating t from
2 3
3
these equations, we get 9 y 2  x  x  32 . … (i)
I. Symmetry: Since Equation (i) contains only even powers of y, thus the
curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
II. Origin: The curve passes through the origin and the tangent at the origin is
given by x = 0, i.e., y-axis is the tangent at the origin.
III. Asymptotes: There is no asymptote of the curve.
IV. Points of Intersection with the Co-Ordinate Axes: The curve meets
y-axis only at (0, 0). It meets x-axis at x = 0 and x = 3. When the origin is
shifted at (3, 0), the equation transforms into 9Y2 = (X + 3) X2. So, the
1
tangents at the new origin are 9Y2 = 3X2 or Y   X . Thus, the new
3
origin at the point (3, 0) is a node.
V. Region: Since, for x  0, y is imaginary, thus no part of the curve lies to

the left of the y-axis. Also, for x  3, y is real. For larger values of x, y 2  x3 ,
i.e, the curve is inclined towards y-axis.
Thus, the shape of the curve is as shown in the above Figure .
Self - Learning
86 Material
Curvature
Example 2.16: Trace the curve x  a    sin   , y  a 1  cos   , –     .
Solution: The given equation of the curve is
x  a    sin   , y  a 1  cos   …(i)
NOTES
I. Symmetry: Since in Equation (i), when  is changed into –, x changes
into –x and y remains unchanged, thus, the curve is symmetrical about y-
axis.
II. Origin: Since,  does not have any common value for which x and y both
are zero, thus the curve does not pass through the origin.
IV. Points of Intersection with Co-Ordinate Axes: The curve meets x-axis
where y = 0, which gives 1  cos   0     and   –  and the
corresponding values of x thus obtained are a  and –a  . The curve also
meets y-axis where x = 0, which gives  = 0 and the corresponding value of
y thus obtained is 2a.
V. Region: Since, | cos  | 1,0  y  2a , i.e., the whole of the curve lies
between y = 0 and y = 2a.
dx
VI. Special Points: Differentiating Equation (i), we have  a 1  cos   and
d
dy
  a sin 
d
Y
x = –aπ θ=0 x = aπ
B y = 2a
(0, 2a)
(–aπ, 0) A (aπ, 0)
X´ 0 = –π O 0 = –π X
Y´
 
2sin cos
dy

a sin 
 2 2   tan 
Now, dx a 1  cos    2
2cos 2
2
dy 
Since  0 , thus tan  0
dx 2
This gives  = 0. So, the tangent is parallel to x-axis where  = 0, which
gives x = 0, y = 2a, i.e, at (0, 2a).
dy
Now,       or 
dx
This gives the corresponding points  a, 0  and  a,0  .
d2y 2  1 d 1 4   d   1 
As   sec .   sec ,  
dx 2 2 2 dx 2 2  dx a 1  cos   
Self - Learning
Material 87
Curvature
d2y
 2  0 for all values of  and hence the curve is concave downwards.
dx
When    or    , the point traces similar curves.
NOTES The shape of the curve is as shown in the above Figure .
Y
Y
(aπ, 2a) A´ = (–aπ, 2a) A (aπ, 2a)
B y = 2a
y =2a
A´ A θ = 2π θ = –π θ=π
X´ O θ=0 0–π (2ap , 0) X X´ x = –ax O θ=0 x = aπ X
Y´ x = 2ap
Y´
Note: The above equation is the equation of the cycloid. A cycloid is a curve which
is described by a fixed point in the plane of the circle (generating circle) when the
circle rolls without sliding along some straight line (directix). There are three other
types of equations of the cycloid, which can be traced on the similar lines.
Curve Tracing in Polar Coordinates
The procedure of tracing a curve in polar co-ordinates is as follows:
I. Symmetry: Apply the following rules to ascertain whether the given curve
is symmetrical about any line or not:
(i) Symmetry About the Initial Line,  = 0 or x-Axis: If the equation
of the curve remains unchanged when  is changed to – or the pair (r,
) to the pair (–r,  – ), the curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
For example, the curve r cos  = a sin2  is symmetrical about the x-
axis.

(ii) Symmetry About the Ray  = or y-Axis: If the equation of the
2
curve remains unchanged when  is changed to  –  or the pair (r,
) to the pair (–r, – ), the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis. For
example, the curve r = a is symmetrical about y-axis (see
Figure 2.16).
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88 Material
Curvature
NOTES
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 2.16 Curve Tracing in Polar Coodinates
(iii) Symmetry About the Pole: If the equation of the curve is unchanged
when r is changed – r or the pair (–r, ) to the pair (r,  + ), the
curve is said to be symmetrical about the pole. For example, the
curve r2 = a2 cos 2 is symmetrical about the pole.
II. Origin or Pole: Find whether the curve passes through the pole or not by
putting r = 0 in the equation. If we get  = 1, 2, 3, … where 1, 2, 3, …
are real numbers, then the curve passes through the pole otherwise the
curve does not passes through the pole. In case the curve passes through
the pole, the tangents at the pole are given by  = 1,  = 2,  = 3, …
III. Asymptotes: When r  as   1, there is an asymptote. If the equation
1
f() = 0 has the root , then the asymptotes of the curve  f () is given
r
1
by r sin( – ) = f () .
IV. Point of Intersection: Find the corresponding values of r for some suitable
values of , particularly for those values of  for which the curve is
symmetrical.
V. Region. Solve the given equation for r and examine how r varies when 
increases from 0 or 1 to  and when it decreases from 0 or 1 to –.
Find the regions in which the curve does not lie. This can be done in the following
manner.
(i) If r is imaginary, when  <  < , then there is no part of the curve lies
between the rays  =  and  = .
Self - Learning
Material 89
Curvature (ii) If a be the greatest numerical value of r, the curve lies entirely within the
circle of radius a. Also, if the least numerical value of r be b, the curve lies
outside the circle of radius b.
Note: When r is a periodic function of , the negative values of  need not be
NOTES
taken into account. We may consider values from  = 0 to those values of ,
where the values begin to repeat.
VI. Value of :
(i) Find the angle between the tangent and the radius vector,  at P(r, )
d
using tan   r .
dr
 dr
(ii) Find the points where  = 0 or . When is positive, the value of 
2 dt
dr
increases and as a result r increases. Similarly, when is negative, the
dt
value of  decreases and as a result r decreases.
Example 2.17: Trace the curve r2 = a2 cos 2.
Solution: The given equation of the curve is r2 = a2 cos 2 …(i)
I. Symmetry: Since Equation (i) remains unchanged when  is replaced by –
, the curve is symmetrical about x-axis. The curve is also symmetrical about

the line  = since it remains unchanged when  is changed to  – . Again,
2
Equation (i) remains unchanged when r is changed to – r. Thus, the curve is
also symmetrical about the pole.
 
II. Origin or Pole: When r = 0, cos 2 = 0  2 =    =  , which is
2 4
a real value.

Thus, the curve passes through the pole and  =  are the tangents at the
4
pole when  = 0, r2 = a2 or r = + a. Thus, the curve meets the initial line
( = 0) in the points (+ a, 0).
dr
III. Value of : Differentiating Equation (i), we get 2r  2a 2 sin 2
d
d r r a 2 cos 2  
 tan   r      cot 2  tan   2 
dr dr  a sin 2  a sin 2
2 2
2 
d r

     2 when  = 0,   .
2 2
Thus, at the points (+a, 0), the tangent are perpendicular to the initial line.
Self - Learning
90 Material
IV. Asymptotes: Curve has no asymptotes because there is no finite value of  Curvature
for which r .

V. Special Points and Region: From Equation (i), we have r  a cos 2
dr a sin 2 NOTES
 
d cos 2
dr 
 is negative for 0 <  < ,  r decreases in this range.
d 4
dr 3
Again because is positive for     , thus r decreases in this range
d 4

when  = 0, r = a. As  increases from 0 to , r decreases from a to 0. For
4
 
<  < , r is imaginary. Thus, no part of the curve lies between the lines
4 4
  
= and  = . Again as  increases from to , r remains positive
4 4 4
and increases from 0 to a. Thus, we trace the part of the curve below the
initial line. The part of the curve below the initial line can be traced by
symmetry.
Example 2.18: Trace the curve r  a sin 3.
Solution: The given equation of the curve is r  a sin 3 …(i)
I. Symmetry: Since, sin 3  sin  3  3   sin 3      , thus the symmetry

is about the line   . In other words, the equation remains unchanged
2
when  is changed to 2   and thus the curve is symmetrical is about    .
II. Pole: On putting r  0 , we get sin 3  0 .
 3  n where n I
 3  0,3  ,3  2,3  3,...
 2 3 4 5
   0,   ,  ,  ,  , 
3 3 3 3 3
which are tangents at the origin.
IV. Region: As | sin 3 | 1 , thus r  a, i.e., the whole curve lies within a circle of
radius a.

When 0  3   or 0    , r  0,
3
 2
When  , r  0 etc.
3 3
Self - Learning
Material 91
Curvature
NOTES
 5 9 
The maximum value of r is given by sin 3  1 , i.e., when 3  , , or
2 2 2
 5 9 
 , , and the minimum value of r is given by sin   1 , i.e., when
6 6 6
3 7  11  7  11
3  , , or   , ,
2 2 2 2 6 6
V. Value of  : Differentiating Equation (i),
dr
 3a cos3
d
d 1
 tan   r  tan 3
dr 3
   3 5 7 
  when 3  , i.e.,   , , , ,...
2 2 6 6 6 6
Thus, the tangent is perpendicular to the radius vector at the points where
  5 7  9 11
 , , , , ,  0    2
6 2 6 6 6 6
 3 3 9
VI. Point of Intersection: We make a table for  or  3 
2 2 2 2

since the curve is symmetrical about the line   (or y-axis)
2
 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
r –a – 0.7a 0 0.7a a 0.7a 0 –0.7a –a –0.7a 0 0.7a a
2
Since, r  a sin 3 is a periodic function of period , thus the same curve
3
2
is obtained after a period of .
3
Self - Learning
92 Material
Curvature
Example 2.19: Trace the curve r  a 1  sec   .
a 1  cos  
Solution: The equation of the curve is r  …(i)
cos 
NOTES
I. Symmetry: Since Equation (i) remains unchanged on replacing  by – ,
thus, the curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
II. Pole or Origin: On putting r = 0, we get cos   1 , which gives    .
Thus,    is the tangent to the curve at the origin.
III. Asymptote: Equation (i) is the equation of fourth degree in x and y in which
both y 4 and y 3 are absent. The co-efficient of y 2 is  x  a 2 . Thus, the
asymptote to the curve is x – a = 0 or x = a.
IV. Region: From (i) we have r cos   a 1  cos   . Converting it into Cartesian
x
co-ordinates by putting cos   , we get
r
x
x  a  a.
r
ax
  x  a 2 r 2  a 2 x 2   x  a   x 2  y 2   a 2 x 2
2
 xa 
r
   x  a 2 y 2  a 2 x 2  x 2  x  a  2   x  a 2 y 2  x3  2a  x 
x 3  2a  x 
 y2 
 x  a
2
We see that for both x  0 and x > 2a, y is imaginary. Thus, the whole of
the curve lies between the lines x = 0 and x = 2a. Also the origin is a cusp
and y = 0, i.e., x-axis is cuspidal tangent.
V. Intersection with the Axes of Co-Ordinates: The curve meets x-axis
when y = 0, which gives x = 0 and x = 2a. When the origin is shifted at
 2a,0 , the equation transforms into  X  a 2 Y 2   X  2a 2  X  .
So, the tangent at the new origin is X = 0 and the line x = 2a is a tangent at
(2a, 0).
Note: We can change the equations from the polar to the Cartesian co-ordinates
or from Cartesian to polar co-ordinates so that we can trace the curve easily. Self - Learning
Material 93
Curvature
Check Your Progress
14. Trace the curve y  a  x 2   x 2  a 2  x 2  or x 2  x 2  y 2   a 2  x 2  y 2  .
2 2
15. Trace the curve

NOTES y 2 ( x 2  y 2 )  a 2 ( x 2  y 2 )  0 or x 2 (a 2  y 2 )  y 2 ( a 2  y 2 ) .
16. Trace the curve x 4  y 4  4a 2 xy .
17. Trace the curve x3  y 3  3ax 2 .
18. Trace the curve r = a cos 2  .
19. Trace the curve r = a(1 – sin  ).
2.7 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

y2
1.
c
2. The equation of the curve is s  8ay  s 2  8ay
Differentiating with respect to s, we have
dy  dy 
2s = 8a. = 8a sin   ds  sin  
ds  
 s = 4a sin
ds
Also,   4a cos 
d
s2 8ay y
   4a 1  sin 2   4a 1  2
 4a 1  2
 4a 1 
16a 16a 2a

3. 4a cos
2
a
4.
2
a 2 b2
5. p 3 (Numerically)
r cos ec
6. 1  d  
 dθ 
dr
7. We have  cos 
ds
d 2r d d
 2
  sin .   sin .           
ds ds ds
 d d 
  sin    
 ds ds 
Self - Learning
94 Material
2 Curvature
d 2r d  1 d  d 1  d 
  r     r .  r  
ds 2
ds   ds  ds   ds 
d  1   d  d 2r    d  2 d 2 r 
2
d
 r .  r    2   r   r    2  NOTES
ds    ds  ds  ds   ds  ds 
1
8. (Numerically)
2 5
x
9. We have y = a log sec
a
x x
 y1 = tan = tan  or  = (tan  = y1)
a a
1 x
and y2 = sec2
a a
We know that the chord of curvature parallel to y-axis
= 2  cos 
3/ 2
 x
2 1  tan 2 
(1  y1 )
2 3/ 2
 a x
=2 .cos   .cos
y2 1
sec 2
x a = 2a, which is constant
a a
10. Given, y  log x
The above equation is defined only when x > 0.
1 1
y1  , x > 0 and y2  2
x x
d2y
Since  0 for all real value x > 0, hence the given curve is convex
dx 2
upwards everywhere.
 2 3 3a
11. x  a  4n  3  2  , y  2
 
12. Origin is a conjugate point.
13. (–1, 2) is node.
14.
X
Self - Learning
Material 95
Curvature
15. Y
(0, a)
NOTES
y = –x y=x
O X
(0, –a)
16.
17.
18.
Self - Learning
96 Material
Curvature
π
19. θ=
2
Y
θ=π A´ A(a, 0) θ = 0
X´ (a, π) O X
NOTES
π
Ф=
2
3π B 3π
θ= 2a,
2 2
Y´
2.8 SUMMARY
 The curvature is the amount by which a curve deviates from being a straight
line, or a surface deviates from being a plane. For curves, the canonical
example is that of a circle, which has a curvature equal to the reciprocal of
its radius.
 Smaller circles bend more sharply, and hence have higher curvature.
 The curvature at a point of a differentiable curve is the curvature of its
osculating circle, i.e., the circle that best approximates the curve near this
point.
 The curvature of a straight line is zero.
 The curvature of a curve at a point is normally a scalar quantity such that it
is expressed by a single real number.
 The curvature of a differentiable curve was originally defined through
osculating circles.
 A French mathematician, engineer, and physicist Augustin-Louis Cauchy
showed that the center of curvature is the intersection point of two infinitely
close normal lines to the curve.
 The numerical measures of the sharpness of the bending of a curve at a
point is called the curvature of the curve at that point.
 The reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at P, is called the radius of
1 ds
curvature of the curve at P and is usually denoted by . Thus ρ   .
κ d
 The curvature at every point of the circle is equal to the reciprocal of its
dψ 1
radius and therefore it is constant. Curvature = = (constant).
ds r
 The explicit equation of the radius of curvature at any point of the curve
3
  dy 2  2
1     3
y = f(x) is given by ρ 
  dx  
or 
1  y 
1
2 2
d2y y2
dx 2 Self - Learning
Material 97
Curvature  The radius of curvature defined by parametric equations x = f(t), y = (t) is
( x ' 2  y '2 ) 3 / 2
given by ρ  x ' y '' y ' x '' .
 The implicit equation of the radius of curvature at any point of the curve
NOTES 3
 f x2  f y2  2
f(x,y) = 0 is given by ρ .
f xx f y2  2 f x f y f xy  f yy f x2
 Radius of Curvature when x and y are function of s is given by the equation
2 2
 dx   dy 
ρ 
2
   .
 d   d 
 The graph of f is concave downwards or convex upwards on [a, b] if,
throughout (a, b), it lies below the tangent lines of f, i.e., if f  is decreasing
in the interval.
 The curve is concave or convex in upwards direction depends upon
d2 y d2 y
whether yc  yt > 0 or yc  yt < 0, i.e.,  0 or 0
dx 2 dx 2
 A point of inflexion is a point on a curve at which the curve changes from
being concave upwards to concave downwards or vice-versa.
 Singular point is a point on a curve at which the curve shows an extraordinary
or unusual behaviour.
 If more than one branch of a curve passes through a point on the curve,
then this point is said to be multiple point of the curve.
 If two branches of the curve pass through a point on the curve, then this
point is called a double point.
 If the two tangents at the double point are real and distinct, then the double
point is known as a node.
 If there are no real points of the curve in the neighbourhood of the point,
then this point P is called a conjugate or an isolated point of the curve.
 The graph of f is concave upwards or convex downwards on [a, b] if,
throughout (a, b), it lies above the tangent lines of f, i.e., if f  is increasing
in the interval.
 If the equation of a curve remains unaltered when y is changed to – y, i.e.,
if all the powers of y in the given equation are even, the curve is symmetrical
about the x-axis.
 If the equation of a curve remains unaltered when x is changed to – x, i.e.,
if all the powers of x are even in the given equation, the curve is symmetrical
about the y-axis.
Self - Learning
98 Material
 If all the powers of both x and y are even in the given equation, the curve is Curvature
symmetrical about both the axes.

 If the equation of the curve remains unchanged when x and y are changed
to –x and –y, respectively, the curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
NOTES
 If the equation of the curve is unchanged when x and y are interchanged
(i.e., x is changed to y and y to x), the curve is symmetrical about the line
y = x.
 If the equation of the curve is unchanged when x is changed to –y and y is
changed to –x, the curve is symmetrical about the line y = –x.
 A cycloid is a curve which is described by a fixed point in the plane of the
circle (generating circle) when the circle rolls without sliding along some straight
line. There are three other types of equations of the cycloid, which can be
traced on the similar lines.
2.9 KEY TERMS

 Curvature: It is the numerical measure of the sharpness of the bending of a
curve at a point.
 Radius of curvature: It is the reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at P,
and is usually denoted by .
 Double point: If two branches of the curve pass through a point on the
curve, then this point is called a double point.
 Inflexion point: It is a point on a curve at which the curve changes from
being concave upwards to concave downwards or vice-versa.
 Curve tracing: It means to find the approximate shape of a curve without
plotting a large number of points.
 Cycloid: It is a curve which is described by a fixed point in the plane of the
circle (generating circle) when the circle rolls without sliding along some
straight line.

EXERCISES
1. Find the radius of curvature at  s,   for each of the following curves:


(i) s  a log  tan   sec    a tan  sec  (ii) s  8a sin
2
6
2. Find the radius of curvature at the given point for the following curves:

(i) xy  c 2 at the point (x, y) (ii) y  4sin x  sin 2 x at x 
2
Self - Learning
Material 99
Curvature 3. Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the astroide
x  a cos3 , y  a sin 3  is equal to three times the length of the perpendicular
from the origin to the tangent.
NOTES 4. The tangents at two points P, Q on the cycloid
x  a    sin   ; y  a 1  cos   are at right angles. Show that if 1 , 2 are
the radii of curvature at these points then 12  2 2  16a 2 .
x2 y2 a 2b 2
5. Prove that for an ellipse  1   , where p is the length of the
a2 b2 p3
perpendicular from the centre upon the tangent at the point P(x, y).
6. Show that the radius of curvature at any point P(x,y) of the curve
x 2 / 3  y 2 / 3  a 2 / 3 is given by 3  27 axy.
7. Show that for the cardioid r  a 1  cos   , the radius of curvature
4a   2 8a
 cos and 
3 2 r 9
8. Find the radius of curvature for the following curves at (r, ):
(i) r  a cos n (ii) r 2 cos 2  a 2 (iii) r m  a m sin m
9. Find the radius of curvature for the following curves at (p, r):
r4
(i) the cardioid 2ap 2  r 3 (ii) p 2 
r 2  a2
10. Find the radius of curvature for the following curves at  p,   :

m m
 m 
(i) the circle p  a 1  sin   (ii) p m1  a m 1 sin  
 m 1 
r 2  a2 a
11. Show that the radius of curvature for the curve    cos 1 is
a r
r 2  a2 .
12. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve r2 = a2 cos 2 at the point
2a
where the tangent is parallel to x-axis is .
3
13. Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the following curves:
(i) x3  y 2  2 x 2  6 y  0
(ii) y  x  x 2  2 xy  y 2
Self - Learning
100 Material
Curvature
(iii) a1 x  a2 y  b1 x 2  b2 xy  b3 y 2  c1 x3  ....  0
(iv) y 2  3 xy  4 x 2  5 x 3  x 4 y  y 5  0
(v) a  y 2  x 2   x3 NOTES
x2 y 2
14. Show that for the hyperbola   1, whose parametric equations are
a2 b2
x  a sec , y  b tan  , the centre of curvature at any point ‘  ’ is
 a 2  b2 a2  b2 
 sec3 ,  tan 3   and the equation of its evolute is
 a b 
  a 2  b2 
2/3
 ax    by 
2/3 2/3
.
15. Show that the chord of curvature parallel to y-axis for the catenary
x
y  c cosh is double the ordinate of the point and the chord of curvature
c
2x
parallel to x-axis is c sinh .
c
1. Find the nature of the origin on the curves given below:
(i) y 3  x3  ax 2
(ii) x 4  y 4  4 xy  0
(iii) x 4  ax 2 y  axy 2  a 2 y 2  0
(iv) a 2 y 2  a 2 x 2  4 x3
2. Determine the position and nature of double points on the curves given
below:
(i) ( x  2) 2  y ( y  1) 2
(ii) ( y  x) 2  x 6  0
(iii) x 4  4ax3  2ay 3  4a 2 x 2  3a 2 y 2  a 4  0
(iv) y ( y  6)  x 2 ( x  2)3  9
(v) x3  xy 2  y3  4 x 2  y 2  4 x  y  1  0
(vi) y 2  2 x sin x
3. Find the equations of the tangents at the multiple point of the
curve ( x  2) 2  y ( y  1) 2 .
Self - Learning
Material 101
Curvature
2 x
4. Prove that the curve y  bx tan has a conjugate point or a node at the
a
origin according as a and b have unlike or like signs.
NOTES 5. Discuss the convexity or concavity in the upward direction of the curve
y  e x (sin x  cos x) for 0  x  2 .
2
 x
6. Determine the intervals of x for which the curve y  x  4 x  5 e is 
(i) Concave Upwards
(ii) Concave Downwards
7. Find the points of inflexion for the following curve:
(i) x  (log y )3
x
(ii) y  c sin
a
(iii) 54 y  ( x  5)2 ( x3  10)
(iv) x  ( y  1)( y  2)( y  3)
8. Show that the abscissa of the points of inflexion of the curve y 2  f ( x) ,

satisfy the equation
 f ( x)2  2 f ( x) f ( x) .
9. Show that the points of inflexion of the curve y 2  ( x  a )2 ( x  b) lies on
the line 3x + a = 4b.
10. Show that the abscissa of the points of inflexion of the curve
a2  b2
x  a  b cos , y  a  b sin  is .
a
11. Trace the following curves in Cartesian co-ordinates:
(i) 9ay2 = x(x – 3a2)
(ii) a2y2 = x2(a2 – x2)
(iii) (a2 + x2)y = a2x
(iv) x2 = y2(x + a)3
(v) y2 = (x – 2)2(x – 5)
(vi) xy2 = 4a2 (2a – x)
(vii) x2 = (y – 1)(y – 2)(y – 3)
x2  1
(viii) y 
x2  1
Self - Learning
102 Material
(ix) y(x2 + 4a)2 = 8a3 Curvature
(x) (x2 – a2)(y2 – b2) = a2b2

(xi) y2(a + x) = x2(a – x) or x(x2 + y2) = a(x2 – y2)
(xii) x3 + y3 = 3axy NOTES
(xiii) x2y2 = a2 (y2 – x2)
(xiv) x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
(xv) y = x3 – x
x 1
(xvi) y 
x3
12. Trace the following curves in parametric form:
(i) x = a( – sin ), y = a(1 – cos )
3at 3at 2
(ii) x  ,y
1 t 3
1  t3
a (t  t 3 ) a (t  t 3 )
(iii) x  , y 
1 t4 1 t4
a (1  t 2 ) at (1  t 2 )
(iv) x  ,y
1 t 2
1 t2
a 2 t
(v) x  a cos t  log tan , y  a sin t
2 2
(vi) x = a[cos – log( 1+ cos )], y = a sin 
13. Trace the following curves in polar co-ordinates.
(i) r = a(1 + sin )
(ii) r = a(1 – cos )
(iii) r = 3(1 + cos )
(iv) r  = a
(v) r = a sin 2
(vi) r = a cos 3
a 2
(vii) r 
1  2
(viii) r2 cos  = a2 sin 3
(ix) r2 cos 2 = a2 or x2 – y2 = a2
(x) x5 + y5 = 5a2x2y [Hint: change equation into polar co-ordinates].

Self - Learning
Material 103
Curvature Murray, Daniel A. 1967. Introductory Course in Differential Equations. India:
Orient Longman.
NOTES
Hall.
and Sons.
Publishing House.
Self - Learning
104 Material
Integration of Transcendental
UNIT 3 INTEGRATION OF Functions, Reduction,

Quadrature and Rectification
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS, REDUCTION, NOTES
QUADRATURE AND
RECTIFICATION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Integration and Definite Integrals
3.3 Reduction Formula
3.3.2 Reduction Formulae for  tan x dx and  cot x dx

n n

3.4 Integration of Transcendental Functions
3.5 Quadrature
3.6 Rectification
3.8 Summary
3.9 Key Terms
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe
displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal
data. Integration is one of the two main operations of calculus, with its inverse
operation, differentiation, being the other.
A transcendental number is a number that is not the root of any integer
polynomial. Similarly, a transcendental function is a function that cannot be written
using roots and the arithmetic found in polynomials. Integration can be used to find
areas, volumes, central points, and the area under the curve of a function. Integration
means summation. Integral of a function y = f(x) under the limit a to b gives us the
area enclosed by the curve y = f(x) and the two coordinates x = a, and y = b.
Sometimes we have the integrand which is neither immediately integrable
nor reducible by substitution to any of the standard forms. But sometimes it is
possible to express the given integral in terms of another integral of similar but
simpler form which can be integrated. This is done by the method of integration by
parts or by connecting the integrals. Once the relation between the given integral
Self - Learning
Material 105
Integration of Transcendental and the simpler integral of the same type is established, the integration of the given
Functions, Reduction,
Quadrature and Rectification integral can be completed by repeated application of the already established relation.
A reduction formula for a given integral is an integral which is of the same
type as the given integral but of a lower degree or order. The reduction formula is
NOTES
used when the given integral cannot be evaluated otherwise. The repeated application
of the reduction formula helps us to evaluate the given integral.
Integration by reduction formula in integral calculus is a technique or
procedure of integration, in the form of a recurrence relation. It is used when an
expression containing an integer parameter, usually in the form of powers of
elementary functions, or products of transcendental functions and polynomials of
arbitrary degree, cannot be integrated directly.
In mathematics, quadrature is a historical term which means the process of
determining area. This term is still used nowadays in the context of differential
equations, where ‘solving an equation by quadrature’ means expressing its solution
in terms of integrals. The term rectification is s used to refer to the determination of
the length of a curve. Rectification also refers to the operation which converts the
midpoints of the edges of a regular polyhedron to the vertices of the related rectified
polyhedron.
In this unit, you will study about the integration of transcendental functions,
definite integrals, reduction formulae, quadrature, and rectification.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
 Define what integration is
 Understand the various methods of integration
 Explain about the definite integrals
 Discuss about the integration of transcendental functions
 Describe the significance of reduction formulae
 Elaborate on the quadrature process
 Understand the importance of rectification methods
3.2 INTEGRATION AND DEFINITE

INTEGRALS
In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe
displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal
data. Integration is one of the two main operations of calculus, with its inverse
operation, differentiation, being the other.
Sometimes we have the integrand which is neither immediately integrable
nor reducible by substitution to any of the standard forms. But sometimes it is
possible to express the given integral in terms of another integral of similar but
Self - Learning
106 Material
simpler form which can be integrated. This is done by the method of integration by Integration of Transcendental
parts or by connecting the integrals. Once the relation between the given integral Quadrature and Rectification
and the simpler integral of the same type is established, the integration of the given
integral can be completed by repeated application of the already established relation.
NOTES
Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points, and the area
under the curve of a function. Integration means summation. Integral of a function
y = f(x) under the limit a to b gives us the area enclosed by the curve y = f(x) and
the two coordinates x = a, and y = b.
To give a precise shape to the definition of integration, we observe. If g (x)
is a function of x such that,
d
g (x) = f (x)
dx
then we define integral of f (x) with respect to x, to be the function g (x). This is
put in the notational form as,
f ( x ) dx = g (x)
The function f (x) is called the Integrand. Presence of dx is there just to
remind us that integration is being done with respect to x.
For example, since d sin x = cos x
dx
cos x dx = sin x
We get many such results as a direct consequence of the definition of integra-
tion, and can treat them as ‘formulas’. A list of such standard results are given:
d
(1) 1 dx = x because (x) = 1
dx
xn 1 d xn 1
(2) x n dx = , (n  – 1) because = xn, n – 1
n 1 dx n 1
1 d 1
(3) dx = log x because (log x) =
x dx x
d
(4)  e x dx  e x because (ex) = ex
dx
d
(5) sin x dx = – cos x because (–cos x) = sin x
dx
d
(6) cos x dx = sin x because (sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(7) sec2 xdx = tan x because (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(8)  cosec 2 x dx = – cot x because (– cot x) = cosec2x
dx
d
(9) sec x tan x dx = sec x because (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
Self - Learning
Material 107
d
Functions, Reduction, (10)  cosec x cot x dx = – cosec x because (–cosec x) = cosec x cot x
Quadrature and Rectification dx
1 d 1
(11) dx = sin–1 x because (sin–1 x) =
NOTES 1 x 2 dx 1 x2
1 d 1
(12) dx = tan–1 x because (tan–1 x) =
1 x 2 dx 1 x2
1 d 1
(13) dx = sec–1 x because (sec–1 x) =
x x 2
1 dx x 1 x2
1 log (ax b) d log (ax b) 1
(14) dx = because =
ax b a dx a ax  b
(ax b)n 1
1
(15)  ( ax  b) n dx = . , (n  – 1)
n 1 a
d (ax b)n 1
because = (ax + b)n ,
dx a (n 1)
n–1
ax d x
(16)  a x dx = because a = ax log a
log a dx
One might wonder at this stage that since,
d
(sin x + 4) = cos x
dx
then by definition, why cos x dx is not (sin x + 4)? In fact, there is nothing very
sacred about number 4 and it could very well have been any constant. This sug-
gests perhaps a small alteration in the definition.
We now define integration as:
d
If, g(x) = f (x)
dx
Then, f ( x ) dx = g(x) + c
Where c is some constant, called the constant of integration. Obviously, c can
have any value and thus integral of a function is not unique! But we could say one
thing here, that any two integrals of the same function differ by a constant.
Since c could also have the value zero, g(x) is one of the values of f ( x)dx . By
convention, we will not write the constant of integration (although it is there), and
thus f ( x)dx = g(x), and our definition stands.
The above is also referred to as Indefinite Integral (indefinite, because we
are not really giving a definite value to the integral by not writing the constant of
integration). We will give the definition of a definite integral also.
Self - Learning
108 Material
Some Properties of Integration Integration of Transcendental
(i) Differentiation and integration cancel each other. Quadrature and Rectification
The result is clear by the definition of integration.

d NOTES
Let g(x) = f (x)
dx
then f ( x ) dx = g(x) [by definition]

d d
 f ( x) dx = [g(x)] = f (x)
dx dx
which proves the result.
(ii) For any constant a,  a f ( x) dx = a f (x) dx
d d
Since ( a  f ( x ) dx) = a  f ( x) dx
dx dx
= a f (x)
By definition,  a f ( x) d x = a  f ( x) dx
(iii) For any two functions f (x) and g(x),
[ f ( x) ± g(x)] dx =  f ( x) dx ±  g ( x) dx
d  d d
f ( x) dx  g ( x)dx  =
 
As
dx   dx  f ( x) dx  dx  g ( x) dx
= f (x) ± g(x)
It follows by definition that
 [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx =  f ( x) dx   g ( x)dx
This result could be extended to a finite number of functions, i.e., in general,
[ f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) ± . . . ± f n (x)]dx =  f1 ( x) dx   f2 ( x)dx ± ... ±
f n ( x ) dx
Let us now solve some problems to illustrate the use of these results.
Example 3.1: Find (2 x 3)2 dx.

Solution: We have
(2 x 3)2 dx = (4 x 2 9 – 12 x) dx
4 x 2 dx 9 dx – 12x dx`
=
= 4  x 2 dx  9  dx – 12  xdx
x3 12 x
= 4 + 9x –
3 2
4
= x3 – 6x2 + 9x
3
Self - Learning
Material 109
Functions, Reduction, Example 3.2: Find (2 x 1)1/ 3 dx.
(2 x 1)1/ 3 1 1
Solution: We have (2 x 1)1/ 3 dx =
1 2
1
3
NOTES
3
= (2x + 1)4/3
8
x3
Example 3.3: Solve dx.
x 1
Solution: By division, we note
x3 1
= (x2 – x + 1) –
x 1 x 1
x3 1
 (x
2
Thus dx =  x  1) dx – dx
x 1 x 1
2 1
= x dx xdx dx
x 1
dx
x3 x2
= + x – log (x + 1)
3 2
Example 3.4: Find 1 + cos 2x dx .
Solution: We observe
 1  cos 2x dx =  2 cos2 x dx  2  cos x dx
= 2 sin x
1
Example 3.5: Evaluate x dx
x
1 1
Solution: x dx = xdx dx
x x
x1/ 2 1 x 1/ 2 1
= –
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 3/ 2
= x – 2 x
3
Example 3.6: Evaluate
ax3 bx 2 cx d
(i) x dx (ii) sin 3 xdx
Solution: We have
ax3 bx 2 cx d d
(i) dx = ax 2 bx c dx
x x
= a  x 2 dx  b  x dx  c  dx  d  1 dx
x
3 2
x bx
=a + cx + d log x
3 2
Self - Learning
110 Material
(ii) We have Integration of Transcendental
1
sin 3 x dx =
4 
(3 sin x  sin 3x) dx Quadrature and Rectification
3 1
= sin x dx sin 3 x dx
4 4 NOTES
3 cos 3x
= cos x 9
4 12
1
= (cos 3 x 9 cos x )
12
1 d
Note: Note that as cos ax = – sin ax
a dx
cos ax
sin ax dx = –
a
sin ax ebx
Similarly, cos ax dx = and ebx dx = .
a b
Definite Integral
Suppose f (x) is a function such that,
f ( x ) dx = g(x)
b
The definite integral f ( x) dx is defined by
a
b b
f ( x) dx = g ( x) a = g(b) – g(a)
a
where a and b are two real numbers, and are called respectively, the lower and
the upper limits of the integral.

Example 3.7: Evaluate  02 cos x dx .
Solution: We know that cos x dx = sin x
 
Thus  0
2 cos x dx = sin x02 = sin
2
– sin 0
=1–0=1
b
Example 3.8: Evaluate 1 dx .
a
b b
Solution: We know that  1dx  x . Thus 1 dx = x a = b – a.
a
Note: It might be noticed that in case of a definite integral, there is no constant of
integration. Suppose
f ( x)dx = g(x) + c
b b
then ( f ( x ) dx ) = g ( x) c a
a
= [g(b) + c] – [g(a) + c]
= g(b) – g(a)
So when we talk of a definite integral, we note it has a unique definite value.
Self - Learning
Material 111
Integration of Transcendental Methods of Substitution
In this method, we express the given integral  f ( x) dx in terms of another integral
in which the independent variable x is changed to another variable t through some
NOTES suitable relation x =  (t).
Let I= f ( x ) dx
dI
= f (x)
dx
dI dI dx dx
 = . = f (x)
dt dx dt dt
dx
Thus I=  f ( x) dt . dt = f [φ (t )]  (t) dt
Note that we replace dx by '(t) dt, which we get from the relation
dx
=  (t) by assuming that dx and dt can be separated.
dt
In fact this is done only for convenience.
The following example will make the process clear.
Example 3.9: Integrate x(x2 + 1)3.
dx
Solution: Put x2 + 1 = t  2x =1
dt
Thus  2xdx = dt
1 3 1 3 1 t4 t4 ( x 2 1) 4
 x( x  1) dx =
2 3
t dt = t dt = = =
2 2 2 4 8 8
Example 3.10: Find e tan θ sec2  d

Solution: Put tan  = t, then sec2  d = dt
Thus e tan sec2 d =  et dt = et = etan
cos x
Example 3.11: Integrate .
1 sin 2 x
Solution: Put sin x = t, then cos x dx = dt
cos x dt
Thus 2
dx = 2
= tan–1 t = tan–1 (sin x).
1 sin x 1 t
4 x2
Example 3.12: Integrate .
1 x6
Solution: Put x3 = t then 3x2 dx = dt
Self - Learning
112 Material
4x2 4 dt 4 4 Functions, Reduction,
Thus dx =  = sin–1 t = sin–1 (x3). Quadrature and Rectification
1 x6 3 3 3
1  t2
f'(x) NOTES
To Evaluate  f (x) dx, where f(x) is the Derivative of f(x)
Put f (x) = t, then f (x)dx = dt
f '( x ) dt
Thus dx = = log t = log f (x)
f ( x) t
To Evaluate [ f ( x )]n f(x)dx, n  –1
Put f (x) = t, then f (x)dx = dt

tn 1 [ f ( x)]n 1
Thus  [ f ( x) n f ( x)dx  t dt =
n
=
n 1 n 1
To Evaluate
 f '(ax + b)dx
Put ax + b = t, then adx = dt
dt 1 f (t ) f (ax b)
 f (ax  b)dx =  f  (t ) a  a  f  (t ) dt =
a
=
a
Example 3.13: Evaluate (i)  tan xdx (ii)  sec xdx

sin x sec x tan x
Solution: (i) tan xdx = dx = dx = log sec x
cos x sec x
sec x (sec x tan x)

(ii)  sec xdx =
sec x tan x
dx = log (sec x + tan x)
Example 3.14: Find x x 2 1dx .

Solution: We have
1
1
x x2 1 dx = (2 x) ( x 2 1) 2 dx
2
1
1
1 ( x 2  1) 2
= 2 1
z [see 5.8]
1
2
1 2
= (x + 1)3/2
2
Example 3.15: Evaluate (i) cos x cos 2x dx
(ii) sin 4x cos 2x dx
Self - Learning
Material 113
1
Functions, Reduction, Solution: (i) cos x cos 2xdx = 2 cos x cos 2 x dx
Quadrature and Rectification 2
1
= (cos 3 x cos x) dx
2
NOTES 1 1 1 sin 3x 1
= cos 3 x dx cos x dx = sin x
2 2 2 3 2
(ii) We have
1
sin 4 x cos 2 x = 2 sin 4x cos 2x
2
1
= [sin (4x + 2x) + sin (4x – 2x)]
2
1
= [sin 6x + sin 2x]
2
Thus
1
2 
sin 4x cos 2 xdx (sin 6 x  sin 2 x)dx
=
1 1
=  sin 6 xdx +  sin 2xdx
2 2
cos 6 x cos 2 x
= –
12 4
1 cos 6 x
=– cos 2 x
4 3
Six Important Integrals

We will now evaluate the following six integrals:
1 1 1
(i)  a –x2 2
dx (ii)
a 2
x 2
dx (iii)
x 2
a2
dx
(iv) a2 x 2 dx (v) a2 x 2 dx (vi) x2 a 2 dx
1
(i) To evaluate dx
2
a x2
Put x = a sin , then dx = a cos  d
Thus
1 a cos θ dθ a cos θ
dx= = d
a2 x2 a2 a 2 sin 2 θ a cos θ
= 1. dθ = 
x
= sin–1
a
1
(ii) To evaluate dx
2
a x2
Self - Learning
114 Material
Put x = a sin h , then dx = a cos h d Integration of Transcendental
Thus Quadrature and Rectification
1 a cos h θ dθ a cos h θ
dx = = d NOTES
a 2
x 2
a 2 2
a sin h θ 2 a cos h θ
as cos h2  – sin h2  = 1
x
= d θ =  = sin h–1
a
1
(iii) To evaluate dx
2
x a2
Put x = a cos h  then dx = a sin h  d.

Thus
1 a sin h θ dθ a sin h
dx = = d = d
x 2
a 2 2
a sin h θ 2
a 2 a sin h
x
=  = cos h–1
a
(iv) To evaluate a2 x 2 dx
Put x = a sin , then dx = a cos  d

Thus
a2 x 2 dx = a2 a 2 sin 2 θ . a cos  d = a 2 cos2  d
= a2 1 cos 2θ
dθ
2
a2 sin 2θ
= θ
2 2
a2
= ( + sin  cos )
2
a2
= θ sin θ 1 sin 2 θ
2
a2 1 x x x2
= sin 1
2 a a a2
and hence
x 2 a2 x
a2 x 2 dx  a  x2 + sin–1
2 2 a
Self - Learning
Material 115
Functions, Reduction, (v) To evaluate a2 x 2 dx
Put x = a sin h  , then dx = a cos h  d
NOTES Thus
a2 x 2 dx = a2 x 2 sin h 2 θ . a cos h d
= a 2 cos h2  d
(cos h 2θ 1)
= a2 d
2
(As 2 cos h2 = 1 + cos h 2
a2 sin h 2θ
= θ
2 2
a2
= sin h  cos h    
2
(As sin h 2  = 2 sin h  cos h 
a2
= sin h θ 1 sin h2θ θ
2
a2 x x2 x
= 2  1  2  sin h1 
a a a
 
and hence
x a2 x
a2 x 2 dx = a2 x2 + sin h–1
2 2 a
(vi) To evaluate x2 a 2 dx
Put x = a cos h , then dx = a sin h  d

Thus
x2 a 2 dx = a 2 cos h2 θ a 2 a sin h  d
= a2 sin h 2 θ d θ
(cos h 2θ 1)
= a2 dθ
2
a2 sin h 2θ
= θ
2 2
a2
= (sin h  cos h  –  )
2
a2
= [ cos h 2θ 1 . cos h  – ]
2
Self - Learning
116 Material
a2  x2 x 1
 Functions, Reduction,
=   1.  cos h x / a  Quadrature and Rectification
2  a2 a 
 
and hence NOTES
2
x a
x2 a 2 dx = x2  a2 – cos h –1 x/a.
2 2
1
Example 3.16: Solve dx.
2
x x 1
Solution: We have
1 1
I= dx = dx
2 2
x x 1 1
2
3
x
2 2
Put x + 1 = t, then dx = dt
2
Thus
dt t
I= 2
= sin h–1
3 3/ 2
t2
2
(By the second integral evaluated above)

x 1/ 2 2x 1
= sin h–1 = sin h–1
3/ 2 3
The above result could, of course, be written directly without actually making
the substitution x + 12 = t by taking x as x + 12 in the formula.
Example 3.17: Evaluate  3x 2  x  2 dx.
x 2
Solution: 3x 2 x 2 dx = 3 x2 dx
3 3
2 x
= 3 x2 dx
3 3
2
2 1 1
= 3 x dx
3 36 6
2 2
5 1
= 3 x dx
6 6
Self - Learning
Material 117
Functions, Reduction,  5
2
1
Quadrature and Rectification x  1 2 2   x 
3 6 5 x  1   6  sin 1 6
=  2    
6  6 2 5/ 6 
 
NOTES  
1 25 6x 1
= (6x – 1) 3 x 2  x  2  3 sin–1 .
12 72 5
Integration by Parts
We will now learn a formula which will help us in finding the integral of a product
of two functions.
We know that if u and v are two functions of x
d dv du
then (uv) =u +v
dx dx dx
dv d du
 u = (uv) – v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x , we get
dv d du
u dx = (uv) dx – v dx
dx dx dx
dv du
or  u dx dx = uv – v.
dx
dx
dv
Put u = f (x), = g(x), then v = g ( x )dx
dx
The above reduces to
 f ( x) g ( x) dx = f (x)  g ( x) dx – [ f ' ( x) g ( x) dx] dx
where f(x) denotes the derivative of f (x). This is the required formula. In words,
integral of the product of two functions
= First function × Integral of the second – Integral of
(Differential of first × Integral of the second function).
It is clear from the formula that it is helpful only when we know (or can easily
evaluate) integral of at least one of the two given functions. The following ex-
amples will illustrate how to apply this rule.
Example 3.18: Find x 2 e x dx .
Solution: Taking x2 as the first function and ex as the second function, we note
x 2 e x dx = x2ex –  (2 x)e dx
x
= x2ex – 2 x e x dx
= x2ex – 2 xe x e x dx (Integrating by parts again)
= x2ex – 2 [ xe x e x ]
Note: If we had taken ex as the first function and x2 as the second function, we would not
Self - Learning
have got the answer.
118 Material
To Evaluate the Integrals Integration of Transcendental
Evaluate Quadrature and Rectification
(i) e x [f (x) + f (x)] dx

NOTES
ax
(ii) I1 = e sin (bx + c) dx
(iii) I2 = e ax cos (bx + c) dx
(i) Consider e x f (x) dx

Integration by parts yields
e x f (x) dx = f (x)ex – f '( x) e x dx
 e x f (x) dx + e x f (x) dx = f (x) ex
i.e., e x [f (x) + f (x)] dx = f (x) ex

(ii) Using integration by parts, we find
I1 = e ax sin (bx + c) dx
eax eax
= sin (bx + c) – . cos (bx + c). b dx
a a
eax b
= sin (bx + c) – I2
a a
Similarly,
I2 = e ax cos (bx + c) dx
eax e ax
=
a
cos (bx + c) –  a
sin (bx + c) bdx
eax b
= cos (bx + c) + I1.
a a
and thus
eax b eax b
I1 = sin (bx + c) – cos bx c I1
a a a a
b2 eax b
 1 I1 = sin (bx + c) – 2 eax cos (bx + c)
a2 a a
 a2  b2  ax  a sin(bx  c )  b cos (bx  c) 

  2  I1 = e  
 a2 
 a 

a sin (bx  c )  b cos (bx  c) 
 I1 = e ax sin (bx + c) dx = eax  2 2 
 a b 
Self - Learning
Material 119
Integration of Transcendental Similiarly,
 a cos(bx  c)  b sin (bx  c) 
I2 = eax  
 a 2  b2 
NOTES
The above two integrals could be put into another form by the substitution
a = r cos , b = r sin 
r cos θ. sin (bx c) r sin θ cos (bx c)

I1 = eax
a2 b2
r sin (bx c θ)
= eax 2 2
a b
sin (bx  c  tan 1 b/a )

 e ax sin (bx + c) dx = eax 2 2
(as r 2 = a2 + b2 and
a b
b
tan  = )
a
Similarly,
cos (bx  c  tan 1 b / a)

(iii) e ax cos (bx + c) dx = eax
a 2  b2
Example 3.19: Find e x [sin x + cos x] dx.
d
Solution: Since (sin x) = cos x
dx
e x (sin x + cos x) dx = ex sin x
xe x
Example 3.20: Find 2
dx
x 1
xe x 1 1
Solution: We have 2
dx = ex 2 dx
x 1 x 1 x 1
1 d  1  1
= ex. (as   =– )
x 1 dx  x  1  ( x 1) 2
Example 3.21: Evaluate e 2x cos (3x + 4) dx.

Solution: According to the formula,
cos(3 x  4)  tan 1 3
2x 2x 2
e cos (3x + 4) dx = e
13
Self - Learning
120 Material
Some More Examples Integration of Transcendental
We give below a few more examples, where both substitution and integration by Quadrature and Rectification
parts are used.
1 NOTES
e m tan x
Example 3.22: Find  (1  x 2 )3 / 2 dx
Solution: Put tan–1 x = t, then x = tan t

1
Also dx = dt and 1 + x2 = 1 + tan2 t = sec2 t
1 x2
Thus
1
e m tan x emt
 (1  x 2 )3 / 2 dx =
sec t
dt = e mt cos t dt
 1
cos  t  tan 1 
mt  m 
=e
1  m2
where t = tan–1 x
Example 3.23: Evaluate  x 2 sin 1 x dx .
Solution: We have, by integration by parts,
x3 x3 1
x 2 sin 1
xdx = (sin–1 x) – . dx
3 3 1 x2
x3 x3
= sin–1 x – 13 dx . . . .(1)
3 1 x2
x3
To evaluate dx , put 1 x2 = t
2
1 x
1 – x2 = t2
 –2x dx = 2t dt
 x dx = – t dt
Also x 2 = 1 – t2
x3 dx (1 t 2 ) tdt t3
Thus =– = (t 2 1) dt = –t
1 x2 t 3
(1 x 2 )3 / 2
= 1 x2
3
Hence the required value is [from Equation (1)]
x3 (1 x 2 )3 / 2
x 2 sin 1
xdx = sin–1 x – 1 1 x2
3 3 3
Self - Learning
Material 121
Integration of Transcendental Some More Methods
Quadrature and Rectification If the integrand consists of even powers of x only, then the substitution x2 = t, is
helpful while resolving into partial fractions.
NOTES Note: The substitution is not to be made in the integral.
x 2 dx
Example 3.24: Evaluate
(x2 1)(3 x 2 1)
x2
Solution: Put x2 = t in 2
(x 1)(3 x 2 1)
t A B
Then 
(t 1)(3t 1) t 1 3t 1
 t  A (3t + 1) + B (t + 1)
Putting t = – 1 and – 1 , we get
3
A = 1,B=–1
2 2
t 1 1
 = –
(t 1)(3t 1) 2(t 1) 2(3t 1)
Thus
x2 1 1
2 2
= 2
–
(x 1)(3 x 1) 2( x 1) 2(3x 2 1)
x2 dx dx
 dx = 1 – 1 2
(x 2
1)(3 x 2
1) 2 x 2
1 2 3x  1
dx
= 1 tan–1 x – 1  2
2 6 x 1
3
1 1 x
= 1 tan–1 x – . tan–1
2 6 1/ 3 1/ 3
x
= 1 tan–1 x – tan–1 ( x 3)
2 2 3
We give two more examples that would help us in solving many other prob-
lems.
x2 1
Example 3.25: Solve 4
dx
x 1
x2 1 1 1/ x 2
Solution: We have I= dx = dx
x4 1 x2 1/ x 2
1
Put x– =t
x
1
Then 1 dx = dt
x2
Self - Learning
122 Material
1 Integration of Transcendental
Also x2 + – 2 = t2 Functions, Reduction,
x2 Quadrature and Rectification
dt t t 1 1 1
So I = = tan–1 = tan–1 x
t2 2 2 2 2 2 x
NOTES
Substitution before Resolving into Partial Fractions
The integration process is sometimes greatly simplified by a substitution as is seen
in the following examples:
dx
Example 3.26: Solve
x( x 4 1)
Solution: Put x4 = t, then 4x3 dx = dt
dx x3 dx 1 dt
Thus dt = dt =
x( x 4
1) x (x 4 4
1) 4 t (t 1)
1 1 1
Now = –
t ( t  1) t 1 t
and hence the given integral

 1 1
= 1   dt = 14 [log (t – 1) – log t]
4  t  1 t 
t 1
= 14 log
t
4
x 1
= 14 log 4
x
π /4
Example 3.27: Solve tan x dx
0
Solution: Put tan x = t, then tan x = t2

and sec2 x dx = 2 t dt
2t 2t dt
 dx = dt =
1 tan 2 x 1 t4
Also when x = 0, t = tan 0 = 0
π π
when x = ,t= tan 1
4 4
Hence the given integral becomes
1 1
t.2t dt t2
=2
0 1 t4 01 t4
1
 2 t2  2 t  1 1 t 2  1
= 2 log 2  2 tan 1 
 8 t  2 t 1 4 t 2  0
Self - Learning
Material 123
Integration of Transcendental By integrating,
  2 2 2 2   2 2 
= 2  log  tan 1 0    log 1  tan 1  
  8 2 2 4   8 4 
NOTES
2 2 2 2
=2 log
8 2 2 4 2
2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
= log = log
4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
dx
Integrals of the Type , b2 + c2  0
a + b cos x + c sin x
x
The substitution tan = t, converts every rational function of sin x and cos x into
2
a rational function of t and we can then evaluate the integral by using the previous
methods.
π/2 π
dx dx
Example 3.28: Evaluate (i) (ii)
4 5 cos x 2 5 3 cos x
0 0
x x
Solution: (i) Put tan = t, then 1 sec2 dx = dt
2 2 2
2 dt 2 dt
 dx = 2
=
1 tan x / 2 1 t2
1 tan 2 x / 2 1 t2
Also as cos x = 2
=
1 tan x / 2 1 t2
the given integral reduces to
1 Note, when x = 0
2 dt
 2  5  5t 2  t tan 0 0
0 (1  t ) 4  When x π/2
 
 1  t 2 
t tan π/4 1
1 1
dt dt
=2 2 2
=2
0 4 4t 5 5t 0 9 t2
1
1 3 t
= 2. log
2 3 3 t 0
3 1 3
= 13 log 1
3 log
3 1 3
= 13 log 2
Self - Learning
124 Material
x x
(ii) Put tan = t, then 1 sec2 dx = dt Functions, Reduction,
2 2 2 Quadrature and Rectification
2 dt 2dt
 dx = =
1 2
tan x / 2 1 t2 NOTES
1 tan 2 x / 2 1 t2
Also as cos x = =
1 tan 2 x / 2 1 t2
the given integral reduces to
2 dt Note, when x 0, t tan 0 0

π
(1 t 2 ) When x π, t tan
0 (1 t 2 ) 5 3 2
1 t2
dt dt dt
=2 2 2
=2 2
= 2
0 5 5t 3 3t 0 2t 8 0 t 4
t
= 1
2
tan 1
= 12 tan–1  – 12 tan–1 0
2 0
π π
= 0
2 2
dx
Example 3.29: Evaluate .
3 2 cos 2 x
Solution: Put tan x = t, then sec2 x dx = dt

dx sec 2 x dx dt
Now 2
= 2
=
3 2 cos x 3 sec x 2 3(1 t 2 ) 2
dt dt
= 2
= 13  2 5
3t 5 t 
3
3 t 3
= 13 × tan–1
5 5
1 3
= tan–1 tan x
15 5
a cos x + b sin x
Integration of , (a2 + b2) (c2 + d2)  0
c cos x + d sin x
We determine two constants  and  such that,
a cos x + b sin x =  (–c sin x + d cos x) +  (c cos x + d sin x)
d
where – c sin x + d cos x = (c cos x + d sin x)
dx
Self - Learning
Material 125
Integration of Transcendental Comparing coefficients of cos x and sin x, we get
Quadrature and Rectification a = d + c
b = – c + d
NOTES ad bc ac bd
 = 2 2
,= 2
d c d c2
Hence
a cos x b sin x c sin x d cos x
dx =  dx μ 1. dx
c cos x d sin x c cos x d sin x
=  log (c cos x + d sin x) + x
a cos x + b sin x + c
Integration of
d cos x+ e sin x + f
In this case we determine three constants , , , such that a cos x+b sin x+c= 
(d cos x + e sin x + f) +  (–d sin x + e cos x) + v and proceed as in the earlier
case.
4 sin x + 2 cos x + 3
Example 3.30: Find dx
2 sin x + cos x + 3
Solution: We determine , ,  such that,

4 sin x + 2 cos x + 3 =  (2 sin x + cos x + 3) +  (2 cos x – sin x) + 
Comparing coefficients of sin x, cos x and the constant terms, we get
4 = 2 – ,
2=+2
3 = 3 + 
  = 2,  = 0,  = –3
Thus
4 sin x + 2 cos x + 3 = 2(2 sin x + cos x + 3) + 0 (2 cos x – 1) – 3
4 sin x  2 cos x  3 1
 dx= 2 1. dx 3 dx
2 sin x  cos x  3 2 sin x cos x 3
1
= 2x – 3 dx
2 sin x cos x 3
1
Example 3.31: To solve dx
2 sin x cos x 3
x 2 dt
Solution: We put tan = t, then dx =
2 1 t2
and the integral
2dt
=
2.2t 1 t2
(1 t 2 ) 2
3
t 1 1 t2
Self - Learning
126 Material
2 dt
= Functions, Reduction,
4t 1 t2 3 3t 2 Quadrature and Rectification
dt
=
t 2
2t 2 NOTES
dt
=
(t 1) 2 1
x
= tan–1 (t + 1) = tan–1 1 tan
2
Hence the required result is

x
2x – 3 tan–1 1 tan
2
Check Your Progress

1. Define the terms integration and integrand.
2. Integrate the following functions with respect to x:
1 1 ax3  bx
(a) (i) x
(ii) x 3/ 2 (iii) x (1  x ) (iv)
2
(b) (i) e2x (ii) e2x – 3 (iii) 1

ex
(c) Integrate the following functions:
sin 1 x
(i)
1  x2
cos (log x)
(ii)
x
1
(iii)
ex e x
3. Integrate the following functions:

1
1 1
(a) (i) (ii) 1  12 x  9 x 2 (iii)
x2  2x  2 2a  x 2 / 2
2
(b) (i) 2 x 2  3 x  4 (ii) 2  3x 2 (iii) 9  4x 2
3.3 REDUCTION FORMULA

A formula which connects an integral with another integral, having the same form
as the given integral but of lower degree or order and easier to integrate is called
a reduction formula.
A reduction formula is usually obtained by the method of integration by
parts and is used to integrate by successive reduction.
Self - Learning
Material 127
Functions, Reduction, Reduction Formulae for  sinn x dx And  cosn x dx
Let In =  sinn x dx.
NOTES For applying the method of integration by parts, we write
sinnx = sinn1x.sin x
 In =  sinn1 x sin x dx
d
= sinn1 x ( cos x)   sin n 1 x ( cos x )dx
dx
=  sinn1 x.cos x +  (n  1) sin x.cos x.cos x dx

n2
=  sin n 1 x.cos x  (n  1)  sin n  2 x.(1  sin 2 x ) dx
=  sin x.cos x  ( n  1)  sin xdx  (n  1)  sin x dx

n 1 n 2 n
=  sin n 1 x cos x  ( n  1)  sin n  2 xdx  (n  1)I n

By transposing the last term to the left, we get
nI n   sin n 1 x cos x  (n  1)  sin n 2 xdx
sin n 1 x.cos x (n  1)
Hence,  sin xdx     sin n  2 xdx
n
…(1)
n n
which is the required reduction formula.
If In =  sinn x dx, then In 2 =  sinn2 x dx
 Equation (1) can also be written as
sin n 1 x cos x (n  1)
In    In2
n n
Similarly, we can get the reduction formula for  cos xdx as

n
cos n 1 x sin x (n  1)
 cos xdx    cos n  2 xdx
n
… (2)
n n
/ 2 / 2
To evaluate 0 sin n xdx and 
0
cos n xdx where ‘n’ is a natural number..
From the reduction formula of  sin n xdx , we have
 sin xdx   
n 
sin n  2 xdx
n
Self - Learning
n
128 Material
/ 2 Integration of Transcendental
/2  sin n 1 x.cos x  ( n  1)  / 2 n  2 Functions, Reduction,
 sin xdx    
n 0
n
  sin xdx Quadrature and Rectification
0
 n 0
(n  1)  / 2 n  2
n 0
sin xdx NOTES
By writing n  2, n  4, …, etc., for n in it, we get
/2  n  3  / 2 sin n4 xdx
0
 n  2  0
sin n  2 xdx 
/2  n  5  / 2 n6
0 sin xdx   n  4  0 sin xdx , etc.
n4
/2  n  1 .  n  3 .  n  5  / 2 sin n 6 xdx  ...

 0 sin xdx 
 n  2   n  4  0
n
n … (3)
Case I: When n is an Even Positive Integer

Since, in Equation (3) the power is being reduced by two, at each step of reduction,
finally we shall get an integrand in which power of sin x is 0.
/2  n  1 .  n  3 .  n  5 ..... 1  / 2 sin 0 xdx
 0
sin n xdx 
n  n  2   n  4  2 0
 n  1 .  n  3 .  n  5 ..... 1 x  / 2
  
n  n  2  n  4 2 0
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 1 
Hence,  0
sin n dx  . . .... .
n  n  2  n  4 2 2
… (A)
Case II: When n is an Odd Positive Integer

In this case, we shall get an integrand in which power of sin x is 1.
/2  n  1 .  n  3 .  n  5 ..... 2  / 2 sin xdx
 0
sin n xdx 
n  n  2   n  4  3 0
 n  1  n  3  n  5  2
.....   cos x 0
/ 2
 . .
n  n  2  n  4 3
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 2
Hence,  0
sin n dx  . . ....
n  n  2  n  4 3
… (B)
The above formulae (A) and (B) are called Walli’s formula.
/2
Similarly, we can get the Walli’s formula for 
0
cos n dx as
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 1 
0
cos n dx  . . .... .
n  n  2  n  4 2 2 … (C)
Self - Learning
Material 129
Integration of Transcendental when n is even.
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 2
And, 0
cos n dx  . . ....
n  n  2  n  4 3
… (D)
NOTES
when n is odd.
/2
Example 3.32: Evaluate  0
sin 6 d 
/2 5.3.1  5
Solution:  0
sin 6 d  = .  
6.4.2 2 32
/4
Example 3.33: Evaluate  (cos 2)3/ 2 cos  d  .
0
/4 /4
Solution:  (cos 2)3/ 2 cos  d  =  (1  2sin 2 )3/ 2 cos  d 
0 0
1
Now putting 2 sin   sin t so that cos  d   cot t dt
2
 
and when  = 0, then t = 0, when  = , then sin t = 2 sin 1
4 4

 t
2
/4 3/ 2 /4 1
0
(cos 2) cos  d   
0
(1  sin 2 t )3/ 2
2
cos t dt
1 / 2 4 1 3 1  
 
2 0
cos t dt  . . . 
2 4 2 2 16 2
3.3.2 Reduction Formulae for  tann x dx and  cotn x dx

Reduction formula for  tan n xdx , where ‘n’ is a positive integer
 tan
n
xdx = tann  2 x. tan2x dx
=  tann  2 x. (sec2x  1) dx
=  tann  2 x. sec2x dx   tann  2 x dx
1
= tan n 1 x   tan n  2 xdx
n 1
Therefore, If In =  tan xdx ,

n
1
then, I n = tan n 1 x  In–2
n 1
Self - Learning
130 Material
1
Similarly  cot x dx =n cot n 1 x  In–2 Functions, Reduction,
n 1 Quadrature and Rectification
Reduction Formulae for  secn x dx and  cosecn x dx NOTES

Let In =  secn xdx .
For apply the method of integration by parts, we write
secnx = secn  2x.sec2 x
 In =  secn  2 x sec2 x dx
Integration by parts, we get
secn  2 x tan x  (n  2)  tan x sec n  2 x tan x dx
= secn  2 x tan x  (n  2)  sec n 2 x tan 2 x dx
= secn  2 x tan x  ( n  2)  secn  2 x(sec2 x  1) dx
= sec x tan x  (n  2)   sec xdx   sec xdx 

n2 n n2
= secn 2 x tan x  (n  2)( I n  I n  2 )
 {1  ( n  2)}I n  secn  2 x tan x  (n  2) I n 2
sec n  2 x tan x (n  2)
 I n   I n2
n 1 (n  1)
sec n  2 x tan x ( n  2)
Hence,  sec xdx    sec n  2 xdx
n
n 1 (n  1)
Which is the required reduction formula.
Similarly, we get the reduction formula for cosec n x as
cosecn  2 x cot x ( n  2)
 cosec xdx   
(n  1) 
cosecn  2 xdx
n
n 1
Reduction Formulae for sinm x cosn x dx

This integral can be connected with any one of the following six integrals depending
upon the sign of m and n in the integral to be connected:
 sin x cos n  2 xdx

m
(i)
 sin
m2
(ii) x cos n xdx
 sin
m 2
(iii) x cos n  2 xdx
 sin
m2
(iv) x cos n  2 xdx
Self - Learning
Material 131
 sin x cos n  2 xdx
m
Functions, Reduction, (v)
 sin
m 2
(vi) x cos n xdx
NOTES We shall take these cases one by one.
Case I: When Both m and n are Positive Integers.
Here, I m ,n   sin m x cos n x dx
  (sin m x cos x) cos n 1 x dx
sin m 1 x n 1

m 1
cos n 1 x 
m 1  sin m1 x cos n  2 x sin x dx
(integration by parts)
sin m 1 x n 1
m 1 
 cos n 1 x  sin m x cos n 2 x(1  cos 2 x) dx
m 1
sin m 1 x n 1

m 1
cos n 1 x 
m 1
 I m,n  2  Im ,n 
 n  1  sin m 1 x n 1
 I m ,n  1   cos n 1 x  I m, n  2
 m 1  m 1 m 1
 sin m 1 x cos n 1 x n  1
I m ,n 
mn

mn  sin m x cos n  2 x dx … (4)
Successive applications of this reduction formula will reduce the integral to

the form
 sin x dx or  sin m x cos x dx

m
according as n is an even or odd positive integer.

Similarly, we can reduce the power of sin x instead of that of cos x by the
formula
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x m  1
mn 
I m ,n    sin m  2 x cos n x dx …(5)
mn
Case II: When Either m or n is a Negative Integer.
In this case, let m be a negative integer.
 sin x cos n x dx =  (sin m x cos x ) cos n 1 x dx

m

1 n 1
m 1
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x 

m 1  sin m  2 x cos n 2 x dx … (6)
which enables us to bring the power of sin x nearer to zero. This formula is
useful when m is a negative integer and n is a positive integer.
Self - Learning
132 Material
Similarly, when m is a positive integer and n is a negative integer, we use Integration of Transcendental
sin m 1 x cos n1 x m  1
 sin x cos x dx =  n 1 
m n
 sin m 2 x cos n  2 xdx …(7)
n 1
NOTES
Case III: In Case I, if we Put n + 2 in Place of n
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x n 1
 sin x cos x dx = 
n2
m
 sin m x cos n x dx
mn2 mn2
On transposition and simplification, we get
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x m  n  2
 sin x cos x dx =   sin m x cos n  2 x dx
m n
…(8)
n 1 n 1
Similarly, we have
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x m  n  2
 sin x cos x dx = m 1 
m n
 sin m  2 x cos n x dx
m 1
...(9)
Note: The Case III is useful when either m or n or both are negative.
Method to connect  sin x cos x dx with any integral of the above type.
m n
Step I. Take P = sin + 1 x cos + 1 x

where  is smaller of the indices of sin x and  is smaller of the indices of
cos x in the two integral to be connected.
dP
Step II. Differentiate P with respect to x to get . Express it in terms of integrands
dx
of the two integrals to be connected.
Step III. Integrate both sides with respect to x and solve to get the value of the
given integral.
The Gamma function (n) can be evaluated by the following relations:
1
(1) = 1; (n + 1) = n(n);     
2
a
Example 3.34: Evaluate 0
x 4 (a 2  x 2 )5 / 2 dx .
Solution: Let x = a sin  so that dx = a cos  d

Now x = a sin  gives  = 0 when x = 0 and  = /2 when x = a.
a /2
 
0
x 4 (a 2  x 2 )5 / 2 dx  
0
a 4 sin 4 (a 2 cos2 )5/ 2 a cos d 
Self - Learning
Material 133
5 7
Functions, Reduction,   
2 2
 a10  sin 4  cos 6 d   a10    
Quadrature and Rectification / 2
0  12 
2  
NOTES  2
3 1 5 3 1
. .  . .  10  a10
10 2 2
a . 2 2 2 a . 
2.5.4.3.2.1 512 512
/2
Example 3.35: Evaluate 0 sin m x cos n x dx where m and n are positive integers
/2
and hence find 0
sin 5 x cos 4 x dx .
/2
Solution: I m, n   sin m x cos n xdx is connected with
0
/2
I m  2,n   sin m  2 x cos n xdx
0
Let P = sin m 1 x cos n 1 x

Differentiating with respect to x, we have
dP
  m  1 sin m  2 x.cos x.cos n 1 x  sin m 1 x.  n  1 cos n x   sin x 
dx
  m  1 sin m  2 x.cos n  2 x   n  1 sin m x.cos n x
  m  1 sin m 2 x.cos n x 1  sin 2 x    n  1 sin m x.cos n x
  m  1 sin m  2 x.cos n x   m  1 sin m x cos n x   n  1 sin m x.cos n x
  m  1 sin m  2 x.cos n x   m  n  sin m x.cos n x

Integrating both sides, we get
P =  m  1  sin m  2 x cos n x dx   m  n   sin m x.cos n x dx

sin m 1 x.cos n 1 x m  1
  sin m x cos n x dx     sin m  2 x cos n x dx
mn mn

Inserting the limits between 0 to , we
2
/2
/2 sin m 1 x cos n 1 x m  1  / 2 m2
have 0 sin x cos x dx    0 sin x cos x dx
m n n
mn 0
m  n
m 1
 I m,n  I m 2,n ...(i)
mn
Changing m to m – 2
m3
I m  2,n  I m  4,n ...(ii)
mn2
Self - Learning
134 Material
From Equations (i) and (ii), we get Integration of Transcendental
m 1 m  3 Quadrature and Rectification
I m, n  . .I m  4,n
mn mn2
Case I: When m is a +ve Odd Integer. NOTES
m 1 m  3 2
I m, n  . .... .I1, n
mn mn2 n3
/2
/ 2 cos n 1 x  1  1
But I1,n   sin x cos x dx  
n   0   
0 n 1 0  n  1 n  1
m 1 m  3 2 1
 I m, n  . .... .
m  n m  n  2 n  3 n 1
Case II: When Both m and n are +ve Even Integer.
m 1 m  3 1
I m, n  . .... I0, n
mn mn2 n2
/2
But I0, n   cos n x dx
0
n 1 n  3 1 
= .... . [ n is even]
n n2 2 2
m 1 m  3 1 n 1 n  3 1 
 I m,n  . .... . . .... .
mn mn2 n2 n n2 2 2
Case III: When Both m is a +ve Even Integer but n is a +ve Odd Integer.
m 1 m  3 1
I m, n  . .... .I 0,n
mn mn2 n2
/2 n 1 n  3 2
But I0,n  0 cos n x dx  .... [n is odd]
n n2 3
m 1 m  3 1 n 1 n  3 2
I m,n  . .... . . ....
mn mn2 n2 n n2 3
The value of given integral can be written by a simple rule as
 m  1  go on diminishing by 2   n  1  go on diminishing by2    
sin m x cos n x dx  
/2

0
 m  n   go on diminishing by 2
 
2
/2 4.2.3.1 8
 0
sin 5 x cos 4 x dx  
9.7.5.3 315

[We do not write as both m and n are not even].
2
Self - Learning
Material 135
Quadrature and Rectification Check Your Progress
4. Evaluate
NOTES /8 2  1 x3
(i)  cos3 4 xdx (ii) 0 sin 7 d  (iii) 0 dx
0 4 1  x2
d
5. Evaluate  1 .
sin 4 
2
6. Evaluate  tan 3 x dx .
tan n x dx , find (n  1)  I n  I n  2  .
/3
7. If I n  
0
 dx
8. Find the value of 0 (1  x 2 ) 4
.
3.4 INTEGRATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS
Let I m ,n   sin m x sin nx dx

Integrating by parts, taking sin nx as second function,
 cos nx  m
   (sin x cos x ) cos nx dx
m 1
I m ,n  sin m x  
 n  n
and integrating by taking cos nx as second function,
1
I m, n   sin m x cos nx
n
m  sin nx  1 
 (sin m1 x cos x )     (m  1) sin x cos x cos x  sin x sin x sin nx dx 
m2 m 1
n  n  n 
1
  sin m x cos nx
n
m 1 1 
  sin nx sin m 1 x cos x   (m  1) sin m  2 x (1  sin 2 x)  sin m x sin nx dx 
n n n 
1 m m( m  1) m2
  sin m x cos nx  2 sin nx sin m 1 x cos x  I m  2, n  Im,n
n n n2 n2
 m2  1 m m m 1 m(m  1)
 Im,n 1  2    sin x cos nx  2 sin nx sin x cos x  Im 2, n
 n  n n n2
n sin m x cos nx  m sin m1 x cos x sin nx m(m  1)

  sin m x sin nxdx 
m  n2 
 2 sin m  2 x sin nxdx
Self - Learning m2  n2
136 Material
Similarly, Integration of Transcendental
n sin m x sin nx  m sin n 1 x cos x cos nx m(m  1)
 sin x cos nxdx  
m  n2 
 2 sin m 2 x cos nxdx
m
m2  n2
Reduction Formulae for cosmx sin nx dx and cosmx cos nx dx NOTES
Proof: Let I m ,n   cos x sin nx dx ; now integrating by parts, we have

m
 1  m
I m ,n  cos m x   cos nx    cos m 1 x sin x cos nx dx
 n  n
Now sin (n  1)x = sin nx cos x  cos nx sin x
 cos nx sin x = sin nx cos x  sin(n  1)x
1 m
 I m ,n   cos x cos nx   cos x{sin nx cos x  sin(n  1) x}dx
m m 1
n n
1 m m
  cos m x cos nx   cos m x sin nxdx   cos m 1 x sin(n  1) xdx
n n n
1 m
  cos m x cos nx   I m, n  I m 1,n 1 
n n
 m 1 m
I m ,n 1     cos m x cos nx   Im 1,n 1 
 n n n
cos m x cos nx m
Hence,  cos m x sin nx dx  
mn
 cos m1 x sin(n  1) xdx .
mn
Similarly, we can prove that,
cos m x sin nx m
 cos x cos nx dx  
mn
cos m 1 x cos(n  1) xdx .
m
mn
/2
Example 3.36: If I m, n  0 cos m x sin nx dx; prove that
1 m
I m, n   I m 1, n 1 .
mn mn
Hence, evaluate I5,3 .
/2
Solution: I m, n  0 cos m x sin nx dx
/2
 cos nx / 2  cos nx
 cos m x.   m cos m 1 x   sin x  . dx
n 0
0 n
[Integrating by parts]
1 /2 m /2
 cos m x cos nx   cos m 1 x sin x cos nxdx
n 0 n 0
Self - Learning
Material 137
1 m /2
Functions, Reduction,  0  1  0 cos m 1 x  sin x cos nx  dx
Quadrature and Rectification n n
1 m  / 2 m 1
cos x  sin x cos nx  dx
n n 0
  ...(i)
NOTES
Now, sin  n  1 x  sin nx cos x  cos nx sin x
 sin x cos nx  sin nx cos x  sin  n  1 x
 From Equation (i), we get
1 m  / 2 m 1
cos x sin nx cos x  sin  n  1 x  dx
n n 0
Im,n  
1 m / 2 m m /2
   cos x sin nxdx   cos m 1 x sin  n  1 xdx
n n 0 n 0
1 m m
  Im ,n  I m 1, n 1
n n n
 m 1 m 1 m
 1   I m,n   I m 1,n 1  I m, n   I m 1,n 1 ... (ii)
 n n n mn mn
(ii) Putting m = 5, n = 3 in Equation (ii), we have
1 5
I5,3   I 4,2 … (iii)
8 8
Putting m = 4, n = 2 in Equation (ii), we have
1 4 1 2
I 4,2   I3,1   I3,1 ... (iv)
6 6 6 3
Putting m = 3, n = 1 in Equation (ii), we have
1 3 1 3 /2
I3,1   I 2,0    cos 2 x sin 0dx
4 4 4 4 0
1 3 /2 1 3 /2 1 3 1
   0 dx   c 0    c  c  
4 4 0 4 4 4 4 4
1 2 1 1
From Equation (iv), I 4,2   . 
6 3 4 3
1 5 1 8 1
From Equation (iii), I5,3   .  
8 8 3 24 3
Reduction Formulae for xnsin mx dx and xn cos mx dx
 cos mx  n 1  cos mx 
x sin mxdx  x n      nx  
n
 dx (Integrating by parts)
 m   m 
 cos mx  n n 1
m  m
 xn    x cos mxdx

1 n n  sin mx  n  2  sin mx  
 x cos mx   x n 1     (n  1) x   dx 
m m  m   m  
Self - Learning
138 Material
1 n  x n 1 n  1 n2 

  x n cos mx   sin mx  x sin mxdx  Quadrature and Rectification
m m m m 
1 n n n(n  1) n  2
x sin mxdx  x cos mx  2 x n1 sin mx 
m2 
n
 x sin mxdx NOTES
m m
which is the required reduction formula of the given integral. Its repeated
application reduces it to either x sin mx or sin mx according as n is even or odd.
Similarly,
x n sin mx nx n 1 cos mx n( n  1) n 2
 x cos mxdx   
m2 
n
x cos mxdx .
m m2
Reduction Formulae for x sinnx dx
Let I n   x sin n xdx   ( x sin n 1 x).sin xdx
 ( x sin n 1 x).( cos x)   1.sin n 1 x  (n  1) sin n  2 x cos x.x ( cos x )dx
  x cos x sin n 1 x   sin n 1 x.cos xdx  ( n  1)  x sin n  2 x cos 2 xdx

1
  x cos x sin n 1 x  sin n x  (n  1)  x sin n  2 x.(1  sin 2 x)dx
n
1
  x cos x sin n 1 x  sin n x  (n  1)I n  2  ( n  1)In
n
Hence by transposing the last term, we get
1
nI n   x cos x sin n 1 x  sin n x  (n  1) I n  2
n
1 1
  x sin xdx   x cos x sin x  2 sin x  ( n  1) I n  2
n n 1 n
n n
1 1
Similarly,  x cos xdx  x sin x cos n 1 x  2 cos n x  (n  1) I n  2
n
n n
/ 2
Example 3.37: If un   x n sin xdx , n > 1, then prove that
0
n 1

un  n(n  1)un  2  n  . Hence evaluate u5.
2
/ 2
Solution: Here, un   x n sin xdx
0
 / 2
  x n ( cos x )   nx n1 (  cos x)dx [Integrating by parts]
0 0
/2
  0  n  x n 1 cos xdx
0
Self - Learning
Material 139
 n  x n 1 (sin x)
/2 /2
Functions, Reduction,  n (n  1) x n  2 (sin x)dx
Quadrature and Rectification 0 0
   n 1     / 2 
 n     sin    ( n  1)  x n  2 (sin x) dx 
NOTES
  2   2   
0
n 1

 un  n    n( n  1)un  2
2
n 1

 un  n(n  1)un  2  n   … (i)
2
Putting n = 5, 3 respectively in Equation (i), we get
4

u5  5.4.u3  5   ...(ii)
2
2

u3  3.2.u1  3   ...(iii)
2
/2 /2 /2
Also, u1  0 x sin xdx  x   cos x  0  0 1.   cos x  dx
/2
 1  0   1
/2
0 cos x dx  sin x 0 ...(iv)
0
 32 
From Equations (iii) and (iv), 3  4  6 
u  ...(v)
 
From Equations (ii) and (v), we have
4
  3 2  54
u5  5    20.   6   15 2  120.
2
   4  16
Reduction Formula for xn eax dx

e ax e ax e ax n n 1 ax
 x e dx  x   nx n 1
a a

n ax n
dx = x n x e dx
a a
x n e ax n
Thus, if I n   x n eax , then I n   In 1
a a
Reduction Formulae for  eaxcosn bx dx and eax sinn bx dx
1 nb
e cos n bx dx  cos n bx e ax   e ax (cos n1 bx sin bx)dx
ax
a a
1 ax nb  n 1 1  b 
 e cos n bx  cos bx sin bx  eax    e ax ( n  1) cos n  2 bx sin 2 bx  cos n 1 bx cos bx dx 
a a  a  a 
1 ax nb  1 ax b 
 e cos n bx   e cos n 1 bx sin bx   e ax (n  1) cos n 2 bx(1  cos 2 bx)  cos n bx dx 
a a a a 
Self - Learning
140 Material
1 ax nb b2 n2b2
 e cos n bx  2 e ax cos n 1 bx sin bx  n( n  1) 2  e ax cos n 2 bxdx  2  e a x cos n bx dx Functions, Reduction,
a a a a Quadrature and Rectification
Transposing the last integral to the left, we have
 n 2b 2  ax 1 ax nb ax b 2 ax NOTES
 1  2   e cos bx dx  e cos bx  2 e cos bx sin bx  n(n  1) 2  e cos bx dx
n n n 1 n 2
 a  a a a
e ax cosn 1 bx(a cos bx  nb sin bx ) n(n  1)b 2 ax

 ecos bx dx  a  n2b2 
 2 e cos n  2 bx dx
ax n
a 2  n2 b2
Similarly
e ax sin n 1 bx (a sin bx  nb cos bx) n(n  1)b 2 ax n  2
e sin n bx dx 
a  n2b2 
 2
ax
e sin bx dx
a2  n2b2
Reduction Formulae for xn eaxcos bx dx and xneax sin bx dx

1 ax b
e cos bx dx  e cos bx   e ax sin bx dx
ax
a a
1 ax b 1 b 
 e cos bx   eax sin bx   e ax cos bx dx 
a a a a 
 b 2  ax 1 ax b ax
 1  a 2   e cos bx dx  a e cos bx  a 2 e sin bx
 
e ax
  e cos bx dx 
ax
 a cos bx  b sin bx 
a2  b2
1 ax b
e cos(bx  ), r  (a 2  b2 ),   tan 1 .
=
r a
Applying the above formula and integrating by parts, we have
x n ax n
 x e cos bx dx  e cos(bx  )   x n 1eax cos(bx  ) dx
n ax
r r
Similarly,
x n ax n
 x e sin bx dx  e sin(bx  )   x n 1e ax sin(bx   ) dx
n ax
r r
Example 3.38: Integrate by parts twice or otherwise, obtain a reduction formula
for

I m   e  x sin m x dx, where m > 2, in the form (1  m 2 )I m  m( m  1)I m  2 and
0
hence evaluate I4.


Solution: Here, I m   e  x sin m x dx,
0
= sin m x(e x 0   m sin m1 x cos x(e  x )dx ,

 
0
Self - Learning
Material 141
= 0 + m   sin x cos xe 0  0 (m  1) sin x cos x  sin x sin x (e )dx 
 
m 1 x m 2 2 m 1 x
  

= m {0}  (m  1) 0 sin x(1  sin x)e dx  0 sin xe dx 
m 2 2 x m x
 
NOTES
   

= m (m  1) 0 sin xe dx  ( m  1) 0 sin xe dx  0 sin xe dx 
m 2 x m x m x
 
= m[(m  1)I m  2  (m  1)I m  I m ]
= m(m  1)I m  2  {m(m  1)  m}I m
 [1  m(m  1)  m]I m  m(m  1)I m  2
 [1  m 2 ]I m  m( m  1)Im  2 .
This gives the reduction formula.
m(m  1)
To evaluate 2nd part, I m  Im2 …..(i)
1  m2
Putting m = 4, 2, successively in Equation (i), we get
4.3 4.3  2.1  24
I4  I2  I0  I4
(1  16) 17  5  85
24   x 0 24 24
 


x
 e sin x dx   e 
85 0 85 0 85
Reduction Formula for xm (log x)n dx
Integrating by parts on taking xm as second function, we have
x m 1 n(log x) n 1 x m 1
 x (log x) dx  (log x) 
m n n
. dx
m 1 x m 1
x m 1 (log x) n n
m 1 
  x m (log x) n1dx
(m  1)
This is the required reduction formula.
xm
Reduction Formula for  dx
(log x )n
n
xm m 1 (log x )
 (log x)n dx   x x
dx
x m 1 (log x)  n1 m (log x)

 n 1
   (m  1) x dx
n  1 n  1
x m 1 m 1 xm
(n  1)(log x) n 1 n  1  (log x) n 1
  dx
This is the required reduction formula.
Self - Learning
142 Material
1
Example 3.39: If I m  0 x n  log x  dx (n  0 and m is positive integer); prove
m
m
that Im   I m 1 and hence evaluate I3 .
n 1 NOTES
1
Solution: I m  0 x n  log x  dx
m
 log x 
1 m 1
x n 1 1 x 1
n
 log x   0
m
 .m dx [Integrating by
n 1 0
n 1 x
parts]
m 1 n
  0  0  x .  log x  dx
m 1
n 1 0
m
 Im   Im 1 … (i)
n 1
Putting m  3, 2,1 successively in Equation (i), we get
3
I3   I2 … (ii)
n 1
2
I2   I1 ... (iii)
n 1
1 1 1 n
n  1 0
I1   I0   x dx
n 1
1
1 x n 1   1  1  0    1

n 1 n 1 0 n  1  n  1   n  1
2
1
 I1    n  12 ..(iv)
 3  2  1  6
From Equations (ii), (iii) and (iv), I3    n  1    n  1    (n  1) 2    n  1 4
   
cos nx
Reduction Formula for  dx
cos x
cos  n  2  x
Here the given integral is connected with the integral  cos x
dx in order to
get the reduction formula.

cos nx cos  n  2  x cos nx  cos  n  2  x
Now,  
cos x cos x cos x
2cos  nx  x  cos x
  2cos  n  1 x
cos x
By taking the integral of both sides, we get
cos nx cos  n  2  x
 dx   dx  2 cos  n  1 x dx
cos x cos x
Self - Learning
Material 143
sin  n  1 x cos  n  2  x
cos nx
  cos x
dx  2.
n 1

cos x
dx

NOTES sin nx
Note: The reduction formulae for  dx can also be obtained by the above
sin x
method.
Reduction Formula for  sin nx dx

cos x
sin nx sin  n  2  x sin nx  sin  n  2  x
Consider,  
cos x cos x cos x
sin nx sin  n  2  x 2sin  n  1 x cos x
  
cos x cos x cos x
sin nx sin  n  2  x
   2sin  n  1 x
cos x cos x
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
sin nx sin  n  2  x cos  n  1 x
 dx   dx  2 sin  n  1 x dx  2.
cos x cos x  n  1
sin nx 2 cos  n  1 x sin  n  2  x
  cos x
dx  
 n  1

cos x
dx

2cos  n  1 
Example 3.40: If un   cos n cos ec d , prove that un  un 2  .
n 1
cos n cos  n  2   cos n  cos  n  2  
Solution: Consider  
sin  sin  sin 
2sin  n  1  sin   

sin 
cos n cos  n  2  
   2 sin(n  1)
sin  sin 
cos n cos  n  2  
  sin  d    sin  d   2  sin  n  1  d 
cos n cos  n  2   cos  n  1 
  sin 
d  
sin 
d  2
n 1
2cos  n  1 
i.e., un  un 2 
n 1
Self - Learning
144 Material
Reduction Formula for  x m (a  bx n ) p dx Functions, Reduction,
x m  a  bx n  dx can be connected with any one of the following six integrals:

p

NOTES
x m  a  bx n  (ii)  x m  a  bx n 
p 1 p 1
(i)  dx dx
x m  n  a  bx n  dx x m  n  a  bx n 
p p 1
(iii)  (iv)  dx
x m  n  a  bx n  dx x m  n  a  bx n 
p p 1
(v)  (vi)  dx
We cannot connect the given integral to that in which the indices of
both  a  bx n  and x m are increased or decreased.
p
Method to connect  x m  a  bx n  dx with any integral of the above type
Step 1: Let P  x 1  a  bx n  , where  is smaller of the two indices of x and 

1
is smaller of the two indices of  a  bx n  .

dP
Step 2: After defining P, differentiate P with respect to x to get . Express it in
dx
terms of integrands of the two integrals to be connected.
Step 3: Integrate both sides with respect to x and solve to get the value of the
given integral.
Example 3.41: Prove that
dx x  2n  3 dx
  
2a 2  n  1 
a  2a  n  1  a  x 
2 n 1
a  x2 
2 n n 1
2
x 2 2 2
dx dx
Solution: Let us connect  a 2  x 2 n with 
  a  x2 
2 n 1
dx
  x 0  a 2  x 2  dx
n
Now 
a 2
x 
2 n
dx
  x0  a 2  x2 
 n 1
and  dx
a 2
x 
2 n 1
x
P  x  a2  x2 
 n 1
i.e.,  ...(i)
a  x2 
2 n 1
dP
  a2  x2   x   n  1  a 2  x 2  .2 x
 n 1 n

dx
1 x2
  2 1  n 
a  x2  a  x2 
2 n 1 2 n
Self - Learning
Material 145
1  a 2  x 2   a 2 
  2 1  n   
a  x2  a  x 
Quadrature and Rectification 2 n 1 2 2 n
1 2 1  n  2a 2 1  n 
NOTES   
a  x2  a  x2  a  x2 
2 n 1 2 n 1 2 n
dP 3  2n 2a 2 1  n 
 
 dx  a 2  x 2 n 1  a 2  x 2 n

1 1
P   3  2n   dx  2 a 2 1  n   dx
a  x 
2 n 1
 a  x2 
2 2 n
1 1
 2a 2 1  n   dx   P  (3  2n)  dx … (ii)
a 2
x 2 n
 a 2
x 
2 n 1
Using Equations (i) in (ii) and dividing by 2a 2 1  n  , we get
1 x  2n  3 1
 dx   
2a 2 1  n  
dx
a  x  2a 1  n   a  x 
2 n 1
 a  x2 
2 2 n 2 2 2 n 1
x  2n  3 1
2a 2  n  1 
=  dx
 n  1  a 
2 n 1
 a  x2 
n 1
2a 2 2
x 2
Check Your Progress
9. If un    log x  dx , find the value of un  n un 1 .

n
x m  a  bx n  dx with x m  a  bx n 
p p 1
10. Connect   dx
11. If I n   x (a  x) dx, prove that

n 1/ 2
(2n  3)In  2anI n 1  2 x n (a  x )3 / 2


12. If I n   x n sin(2 p  1) xdx , prove that
0
n 1
n(n  1) n 
In  I  (1) p
2 n2 2   , n and p being positive
(2 p  1) (2 p  1)  2 
integers.
Self - Learning
146 Material
3.5 QUADRATURE Functions, Reduction,
The process of determining the area of a plane region is known as quadrature.

NOTES
Area for Cartesian Curves
Theorem 3.1: The area of the region bounded by the curve y  f  x  , the x-axis
and the two ordinates x  a and x  b is given by the definite integral
b
A = a f  x  dx
where f(x)  0, on the interval [a, b]

Proof: Let f  x  be a continuous function of x in the domain (a, b). Suppose y
increases continuously as x increases from a to b and let AC, BD be the ordinates
x = a and x = b, respectively. Choose any points P (x, y) and Q  x  x, y  y  on
the curve and let PM and QN be their ordinates, respectively.
Draw PS  QS and PR  QN.
Then, OM  x, ON  x  x, MP  y , NQ  y  y
 MN  x and QR  y
If the areas CMPA and CNQA be denoted by S and S  S , respectively..
Then, S   S  S  S
= Area CNQA – Area CMPA = Area MNQP
Clearly, Area of rectangle MNQS > Area MNQP > Area of rectangle
MNRP
 yx  S   y  y  x
S
 y  y  y ... (10)
x
When Q  P, x  0 and y  0
dS
 y  f  x
dx
 dS  f  x  dx ...(11)
Integrating with respect to x between the limits a and b, we get
dS x b
dx   dS  Sx  a
b b
 f  x  dx  
x b
a a dx x  a
= (value of S at x = b) – (value of S at x = a)
= Area CDBA – 0
b
Hence, required area CDBA  a f  x  dx .
Self - Learning
Material 147
Functions, Reduction, Similarly, we can find the area of the region bounded by the curve x  f  y  ,
d
the axis of y and the two abscissae y = c and y = d is given by A =  f  y  dy.
c
NOTES
Example 3.42: Find the area between the curve x 2 y 2  a 2  y 2  x 2  and its
asymptote.
Solution: The equation of the curve is given by x 2 y 2  a 2  y 2  x 2  ... (i)

To trace the given curve, we observe:
1. The curve is symmetrical about both the axes.
2. The curve passes through the origin and the tangents at the origin are
given by y 2  x 2  0 or y   x, , which are real and distinct and so
the origin is a node.
3. The curve meets both x-axis and y-axis at the origin only.
Y
x=–a x=a
y=
–x x
y=
X
O
4. The curve has no other asymptotes except parallel to y-axis which

are given by a 2  x 2  0 or x   a .
5. The given curve can be rewritten as
a2 x2 a2 x2
y2  
 a 2  x 2   a  x  a  x  ... (ii)
L.H.S of Equation (ii) is always positive, thus its R.H.S must also be positive.
If x  a or x  a , than y 2 becomes negative. Thus, the curve does not lie beyond
the lines x   a. .
Also, when x increase from 0 to a, y increase from 0 to  .
x varies from 0 to a in first quadrant and the curve is symmetrical about
both the axes.
 Required area between the curve and its asymptotes
= 4 [Area of the curve in the first quadrant and its asymptote]
a ax
ydx  4 0
a
 4 dx
0 a2  x2
Put x  a sin  , so that dx  a cos  d 
Self - Learning
148 Material

Now for x = 0,   0 and for x  a,   Functions, Reduction,
2 Quadrature and Rectification
/ 2 a.a sin 
 Required area = 4 0 a cos 
.a cos  d 
NOTES
/2 / 2
= 4a 2 0 sin  d   4a 2  cos  0
= 4a 2  0  1  4a 2
Area between Two Curves
Let f and g be the two functions (Refer Figure 3.1) which are continuous on the
interval [a,b]. If f and g both are positive and f  x   g  x  for all values of x in
interval [a, b]. Then, the area between two graphs is given by
b b
A =  f  x  dx   g  x  dx
a a
b

a  f  x   g  x  dx
g f
c
O X
Fig. 3.1 Area of Boundary Curves
b

a
 yI  yII dx
Note: If the boundary curves are functions of y, then the required area is given by
d
the integral c  f  y   g  y dy .
Corollary: Now, we derive a formula for the regions where neither f nor g remains
positive and also neither function remains greater than the other (Refer Figure
3.2).
Y
f f
g
O a b X
g g
Fig. 3.2 Derivation of Formula for Regions Self - Learning

Material 149
Integration of Transcendental Y
F G F
G
NOTES G
F
O a a1 b1 b X
Fig. 3.3 Raising the Region by a fixed Number of Units
Raise the entire region by a fixed number of units so that both f and g
become positive (Refer Figure 3.3).
Now, the new boundaries become of the form
F(x) = f (x) + K
G(x) = g(x) + K
So, area of the first part is:
a1 a1 a1
  F  x   G  x   dx    f  x   g  x   dx   f  x   g  x  dx
a a a
Area of the second part is:

b1 b1 b1
  G  x   F  x   dx    g  x   f  x   dx   f  x   g  x  dx
a1 a1 a1
Area of the third part is:

b b b
  G  x   F  x   dx    g  x   f  x   dx   f  x   g  x  dx
b1 b1 b1
Thus, the total area:

a1 b1 b
 f  x   g  x  dx   f  x   g  x  dx   f  x   g  x  dx
a a1 b1
b
 Required area between the curves =  f  x   g  x  dx
a
Example 3.43: Find the area common to the parabola y 2  4ax and x 2  4ay.
Solution: The equations of the given parabolas are y 2  4ax ... (i)
and x 2  4ay ... (ii)
x2 = 4ay Y
y2 = 4ax
A(4a, 4a)
O X
Self - Learning
150 Material
Solve the Equations (i) and (ii) to get the values of x and y Integration of Transcendental
x4
 4ax  x  x3  64a3   0  x  0, x  4 a
16a 2
NOTES
and y  0 at x  0 and y  4a at x  4a
Thus, the points of intersection of two parabolas are (0, 0) and (4a, 4a).
 Required area (common to both the parabolas)
4a 4a  x2 
  yupper  ylower  dx    4 ax   dx
0 0
 4a 
[From Equations (i) and (ii)]
4a
 4 a 3/ 2 1 3 4 a 1 3
 4 a    4a    0
3/ 2
 x  x  
 3 12a  0  3 12a 
32a 2 16a 2 16a 2

  
3 3 3
Area for Parametric Curves

If the functions  ,  have continuous derivatives, then the area bounded by the
curves x    t  , y    t  , the x-axis and the ordinates of the points where
t  a , t  b is
b dx
a
y
dt
dt
The area bounded by the curves x    t  , y    t  , the y-axis and the

d dy
abscissae at the point when t  c, t  d is c x dt .
dt
Example 3.44: Find the area of the curve x  a cos3 t , y  b sin 3 t .
Solution: The equations of the given curve are x  a cos3 t , y  b sin 3 t

Y
B t=
t=0
O A X
The curve is symmetrical about both the axes.

Also, x  a cos3 t  x  a
and y  b sin 3 t  y  b Self - Learning

Material 151
So the curve lies within the rectangle bounded by x   a and y  b .

Also in the first quadrant t varies from 0 to
2
NOTES
 Required Area = 4  [area OAB]
/ 2  dx 
 4 y   dt
0
 dt 
/2
 4 b sin 3 t 3a cos 2 t   sin t  dt
0
/2
 12ab  sin 4 t cos 2 tdt
0
3.1.1  3
 12ab. .  ab (Numerically).
6.4.2 2 8
Area for Polar Curves (Sectorial Area)

Theorem 3.2: Let f() be a continuous function for every value of  in the domain
(,), then the area of the section bounded by the curve r = f() and the two radii
1  2
2 
vectors  = ,  =  ( < ) is equal to r d .
Proof: As shown in the Figure 3.4, let OC and OD be the two radii vectors  =
,  =  (<), respectively. Let P(r,) and Q(r  r ,   ) be two
neighbouring points on the curve. By taking O as the centre, draw two circular
arcs PR and QS with radii OP and OQ, respectively. Then PR = r and QS = (r
+ r) .
D
R
Q
S
P
r
C
O
A
Fig. 3.4 Determining the Area of Polar Curves
1 1
 Sectorial area OPR  r.r   r 2 
2 2
1
and sectorial area OSQ  (r  r )(r  r )
2
1
 (r  r ) 2  .
2
Self - Learning
152 Material
Let A and A + A denote the area of sectors OCP and OCQ respectively, Integration of Transcendental
then A = Area OCQ  Area OCP Quadrature and Rectification
= Area OPQ
Also, the area OPQ lies between the areas OSQ and OPR NOTES
1 1
 (r  r ) 2   A  r 2 
2 2
(r  r ) 2 A r 2
   … (12)
2  2
Since, f() is a continuous function so, as   0 and r  0
dA r 2
 
d 2
1 2
 r d   dA .
2
On integrating both sides between the limits  = ,  = , we get
1  2  dA

2 
r d  
 d
d   [A]

= (Value of A when  = )  (Value of A when  = )

= Area of OCD
1  2
2 
Hence, sectorial area OCD = r d .
Note: The following points should be remembered while doing the problems for
polar curves:
1. It is easy to transform a cartesian equation to polar form than to solve
for y in some cases.
2. To obtain the limits of integration for a loop, find two successive values
of  for which r = 0.
3. If the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis only, evaluate the integral
from 0 to  and multiply the result by 2.
4. If the curve is symmetrical about both the axes, evaluate the integral

from 0 to and multiply the result by 4.
2
5. If n is odd, the curve r  a cos n or r  a sin n have n equal loops
and if n is even the curve have 2n equal loops.
Example 3.45: Find the area of one loop of the curve r = a sin 3.
Self - Learning
Material 153
Integration of Transcendental Solution: The equation of the given curve is
Y
NOTES
O X
r = a sin 3
By comparing it with r = a sin n, we get n = 3, which is odd.
So, the curve has 3 equal loops.

Put r = 0, so 3 = 0, i.e.,  = 0,
3
1
Thus, there is a loop between  = 0 and  = 
3
Hence, the area of the loop lying in the positive quadrant
1 /3 2 1 /3 2 2
= 0 r d   0 a sin  d 
2 2
/3
a  1  cos 6
2
a 2  sin 6 
2 0
= d    
2 4  6  0
a 2    a 2
  
4  3  12
and Total Area of the Curve = 3  Area of One Loop
a 2 a 2
= 3  .
12 4
Area between Two Polar Curves
The area bounded by the curves r  f    , r  g    and the radii vectors
1
 2 r  r2 2  d  where r1 and r2 are the radii for the outer and

2
  ,    is  1
inner curves, respectively.

B
D
A
O X
Fig. 3.5 Area Between Two Curve
Let the curves AB and CD are two curves (Refer Figure 3.5) denoted
by r  f    and r  g    , respectively
Self - Learning
154 Material
OCA and ODB are the radii vectors for    and    . Functions, Reduction,
So, Area CABD = Area OAB – Area OCD
1
 1
 f     d     g     d 
2 2
  NOTES
 2  2
 1
 f       g      d 
2 2
 
 2  
1 2
 r1  r22  d 


 2
Example 3.46: Find the area common to the circle r = a and the cardioid
r  a 1  cos   .
Solution: The equations of the given curves are r  a ... (i)

and r  a 1  cos   ... (ii)
Solve Equations (i) and (ii) to get the points of intersection
a  a 1  cos    cos   0     
2

The two curves intersect at the points where    .
2
Required Area = 2 [Area OMNPQO]
= 2 [Area OMNPO + Area OPQO] ... (iii)
Y
P
N
Q
L X
O M
/2 1 2
Now, Area OMNPO  0 r d  for r  a
2
/2 1 2 a2
a d    0
/2

0 2 2
a 2    a 2
   ... (iv)
2 2 4
 1
Area OPQO   / 2 r d  for r  a 1  cos  
2
2
1 
 a 2  1  cos   d 
2
2 / 2
1
 a 2  1  2cos   cos 2   d 

2 /2
Self - Learning
Material 155
a2   1  cos 2 

2 
/2  1  2cos  
 2
d

a2  3 1 
NOTES

2 
/2   2cos   cos 2  d 
2 2 

a2 3 1 
  2   2 sin   4 sin 2
2   / 2
a 2  3  3  a
2
     2     3  8  ... (v)
2 2  4  8
Using the values from Equations (iv) and (v) in (iii), we get
 a 2 a2   5 
Required Area  2  4  8  3  8   a  4  2 
2
   
Check Your Progress

13. Trace the curve y (2a - x) = x3 and find the area between the curve and its
2
asymptote.
x2 y2
14. Find the area of the ellipse   1.
a2 b2
15. Find the area enclosed by the curve
x 2  4ay and y ( x 2  4a 2 )  8a 3
16. Find the area bounded by the cardioide r  a 1  cos   .
17. Find the area of the loop of the curve x5  y 5  5ax 2 y 2  0
18. Find the area of the region included between the cardioids r  a 1  cos  
and r  a 1  cos   .
3.6 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the process of finding out the length of an arc of a curve between two
distinct points (Refer Figure 3.6). Suppose f is a function, which is continuous on the
closed interval [x0, xn]. Then an arc from A  x0 , y0  to point B  xn , yn  has the length
L if L has the property: for   0 , there exists   0 , such that for every partition
A  P0 , P1 , P2 ,..., Pn 1 , Pn  B it is true that if    , then  Pi 1Pi  L   .
Self - Learning
156 Material
Y Integration of Transcendental
P2 Functions, Reduction,
P1 Pn – 1 Quadrature and Rectification
B = Pn
P3 P4 NOTES
A = P0
X
O
Fig. 3.6 Rectification
An arc is known as rectifiable if it has length.

Length of Cartesian Curves
Theorem 3.3: Let the Cartesian curve is given by y  f  x  , where f   x  exist

and is continuous on the interval  a, b  . Then, the length s of the arc is given by
2
b  dy 
s 1    dx
a  dx 
Y B
P
S
A
X
x=a x=b
Fig. 3.7 Length of the Cartesian Curve
Proof: Let us consider a curve y  f  x  with two points on it as A and B, as

shown in Figure 3.7. Let the abscissa of points A and B be a and b. Also let s be
the length of the curve from a fixed point A to a variable point P(x, y) on the curve.
2
ds  dy 
From differential calculus, we have  1  
dx  dx 
On integrating both sides with respect to x from x  a to x  b , we get
b 2
b ds  dy 
a dx
dx   1    dx
 dx 
a
2
b  dy 
  s xb   s x a  a 1    dx
 dx 
Self - Learning
Material 157
Integration of Transcendental Since, the length is being measured from fixed point A, so s for x = a is
Quadrature and Rectification zero, thus
2
b  dy 
NOTES
 (Arc AB) – (0) = a 1    dx
 dx 
2
b  dy 
Thus, arc AB = a 1    dx
 dx 
Note: The length of the curve x  f  y  where f   y  exists and is continuous on

2
d  dx 
the interval [c, d] is c 1    dy .
 dy 
Working Rule to Determine the Length of an Arc of Cartesian Curve

y  f  x
1. If the end points of the arc are given, then the limits of the integration are
known and there is no need to trace the curve. However, if the end points
are not given, trace the curve roughly and find the limits of integration.
dy
2. Express y in terms of x, and then find .
dx
2
b  dy 
3. Find the length of the required arc using a 1    dx , where a and b
 dx 
are the limits of integration obtained in the above step.
Example 3.47: Find the length of the arc of the parabola y 2  4ax from the
vertex to an extremity of the latus rectum.
Solution: Let the vertex be O and an extremity of the latus rectum of the given
parabola be L.
The equation of the parabola is y 2  4ax
Y
L(a, 2a)
X
O S
y2
 x
4a
On differentiating with respect to y, we get
dx 2 y y
 
dy 4a 2a
Self - Learning
158 Material
As y varies from 0 to 2a for the length of the arc from O (0, 0) to L  a, 2a  , Functions, Reduction,
2
2a  dx 
 Required length of the arc  0 1    dy
 dy  NOTES
2
2a  y 
 1    dy
0
 2a 
1 2a
 y   2a  dy
2a 0
2 2

2a
1 y 4a 2 y  y 2  4a 2 
  y 2  4a 2  log 
2a  2 2 2a  0

1  2a 2a  4 a 2  4 a 2 
  4a 2  4a 2  2a 2 log  0
2a  2 2a 
 a 2  a log 1  2    a  2  log
  2 1 
 
Example 3.48: Show that the length of the curve x 2  a 2  x 2   8a 2 y 2 is a 2 .
Y
(– a, 0) (a, 0)
X
A
O
Solution: The given equation of the curve is

8a 2 y 2  x 2  a 2  x 2  ...(i)
To find the limits of integration, we need to trace the curve roughly.
1. The curve has symmetry about both x-axis and y-axis.
2. The curve passes through the origin and the tangents at the origin are
1
given by y   x , which are real and distinct. Thus, the origin is a
2 2
node.
3. If y  0, then x  0,  a . Thus, the curve meets the x-axis at (0, 0), (a,
0) and (–a, 0).
If x  0, then y  0 . Thus, the curve meets the y-axis at the origin only..
4. There is no asymptote to the curve.
5 In the curve 8a 2 y 2  x 2  a 2  x 2  , L.H.S. is always positive which
means R.H.S. must also be positive, i.e,  a 2  x 2   0  x 2  a 2 Self - Learning
Material 159
Integration of Transcendental It is clear that –a  x  a and hence the whole curve lies between the lines
Quadrature and Rectification x   a and x  a .
The curve has two symmetrical loops as shown in the above Figure.
NOTES 1
From Equation (i), y x a2  x2
2
8a
Differentiating, we get
dy 1   2 x  
 x  a x 
2 2
dx 8a 2   2 a 2  x 2  
1  a2  2x2 
  
8a 2  a 2  x 2 
2
a  dy 
 Required Length = 4 (Arc OA)  4 0 1    dx
 dx 
a  2x2 
2 2
a
 4 1 dx
0
8a 2  a 2  x 2 
a 8a 4  8 a 2 x 2  a 4  4 x 4  4 a 2 x 2
 4 dx
0
8a 2  a 2  x 2 
4 a 9a 4  12a 2 x 2  4 x 4

8a 2
0 a2  x2
dx
4 a 3a 2  2 x 2

2a 2

0
a2  x2
dx
2 a 2a  x   a
2 2 2
a 0
 dx
a2  x2
2 a  a2 
   
2 2
 2 a x  dx
a 0
 a x 
2 2
a
2  a2  x2 a2 x x
 2 x  sin 1   a 2 sin 1
a  2 2 a  a
0
a
2 x
 x a 2  x 2  2a 2 sin 1
a a0
2 2 
 2a 2  sin 1 1  sin 1 0   .2a 2 .  a 2
a a 2
Self - Learning
160 Material
Length of Parametric Curves Integration of Transcendental
Y Quadrature and Rectification
t = t2
B
P
t = t1 S
A NOTES
X
O
Fig. 3.8 Length of Parametric Curve
Theorem 3.4: Let the parametric curve is given by x  f  t  and y  g  t  , where

f   t  and g   t  exists and are continuous on the interval t1 , t2  , as shown in
Figure 3.8. Then, the length s of the arc between the points where t  t1 to t  t2 is
given by
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
s      dt
t1  dt   dt 
Proof: Let AB represents the portion of the given parametric curve

x  f  t  and y  g  t  , for t1  t  t2 .
If the length of the arc AB, measured from the fixed point A to a variable
point P(t) on the given curve is taken as s, then from differential calculus, we have
2 2
ds  dx   dy 
    
dt  dt   dt 
On integrating both sides with respect to t from t  t1 to t  t2 , we get

2 2
t2 ds t2  dx   dy 
t1 dt
dt        dt
t1  dt   dt 
2 2
t  dx   dy 
  s xt 2   s x t 1  t12      dt
 dt   dt 
Since the length is being measured from a fixed point A, so s for x = t1 is
zero,
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
 (Arc AB) – (0) = t1      dt
 dt   dt 
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
Thus, arc AB = t1      dt
 dt   dt 
Self - Learning
Material 161
Integration of Transcendental Example 3.49: Find the length of the arc in the first quadrant of the curve
Quadrature and Rectification 2/3 2/3
x  y
     1.
a b
NOTES
2/3 2/3
x  y
Solution: The given equation of the curve is      1.
a   b
Y
O
X
A
Its parametric equations are x  a cos3 , y  b sin 3  . …(i)

It is clear from the parametric equations that x cannot be numerically greater
than a and y cannot be numerically greater than b.
To find the limits of integration, we need to trace the curve roughly.
1. The curve has symmetry about both x-axis and y-axis.
2. There is no value of  for which both x and y are zero. Thus, the
curve does not pass through the origin.
3. The curve meets the x-axis at   a, 0  and the y –axis at (0,  b)

4. If  = 0, then x = a, y = 0 and if   , then x = 0, y = b. So, when
2

 varies from 0 to in the first quadrant, x decreases from a to 0
2
and y increases from 0 to b.
dx
Differentiating Equation (i), with respect to  , we get  3a cos 2  sin 
d
dy
And  3b sin 2  cos 
d
 Required length of the arc in the first quadrant
2 2
/2  dx   dy 
     d
0
 d   d 
9sin 2  cos 2   a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2   d 

/2

0
a cos 2   b 2 sin 2  
/2 1/ 2
 3 2
sin  cos  d 
0
Self - Learning
162 Material
zdz
Put a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2   z 2 andsin  cos  d   Functions, Reduction,
b  a2  .
2

Also, when   0, z  a and when   , z b
2 NOTES
b zdz
 Length of the arc in the first quadrant  3a z.
b2  a2
3 b 3 z3
b
b 3
 a3 
 
2
z dz  
 b2  a 2  a b2  a2  3 a b 2
 a2 
 b  a   b2  ba  a 2  a 2  ab  b 2
 
 b  a  b  a  ab
Length of Polar Curves
Theorem 3.5: Let the polar curve is given by r  f    , where f    and f     are
continuous on a interval ,  . Then the length s of arc of the curve between the
2
  dr 
points for which    to    is given by s   r2    d
  d 
Proof: The given equation of the curve is r  f    .

We know that x  r cos  , y  r sin  …(13)
Differentiating with respect to  , we get
dx dr
  r sin   cos  …(14)
d d
dy dr
and  r cos   sin  …(15)
d d
Also, we know that the length s of the parametric curve from    to    is
given by
2 2
  dx   dy 
s      d
  d   d 
On substituting the values from Equations (14) and (15), we get
2 2
  dr   dr 
s     r sin   cos     r cos   sin   d 
 d  d
 
2
  dr 
On solving, we get s   r  
2
 d
 d 
which is the required equation for finding out the length of an arc of the polar
curve.
Self - Learning
Material 163
Functions, Reduction, Theorem 3.6: Let the equation of the curve is given by   f  r  . Then the length
s of arc between two points with radii vectors r1 and r2 is given by
2
NOTES r2  d 
s 1  r  dr .
r1  dr 
Proof: We know that the length s of arc of the curve between the points for which
2 2
 2  dr  r2 2  dr  d 
   to    is s   r    d   r1 r    dr
 d   d   dr
2 2
r2  d  r2  d 
 r 2    1 dr   1  r  dr
r1  dr  r1  dr 
Theorem 3.7: Let the equation of the curve is given by p = f(r). Then the length
s of the arc of the curve between the points r = a and r = b is given by
b r
s dr
a
r 2  p2
.
2
b  d 
Proof: The length s of the arc of the curve is s  a 1  r  dr
 dr 
d
Let r  tan 
dr
b b
 s 1  tan 2  dr  s   sec  dr …(16)
a a
p r
As p  r sin   sin    sec  
r r 2  p2
b r
On substituting the value of sec in Equation (16), we get s  a dr
r  p2
2
Example 3.50: Find the entire length of the cardioid r  a 1  cos   , and show

that the arc of the upper half is bisected by   .
3
Solution: The given equation of the curve is r  a 1  cos   .

O X
dr
 a sin 
d
Self - Learning
164 Material
 Length of whole arc = 2  Length of upper half Integration of Transcendental
2 Quadrature and Rectification
  dr 
 2 r    d
2
0
 d 
 NOTES
 2 a 2 1  cos    a 2 sin 2  d 
2
0

 2a  2 1  cos   d 
0

   
 4a  cos d   4a  2sin 
0 2  2 0
 8a 1  0   8a
Since the complete length of cardioid is 8a, thus the length of the upper half
is 4a.
2
 /3  dr 
The length s of arc from   0 to   is s   r2    d
3 0
 d 
/3 
 2a cos d 
0 2
/3

 2a 2sin
20
1  1
 4a   0   2a  ×Length of the upper half arc
 2  2

Thus, the length of the upper half arc is bisected at   .
3
Check Your Progress

19. Find the length of the arc x 2  y 2  2ax  0 in the first quadrant.
20. Find the length of the loop of the curve 3ay 2  x  x  a 2 .

21. Find the length of the arc of the curve x = e sin  , y = e sin  from

  0 to   .
2
22. Find the whole length of the asteroid x 2 / 3  y 2 / 3  a 2 / 3 .
23. Find the whole length of the curve r  a 1  cos   and show that the arc of
2
the upper half of the curve is bisected by   .
3
24. Find the length of arc of the equiangular spiral r  ae cot  between the points
for which the radii vectors are r1 and r2 .
Self - Learning
Material 165
Functions, Reduction, 3.7 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. To give a precise shape to the definition of integration, we observe. If g (x)
NOTES is a function of x such that,
d
g (x) = f (x)
dx
then we define integral of f (x) with respect to x, to be the function g (x).
This is put in the notational form as,
f ( x ) dx = g (x)
The function f (x) is called the Integrand. Presence of dx is there just to
2
2. (a) (i) 2 x (ii)
x
2 x3 / 2 2 x5 / 2 ax 4 bx 2
(iii) (iv) 
3 5 8 4
e2x e2 x 3
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) e x
2 2
(c) (i) 12 (sin 1 x)2 (ii) sin (log x) (iii) tan–1 ex
3x 2
3. (a) (i) sin h–1 (x + 1) (ii) 13 sin h–1
5
1 x
(iii) 2 sin
2a
1 41 4x 3
(b) (i) (4x – 3) 2 x2 3x 4 + 2 sin–1
41
8 32
x 3 x 3
(ii) 2 3x 2 sin–1
2 3 2
x 9 2x
(iii) 9 4 x2 sin 1
2 4 3
1 64 2
4. (i) (ii) (iii)
6 35 3
2 2    
5.  cos ec  cot    cot  
3    
Self - Learning
166 Material
tan 2 x Functions, Reduction,
6.  log sec x Quadrature and Rectification
2
 3
n1
7. NOTES
5
8.
32
9. x  log x n
x m 1  a  bx n 
p
pna
  x m  a  bx n  dx
p 1
10. 
m  1  pn m  1  pn
11. Here, connect  x n (a  x)3/ 2 dx with  x n 1 (a  x)1/ 2 dx .

Let P  x n 11 (a  x)1/ 21  x n (a  x)3 / 2
dP  3
  nx n 1 (a  x)3 / 2  x n    (a  x)1/ 2
dx  2
3
 nx n 1 (a  x)1/ 2 (a  x)  x n (a  x)1/ 2
2
3 n
 nax n 1 (a  x)1/ 2  nx n (a  x )1/ 2  x ( a  x )1/ 2
2
1
 nax n 1 (a  x)1/ 2  (2n  3) x n (a  x)1/ 2 .
2
This, on integration and transposition, gives
(2n  3)  x n (a  x)1/ 2 dx  2an  x n 1 (a  x)1/ 2 ax  2 P
 (2n  3) I n  2anI n1  2 x n (a  x )3/ 2


12. We have I n   x n sin(2 p  1) xdx
0
/2
 x n cos(2 p  1) x  n 
 
 (2 p  1)

0

(2 p  1) 0
x n 1 cos(2 p  1) xdx
n /2 n(n  1) 


(2 p  1)
 x n 1 sin(2 p  1) x 
2  0

(2 p  1) 2 0
x n  2 sin(2 p  1) xdx
n 1
n  n(n  1)
 In  (1) p    I n2
(2 p  1) 2
2 (2 p  1)2
n 1
n(n  1) n 
 In  I  (1) p
2 n2 2  
(2 p  1) (2 p  1)  2 
Self - Learning
Material 167
Integration of Transcendental 13. 3 a 2
Quadrature and Rectification 14. ab
2a 2
15. (3  2)
NOTES 3
3 2
16. a
2
5a 2
17.
2
a2
18.  3  8
2
19. a
4a
20.
3
21. 2  e  / 2  1
22. 6a
23. 8a
24.  r2  r1  sec 
3.8 SUMMARY
 An integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe
displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining
infinitesimal data.
 Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points, and the area
under the curve of a function.
 Integration means summation. Integral of a function y = f(x) under the limit
a to b gives us the area enclosed by the curve y = f(x) and the two
coordinates x = a, and y = b.
 To give a precise shape to the definition of integration, we observe, If g (x)
is a function of x such that,
d
g (x) = f (x)
dx
then we define integral of f (x) with respect to x, to be the function g (x).
This is put in the notational form as,
f ( x ) dx = g (x)
 The function f (x) is called the Integrand. Presence of dx is there just to
Self - Learning
168 Material
 Define integration as: Integration of Transcendental
d Quadrature and Rectification
If, g(x) = f (x)
dx
then, f ( x ) dx = g(x) + c NOTES

where c is some constant, called the constant of integration. Obviously.
 The c can have any value and thus integral of a function is not unique! But
we could say one thing here, that any two integrals of the same function
differ by a constant.
 Differentiation and integration cancel each other.
 For any constant a,  a f ( x) dx = a f (x) dx
 For any two functions f (x) and g(x),
[ f ( x) ± g(x)] dx =  f ( x) dx ±  g ( x) dx
b
 The definite integral f ( x) dx is defined by
a
b b
f ( x) dx = g ( x) a = g(b) – g(a)
a
where a and b are two real numbers, and are called respectively, the lower
and the upper limits of the integral.
 If u and v are two functions of x
d dv du
then (uv) =u +v
dx dx dx
dv d du
 u = (uv) – v
dx dx dx
 Integral of the product of two functions
= First function × Integral of the second – Integral of
(Differential of first × Integral of the second function).
 If the integrand consists of even powers of x only, then the substitution
x2 = t, is helpful while resolving into partial fractions.
x
 The substitution tan = t, converts every rational function of sin x and
2
cos x into a rational function of t and we can then evaluate the integral.
 Reduction Formulae for  sinn x dx and  cosn x dx
 sin xdx   
n 
sin n  2 xdx
n
n
cos n 1 x sin x (n  1)
 cos xdx    cos n  2 xdx
n
n n
Self - Learning
Material 169
Integration of Transcendental  Walli’s Formula
Quadrature and Rectification When n is an even positive integer
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 1 
NOTES
0
sin n dx  . . .... .
n  n  2  n  4 2 2
When n is an odd positive integer
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 2
0
sin n dx  . . ....
n  n  2  n  4 3
When n is an even positive integer
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 1 
0
cos n dx  . . .... .
n  n  2  n  4 2 2
When n is an odd positive integer
/2 (n  1) (n  3) (n  5) 2
0
cos n dx  . . ....
n  n  2  n  4 3
 Reduction Formulae for  tann x dx and  cotn x dx
1
 tan xdx  tan n 1 x   tan n  2 xdx
n
n 1
1
 cot cot n 1 x   cot n  2 xdx
xdx  
n
n 1
 Reduction Formulae for  secn x dx and  cosecn x dx
sec n  2 x tan x ( n  2)
 sec xdx  n  1  (n  1)  sec xdx
n n2
cosecn  2 x cot x ( n  2)
 cosec xdx     cosecn  2 xdx
n
n 1 (n  1)
 Reduction Formulae for  sin x cosn x dx
m
sin m 1 x cos n 1 x n  1
 sin x cos x dx    sin m x cos n  2 x dx
m n
mn mn
 Reduction Formulae for  sin m x sin nx dx and  sin m x cos nx dx .
n sin m x cos nx  m sin m1 x cos x sin nx m(m  1)

 sin x sin nxdx  m  n2 
 2 sin m 2 x sin nxdx
m
m2  n 2
n sin m x sin nx  m sin n 1 x cos x cos nx m(m  1)

 sin x cos nxdx  
m  n2 
 2 sin m 2 x cos nxdx.
m
m2  n 2
 Reduction formulae for  cos m x sin nx dx,  cos m x cos nx dx .
cos m x cos nx m
 cos x sin nx dx     cos m 1 x sin(n  1) xdx .
m
mn mn
cos m x sin nx m
 cos x cos nx dx    cos m 1 x cos(n  1) xdx .
m
Self - Learning mn mn

170 Material
 Reduction formulae for  x n sin mxdx and  x n cos mxdx . Functions, Reduction,
1 n n n( n  1) n  2
x sin mxdx   x cos mx  2 x n 1 sin mx 
m2 
n
x sin mxdx
m m
x n sin mx nx n 1 cos mx n(n  1) n  2 NOTES
 x cos mxdx  m  m2  m2  x cos mxdx .
n
 Reduction formula for  x sin n xdx

1 1 (n  1)
 x sin xdx   x cos x sin n 1 x  2 sin n x 
n
In  2
n n n
 Reduction formula for  x n e ax dx
x n e ax n
I n   x n eax , then I n   In 1
a a
 Reduction formulae for  e ax cos n bx dx and  e ax sin n bx dx
e ax cos n 1 bx(a cos bx  nb sin bx ) n(n  1)b 2 ax
 e cos bx dx  a  n2b2 
 2 e cos n 2 bx dx
ax n
a 2  n2 b2
e ax sin n 1 bx( a sin bx  nb cos bx ) n(n  1)b 2 ax
 e sin bx dx  a  n2b2 
 2 e sin n  2 bx dx
ax n
a 2  n 2 b2
 Reduction formulae for  x n e ax cos bx dx
x n ax n
 x e cos bx dx  e cos(bx  )   x n 1e ax cos(bx  ) dx
n ax
r r
 Reduction formula for  x m (log x) n dx
x m 1 (log x) n n
m 1 
 x m
(log x ) dx  n
 x m (log x) n1dx
(m  1)
xm
 Reduction formula for  (log x) n dx
xm x m 1 m 1 xm
 (log x)n dx    
(n  1)(log x) n 1 n  1 (log x) n 1
dx
cos nx
 Reduction formula for  cos x dx
cos nx sin  n  1 x cos  n  2  x

 cos x
dx  2.
n 1

cos x
dx
 The process of determining the area of a plane region is known as quadrature.

 The area under a given curve can be calculated when the equation of the
curve is given in Cartesian, parametric or polar form.
 The area of the region bounded by the curve y  f  x  , the x-axis and the
two ordinates x  a and x  b is given by the definite integral
b
A = a f  x  dx
where f(x)  0, on the interval [a, b]. Self - Learning
Material 171
Functions, Reduction,  The area of the region bounded by the curve x  f  y  , the axis of y and
the two abscissae y = c and y = d is
d
NOTES A = c f  y  dy .
 If f and g are both continuous on the interval [a,b] and are positive and if
f  x   g  x  for all x in [a, b], then the area between the graphs is given by
b
A  a  yI  yII  dx.
where yI  f  x  is the upper curve and yII  g  x  is the lower curve.

 If the functions  ,  have continuous derivatives, then the area bounded by
the curves x    t  , y    t  , the x-axis and the ordinates of the points
b dx
where t  a, t  b is 
a
y
dt
dt .
 The area bounded by the curves x    t  , y    t  , the y-axis and the

d dy
abscissae at the point when t  c, t  d is c x dt .
dt
 If f() be a continuous function for every value of  in the domain (,),
then the area bounded by the curve r = f() and the radii vectors  = , 
1  2
2 
=  ( < ) is equal to r d .
 The area bounded by the curves r  f    , r  g    and the radii vectors

1
 2 r  r2 2  d  , where r1 and r2 are the radius for the

2
  ,    is  1
outer and inner curves, respectively.

 The Cartesian curve is y  f  x  , where f   x  exists and is continuous on
the interval  a, b  . Then the length s of the arc is given by
2
b  dy 
s 1    dx .
a  dx 
 The parametric curve is given by x  f  t  and y  g  t  , where
f   x  and g   x  exist and are continuous on the interval t1 , t2  . Then, the
length s of the arc between the points where t  t1 to t  t2 is given by
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
s      dt .
t1  dt   dt 
Self - Learning
172 Material
 The polar curve is given by r  f    , where f    and f     are continuous Functions, Reduction,
on an interval ,  . Then, the length s of arc of the curve between the
points for which    to    is given by
NOTES
2
  dr 
s r2    d .
  d 
 The equation of the curve is given by   f  r  . Then, the length s of arc

between two points with radii vectors r1 and r2 is given by
2
r2  d 
s 1  r  dr .
r1  dr 
 The equation of the curve is given by p = f(r). Then, the length s of the arc
of the curve between the points r = a and r = b is given by
b r
s dr
a
r 2  p2
.
3.9 KEY TERMS

 Integration: The process of computing an integral; the inverse of
differentiation.
 Integrand: A function to be integrated.
 Definite integral: Definite integral is an integral with two real numbers
which are the upper and lower limits of the integral.
 Reduction formula: It is a formula which connects an integral with another
integral, having the same form as the given integral but of lower degree or
order and is easier to integrate.
 Successive reduction: It is a method in which you obtain the value of the
given integral in terms of another integral in which the integral is of lower
degree.
 Rectification: It is the process of finding out the length of an arc of a curve
between two distinct points.
 Quadrature: It is the process of determining the area of a plane region.

EXERCISES
1. What is integration? Explain with the help of an example.
2. Write any five formulas obtained as a result of direct consequence of inte-
gration.
Self - Learning
Material 173
Integration of Transcendental 3. What is the significance of dx in integration?
Quadrature and Rectification 4. What do you mean by integration by parts?
5. How is the integration of algebraic functions done?
NOTES 6. What do you mean by integration of irrational functions?
xn x9 / 2  1  cos x

a 2a
7. Evaluate (i) 0 dx (ii)  dx (iii) sin 4 x. dx
1  cos x 
0 2
ax  x 2 0
2a  x
/2 n 1 1
8. If I n  0 x cos n x dx , prove that I n  In 2  2 .
n n
/4
9. If I n  0 tan n d , where n is a positive integer; prove that
n(In 1  I n 1 )  1
/4 1
10. Prove that 0
sec3 xdx 
2
2  log(1  2)  .
11. Prove that

/2 8 /2   5
 sin 5 x cos 6 x dx  (ii) 0 sin cos d  
6 8
(i) 0 693 2 2 211
 m(m  1)  m 2
12. Show that 0 sin x sin nxdx 
m 2  n 2 0
m
sin x sin nxdx .

13. If f (m, n)   cos m x cos nxdx , show
0
m(m  1)
that f (m, n)  f (m  2; n)
m2  n 2
14. Obtain a reduction formula for  x n cos xdx and hence evaluate  x3 cos xdx .
 ex 1 
15. Find the length of the arc of the curve y  log  x  from x  1 to x  2 .
 e 1
16. Find the length of the curve 3ay 2  2 x3 from  0,0  to  x, y  .
17. Find the whole length of the loop of the curve 3ay 2  x 2  a  x  .
18. Find the length of the boundary of the region enclosed by the curve y = x2
+ 1 and the lines y = x, x = 0 and y = 2.
19. Find the length of an arc of parabola x 2  4ay :
(i) from the vertex to an extremity of the latus rectum.
(ii) cut off by latus rectum.
20. Find the length of the complete cycloid given by
Self - Learning x  a    sin   , y  a 1  cos   .
174 Material
21. Rectify the cycloid x  a    sin   , y  a 1  cos   . Functions, Reduction,
3
22. Show that the length of an arc of the curve x  a 3sin   sin  and  
y  a cos3  , measured from  0,a  to any point NOTES
3a
 x, y  is 2    sin  cos   .
23. Show that the length of the arc of the curve x  a sin 2 1  cos 2 
and y  a cos 2 1  cos 2  measured from the origin to any point (x, y) is
4a
sin 3 .
3
24. Show that the length of the cycloid x  a(  sin ), y  a(1  cos )
measured from the vertex to any point  x, y  is 8ay and hence find the
whole length of the curve.
1. Explain the properties of integration with the help of examples.
2. Define six important integrals and their results.
3. Describe the methods of integration.
4. What is a definite integral? Also define the properties of definite integrals.
5. Integrate the following functions with respect to x:
2
1 1 1
(a) (i) x– (ii) x 1 x 1
(iii) x 1 x 1
x
[Hint. Rationalize]
2 2 3
(b) (i) (sin x – cos x) (ii) sin x (iii) cos x
1 sin 2 x
(iv) 1 sin x (v) sin (4x + 3) (vi) sin x
1 1 x x4 x2 1 x 1
(c) (i) x 2 4 (ii) 1 x 2 (iii) 2 (iv) 2 3
2( x 1) x
2
3
x x2
(v)
x
6. Evaluate the following integrals:

π/2 π/4 3 3
1
(a) sin x dx (b) sin 2 x dx (c) dx (d) ( x 1) 2 dx
0
x
0 2 2
1
1 b
(e) 2 dx (f) x 2 dx
0
1 x a
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Material 175
Functions, Reduction, sin x
Quadrature and Rectification (g) (i) (ii) tan θ sec2  (iii) ecos x sin x
x
log x
NOTES (h) (i) sec x log (sec x + tan x) (ii) tan x (iii) (iv) tan2 x
x
e2 x
(i) (i) sin6 x cos x (ii) cos6 x sin x (iii) 4x
e 1
x2 1 x 2x 3
(j) (i) 6 (ii) 1 x
(iii) x 2 3x 7
1 x
[Hint. Put x = cos  ]
1
7. Evaluate 2
dx.
x 1 x2
8. Integrate the following:

1 1
(a) (i) cot x (ii) cosec x (iii) x log x (iv)
x(1 log x)
2x 3 x5 cos x
(b) (i) 2
(ii) (iii) (b  0)
x 3x 7 1 x 6 a b sin x
1
(sin x) 4
3 2
(c) (i) tan x  sec x (ii) x a 2
x 2 (iii)
1 x2
(iv) x4(1 + x5) 12
1 tan x 1 sec x cosec x

(d) (i) 1 tan x (ii) x x (iii)
log tan x
(e) (i) e x 1 sin x (ii) (ex + e–x) (ex – e–x)

(iii) ex(a + bex)n, (b  0)
(f) (i) cos3x (ii) sin3x (iii) sin 2x cos 3 x
(iv) 1 sin x (v) 1 cos x
x2 x3 1
(g) (i) (ii) (iii)
x2 1 x8 1 3
a2 x2
(h) (i) 3 2x x2 (ii) 3x2 5 (iii) x3 x8 16

(iv) cos x 4 sin 2 x [Put x4 = t]
x2 2x 3 5  2
x  1  sin h 1 x  .
9. Show that dx =
x2 1 2  
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176 Material
10. Evaluate the integrals: Integration of Transcendental
1
(i) e x log x dx (ii) e x [tan x sec 2 x]dx
x
NOTES
2
1 x 1 sin x cos x
(iii) ex dx (iv) ex dx
1 x2 cos 2 x
e mx
11. Find a reduction formula for  dx  n  0  .
xn
 a
12. Prove that (i) 0 e cos bx dx 
 ax
(a  0)
a  b2
2
 b
(ii)  0
e ax sin bx dx 
a  b2
2
(a  0) .
13. Obtain a reduction formula for  x m  log x  dx and hence show that
n
 1
n
n!
  log x 
n
x m
dx  , where m  0 and n is a positive integer..
 m  1
n 1
sin nx 2sin(n  1) x
14. If un   dx , prove that un   un  2
sin x n 1
/2 sin 7 x
Hence evaluate 0 dx .
sin x
2a  2m  1 2m  1 .....3.1 
15. Prove that  0
x m 2ax  x 2 dx  a m  2 .
 m  2  m  1 m.....2.1 , where m is
positive integer.
16. Obtain a reduction formula for   x 2  a 2 
n/2
dx and hence evaluate
 x  a2 
5/ 2
2
dx .
1
17. If I m,n  0 x m 1  x  dx , prove that  m  n  1 I m,n  n Im,n 1
n
1
 x 1  x 
4 3
Hence find the value of 0
dx
dx x 2n  3 dx
18. Show that  
 
x 2
 1
n
2  n  1  x 2  1
n 1
2  n  1  x 2  1n 1 .
xm
I m,n   dx
19. If
x  1 then prove that
2 n
2  n  1 I m, n   x m 1  x 2  1
  n 1
  m  1 I m  2, n 1
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Material 177
Functions, Reduction, 1  t2  2at
20. Find the whole area of the curve x  a  2 
, y .
1 t  1  t2

21. Show that the area of a loop of the curve r  3 cos 3  sin 3 is .
NOTES 3
22. Show that the area contained between the circle r = a and the curve
r  a cos 5 is equal to three-fourths of the area of the circle.
23. Find the area inside the circle r  sin  and outside the cardioid
r  1  cos   .
24. Find the area outside the circle r  2a cos  and inside the cardioid
r  a 1  cos   .

Orient Longman.
Hall.
and Sons.
Publishing House.
Self - Learning
178 Material
Differential Equations
UNIT 4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Structure NOTES
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Linear Differential Equations
4.3 Equations Reducible to the Linear Form
4.4 Exact Differential Equations
4.5 First Order Higher Degree Equations Solvable for x, y and p
4.6 Clairaut’s Equation
4.7 Singular Solutions
4.8 Orthogonal Trajectories
4.10 Summary
4.11 Key Terms
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, a Differential Equation (DE) is defined as an equation of the form
that interconnects certain function with its derivatives, where usually the function
represents the physical quantity while the derivatives denote their rates of change
and the relationship between the two is defined by the equation. Fundamentally,
the ‘solutions of differential equations’ are functions which precisely ‘represent the
relationship or correlation between a continuously varying or fluctuating quantity
and its rate of change’. A Differential Equation (DE) comprises of one or more
expressions including derivatives of one dependent variable ‘y’ with reference to
another independent variable ‘x’. An ordinary differential equation is a differential
equation that includes a function of a single variable and some of its derivatives.
Principally, a differential equation is an equation for a function that relates the
values of the function to the values of its derivatives. Therefore, a differential equation
is an equation between specified derivative on an unknown function, its values and
known quantities and functions or a Differential Equation (DE) is an equation that
comprises of a function and its derivatives. Differential equations are categorized
as Partial Differential Equations (PDE) or Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)
in accordance with whether or not they hold partial derivatives, while the order of
a differential equation is defined on the basis of the highest order derivative that
occurs in the equation.
Self - Learning
Material 179
Differential Equations In mathematics, a linear differential equation is a differential equation that is
defined by a linear polynomial in the unknown function and its derivatives, that is
an equation of the form,
NOTES a0 x y a1 x y a2 x y  an x y n b x 0
where a0(x), ..., an(x) and b(x) are arbitrary differentiable functions that do not
essential to be linear, and y, …, y (n) are considered as the successive derivatives
of an unknown function y of the variable x. A linear differential equation may also
be a Linear Partial Differential Equation (Linear PDE), if the unknown function
depends on several variables, and the derivatives that appear in the equation are
partial derivatives. If a linear differential equation or a system of linear equations
are such that the associated homogeneous equations have constant coefficients
then these may be solved by means of quadrature mathematics, i.e., the solutions
may be expressed in terms of integrals. This is also true for a linear equation of
order one with non-constant coefficients.
By a differential equation, you mean an equation which involves derivatives of a
dependent variable with respect to one or more independent variables. Some
dy d2y dy
examples of differential equations are  x  6 , 2
 5  8 y  0 and
dx dx dx
2 z 2 z
 2  x 2  y . Symbolically, a differential equation can be written
x 2
y
 dy d 2 y dny 
as f  x , y , , ,..., 
 dx dx 2 dx n  . There are two types of differential equations: ordinary
differential equations and partial differential equations. Ordinary differential
equations involve only one independent variable, while the partial differential
equations involve the partial derivatives with respect to two or more independent
variables. In this unit, you will learn about only ordinary differential equations,
including the necessary conditions for an ordinary differential equation to be exact.
The first order differential equations are used to formulate the problem of
finding the other parameter family of curves, which is orthogonal to the given
parameter family of curves.
In this unit, you will study about the linear differential equations and equations
reducible to the linear form, exact differential equations, first order higher degree
equations solvable for x, y and p, Clairaut’s equation and singular solutions,
geometrical meaning of a differential equation, and orthogonal trajectories.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
 Give the geometrical meaning of differential equations
 Know the necessary and sufficient condition required for an ordinary
differential equation to be exact, i.e., exact differential equations
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180 Material
 Find the solution of a given differential equation Differential Equations
 Elaborate on the linear differential equations and equations reducible to the

linear form
 Find integrating factor of an equation by inspection method and using various NOTES
rules
 Define differential equation of first order and higher degree
 Solve the first order higher degree differential equations solvable for x, y
and p
 Understand Clairaut’s equation and singular solutions
 Find the singular solution of a first order higher degree differential equation
 Define p-discriminant and c-discriminant forms
 Understand the meaning of trajectory and orthogonal trajectories
 Derive and apply differential equations of orthogonal trajectories in Cartesian
and polar co-ordinates
4.2 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In mathematics, a Differential Equation (DE) is defined as an equation of the
form that interconnects certain function with its derivatives, where usually the function
represents the physical quantity while the derivatives denote their rates of change
and the relationship between the two is defined by the equation. Fundamentally,
the ‘solutions of differential equations’ are functions which precisely ‘represent
the relationship or correlation between a continuously varying or fluctuating quantity
and its rate of change’.
A Differential Equation (DE) comprises of one or more expressions including
derivatives of one dependent variable ‘y’ with reference to another independent
variable ‘x’, such as
dy
2x
dx
An ordinary differential equation is a differential equation that includes a
function of a single variable and some of its derivatives, such as
dy
2x2 3x 5
dx
Principally, a differential equation is an equation for a function that relates
the values of the function to the values of its derivatives. Therefore, a differential
equation is an equation between specified derivative of an unknown function, its
values and known quantities and functions or a Differential Equation (DE) is an
equation that comprises of a function and its derivatives. Differential equations are
categorized as Partial Differential Equations (PDE) or Ordinary Differential
Equations (ODE) in accordance with whether or not they hold partial derivatives,
Self - Learning
Material 181
Differential Equations while the order of a differential equation is defined on the basis of the highest order
derivative that occurs in the equation.
In mathematics, a linear differential equation is a differential equation
that is defined by a linear polynomial in the unknown function and its derivatives,
NOTES
that is an equation of the form,
a0 x y a1 x y a2 x y  an x y n b x 0
where a0(x), ..., an(x) and b(x) are arbitrary differentiable functions that do not
essential to be linear, and y, …, y (n) are considered as the successive derivatives
of an unknown function y of the variable x.
This is an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE). A linear differential equation
may also be a Linear Partial Differential Equation (Linear PDE), if the unknown
function depends on several variables, and the derivatives that appear in the equation
are partial derivatives.
If a linear differential equation or a system of linear equations are such that
the associated homogeneous equations have constant coefficients then these may
be solved by means of quadrature mathematics, i.e., the solutions may be expressed
in terms of integrals. This is also true for a linear equation of order one with non-
constant coefficients.
dy
Let a differential equation be  f ( x, y ) . Then the slope of the tangent to the
dx
dy
curve at the point (x, y) is given by .
dx
Y
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
0 X
Fig. 4.1 Geometrical Differential Equation
As shown in Figure 4.1, take a point A1 ( x1 , y1 ) in the xy-plane. If m1 is the

dy
slope of the tangent to the curve at the point (x1, y1), then at this point is equal
dx
to m1. Suppose the point moves in the direction of m1 from (x1, y1) to A2(x2, y2)
for an infinitesimal distance and the slope of the tangent at this new point is given
by m2. Again, the point moves from A2(x2, y2) for an infinitesimal distance in the
direction of m2 to the point A3(x3, y3) and the slope of the tangent at this new point
is given by m3.
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182 Material
Choosing the successive points A1, A2, A3, … near to the one another Differential Equations
makes the broken curve approximate to a smooth curve y  ( x) which is

associated with the initial point A1 ( x1 , y1 ) . The slope of the tangent to the curve at
dy NOTES
a point and the co-ordinate of that point always satisfy the equation  f ( x, y ) .
dx
On choosing different initial points, different curves with the same property
dy
will be obtained. Thus, we can say that the differential equation  f ( x, y )
dx
represents a family of curves such that through each point of the xy-plane, there
passes one curve of the family.
The linear differential equation is a differential equation in which the dependent
variable and all its derivatives appear only in the first degree and are not multiplied
together.
A linear differential equation of order n is of the form
dn y d n 1 y d n 2 y
P0  P1  P2  .......  Pn y  X … (1)
dx n dx n 1 dx n 2
where, P0, P1, P2,….., Pn and X are either the functions of x or constants.
When in Equation (1), P0, P1, P2,…, Pn are all constants and not the function
of x while X is the some function of x, the equation is called a linear differential
equation with constant co-efficients of nth order.
Differential Operator ‘D’
Sometimes, it is easier to write a linear differential equation in the simple form by
d dy d
replacing the part of the symbol with D. This D or is regarded as
dx dx dx
differential operator.
So, Equation (1) can be written in terms of differential operator D as
 P0 D n  P1D n 1  P2 Dn  2  .......  Pn  y  X
 
Or f(D)y = X where f(D) = P0 D n  P1D n1  P2 D n  2  .......  Pn .
Solution of Linear Differential Equations

Theorem 4.1: If y = y1, y = y2, …, y = yn be the linear independent solutions of
a D
0
n

 a1 D n 1  a2 Dn  2  .......  an y  0 , then y  c1 y1  c2 y2  ....  cn yn
where c1, c2, c3, ...,cn are arbitrary constants, is the general or complete solution
of the differential Equation (1).
Proof: Given, a0 D n y  a1 D n1 y  a2 Dn 2 y  .......  an y  0 … (2)
Self - Learning
Material 183
Differential Equations As y = y1, y = y2,…, y = yn are solutions of Equation (2),
 a0 Dn y1  a1 D n 1 y1  a2 D n 2 y1  .......  an y1  0
a0 D n y2  a1 Dn 1 y2  a2 Dn 2 y2  .......  an y2  0
NOTES ………………………………………………… … (3)
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
a0 Dn yn  a1 D n 1 yn  a2 Dn  2 yn  .......  an yn  0
y  c1 y1  c2 y2  ....  cn yn
Now, by putting y  c1 y1  c2 y2  ....  cn yn in Equation (2), we get
a0 D n  c1 y1  c2 y2  ...  cn yn   a1Dn 1  c1 y1  c2 y2  ...  cn yn 

....................................  an  c1 y1  c2 y2  ...  cn yn   0
  
 c1 a0 D n y1  a1D n 1 y1  .....  an y1  c2 a0 D n y2  a1D n 1 y2  .....  an y2 
 
 ....................................  cn a0 D n yn  a1D n 1 yn  .....  an yn  0
Substituting the values from Equation (3) in the above equation, we get
c1.0 + c2.0 + ... + cn.0 = 0  0 = 0
Thus, y  c1 y1  c2 y2  ....  cn yn satisfies the Equation (2), which is
therefore its solution.
Auxiliary Equation
Consider a0 D n y  a1 D n1 y  a2 Dn 2 y  .......  an y  0 … (4)

where, a0, a1, a2, ...,an are all constants.
Now, let one of the solution of Equation (4) be y  e mx .
Then, Dy  me mx , D 2 y  m 2 e mx ,…, D n y  mn emx
By putting all these values including y  e mx in Equation (4), we get
a m
0
n

 a1 mn 1  a2 m n 2  .......  an emx  0
Since, e mx  0 for any m, therefore,
a0 m n  a1m n 1  a2 m n 2  .......  an  0 … (5)

This equation in m is known as auxiliary equation of the given differential
Equation (4).
If m is a solution of Equation (5), then emx will be a solution of Equation (4).
To solve the Equation (4), write its auxiliary equation and then solve it first.
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184 Material
Note: The values of D obtained from Differential Equations
f (D)  a0 Dn  a1D n 1  a2 Dn 2  .......  an  0 … (6)

is same as the values of m obtained from Equation (5). Hence, Equation (6), in
general can be regarded as the auxiliary equation which is obtained by equating NOTES
the symbolic coefficient of y in Equation (4) to zero. Thus, in practice we do not
replace D by m to form an auxiliary equation.
The roots of the auxiliary equation can be as follows:
 Real and Different
 Real and Repeated
 Complex
Case I: When all the roots of Equation (5) are real and different.
Let m1 , m2 , m3 ,.......mn be the n different and real roots of Equation (5).
Then
mx m x m x m x
2 ,e 3 ,...,e n will be the n distinct solutions of Equation (4).
e 1 ,e
Thus, the general solution of Equation (4) is
y  c1e m1x  c2 em2 x  c3 e m3 x  .....  cn e mn x … (7)
where c1, c2,…, cn are arbitrary constants.
Case II: When all the roots of Equation (5) are real, two of them are repeated
and all others are different.
Let m1 and m2 be the two equal roots of the auxiliary equation.
Then, Equation (7) becomes y   c1  c2  em1x  c3e m3x  .....  cn e mn x

which has only (n – 1) arbitrary constants and so it is no longer a general
solution.
Consider a differential equation of second order
 D  m1  D  m1  y  0 …(8)
whose auxiliary equation  D  m1 2  0 has equal roots.
Now, putting  D  m1  y = v in the Equation (8), we get
dv dv
 D  m1  v  0  dx
 m1v 
v
 m1 dx
On integrating both sides, we get

log v  m1 x  log c
dy
 v  cem1x   D  m1  y  ce 1 
mx
 m1 y  ce m1x
dx
Self - Learning
Material 185
This is a linear equation of first order having I.F. as e   m1dx  e m1x
 Its solution is y.e  m x   ce m x .e  mx dx  c

1 1
NOTES
 y.e  m x   cdx  c
1
 y.e  m x  cx  c  y   cx  c  .e m x  y   c1  c2 x  e m x
1 1 1
Thus, the general or complete solution of equation (4) is

y   c1  c2 x  e m1x  c3e m3 x  .....  cne mn x
Similarly, we can prove that if r roots of auxiliary equation are equal, then
the general solution would be  
y  c1  c2 x  c3 x 2  .....  cr x r 1 e m1x  .....  cne mn x
Case III: When two roots of Equation (5) are complex and others are real and
different.
Let a pair of complex roots of the auxiliary Equation (5) be   i and other
real and different roots be m3 , m4 , m5 ,.......mn . Then, the complete solution of
Equation (4) is
y  c1e(i) x  c2 e( i) x  c3 e m3 x  .....  cn e mn x
 
 ex c1eix  c2 eix  c3 e m3x  .....  cn e mn x
 ex  c1 (cos x  i sin  x)  c2 (cos x  i sin  x)  c3 e m3x  .....  cn e mn x

 ei  cos   i sin  
 
 ex  (c1  c2 )cos x  i (c1  c2 ) sin x   c3 e m3x  .....  cn e mn x
 ex  A cos x  Bsin x   c3 e m3 x  .....  cn e mn x

Corollary: If the complex roots pair   i occur twice, the above equation reduces
to
y  ex  (c1  c2 x )cos  x  (c3  c4 x)sin x   c3e m3 x  ...  cn emn x
d4y
Example 4.1: Solve the differential equation 4  a 4 y  0 .
dx
d4y
Solution: The given differential equation is 4
 a4 y  0 .
dx
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 4  a 4  y  0
Its auxiliary equation is D 4  a 4  0
  D 2  a 2   2D 2 a 2  0
2
Self - Learning
186 Material
  D2  a 2    
2 2
2Da 0
2

 D  2Da  a D  2Da  a  0
2 2 2
 
NOTES
a a a a
D i , i
2 2 2 2
Since, there are two pairs of complex roots, thus the general solution is
a a
 x  a a  x  a a 
ye 2
 c 1 cos x  c2 sin x  e 2
 c3 cos x  c4 sin x
 2 2   2 2 
a a
 x  a  x  a 
 ye c 1 cos  x  c2   e c3 cos  x  c4 
2 2
 2   2 
Example 4.2: If 1 ,  2 are real and distinct roots of the auxiliary equation
 2  a1  a2  0 and y1  e1 x , y2  e2 x , are its solution, then prove that
d2y dy
y  c1 y1  c2 y2 is a solution of 2
 a1  a2 y  0 . Is this solution general?
dx dx
Solution: The given auxiliary equation is  2  a1  a2  0
 D 2  a1D  a2  0 ...(i)
[On replacing  by D]
Since the real and distinct roots of the above equation are 1 and  2 .
 y1  e x and y2  e x are two independent solution of
1 2
D 2
 a1D  a2  y  0
 D y  a1Dy  a2 y  0
2
...(ii)
D 2 y1  a1Dy1  a2 y1  0 
 2  ...(iii)
D y2  a1Dy2  a2 y2  0 
On putting y  c1 y1  c2 y2 in Equation (ii), we have
D 2  c1 y1  c2 y2   a1D  c1 y1  c2 y2   a2  c1 y1  c2 y2   0
 c1  D 2 y1  a1Dy1  a2 y1   c2  D2 y2  a1Dy2  a2 y2   0
 c1  0   c2  0   0 which is true. [Using Equation (iii)]
d2y dy
 y  c1 y1  c2 y2 is the solution of Equation (ii) or 2
 a1  a2 y  0 .
dx dx
Self - Learning
Material 187
Differential Equations As the solution has two arbitrary constants and the order of the given equation
is also 2, thus this solution is general.
Complementary Function and Particular Integral
NOTES Theorem 4.2: If the complete solution of the equation
P D
0
n

 P1 D n 1  P2 Dn  2  .......  Pn y  0 … (9)
is y = Y and the particular solution (containing no arbitrary constants) of the equation
P D
0
n

 P1 D n 1  P2 Dn  2  .......  Pn y  X … (10)
where X is a function of x is y = u, then y = Y + u will be the complete solution of
the Equation (10).
Proof: By putting y = Y + u in Equation (10), we get
P D
0
n
 P1 D n 1  P2 Dn  2  .......  Pn Y  u  X
 P0 Dn  Y  u   P1Dn1  Y  u   P2 Dn 2  Y  u   .......  Pn  Y  u   X
  P0 Dn  P1Dn1  P2 Dn 2  .......  Pn  Y +  P0 Dn  P1Dn1  P2 Dn 2  .......  Pn  u  X ...(11)

As y = Y is the solution of Equation (9), we have
P D
0
n

 P1 D n 1  P2 Dn  2  .......  Pn Y = 0 … (12)
Also, since y = u is the solution of Equation (10), we have
P D
0
n

 P1 D n 1  P2 Dn 2  .......  Pn u  X … (13)
By putting the values from Equations (12) and (13) into equation (11),
we get
0+X=X
X = X, which is true.
Thus, y = Y + u is the complete or general solution of Equation (10).
The expression Y is called Complementary Function (C.F.) and u is known
as Particular Integral (P.I.).
Thus, Complete Solution = Complementary Function + Particular Integral
Inverse Operator
1
The operator f (D) is known as the inverse operator of the operator f (D) , if
1
y X
f (D) gives the solution of the equation f (D) y  X .
Self - Learning
188 Material
1
If y  f (D) X does not contain any arbitrary constant, then it is called the
1
particular solution of the equation f (D) y  X . Thus, f (D) X , a function of x,
NOTES
free from constants, when operated on f(D) gives X.
Some Theorems for Finding Particular Integrals
1
 X is the particular integral of f (D) y  X .
f (D)

1
Da
 
X  e ax  e  ax .X dx , no arbitrary constant being added.
1 x n ax
 .e ax  e
 D  a n n!
 The particular integral of f (D) y  X is

A1.e1x  e 1x .X dx  A 2 e2 x  e 2 x .X dx  .......  A n en x  e n x .X dx .
Some Special Cases in Particular Integral
ax 1 ax 1
Case I: Prove that f (D) .e  f (a) .e provided that f(a)  0, where a is a
constant.
Case of Failure
1 1
If f(a) = 0, then e ax  x. .e ax
f (D) d
f (D)
dD
d2y dy
Example 4.3: Solve the differential equation 2
 6  25 y  104e3 x .
dx dx
d2y dy
Solution: The given differential equation is 2  6  25 y  104e3 x .
dx dx
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  6D  25 y  104e3 x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  6D  25  0

6  36  100
 D
2
6  64 6  8i
 D   3  4i
2 2
 C.F.  e3 x c1 cos 4 x  c2 sin 4 x 
Self - Learning
Material 189
1 1
And P.I.  .104e3 x  .104e3 x [ D = 3]
D 2  6D  25 9  18  25
104e3 x
  2e 3 x
NOTES 52
Thus, the complete solution is y  C.F. + P.I.
 y  e 3 x  c1 cos 4 x  c2 sin 4 x   2e3 x
d2 y
Example 4.4: Solve the differential equation  16 y  sec 4 x
dx 2
d2 y
Solution: The given differential equation is  16 y  sec 4 x
dx 2
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  16  y  sec 4 x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  16  0

 D = 4i
 C.F.  c1 cos 4 x  c2 sin 4 x
1
And P.I.  sec 4 x
D  16
2
1 1 1 
    sec 4 x
8i  D  4i D  4i 
  1  4i  x
8i
e  e4ix sec 4 xdx  e4ix  e 4ix sec 4 x dx 
 e  1  i tan 4 x  dx  e  1  i tan 4 x dx
1 4 ix 4 ix
8i
1  4ix 4 ix 1 
 e  e  .x  i  e  e  log sec 4 x 
4 ix
 4 ix
8i  4 
1 1 
  x sin 4 x  cos 4 x log sec 4 x 
4 4 
1 1
 x sin 4 x  cos 4 x log cos 4 x
4 16
Thus, the required solution is
1 1
y  c1 cos 4 x  c2 sin 4 x  x sin 4 x  cos 4 x log cos 4 x
4 16
1 1
Case II: Prove that f  D2  sin ax  f  a 2  sin ax if f  a 2   0.
Self - Learning
190 Material
Case of Failure: If f  a 2   0 , then
1 1
sin ax  x. sin ax
(i) f D 
2 d
f D 
2
dD NOTES
1 1
cos ax  x. cos ax
(ii) f D 
2 d
f D 
2
dD
d 2 y dy
Example 4.5: Solve the differential equation   y  sin 2 x .
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy
Solution: The given differential equation is 2   y  sin 2 x
dx dx
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  D  1 y  sin 2 x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  D  1  0

1  1  4 1 3
  D=  i
2 2 2
x/2
 3 3 
 C.F.  e c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x 
 
1
And P.I.  sin 2 x
D  D 1
2
1
 sin 2 x  D 2  22 
2  D  1
2
1
 sin 2 x
D3
D3 D3
 sin 2 x  2 sin 2 x
 D  3 D  3 D 9
D3
 sin 2 x  D 2  22 
22  9
1
  D  3 sin 2 x
13
1
  Dsin 2 x  3sin 2 x
13
1d  1
  sin 2 x  3sin 2 x     2cos 2 x  3sin 2 x 
13  dx  13
 3 3  1
y  e  x / 2  c1 cos x  c2 sin x    2cos 2 x  3sin 2 x 
 2 2  13
Self - Learning
Material 191
1 m
Case III: To calculate f (D) x , where m is a positive integer..
1 m
NOTES To calculate the P.I. f (D) x , follow the steps given below:
Step 1: Take out the lowest degree term from f(D) such that the remaining
factor will be of the form 1  (D) .
Step 2: Take 1  (D) in the numerator with negative index and expand it in
ascending powers of D by Binomial Theorem up to the terms Dm.
Step 3: Operate on xm by each term of the expansion.
Note: Do not write the terms of the expansion which contains powers of D greater
than m because Dm+1 when multiplied by xm will be zero.
d2y dy
 4  4 y  x 2  e x  cos 2 x
dx dx
d2y dy
 4  4 y  x 2  e x  cos 2 x
dx dx
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  4D  4  y  x 2  e x  cos 2 x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  4D  4  0
 D  2
2
  0  D  2, 2
 C.F.   c1  c2 x  e2 x
1
And P.I. 
D  4D  4
2  x 2  e x  cos 2 x 
1 1 1
 x2  2 ex  2 cos 2 x
D  4D  4
2
D  4D  4 D  4D  4
1 1 1
 x2  ex  2 cos 2 x
 D  2
1  4.1  4
2
2  4D  4
4 1  D  
 4 
1
1  D2  1 1 
 1   D    .x  e   cos 2 x 
2 x
4  4  4 D 
1 
2
D2  D2  1
 1  D  D    ... x 2  e x   cos 2 x dx
4 4  4   4

Self - Learning
192 Material
1 D2  1 sin 2 x
 1  D   D 2  ... x 2  e x  .
4 4  4 2
1 3  1
 1  D  D2  ... x 2  e x  .sin 2 x NOTES
4 4  8
1 2 3  1
  x  D  x 2   D 2  x 2    e x  .sin 2 x
4 4  8
1 2 3 1
  x  2 x    e x  sin 2 x
4 2 8
1 3 1
y   c1  c2 x  e2 x   x 2  2 x    e x  sin 2 x.
4 2 8
1 1
Case IV: f ( D) (e V )  e f ( D  a) V , where V is a function of x.
ax ax
d2y
Example 4.7: Solve the differential equation  2 y  x 2 .e 3 x  e x .cos 2 x .
dx 2
d2y
Solution: The given differential equation is  2 y  x 2 .e 3 x  e x .cos 2 x
dx 2
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  2  y  x 2 e3 x  e x cos 2 x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  2  0

 D  i 2  0  i 2
  
C.F.  e c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x  c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x
0x
1
And P.I. 
D 2
2  x 2 e3 x  e x cos 2 x 
1 1
 2
D 2
 e3 x x 2   2
D 2
 e x cos 2 x 
1 1
 e3 x .x 2  e x . cos 2 x
 D  3  2  D  1  2
2 2
1 1
 e3 x .x 2  e x . 2 cos 2 x
D  6D  11
2
D  2D  3
1 1
 e3 x .x 2  e x cos 2 x
 6 D 2
4  2D  3
11 1  D  
 11 11 
1
1  6 D2  1
 e3 x 1  D   .x  e
2 x
cos 2 x
11  11 11  2D  1
Self - Learning
Material 193
1 3x   6 
2
D2   6 D2  2D  1
 e 1   D  
  D   ..... .x 2  e x . cos 2 x
11   11

11   11 11  
  2D  1 2D  1
NOTES 1 3x  6 D 2 36 2  2D  1
 e 1  D   D  ..... x 2  e x . 2 cos 2 x
11  11 11 121  4D  1

1 3x  6
e 1  D 
25 2 
D  ..... x 2  e x .
 2D  1 .cos 2 x
11  11 121  4  4   1
1 3x  2 6 25 2 2  e x
 e  x  D  x2   D  x     2D  1 cos 2 x
11  11 121  17
1 3x  2 6 25  e x
 e  x  .2 x  .2   2D  cos 2 x   cos 2 x 
11  11 121  17 
1 3 x  2 12 50  1.e x
 e x  x    2  2sin 2 x   cos 2 x 
11  11 121  17 
1 3 x  2 12 50  1 x
 e x  x   e  4sin 2 x  cos 2 x 
11  11 121  17
1 3 x  2 12 50  1 x
 e x  x   e  4sin 2 x  cos 2 x 
11  11 121  17
Thus, the required solution is:
1 3 x  2 12 50  1 x
y  c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x  e x  x   e  4sin 2 x  cos 2 x 
11  11 121  17
1
Case V: To calculate .  xV  , where V is any function of x.
f  D
1 1 d  1 
Or prove that .  xV   x. .V    .V
f  D f D dD  f  D  
d2y dy
 2  y  xe x sin x.
dx dx
d2y dy
 2  y  xe x sin x.
dx dx
Symbolic form of the given equation is  D 2  2D  1 y  xe x sin x
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  2D  1  0
  D  1
2
 0  D  1,1
 C.F. =  c1  c2 x  e
x
1
And P.I. 
D  2D  1
2  xe x sin x 
Self - Learning
194 Material
1 Differential Equations
  xe x
sin x 
 D  1
2
1
 ex .  x sin x 
 D  1  1
2
NOTES
1
 ex .  x sin x 
D2
 1 d  1  
 e x  x. 2 sin x   2  sin x 
 D dD  D  
 1 2 
 e x  x. 2 sin x  3 .sin x 
 D D 
 1 2 1 
 e x  x. sin x   2 .sin x  
 1 D D 
 2 1 
 e x   x sin x  . sin x 
 D 1 
 2 
 e x   x sin x  sin x 
 D 
 e   x sin x  2  sin xdx 

 
 e x  x sin x  2   cos x   e x  x sin x  2cos x 
Thus, the required solution is y   c1  c2 x  e x  e x  x sin x  2cos x  .
Check Your Progress

1. Solve the differential equation (2D3 – 7D2 + 7D – 2)y = 0.
d4 y d3 y d2y dy
2. Solve the differential equation 4
4 3
8 2
8  4y  0.
dx dx dx dx
d2y
3. Solve the differential equation 2  y  sec x .
2
dx
3 2
4. Solve the differential equation . d y  5 d y  7 dy  3 y  e 2 x cosh x
3 2 dx
dx dx
d2y
5. Solve the differential equation  y  sin x sin 2 x .
dx 2
 2
6. Solve D  2n cos D  n
2
 x  a  cos nt , given that x = 0, dx
dt
0
when t = 0.
d3 y d2 y
7. Solve 2  3 y  cos x .
dx3 dx 2
8. Solve the differential equation  D 4  D3  D 2  y  x 2  a  bx  .
Self - Learning
Material 195
Check Your Progress

9. Solve the differential equation
NOTES d4 y d3 y d2y
2 3  x 2  3e 2 x  4 sin x .
dx 4 dx3 dx 2
d2y dy
10. Solve the differential equation 2  2  y  x 2 e3 x .
dx dx
11. Solve the differential equation  D3  2D  4  y  e x cos x .
d2 y
12. Solve the differential equation  4 y  x sin x .
dx 2
13. Find the particular integral of  D 4  2D 2  1 y  x 2 cos x .
4.3 EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO THE LINEAR

FORM
An equation of the form
n 1
dny n 1 d y dy
P0 ( a  bx) n n
 P1 ( a  bx ) n 1
 ...  Pn 1 (a  bx)  Pn y  f ( x) …(14)
dx dx dx
where a, b, P0, P1, P2, …, Pn are constants and f(x) is either a constant or
a function of x.
This equation can be reduced to a homogeneous linear equation.
Taking a + bx = u (say)
du
Differentiating with respect to x, we get b
dx
Now, we have
dy dy du dy
 .  b.
dx du dx du
d 2 y d  dy  d  dy  d 2 y du 2
2 d y
     b.   b. .  b
dx 2 dx  dx  dx  du  du 2 dx du 2
……………………………….
dny n
n d y
 b
dx n dx n
Self - Learning
196 Material
Substituting these values in Equation (14), we get Differential Equations
n 1
dn y n 1 n 1 d y dy u a
P0 b n u n n
 P1 b u n 1
 ...  Pn 1bu  Pn y  f   …(15)
dz dz dz  b 
which is a homogeneous linear equation. NOTES
d
Now, putting (a + bx) = ez  z = log(a + bx) and  D in the Equation
dz
(15), we get
 P0b n D(D  1)...(D  n  1)  P1b n 1 D(D  1)...(D  n  2)  ...  Pn 1bD  Pn  y
 ez  a 
 f  …(16)
 b 
which is a linear equation with constant coefficients and can be solved for y in
terms of z by the standard methods.
Suppose the solution of Equation (16) is y = F(z). Then, the solution of
Equation (14) can be obtained as y = f[log (a + bx)] by putting z = log(a + bx).
Example 4.9: Solve the linear differential
d2y dy
equation  x  1   x  1   2 x  3 2 x  4  .
2
2
dx dx
d
Solution: Putting x  1  e z  z  log  x  1 and = D in the given equation,
dz
we get
 D  D  1  D  y   2e z  1 2e z  2   D 2 y   2e z  1 2e z  2 
Then the A.E. is D 2  0  D  0,0

 C.F.   c1  c2 z  .e0 z  c1  c2 z
1 1
2 
And P.I.  2e z  1 2e z  2   2  4e 2 z  6e z  2 
D D
1

D
 4e2 z  6e z  2  dz
1
 mean integration with respect to z
D
1  4e 2 z 
   6e z  2 z 
D 2 
1
  2e2 z  6e z  2 z 
D
   2e2 z  6e z  2 z  dz
e2 z z2
 2.  6e z  2.  e2 z  6e z  z 2
2 2
Self - Learning
Material 197
Differential Equations Thus, the solution of the given equation is y = C.F. + P.I.
 y  c1  c2 z  e 2 z  6e z  z 2
y  c1  c2 log  x  1   x  1  6  x  1  log  x  1 
2

2
NOTES
 e z  x  1  z  log  x  1
y  c1  c2 .log 1  x   x 2  8 x   log  x  1 
2

[ Constant term 7 can be considered to be included in c1 ]
Check Your Progress

14. Which equation form can be reduced to the homogeneous linear equation?
4.4 EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation which can be obtained from its solution  f  x, y   c  directly

by differentiation without any further multiplication, elimination is called an exact
differential equation.
We can define the exact differential equations in another way also.
The differential equation M dx  N dy  0 , where M and N are the functions
of x and y is called exact if there exist a function F  x, y  such that M dx  N dy  dF
(i.e., M dx  N dy is an exact differential of a function of x and y) and F(x, y) = c
is its solution.
The following differential equations are exact:
(i) xdy  ydx  0 because xdy + ydx = d(xy) and xy = c
xdy  ydx xdy  ydx  y y
(ii)  0 because d   and  c
x 2
x2  x x
(iii) sin x cos ydy  cos x sin ydx  0 because sin x cosydy+cos x sin ydx=d
(sin x sin y) and sin x sin y = c
Theorem 4.3: The necessary and sufficient condition for the ordinary differential
M N
equation M dx  N dy  0 to be exact is  .
y x
Proof: Necessary Condition

Let the given equation M dx  N dy  0 be exact.
Then by definition there exists a function F  x, y  such that

M dx  N dy  dF …(17)
Self - Learning
198 Material
Also, from differential calculus, we know that Differential Equations
F F
dF  dx  dy …(18)
x y
NOTES
Comparing Equations (17) and (18), we get
F F
M  and N  y
x
M   F  2F N   F  2F
     and    
y y  x  yx x x  y  xy
2F 2F M N
As,  , thus 
yx xy y x
which is the required condition for the equation M dx  N dy  0 to be exact.
Sufficient Condition
M N
Let y  x . Then, we have to show that M dx  N dy  0 is an exact differential
equation.
Let
 Mdx    x, y  …(19)
where M  x, y  is integrated with respect to x taking y as a constant such that

x
  Mdx   
x
 M

x
…(20)
M      2  N  2   M N 
         
y y  x  yx x yx  y x 
2 2 N  2     
Also,      
yx xy x xy x  y 
Integrating with respect to x, taking y as a constant, we get


N  g  y …(21)
y
where g  y  is a function of y.
Using Equations (20) and (21), we get

   
Mdx  Ndy  dx  dy  g  y  dy  d     d  g  y  dy 
x y  

 
 d   g  y  dy  which is an exact differential.
 
Self - Learning
Material 199
Differential Equations Solving an Exact Differential Equation
If M dx  N dy  0 is an exact differential equation, then from the above section,
we have

NOTES  
d   g  y  dy   0
 
Integrating, we get

 g y dy  c , where c is an arbitrary constant …(22)
From Equation (19), we have  


y constant
Mdx
Putting the value of  in Equation (21), we get


y constant
Mdx 

g y dy  c
 
y constant
Mdx 
 (Terms of N not conatining x) dy  c
which is the required solution.

Example 4.10: Solve the differential
equation  x 4  2 xy 2  y 4  dx   2 x 2 y  4 xy 3  sin y  dy  0 .
Solution: The given equation is
x 4
 2 xy 2  y 4  dx   2 x 2 y  4 xy 3  sin y  dy  0 …(i)
We know that M dx  N dy  0 …(ii)

Comparing Equations (i) and (ii), we get M  x 4  2 xy 2  y 4 and
N  2 x 2 y  4 xy 3  sin y
M
Now,   4 xy  4 y 3 and N  4 xy  4 y 3
y x
M N
Since y  x , thus the Equation (i) is exact and its solution is given by

y constant
Mdx 
 Terms of N not containing x  dy  c
 

y constant
x 4
 2 xy 2  y 4 dx 
  sin y  dy  c
x5 x2 x5
  2 y 2 .  y 4 .x  cos y  c   x 2 y 2  xy 4  cos y  c
5 2 5
Self - Learning which is the required solution.
200 Material
Integrating Factors Differential Equations
If the left side of the equation M dx  N dy  0 is not an exact but it can be made
exact on multiplying it by a function   x, y  , then   x, y  is called the Integrating
Factor (IF). NOTES
Theorem 4.4: The number of integrating factors of the differential
equation M dx  N dy  0 is infinite.
Proof: The given differential equation is M dx  N dy  0 … (23)
Let   x, y  be its integrating factor. Then,  Mdx   Ndy  0 …(24)
is an exact differential equation.
Suppose Equation (24) is an exact differential of some function F(x, y) (say).
  Mdx   Ndy  dF
Multiplying by any function of F, say   F  , we get
   F   M dx  Ndy     F  dF …(25)
But the right side of Equation (25) is an exact differential.
    F   M dx  Ndy  is also an exact differential.
Thus,    F  is also an integrating factor of differential Equation (23).
As   F  is an arbitrary function of F, thus the equation has infinite number of
integrating factors.
Sometimes the integrating factor of the equation M dx  N dy  0 , which is
not an exact can be found easily just by inspection after recognising certain group
terms in the given equation. Table 4.1 shows the list of some integrating factors of
certain group of terms, which are parts of an exact differential equation.
Table 4.1 List of Some Integrating Factors
Group of Terms Integrating Factors Exact Differential
xdy  ydx 1 xdy  ydx  y
d  
x2 x2 x
1 xdy  ydx  x
xdy  ydx y2 d  
y2  y
1
xdy  ydx xdy  ydx 1 1  y
xy  dy  dx  d  log 
xy y x  x
1
xdy  ydx  1 y   1 x 
xdy  ydx x y
2 2
 d  tan    d  tan 
x2  y2  x  y
1
xdy  ydx xdy  ydx 1 x y 
x2  y2  d  log 
x2  y2  2 x y 
xdy  ydx 1 xdy  ydx 1 1
 dy  dx  d  log xy  , if n =1
 xy 
n
xy y x
xdy  ydx  1 
d   , if n ? – 1
 xy   
  n  1 xy  
n n 1
xdx  ydy 1 xdx  ydy 1 

 d  log  x 2  y 2  , if n =1
x  y2 
n
2 x2  y2 2 
 
xdx  ydy 1
d   , if n ? – 1
x  
 2  n  1 x  y
 
2 n n 1
2
y 2 2 Self - Learning
 Material 201
Example 4.11: Solve the differential equation  x 2  y 2  2 x  dx  2 y dy  0 .
Solution: The given equation is  x 2  y 2  2 x  dx  2 y dy  0 …(i)

NOTES We know that M dx  N dy  0 …(ii)
Comparing Equations (i) and (ii), we get M  x 2  y 2  2 x and N  2 y
M N
Now,  2 y and 0
y x
M N
Since y  x , thus the differential Equation (i) is not exact.
By inspection, we take e x as integrating factor of Equation (i).

Multiplying Equation (i) by e x , we get
e x  x 2  y 2  2 x  dx  2 ye x dy  0 …(iii)
Comparing Equations (iii) and (ii), we get
M  e x  x 2  y 2  2 x  and N  2 ye x
M N
Now,  2 ye x and  2 ye x
y x
M N
Since  , thus Equation (iii) is exact and its solution is given by
y x

y constant
Mdx 


y constant
 
e x x 2  y 2  2 x dx  0  c 

y constant
 
e x x 2  y 2 dx 

y constant
2 xe x dx  c
 ( x 2  y 2 )e x 

y constant
2 xe x dx 

y constant
2 xe x dx  c
 ( x 2  y 2 )e x  c which is the required solution.
Rules for Finding the Integrating Factors

Sometimes, it is not easy to find integrating factor of a differential equation using
inspection method. In that case, we have to search for a rule which help us in
determining the integrating factor for a given differential equation so it becomes
exact differential equation. Here, we are going to learn some rules for determining
the integrating factor for a given differential equation.
Self - Learning
202 Material
Rule 1: If Mx  Ny  0 and the equation Mdx  Ndy  0 is homogeneous, then
1
is its integrating factor..
Mx  Ny
NOTES
Example 4.12: Solve  x 2 y  2 xy 2  dx   3x 2 y  x 3  dy  0 .
Solution: The given equation is  x 2 y  2 xy 2  dx   3x 2 y  x 3  dy  0 …(i)

We know that M dx  N dy  0 …(ii)
Comparing Equations (i) and (ii), we get M  x 2 y  2 xy 2 and N  3x 2 y  x3
M 2 N
Now,  x  4 xy and  6 xy  3 x 2
y x
M N
Since  , thus the differential Equation (i) is not exact. Here Equation (i) is
y x
homogeneous equation.
Also,    
Mx  Ny  x 2 y  2 xy 2 x  3 x 2 y  x 3 y = x 2 y 2 ‘“ 0
1 1
  2 2 is an integrating factor of Equation (i).
Mx  Ny x y
1
Now, multiplying Equation (i) by x 2 y 2 , we get
1 2 3 x 
   dx    2  dy  0 …(iii)
 y x y y 
which is an exact differential equation and its solution is given by

y constant
Mdx 
 
1 2 3 x
     dx    dy  c  y  2log x  3log y  c
 y x  y
y constant
x y3
   log  c which is the required solution.
y x2
Rule 2: If Mx  Ny  0 and the equation Mdx  Ndy  0 is of the form

1
f  xy  ydx  g  xy  xdy  0 , then Mx  Ny is its integrating factor..
M N

y x
Rule 3: If  f  x  is a function of x alone, then the integrating factor of
N
the equation M dx  N dy  0 is e  f  x dx .
Self - Learning
Material 203
M N

y x
Rule 4: If  f  y  is a function of y alone in the equation M dx  N dy  0 ,
M
then e 
 f  y  dy
NOTES is an integrating factor .
Rule 5: If the equation M dx  N dy  0 can be written as
x  y   mydx  nxdy   x  y   pydx  qxdy   0
where , , m, n,  , , p and q are all constants, then its integrating factor is x a y b .
Check Your Progress
15. Solve the differential equation  a 2  2 xy  y 2  dx  ( x  y )2 dy  0 .
a 2 ( xdy  ydx)
16. Solve the differential equation xdx  ydy  x2  y2
.
17. Find the integrating factor of the equation by inspection and hence solve
ydx  xdy  3 x 3 y 3 dy  0 .
18. Find the integrating factor of the equation by inspection and hence solve
 x 2  y 2  dx  2 xydy  0 .
19. Solve the differential equation x 2 ydx   x 3  y 3  dy  0 .
20. Solve the differential equation  x 2 y 2  xy 1 ydx   x 2 y 2  xy  1 xdy  0 .
21. Solve the differential equation  x 2  y 2  2 x  dx  2 ydy  0 .
22. Solve the differential equation  xy 3  y  dx  2  x 2 y 2  x  y 4  dy  0 .
23. Solve the differential equation  y 2  2 x 2 y  dx   2 x 3  xy  dy  0 .
4.5 FIRST ORDER HIGHER DEGREE

EQUATIONS SOLVABLE FOR X, Y AND P
The differential equation of first order and nth degree is generally represented by
p n  A1 p n 1  A 2 p n  2  A3 p n  3   A n 1 p  A n  0
dy
where p denotes and A1 , A 2 , A3 ,  , A n  1 , A n are functions of x and y.
dx
The above equation can also be written as f  x, y , p   0 … (26)
The differential Equation (26) can be classified into three categories: Equations
solvable for p, i.e., of the form p  f  x, y  , Equations solvable for y, i.e., of the
form y  f  x, p  and Equations solvable for x, i.e., of the form x  f  y, p  .
Self - Learning
204 Material
Equation Solvable for p Differential Equations
Let the equation p n  A1 p n 1  A 2 p n  2  A 3 p n  3   A n 1 p  A n  0 … (27)

be solvable for ‘p’ and can be written in form
NOTES
 p  F1  x, y    p  F2  x, y    p  F3  x, y   ...  p  Fn  x, y    0 … (28)
  p  F1  x, y   0,  p  F2  x, y    0,
 p  F3  x, y    0, ... ,  p  Fn  x, y    0
dy dy dy dy
  F1  x, y  ,  F2  x, y  ,  F3  x, y  ,  ,  Fn  x, y 
dx dx dx dx
which are the equations of first order and first degree.
Let the solutions of these equations be
f1  x, y , c1   0, f 2  x, y , c2   0, f 3  x, y , c3   0, , f n  x, y , cn   0
where, c1 , c2 , c3 , , cn are arbitrary constants.

Then, the most general solution of the differential Equation (27) is
 f1  x, y, c1    f 2  x, y, c2    f3  x, y, c3    f n  x, y , cn    0
As the Equation (27) is of first order thus, its general solution can contain only one
arbitrary constant. Hence, without the loss of generality we can take
c1  c2  c3    cn  c (say)
Thus, the general solution of the Equation (27) can be written as
 f1  x, y, c    f 2  x, y , c    f3  x, y, c     f n  x, y , c    0
2
 dy  dy
Example 4.13: Solve the differential equation x 2    2 xy  2 y 2  x 2  0
 dx  dx
2
 dy  dy
Solution: The given equation is x 2    2 xy  2 y 2  x 2  0 … (i)
 dx  dx
dy
By putting  p in Equation (i), we get x 2 p 2  2 xyp  2 y 2  x 2  0 … (ii)
dx
Solving Equation (ii), we get
2 xy  4 x 2 y 2  4 x 2  2 y 2  x 2 
p
2x2
2 xy  4 x 2 y 2  8 x 2 y 2  4 x 4

2 x2
2 xy  4 x 4  4 x 2 y 2

2x2
Self - Learning
Material 205
2 xy  4 x 2  x 2  y 2 
2 xy  2 x x 2  y 2 y  x 2  y 2
  
2x2 2x2 x
dy y  x  y
2 2
NOTES   …(iii)
dx x
which is a homogeneous equation in x and y.
Let y  vx
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
dy dv
vx
dx dx
dy
By putting the values of y and in Equation (iii), we get
dx
dv vx  x 2  v 2 x 2
vx 
dx x
dv dv
 v  x  v  1  v2  x   1  v2
dx dx
Separating the variables, we get
dv dx

1  v2 x
dv dx
 1 v 2
 
x
c
1 y
 sin 1 v   log x  log c  sin 1 v   log xc  sin   log cx,
x
Equation Solvable for y
A differential Equation is said to be solvable y, if it can be expressed as
y  f  x, p  … (29)
dy  dp 
 p  F  x, p,  … (30)
dx  dx 
The differential Equation (ii) is in two variables p and x.
Let the solution of the Equation (ii) be
  x, p , c   0 … (31)
So, by eliminating p from Equation (29) and Equation (31), we get the
solution of differential Equation (29). If it is not easier to eliminate p, then put
Equations (29) and (31) in the form
x  1  p, c  , y  2  p, c 
Self - Learning
206 Material
In this case these two equations together constitute the solution of Equation (29). Differential Equations
 dp 
Note: When the Equation (30) can be written as f1 ( x, p ). f 2  x, p,  = 0, neglect
 dx 
dp
the factor which does not contain , i.e., f1 ( x, p) since if f1 ( x, p) = 0, then NOTES
dx
elimination of p from this equation and Equation (29) does not give a general
solution.
Example 4.14: Solve the differential equation y  3x  log p.
Solution: The given equation is y  3x  log p … (i)
dy 1 dp 1 dp  dy 
dx
 3
p dx  p  3
p dx  dx  p 
 
dp 1 1 1
 dx   dx     dp (By Partial Fraction)
p  p  3 3 p 3 p

1
x   log  p  3  log p   log c1
3
p3  p 3
 3x  log  log c2  3x  log   .c2
p  p 
Taking exponent of both sides, we get
p3
e3 x  .c2
p
p 3 3 3
  ce3 x  1   ce3 x  p
p p 1  ce3 x
3
Substituting this value of p in Equation (i), we get y  3x  log
1  ce3 x
Equation Solvable for x
A differential equation is said to be solvable for x, if x can be expressed as
x  f  y, p  … (32)
dx 1  dp 
Differentiating both sides with respect to y, we get   F  y, p,  … (33)
dy p  dy 
The differential Equation (33) is in two variables y and p.
Let the solution of the Equation (33) be   y , p, c   0 … (34)
Then, by eliminating p from Equations (32) and (34), we get the solution of
differential Equation (32). If it is not easier to eliminate p, then express Equation
(32) and (34) in the form
x  1  p, c  , y  2  p, c 
Self - Learning
Material 207
Differential Equations In such case, the above two equations taken together constitute the solution of
Equation (32).
 dp 
Note: When the Equation (33) is written as f1 ( y, p ). f 2  y, p, dy  = 0, then neglect
NOTES  
dp
the factor which does not contain dy , i.e., f1 ( y, p ), since if f1 ( y, p ) = 0, then
eliminating p from this equation Equation (33) doe not give a general solution.
Example 4.15: Solve the differential equation x  y  p 2
Solution: The given equation is x  y  p 2

… (i)
Differentiating both sides with respect to y, we get
dx dp
1  2 p
dy dy
1 dp dp  2 p2 
 1  2 p  1  p  2 p 2  dy    dp
p dy dy  1 p 
 
 2 p2 
dy    dp  c
 1 p 

 1 
 y   2  p  1  dp  c
 p 1 
 p2 
 y  c  2   p  log  p 1   y  c   p 2  2 p  2log  p 1
 2   
Substituting the value of y in Equation (i), we get

x  c   2 p  2 log  p  1  which is the required solution.
Check Your Progress
24. Solve the differential equation xyp 2   x 2  xy  y 2  p  x 2  xy  0 .
 y4  2 2 y y2
25. Solve the differential equation  1  y 2
  p  p   0.
 x2  x x2
26. Solve the differential equation y = p tan p + log cos p.
27. Solve the differential equation y – 2px = f(xp2).
 p 
28. Solve the differential equation p  tan  x  1  p 2  .
 
Self - Learning
208 Material
4.6 CLAIRAUT’S EQUATION
The differential equation of the form y  px  f  p  is termed as Clairaut’ss

Equation. NOTES
Solution of Clairaut’s Equation
The given equation is y  px  f  p  … (35)

dy dp dp
 p  x  f  p
dx dx dx
dp dp dp
 p p  x  f  p   x  f   p    0
dx dx dx
dp
Neglecting x  f   p  , we get 0
dx
Integrating both sides, we get p = c
Substituting the value of p in Equation (35), we get
y  cx  f  c  , which is the required solution.
Here, we neglect x  f   p  because if we eliminate p between the given

Equation (35) and the factor x  f   p  =0, we get another solution termed as
singular solution.
Note: When equation is in the Clairaut’s form, then the solution can be written
down just by changing p to c in the given equation.
Example 4.16: Solve the differential equation sin px cos y  cos px sin y  p and
obtain the singular solution.
Solution: The given differential equation is sin px cos y  cos px sin y  p
 sin px cos y  cos px sin y  p
 sin  px  y   p
 px  y  sin 1 p  y  px  sin 1 p … (i)

which is a Clairaut’s form.
Thus the solution is y  cx  sin 1 c [Replacing p by c] … (ii)
Differentiating Equation (ii) partially with respect to c, we have
1 x2  1
0  x  c
1  c2 x
Self - Learning
Material 209
Differential Equations Substituting the value of c in Equation (ii), we get
 x2  1 
y  x 2  1  sin 1  
 x  , which is the required singular solution.
 
NOTES
4.7 SINGULAR SOLUTIONS
A singular solution is a solution of differential equation which cannot be obtained
from its general solution by assigning any particular values to the arbitrary constants.
Discriminant
The discriminant of a polynomial is an expression which gives information about
the nature of the polynomial’s roots. We know that the discriminant of the quadratic
equation ax 2  bx  c  0 is b 2  4ac . Here, if b 2  4ac > 0, the equation has two
real roots, if b 2  4ac = 0, the equation has equal roots which are real, and
if b 2  4ac < 0, the equation has two imaginary roots. But if equation has higher
degree than two, then the condition that the equation f  x   0 has two equal roots
is obtained by eliminating x between f  x   0 and f   x   0 .
 dy 
p-Discriminant and c-Discriminant  p  
 dx 
Let f  x, y , p   0 … (36)
be the differential equation having
  x, y , c   0 … (37)
as the solution, where, c is an arbitrary constant.
Differentiating both sides of Equation (37) partially with respect to c, we get

c
   x, y , c    0 … (38)
Differentiating both sides of Equation (36) partially with respect to p, we get


p
 f  x, y , p    0 … (39)
By eliminating c between the Equations (37) and (38), we get c-discriminant.

Thus, c-discriminant represents the locus of each point which has equal values of
c in   x, y, c   0 .
By eliminating p between the Equations (36) and (39), we get p-discriminant.
Thus, p-discriminant represents the locus of each point which has equal values of
p in
f  x, y , p   0 .
Note: (i) The envelope which is present in both c-discriminant and p-discriminant
is known as the singular solution.
Self - Learning
210 Material
(ii) If the singular solution of a differential equation f  x, y , p   0 whose
primitive is   x, y, c   0 is given by F  x, y   0 , then F  x, y  will be a
factor of both the discriminates.
(iii) In the Clairaut’s form of the differential equation both c-discriminant NOTES
and p-discriminant are same.
Method For Determining Singular Solution
Use the following steps to find the singular solutions of a differential equation
f  x, y , p   0 … (40)
Step 1: Find its complete solution   x, y, c   0 … (41)
where, c is an arbitrary constant.
Step 2: Find p-discriminant of Equation (40) and c-discriminant of Equation (41).
Both contain the singular solution.
Now, when p-discriminant is equated to zero, it may include the following
as a factor:
 Envelope, i.e., singular solution once (E)
 Cusp locus once (C)
 Tac locus, twice (T 2)
So p-discriminant  ET 2 C , which does not contain nodal locus and when
c-discriminant is equated to zero it may include the following as a factor:
 Envelope, i.e, singular solution once (E)
 Cusp locus thrice (C3)
 Nodal locus twice (N 2)
So c-discriminant  EN 2 C3
Example 4.17: Obtain the primitive and the singular solution of
2
 dy  dy
x    2 y  4x  0
 
dx dx
2
 dy  dy
Solution: The given differential equation is x    2 y  4 x  0 … (i)
 dx  dx
dy
By putting  p in Equation (i), we get
dx
 xp 2  2 yp  4 x  0 …(ii)
xp 2 x
 y 
2 p
Differentiating both sides, with respect to x, we get
dy x dp p 2 2 x dp
    .
dx 2 dx 2 p p 2 dx
Self - Learning
Material 211
Differential Equations x dp p 2 2 x dp
 p .    .
2 dx 2 p p 2 dx
p 2  x 2 x  dp
    
NOTES 2 p  2 p 2  dx
p2  4 x dp
  2  p2  4
2p 2p dx
 x dp 
 p  4  1 
2
0
p dx 

x dp x dp
 p 2  4  0 or 1  p . dx  0  p  2 or p . dx  1
x dp
Now, for p . dx  1
dp dx
  [Separating the variables]
p x

log p  log x  log c
where c is any arbitrary constant
 log p  log cx  p  cx … (iii)
Substituting the value of p from Equation (iii) in Equation (ii), we get
c 2 x 3  2 ycx  4 x  0  c 2 x 2  2 yc  4  0 … (iv)
which is the complete primitive of Equation (i),
From Equation (iv), we have p-discriminant (ET2C) is 4 y 2  16 x 2  0
 y2  4 x2  0
Also from Equation (ii), c-discriminant (EN2C3) is 4 y 2  16 x 2  0
Since, y 2  4 x 2 is non-repeated common factor in p and c-discriminants and it

satisfies the differential Equation (ii).
Hence the singular solution of Equation (i) is
y 2  4 x 2  0  y  2 x
Check Your Progress

29. Reduce the differential equation  px  y  x  py   2 p to Clairaut’s form
by substituting x 2  u and y 2  v . Also, find its complete primitive and its
singular solution.
30. Solve the differential equation y  px  p 2 and obtain the singular solution.
Self - Learning 31. Examine the equation y 2  2 pxy  p 2  x 2  1   m 2 for singular solution.
212 Material
4.8 ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves according to a
definite law is called a trajectory of the given family. NOTES
Orthogonal Trajectory
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves at right angles is
called an orthogonal trajectory of the given family.
Orthogonal trajectories of a given family of curves, themselves form a family
of curves.
We know that the angle between the two curves is equal to the angle between
the tangents at their common point of intersection. The slope of these tangents is
dy
given by .
dx
 When the curves intersects orthogonally,
Product of their slopes = – 1
Let the common point of intersection of two curves c1 and c2 be P and the
angle between these curves at P is right angle, then
 dy   dy   dy   dx 
      1       
 dx  c1  dx c2  dx c1  dy c2
Oblique Trajectory
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves at certain angle other
than right angle is called an oblique trajectory of the given family.
Differential Equation of Orthogonal Trajectories
Cartesian Coordinates
Step 1: Let the equation of the given family of curves be
f(x, y, c) = 0 … (42)
where c is the parameter of the family.
Step 2: Differentiating Equation (42) with respect to x and eliminating c between
Equation (42) and the resulting equation, we get the differential equation of the
given family as
 dy 
F  x, y ,   0 … (43)
 dx 
dy dx
Step 3: Putting = in Equation (43), we get
dx dy
 dx 
F  x, y ,    0 … (44)
 dy 
which is the differential equation of orthogonal trajectory. Self - Learning
Material 213
Differential Equations Step 4: Integrate Equation (44) to get the required equation of orthogonal
trajectories.
Example 4.18: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of co-axial circles x2
+ y2 + 2gx + c = 0, where g is a parameter and c is a constant.
NOTES
Solution: The given equation is x2 + y2 + 2gx + c = 0 … (i)
Differentiating Equation (i) with respect to x, we get
dy dy
2x  2 y  2g  0  x  y  g  0 … (ii)
dx dx
Eliminating g between Equations (i) and (ii), we get the differential equation of the
 dy 
given family of circles as x 2  y 2  2 x  x  y   c  0
 dx 
dy
 y  x  2 xy c  0
2 2
… (iii)
dx
dy  dx
By replacing by , we get
dx dy
dx
y 2  x 2  2 xy c  0
dy
dx
 2 xy  x 2  c  y 2 … (iv)
dy
dx dv
Let x2 = v. Then 2 x 
dy dy
 The Equation (iv) becomes
dv dv 1 c
y  v  c  y 2   v    y
dy dy y y
which is a linear differential equation in v.
1
I.F.  e 
 1/ y dy 1
 = e log y  elog y 1  elog y =
y
1  c 1
v
y
    y  y  dy
y
1 c
 v   y  k , where k is an arbitrary constant
y y
 v  c  y 2  ky  x 2  y 2  ky  c  0
which is the orthogonal trajectories of the family of co-axial circles x2 + y2 + 2gx
+ c = 0.
Self - Learning
214 Material
Polar Co-Ordinates Differential Equations
Step 1: Let the equation of the given family of polar curves be

f(r, , c) = 0 … (45)
where c is the parameter of the family. NOTES
Step 2: Differentiating Equation (45) with respect to  and eliminating c between
Equation (45) and the resulting equation, we get the differential equation of the
given family as
 dr 
F  r , θ,   0 … (46)
 dθ 
d
Step 3: From differential calculus, we know that r is the tangent of the angle
dr
between the tangent to a curve and the radius vector at any point (r, ). Since, the
curves intersects orthogonally,
 d   d 
r   r   1 , where c1 and c2 are two curves.
 dr  c1  dr c2
d 1 dr dr 2 d
r    = r
dr r dθ dθ dr
dr 2 d  2 d 
Replace by  r in (ii), we get F  r , , r   0 … (47)
d dr  dr 
which is the differential equation of orthogonal trajectory.
Step 4: Integrate Equation (47) to get the required equation of the orthogonal
trajectories.
Example 4.19: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the curves r n sin n  a n .
Solution: The given equation of the system of curve is r n sin n  a n ... (i)
Taking log on both sides, we get
n log r  log sin n  n log a
1 dr 1
n .  .n cos n  0
r d  sin n
1 dr d
  cot n  0  r   tan n ... (ii)
r d dr
dr 2 d
Replacing by  r in (ii) we get
d dr
1 dr dr
   tan n   tan nd 
r d r
Self - Learning
Material 215
dr
Integrating, we get  r 
 tan nd   c1 , where c1 is any arbitrary constant.
1
NOTES log r  log sec n  log c
n
[Putting c1  log c ]
 log r  log  sec n 
1/ n
 log c
 log r  log c  sec n 

1/ n
 r  c  sec n   r n  c n sec n  r n cos n  c n

1/ n
which is required equation of the orthogonal trajectories.
Check Your Progress
x2 y2
32. Find the orthogonal trajectories of 2  2  1 , where l is a
a b 
parameter.
33. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the system of curves rn = an cos nq.
4.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. y = c1ex + c2e2x + c3ex/2
2. y  e  c1  c2 x  cos x   c3  c x  sin x 

x
4
3. y  c1 cos x  c2 sin x  sin x log  sec x  tan x   1.

1 1
4. y   c1  c2 x  e  c3e  xe  x e .
x 3x 3x 2 x
8 8
x 1
5. y  c1 cos x  c2 sin x  sin x  cos3 x
4 16
 a  a 'sin nt
6. x  e
 n cos t
 sin  n sin t    2
 2n cos  sin 
2
 2n cos 
x 3  1
3
x 3
2  26 
y  c e  e  c2 cos x  c3 sin x  5cos x  sin x 
2
7. 1
2

  3 
x
3
8. y  c  c x  e 2

 c cos x  c sin x
2 
1 2 3 4
 2
x 4 bx 5 ax3
  a  3b     3bx 2
12 20 3
Self - Learning
216 Material
3 x 3
9. y  c1  c2 x  c3e  c4 e  e2 x
x
20
2 1  x4 2 7 
  2sin x  cos x     x3  x 2 
5 3  12 9 9  NOTES
1
10. y   c1  c2 x  e  e  2 x  4 x  3
x 3x 2
8
xe x
11. y  ae 2 x   b cos x  c sin x  e x   3sin x  cos x 
20
1 2
12. y  c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x  x sin x  cos x
3 9
1
13.   x 4  9 x 2  cos x  4 x3 sin x 
48  
14. An equation of the form,
n 1
dny n 1 d y dy
P0 ( a  bx) n n
 P1 ( a  bx ) n 1
 ...  Pn 1 ( a  bx)  Pn y  f ( x)
dx dx dx
where a, b, P0, P1, P2, …, Pn are constants and f(x) is either a constant or
a function of x.
This equation can be reduced to a homogeneous linear equation.
y3
15. a 2 x  x 2 y  xy 2   c
3
1 x
16. x  y  2a tan y  k
2 2 2
1
17. 2 x 2 y 2  3 y  c  0
18. x 2  y 2  cx
 x3
19. 3 y 3  log y  c
x 1
20. xy  log  y   xy  c
 
21.  x 2  y 2  e x  c
22. 3x 2 y 4  6 xy 2  2 y 6  k
3
 y 2
23. 6 xy     c
 x
24.  x 2  y 2  2c  x 2  2 xy  2c   0
Self - Learning
Material 217
 x x 2 
25. log   1    y  c
 y y 2 
NOTES 26. x = tan p + c; y = p tan p + log cos p
27. y  2k x  f  k 2  , where  a  k
p1 1
28. x  1  p 2  tan p ; y   1  p 2  c
   
29. x  y  2  0, x  y  2  0, x  y  2  0, x  y  2  0    
30. 4 y  x 2  0
31. y 2  m2 x 2  m2
32. x2 + y2 – 2a2 log x = k
33. rn = kn sin n
4.10 SUMMARY
 A linear differential equation of order n is of the form
dn y d n 1 y d n2 y
P0  P1  P2  .......  Pn y  X , where, P , P , P ,….., P
dx n dx n 1 dx n  2 0 1 2 n
and X are either the functions of x or constants.

d dy
 D, which is used to replace the part of the symbol , is regarded as
dx dx
differential operator.
 If y = y1, y = y2, …, y = yn be the linear independent solutions of
a D 0
n
 a1 D n 1  a2 Dn  2  .......  an y  0 , then
y  c1 y1  c2 y2  ....  cn yn where c1, c2, c3, ...,cn are arbitrary constants,
is the general or complete solution of the differential equation
dn y d n 1 y d n 2 y
P0  P1  P2  .......  Pn y  X .
dx n dx n 1 dx n 2
n 1
dny n 1 d y
 The homogeneous equation P0 x n  P1 x  ...  Pn y  X can be
dx n dx n 1
reduced into a linear equation with constant coefficients
 P0 D(D  1)...(D  n  1)  P1 D(D  1)...(D  n  2)  ...  Pn 1D  Pn  y  Z
by changing the independent variable x to z and by putting x = ez, i.e., z =
log x.
Self - Learning
218 Material
dny d n 1 y dy Differential Equations
 An equation of the form P (a  bx) 0
n
dx n
 P1 (a  bx) n1 n 1  ...  Pn 1 (a  bx )  Pn y  f ( x)
dx dx
can be reduced to a linear equation with constant coefficients
 ez  a 
 P0 b n D(D  1)...(D  n  1)  P1b n 1 D(D  1)...(D  n  2)  ...  Pn 1bD  Pn  y  f   by
 b  NOTES
putting (a + bx) = e , i.e., z = log(a + bx).
z
 The necessary and sufficient condition for the ordinary differential equation
M N
M dx  N dy  0 to be exact is y  x .
 If M dx  N dy  0 is an exact differential equation, then its solution is given
by

y constant
Mdx 
 (Terms of N not conatining x)dy  c .
 The number of integrating factors of the differential equation M dx  N dy  0

is infinite.
 The differential equation of first order and nth degree is generally represented
by
p n  A1 p n 1  A 2 p n  2  A 3 p n  3    A n 1 p  A n  0 , where p denotes
dy
and
dx
A1 , A 2 , A3 ,  , A n  1 , A n are functions of x and y.
 The differential equation can be classified into three categorie, which are as
follows:
o Equations solvable for p, i.e., of the form p  f  x, y 
o Equations solvable for y, i.e., of the form y  f  x, p 
o Equations solvable for x, i.e., of the form x  f  y, p 
 The general solution of p n  A1 p n 1  A 2 p n  2  A 3 p n  3   A n 1 p  A n  0

in case of solvable for p can be written as
 f1  x, y, c    f 2  x, y , c    f 3  x, y, c     f n  x, y, c   0
 A differential equation is said to be solvable for y, if it can be expressed as

y  f  x, p  .
 A differential equation is said to be solvable for x, if x can be expressed as
x  f  y, p  .
 The differential equation of the form y  px  f  p  is termed as Clairaut’ss

equation.
Self - Learning
Material 219
Differential Equations  A singular solution is a solution of differential equation which cannot be
obtained from its general solution by assigning any particular values to the
arbitrary constants.
 The discriminant of a polynomial is an expression, which gives information
NOTES
about the nature of the polynomial’s roots.
 c-discriminant represents the locus of each point, which has equal values of
c in   x, y, c   0 .
 p-discriminant represents the locus of each point, which has equal values of
p in f  x, y , p   0 .
 The differential equation of orthogonal trajectories in Cartesian coordinates
 dx 
of the family f(x, y, z) = 0 is given by F  x, y,    0 .
 dy 
 The differential equation of orthogonal trajectories in polar coordinates of
 2 d 
the family f(r, , c) = 0 is given by F  r , , r   0.
 dr 
4.11 KEY TERMS

 Linear differential equation: It is a differential equation in which the
dependent variable and all its derivatives appear only in the first degree and
are not multiplied together.
1
 Inverse operator: is known as the inverse operator of the
f (D)
operator f (D) , if y  1 X gives the solution of equation f (D) y  X .
f (D)
 Homogeneous linear equation: It is an equation of the form
n 1
dny n 1 d y
P0 x n n
 P1 x n 1
 ...  Pn y  X , where P 0 , P 1 , P 2 , …, P n are
dx dx
constants and X is either constant or a function of x.
 Exact differential equation: It is a differential equation which can be
obtained from its solution  f  x, y   c  directly by differentiation without
any further multiplication and elimination.
 Integrating factor: If the left side of the equation M dx  N dy  0 is not an
exact but it can be made exact by multiplying it with a function   x, y  , then
  x, y  is called the integrating factor..
 Orthogonal trajectory: It is a curve which cuts every member of a given
family of curves at right angles.
Self - Learning
220 Material
EXERCISES
NOTES
1. Solve the following differential equations:
d4 y
(i)  4y  0
dx 4
4
 2
(ii) D  13D  36 y  0 
(iii)  D  ( a  b)D  ab  y  0
2
6
 6
(iv) D  a y  0 
(v) D 4
 2n 2 D2  n 4 y  0
d2 y
(vi)  y  sec x
dx 2
d2 y dy
(vii) 2
4  4 y  e 2 x  e2 x
dx dx
d2x dx dx
2. Solve 2
4  3 x  0 , given that for t = 0, x = 0 and  12 .
dt dt dt
d2x dx
3. Solve 2
 b 2 x  k cos bt , given that x = 0 and  0 , when t = 0.
dt dt
dy
(i)  x 1 1 e x  y
dx
(ii)  xe xy
 2 y  dy  ye xy dx  0
xdy  ydx
(iii) xdx  ydy  x 2  y 2  0
(iv)  x 3  3xy 2  dx   3x 2 y  y 3  dy  0
(v) ( y cos x  sin y  y )dx  (sin x  x cos y  x)dy  0
(vi) [cos x tan y  cos( x  y )]dx  [sin x sec2 y  cos( x  y )]dy  0
  1 
(vii)  y 1  x   cos y  dx  ( x  log x  x sin y )dy  0
   
(viii) cos x(cos x  sin a sin y )dx  cos y (cos y  sin a sin x)dy  0
Self - Learning
Material 221
Differential Equations 5. Solve the following differential equations:
(i) x 2 ydx   x 3  y 3  dy  0
NOTES (ii)  3 xy 2  y 3  dx   2 x 2 y  xy 2  dy  0
(iii) y  x 2 y 2  2  dx  x  2  2 x 2 y 2  dy  0
(iv)  xy sin xy  cos xy  ydx   xy sin xy  cos xy  xdy  0

(v)  x 2  y 2  x  dx  xydy  0
 y3 x2  1
(vi)  y  3  2  dx  4  x  xy  dy  0
2
 
(vii)  xy 2  x 2  dx   3x 2 y 2  x 2 y  2 x3  y 2  dy  0
(viii)  2 xy 4 e y  2 xy 3  y  dx   x 2 y 4 e y  x 2 y 2  3x  dy  0
(ix) x  4 ydx  2 xdy   y 3  3 ydx  5 xdy   0

(x) x  3 ydx  4 xdy   y 2  2 ydx  6 xdy   0
6. Solve the differential equations for p:
(i) xp 2   y  x  p  y  0
(ii) xyp 2  p  3x 2  2 y 2   6 xy  0
(iii) p 2  2 p cosh x 1  0
 y4  2 2y y2
(iv)  1  y 2
  p  p   0
 x2  x x2
(vi) p 2  p( x 2  xy  y 2 )  xy ( x  y )  0
7. Solve the differential equations for y:
(i) p 2  2 py  x  0
(ii) xp 2  2 yp  ax  0
(iii) y  x  a tan 1 p
(v) p 3  mp 2  a  y  mx 
8. Solve the differential equations for x:
(i) y  2 px  y 2 p 3
(ii) p 3  4 xyp  8 y 2  0
(iii) x 2  a 2 (1  p 2 )
(vi) p 3  p( y  3)  x  0
Self - Learning
222 Material
9. Solve the differential equation y  px  p  p 2 and obtain the singular solution.
10. Solve the differential equation p  log  px  y  and obtain the singular
solution.
NOTES
11. Solve the differential equation y  px  a p  b and obtain the singular
2 2 2
solution.
d2y dy 1
1. Solve the differential equation x 2 2
 x  y  0 given that y  x  is
dx dx x
one integral.
d2y dy
2. Solve the differential equation 1  x 2  2
 x  m 2 y  0 given that
dx dx
1
y  ce m sin x
is a solution.
d2y dy
(i) x 2 2
 2  x2  x    x2  2 x  2 y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(ii) 2
 2 tan x  5 y  e x sec x
dx dx
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  3 y  e x
2
(iii) 2
dx dx
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  1 y  3e x sin 2 x  5e2 x  6
2
(iv) 2
dx dx
d 2 y 2 dy  2 
(v)    1  2  y  xe x
dx 2 x dx  x 
d2y dy
(vi) x 2 (log x) 2 2
 2 x log x   2  log x  2(log x) 2  y  (log x)3 x 2
dx dx
1 2
d2y dy
 
x
(vii) 2
 2 x  x 2
 5 y  xe 2
dx dx
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  1 y  e x  5  3cos 2 x 
2
(viii) 2
dx dx
d 2 y 2 dy
(ix) 2
  n2 y
dx x dx
d  dy  dy
 x  y   2x  2 y  x y  0
2
(x) x
dx  dx  dx
4. Solve the differential equation y  px  p 3 and obtain the singular solution.
5. Reduce the equation  px 2  y 2   px  y    p  1 to Clairaut’s form by

2
putting x + y = u and xy = v and hence find its singular solution.

Self - Learning
Material 223
Differential Equations 6. Find the orthogonal trajectory of the following family of curves:
(i) xy = c2 (ii) y2 = 4ax (iii) y = ax2 (iv) x2 + y2 = a2
7. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves px2 + qy2 = a2,
NOTES where p and q are constants.
8. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of circles x2 + y2 + 2fy + 1 =
0, where f is a parameter.
9. Find orthogonal trajectories of the series of logarithmic spirals r = a, where
a varies.
10. Find the orthogonal trajectories of x2 + y2 – ay = 0.
11. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the series of curves r = a + sin 5.
 k2 
12. Find the orthogonal trajectories of  r   cos θ = α , where  is a
 r 
parameter.

Orient Longman.
Hall.
and Sons.
Publishing House.
Self - Learning
224 Material
Linear Differential Equations
UNIT 5 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL and Method of Variation of

Parameters
EQUATIONS AND METHOD OF

VARIATION OF PARAMETERS NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
5.3 Homogeneous Linear Ordinary Differential Equations
5.4 Linear Differential Equation of Second Order
5.5 Method of Variation of Parameters
5.7 Summary
5.8 Key Terms
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, a differential equation has constant coefficients if only constant
functions appear as coefficients in the associated homogeneous equation. The
linear differential equation or a system of linear equations is generally the associated
homogeneous equations having constant coefficients which may be solved by
quadrature (mathematics), which means that the solutions may be expressed in
terms of integrals.
A homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients
is an ordinary differential equation in which coefficients are constants (not functions),
i.e., all terms are linear, and the entire differential equation is equal to zero, i.e., it is
a homogeneous equation. Basically, a differential equation is homogeneous if it is a
homogeneous function of the unknown function and its derivatives. In the case of
linear differential equations, this means that there are no constant terms. The solutions
of any linear ordinary differential equation of any order may be deduced by
integration from the solution of the homogeneous equation obtained by removing
the constant term. The general solution of the homogeneous differential equation
depends on the roots of the characteristic quadratic equation.
The differential equations may contain one independent variable and two or
more than two dependent variables. The equation may be ordinary or partial
depending upon the ordinary or partial derivatives. To solve such equations, you
will require as many numbers of simultaneous differential equations as are the
number of dependent variables.
Self - Learning
Material 225
Linear Differential Equations In mathematics, variation of parameters, also known as variation of constants,
and Method of Variation of
Parameters is a general method to solve inhomogeneous linear ordinary differential equations.
For first order inhomogeneous linear differential equations, it is usually possible to
find solutions through integrating factors or undetermined coefficients with
NOTES considerably less effort, although those methods leverage heuristics that involve
guessing and is not appropriate for all inhomogeneous linear differential equations.
In this unit, you will study about the linear differential equations with constant
coefficients, homogeneous linear ordinary differential equations, linear differential
equation of second order, transformation of equations by changing the dependent
variable and the independent variable, and method of variation of parameters.
5.1 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss about the linear differential equations with constant coefficients
 Understand the various theorems related to linear differential equations
 Solve simultaneous linear differential equations with constant coefficients
 Define what homogeneous linear ordinary differential equations are
 Reduce a homogeneous linear equation into a linear equation with constant
coefficients
 Reduce a linear differential equation to a homogeneous linear equation
 Explain the characteristics of linear differential equation of second order
 Solve a linear differential equation of second order
 Analyse the transformation of equations by changing the dependent variable
and the independent variable
 Elaborate on the method of variation of parameters
5.2 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
In mathematics, an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is a differential equation
containing one or more functions of one independent variable and the derivatives
of those functions. Basically, an ordinary differential equation is a relation that
contains function of only one independent variable, and one or more of than two
dependent variables. The equation may be ordinary or partial depending upon the
ordinary or partial derivatives. To solve such equations, you will require as many
numbers of simultaneous differential equations as are the number of dependent
variables.
Self - Learning
226 Material
Methods of Solving Simultaneous Linear Differential Equations with Linear Differential Equations
Constant Coefficients Parameters
In this section, we shall discuss two methods for solving the simultaneous linear
differential equation where x, and y are two dependent variables and t is the NOTES
independent variable.
Using Operator D
Let the symbolic form of the equations be F1(D)x + F2(D)y = T1 … (1)
and  1(D)x +  2(D)y = T2 … (2)
d
where D denotes . Also, T1 and T2 are functions of independent variable t and
dt
F1(D), F2(D),  1(D) and  2(D) are all rational integral functions of D with constant
coefficients.
Now, eliminate x from Equation (1) and Equation (2) by operating on both
sides of Equation (1) by  1(D) and Equation (2) by F1(D), we get
F1(D)  1(D)x + F2(D)  1(D)y =  1(D)T1
 1(D)F1(D)x +  2(D)F1(D)y = F1(D)T2
On subtracting these equations, we get
F2(D)  1(D)y   2(D)F1(D)y =  1(D)T1  F1(D)T2
 g1(D) y = T (say)
Which is a linear equation in y and t. This equation can be solved to get the value
of y.
Now, by putting this value of y in Equation (1) or Equation (2), we get the
value of x.
Note: Similarly, we can also eliminate y and get a linear differential equation in x
and t which can be solved to get the value of x in terms of t. Further the value of
y can be obtained from Equation (1) or Equation (2) by putting the value of x.
Method of Differentiation
Sometimes, by differentiating one of the Equations (1) or (2) or both, we can
easily eliminate x or y. From resulting equation, after eliminating one dependent
variable, x or y can be solved to give the other dependent variable and then the
value of the other variable can be obtained by putting these values in Equations (1)
or (2).
Self - Learning
Material 227
Linear Differential Equations Example 5.1: Solve the simultaneous equations
Parameters dx dy
 4 x  3 y  t and  2 x  5 y  et
dt dt
NOTES dx
Solution: The given equations are  4x  3y  t … (i)
dt
dy
and  2 x  5 y  et … (ii)
dt
d
By putting = D in Equations (i) and (ii), we get
dt
 D  4 x  3 y  t ... (iii)
and 2 x   D  5  y  et ...(iv)
Eliminating y, we get  D  4  D  5   6  x   D  5  t  3et
 D 2
 9D  14  x  1  5t  3et .
 Its A.E. is D 2  9D  14  0  D  2, 7

 C.F. = c1e 2t  c2e 7 t
1 1
2 
P.I.  . 1  5t   .3et
14  9D  D 14  9D  D 2
1
1  9 1  3et
 1  D  D 2  . 1  5t  
14  14 14  14  9  1
1  9  1 t
 1  D  ...  1  5t   e
14  14  8
1 9  1 t 1 31  1 t
  1  5t  .5   e   5t    e
14  14  8 14  14  8
2 t 5 1 31
  x  c1 e  c2 e 7t 
t  et 
14 8 196
dx 5 1 t
  2c1e 2t  7c2 e 7t   e
dt 14 8
dx
By putting the values of x and in Equation (i), we get
dt
2 t 7 t 10 5 31 1 t 1 t
3y  2c1e  3c2 e  t  t    e  e
7 14 49 8 2
1 2 t 3 27 5 t 
  y   2c1e  3c2 e 7 t  t   e
3 7 98 8 
5 31 1 t
and x  c1e2t  c2 e2t  t  e .
14 196 8
Self - Learning
228 Material
Example 5.2: Solve the simultaneous equations Linear Differential Equations
Parameters
dx dy dx dy
 2  2 x  2 y  3et and 3   2 x  y  4e 2 t
dt dt dt dt
NOTES
dx dy
Solution: The given Equations are  2  2 x  2 y  3e
t
… (i)
dt dt
dx dy
and 3   2 x  y  4e 2 t … (ii)
dt dt
d
By putting  D in the Equations (i) and (ii), we get
dt
Dx  2Dy  2 x  2 y  3et
 (D  2) x  2(D  1) y  3et … (iii)
and (3D  2) x  (D  1) y  4e 2t … (iv)

To eliminate y from Equations (iii) and (iv), multiply Equation (iv) by 2 and subtract
from Equation (iii).
(D  2) x  2(D  1) y  2(3D  2) x  2(D  1) y  3e t  8e 2t
  D  2  6D  4 x  3et  8e2t
 (5D  6) x  3et  8e2t
dx 6 8 3
 (5D  6) x  8e 2t  3et   x  e 2t  et … (v)
dt 5 5 5
dx
Which is a linear differential equation of the form  Px  Q
dt
6 8 3
Where P  and Q  e2t  et
5 5 5
6 6
 I.F. = e  Pdt  e  5 dt  e 5 t
 6
t  8 3  6
t
Thus, the solution of Equation (v) is x  e     5 e  5 e  e dt  c1
5 2t t 5
   
6
 8 16 t 3 11t  16 11
xe 5    e 5  e 5  dt  c1  8 5 e 5  3 5 e 5  c1
t t t

5 5  5 16 5 11
6
 t  1 165 t 3 115 t  6
 t
 xe 5
 e  e   c1e
5
 2 11 
6
1 2t 3 t  t
 x  e  e  c1e 5 … (vi)
2 11
6
dx 1 3  6  t
  (2)e 2t  et  c1    e 5 … (vii)
dt 2 11  5
Self - Learning
Material 229
dx dy
and Method of Variation of From Equation (i),  2 x  2  2 y  3et
Parameters dt dt
Using Equations (vi) and (vii), we get
NOTES 3 t 6  65 t  1 2t 3 t  t
6
dy
e  e  c1e  2  e  e  c1e 5   2  2 y  3et
2t
11 5 2 11  dt
6 6
dy 30 16  t dy 15 8  t
 2  2 y  et  c1e 5   y  et  c1 e 5 … (viii)
dt 11 5 dt 11 5
Which is a linear differential equation.
I.F.  e 
1dt
 et
Thus, the solution of Equation (viii) is
 15 t 8  65 t  t
ye    e  c1e  e dt  c2
t
 11 5 
 15 8  1t  1
   e 2t  c1e 5  dt  c2  15 e 2t  8c1e 5  c2
 t
 11 5  22
6
15 t  t
 y  e  8c1e 5  c2 e  t
22
Hence the required solutions of given equations are
6 6
1 3  t 15  t
x  e 2t  et  c1e 5 ; y  et  8c1e 5  c2 e t
2 11 22
dx dy
Example 5.3: Solve the simultaneous equations t  y  0, t  x  0
dt dt
given that x(1) = 1, y(–1) = 0.
dx
Solution: The given equations are t  y  0 … (i)
dt
dy
and t  x  0 … (ii)
dt
d2x dx dy
Differentiating Equation (i) with respect to t, we have t 2
   0
dt dt dt
d2x dx dy
Multiplying by t, we get t 2 2
t t  0 … (iii)
dt dt dt
d2x dx
Subtracting Equation (ii) from Equation (iii), we get t 2 2
t  x  0 … (iv)
dt dt
Which is an homogeneous linear equation.
Self - Learning
230 Material
Put t = ez  log t = z Linear Differential Equations
d2 Parameters
d d
 t   D and t 2 2  D(D  1)
dt dz dt
 Equation (iv) becomes [D(D  1)  (D  1)]x  0 NOTES
 [D 2  1]x  0
 Its A.E. is D 2  1 = 0  D2 = 1  D = 1
Thus the solution is x  c1e z  c2 e z
c2
 x  c1t  c2t 1  c1t  … (v)
t
dx c
Differentiating Equation (v) with respect to t, we get  c1  22
dt t
dx  c 
By putting this value of in Equation (i), we get t c1  22   y  0
dt  t 
c2 c
 c1t   y  0  y  c1t  2 … (vi)
t t
Given, x(1) = 1; y(1) = 0
Putting t = 1, x = 1 in Equation (v), we have 1 = c1 + c2 … (vii)
Putting t = 1, y = 0 in Equation (vi), we have 0 = c1  c2 … (viii)
1
Solving Equations (vii) and (viii), we get c1  c2 
2
1 1 1 1
Thus, the required solutions are x   t   ; y   t   .
2 t  2  t  
Simultaneous Equations in a Different Form
If the equations are given in the form P1dx + Q1dy + R1dz = 0 … (3)
and P2dx + Q2dy + R2dz = 0 … (4)
where P1, P2, Q1, Q2, R1, R2 are all function of x, y, z.
Dividing Equations (3) and (4) by dz, we get
dx dy
P1  Q1  R1  0 … (5)
dz dz
dx dy
and P2  Q2  R2  0 … (6)
dz dz
Solving Equations (5) and (6), by cross-multiplication method, we get
dx dy
dz dz 1
 
Q1 R 2  Q2 R1 R 1 P2  R 2 P1 P1 Q 2  P2 Q1
Self - Learning
Material 231
dx dy dz
  
Parameters Q1 R 2  Q 2 R1 R 1 P2  R 2 P1 P1 Q 2  P2 Q1
dx dy dz
NOTES which is of the form P  Q  R … (7)
where P, Q, R are functions of x, y and z.

Thus, simultaneous equation of the type Equations (3) and (4) can always
be put in the form Equation (5).
dx dy dz
Methods for Solving the Equation  
P Q R
First Method: Let the multipliers l, m, n be such that
dx dy dz ldx  mdy  ndz
  
P Q R lP  mQ  nR
Choose l, m, n such that lP + mQ + nR = 0, and hence ldx + mdy + ndz = 0
If it is an exact differential equation say du, then on integrating, we get, one
part of the complete solution of Equation (5).
Again, if we choose another set of multipliers l , m , n  such that
l ' P  m ' Q  n ' R  0 we get l ' dx  m ' dy  n ' dz  0
Then, on integration, it will give another equation. The two equations thus
obtained by using two sets of multipliers will form the complete solutions of given
simultaneous equations.
Note: Sometimes it may also happen that we choose multipliers l, m, n such that
ldx  mdy  ndz
lP  mQ  nR is of the form that numerator is the exact differential co-efficient
of the denominator.
dx dy dz
Second Method: The given equations are P  Q  R … (8)
dx dy
First take any two members of P  Q (say) and integrate it to get one of
the equation of the complete solution.
dy dz
Again, take other two members  (say) and integrate it also to get
Q R
another equation of the complete solution. These two equations so obtained form
the complete solution.
dx dy dz
Example 5.4: Solve the simultaneous equations   .
cos( x  y ) sin( x  y ) z  1
z
dx dy dz
Solution: The given equations are   … (i)
cos( x  y ) sin( x  y ) z  1
z
Self - Learning
232 Material
Choosing 1, 1, 0 as multipliers, we get Linear Differential Equations
dx dy dz dx  dy Parameters
  
cos( x  y ) sin( x  y ) z  1 cos( x  y )  sin( x  y )
z NOTES
zdz dx  dy
 
z  1 sin( x  y )  cos( x  y )
2
2 zdz d ( x  y)
 
2( z 2  1)  
2 sin  x  y  
 4
1  2 zdz   
    cos ec ( x  y )   d ( x  y )
2  z  1
2
 4
1 1 
log( z 2  1)  log tan  ( x  y )    log c1
2 2 4
 x y 
log( z 2  1)1/ 2
 log tan     log c1
 2 8
( z 2  1)1/ 2 ( z 2  1)1 / 2
log  log c1  c1
  x y    x y   … (ii)
tan    tan   
 2 8  2 8 
Now, choosing 1, 1, 0 and 1, 1, 0 as multipliers in Equation (i), we get

dx  dy dx  dy

cos( x  y )  sin( x  y ) cos( x  y )  sin( x  y )
cos( x  y)  sin( x  y ) (dx  dy )  dx  dy
 cos( x  y )  sin( x  y )
cos( x  y)  sin( x  y ) d ( x  y )  d ( x  y )
 sin( x  y )  cos( x  y )
Integrating both sides, we have log sin( x  y )  cos( x  y ) x  y  log c2

 log sin( x  y )  cos( x  y ) ( y  x)  log c2
 log sin( x  y )  cos( x  y )e y  x  log c2
 sin( x  y )  cos( x  y )e y  x  c2 … (iii)
Thus, Equations (ii) and (iii) together form the complete solution of the given
equations.
xdx dy dz
Example 5.5: Solve the simultaneous equations   .
z  2 yz  y
2 2
yz yz
xdx dy dz
z  2 yz  y
2 2
yz yz
Self - Learning
Material 233
Linear Differential Equations Choosing 1, y, z as multipliers, we get
Parameters xdx dy dz
 
z  2 yz  y
2 2
yz yz
NOTES xdx  ydy  zdz
 xdx  ydy  zdz

z  2 yz  y  y ( y  z )  z ( y  z )
2 2
0
 xdx + ydy + zdz = 0
x 2 y 2 z 2 c1
Integrating both sides, we get    , where c1 is any arbitrary
2 2 2 2
constant.
 x2 + y2 + z2 = c1 … (ii)
dy dz
From last two fractions of Equation (i), we have y  z  y  z
 (y  z) dy = (y + z) dz  ydy  (zdy + ydz)  zdz = 0

y2 z2 c
Integrating both sides, we get  yz   2 , where c2 is any arbitrary
2 2 2
constant.
 y2  2yz  z2 = c2 … (iii)
equations.
dx dy dz
Example 5.6: Solve   .
yz zx x y
dx dy dz
yz zx x y
From Equation (i), we have
dx  dy dy  dz dx  dy  dz
 
yx zy 2 x  y  z 
dx  dy dy  dz
Choosing the first two members, we have 
yx zy
On integrating both sides, we get log  y  x   log  z  y   log c1

yx
  c1  x  y  c1 ( y  z ) … (ii)
zy
Again choosing the first and the last members, we have
1
 log  x  y   log  x  y  z   log c2
2
  x  y   x  y  z   c2
2
…(iii)
equations.
Self - Learning
234 Material
Check Your Progress Parameters
Solving the following equations:
dx dy NOTES
1.  7 x  y  0 and  2x  5 y  0 .
dt dt
dx dy
2.  5 x  y  et and  x  3 y  e2t
dt dt
dx dy dz
3.  2 y,  2 z ,  2 x .
dt dt dt
adx bdy cdz
4. (b  c) yz  (c  a) zx  (a  b) xy
dx dy dz
5. y 3 x  2 x 4  2 y 4  x 3 y  9 z ( x3  y 3 )
dx dy dz
6. x  y  ( x  y )  z
dx dy dz
7. y 2  x 2  x 2 y 2 z 2
5.3 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR ORDINARY

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Consider the following differential equations:
d2y dy
1. x 2  4x  2 y  ex
dx 2 dx
d3y dy
2. (2 x  1)3 3
 (2 x  1)  2 y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
3. x 2
 2x  2 y  ex
dx dx
All these differential equations are linear since the dependent variable y and
its derivatives occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied together. In the
first equation the powers of x are same as the order of the derivatives associated
with them. Such equations are called homogeneous linear equations. The second
equation in the given form is not homogeneous but can be changed to homogeneous
by replacing 2x – 1 with X. The third equation is linear but it not homogeneous.
Homogeneous linear equation is an equation of the form
n 1
dny n 1 d y
P0 x n n
 P1 x n 1
 ...  Pn y  X
dx dx
where P0, P1, P2, …, Pn are constants and X is either a constant or a function of x.
Self - Learning
Material 235
Linear Differential Equations Method of Solution
n 1
Parameters dny n 1 d y
The homogeneous equation P0 x n n
 P1 x n 1
 ...  Pn y  X …(9)
dx dx
NOTES can be reduced into a linear equation with constant coefficients by changing the
independent variable x to z.
Taking x = ez Þ z = log x
dz 1
Differentiating with respect to x, we get 
dx x
dy dy dz 1 dy
Now, we have  . 
dx dz dx x dz
dy dy
Thus, x  …(10)
dx dz
d 2 y d  dy 
  
dx 2 dx  dx 
d  1 dy 
  
dx  x dz 
1 dy 1 d 2 y dz
 .  . .
x 2 dz x dz 2 dx
1 d 2 y 1 dy 1  d 2 y dy   dz 1 
 .  .    
x 2 dz 2 x 2 dz x 2  dz 2 dz   dx  x 
 
d 2 y d 2 y dy
Thus, x 2   …(11)
dx 2 dz 2 dz
Proceeding likewise, we can have
d3y d3y d2y dy
x3 3
 3
 3 2
2 …(12)
dx dz dz dz
and so on.
d
Replacing by D in Equations (10), (11), (12), …
dz
dy
x  Dy ,
dx
d2y
x2  D 2 y  Dy = D(D  1) y ,
dx 2
d3y
x3  D3 y  3D 2 y + 2Dy  D(D  1)(D  2) y ,
dx 3
……………………………….
dny
xn  D(D  1)(D  2)...(D  n  1) y
Self - Learning dx n
236 Material
Substituting these values in Equation (9), we get Linear Differential Equations
Parameters
 P0 D(D  1)...(D  n  1)  P1 D(D  1)...(D  n  2)  ...  Pn1D  Pn  y  Z
…(13)
NOTES
where Z is a function of z to which X is transformed.
The Equation (13) is a linear equation with constant coefficients, which can
be solved for y in terms of z.
Suppose the solution of equation (v) is y = f(z), then the solution of
Equation (9) can be obtained as y = f(log x).
d2y dy
Example 5.7: Solve the linear differential equation x 2 2
 x  3 y  x 2 log x .
dx dx
d
Solution: Putting x  e z  z  log x and  D in the given equation, we get
dz
 D  D  1  D  3 y  ze 2 z   D  2D  3 y  ze
2 2z
Then, the Auxiliary Equation (A.E.) is D 2  2D  3  0 Þ D  3, 1

C.F.  c1e3 z  c2 e  z
1
And P.I.  .ze 2 z
D  2D  3
2
1
 e2 z .z
 D  2  2  D  2  3
2
 1 1 
  Xe ax   e ax X
 f  D  f  D  a  
1
 e2 z z
D  2D  3
2
1
 e2 z z
 2D D 2 
3 1   
 3 3 
1
e 2 z   2D D 2  1 2 z  2D 
 1      z   e 1  z [By Binomial Theorem]
3   3 3  3  3 
1  2
  e2 z  z  
3  3
Thus, the solution of the given equation is y = C.F. + P.I.
z 1  2
 y  c1e  c2 e  e  z  
3z 2z
3 3  
1 2 2
 e z  x  z  log x 
1
 y  c1 x  c2 x  x  log x  
3
3  3
Self - Learning
Material 237
Linear Differential Equations Example 5.8: Solve the linear differential equation
x D  3 xD  5  y  sin  log x  .
Parameters 2 2
d
NOTES Solution: Putting x  e z  z  log x and x.  xD  D' in the given equation,
dx
we get
 D '  D ' 1  3D ' 5 y  sin z   D '  4D' 5  y  sin z
2
Then, the A.E. is D '2  4D ' 5  0
4  16  20
 D = 2i
2
C.F.  e2 x  c1 cos z  c2 sin z 
1
And P.I.   sin z 
D '2  4D ' 5
1
 sin z
1  4D ' 5
1 1 1  D'
 . . sin z
4 1  D ' 1 + D'
1 1  D'
 . sin z
4 1  D'2
1 1  D'
 . sin z  1 sin z  D'  sin z   1 sin z  cos z 
4 1   1  8  8
Thus, the solution of the given equation is y  C.F. + P.I.

1
 y  e 2 z  c1 cos z  c2 sin z    sin z  cos z 
8
1
 y  x 2 c1 cos  log x   c2 sin  log x   sin  log x   cos  log x  
8
 e z  x  z  log x 
Check Your Progress

d3y d2 y 1
8. Solve the differential equation x   .
dx3 dx 2 x
d2y dy
 4x  2 y  ex .
dx dx
Self - Learning
238 Material
5.4 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF and Method of Variation of
Parameters
SECOND ORDER
Linear Differential Equation of Second Order is an equation of the form NOTES
d2y dy
2
P Qy R
dx dx
where P, Q and R are the functions of x.
Solution by Changing the Dependent Variable when One Integral
Belonging to the C.F. is Known
Let the linear differential equation of second order be
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  R ...(14)
dx dx
where P, Q and R are the functions of x only.
Let y = u be a known integral belonging to the C.F. of the Equation (14).
Thus, its solution is
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  0 ...(15)
dx dx
Taking y = uv and differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy d2y
 u1v  uv1 and  u2 v  2u1v1  uv2
dx dx 2
Putting these values in Equation (14), we get
 u2v  2u1v1  uv2   P  u1v  uv1   Q  uv   R
 uv2   2u1  Pu  v1   u2  Pu1  Qu  v  R ...(16)
Since y = u is the solution of Equation (15), thus Equation (15) can be
written as
u2  Pu1  Qu  0
Using this value in Equation (16), we get
uv2   2u1  Pu  v1  0  R
2  R
 v2   u1  P  v1 
 u  u
dp
Now, putting v1  p and v2  , we get
dx
dp  2  R
  u1  P  p  ...(17)
dx  u  u
This is a linear equation in p. Thus, its
2log u 
 elog u .e   u 2e
2  Pdx 2 Pdx Pdx
I.F. = e   u u1  P  dx  e .e
Self - Learning
Material 239
Linear Differential Equations Now, we have the solution of Equation (17) as
Parameters R Pdx 
p.u 2 e     .u 2 e   dx  c1
Pdx
u 
NOTES
 p  u 2 e    Rue   dx  c1u 2 e 
 Pdx Pdx  Pdx
 
dv  dv 
 u 2 e    Rue   dx  c1u 2 e 
 Pdx  Pdx
 p  dx 
Pdx

dx    
v    u 2 e   Rue  dx  dx  c1  u 2 e  dx  c2
 Pdx Pdx  Pdx
 
The complete solution of Equation (14) is given by y = uv
 y  u   u 2 e   Rue  dx  dx  c1u  u 2 e  dx  c2u

 Pdx Pdx  Pdx
 
Where c1 and c2 are two arbitrary constants.
d2y dy
Determining the particular integral of 2  P  Qy  0
dx dx
In case the integral of C.F. is not known while solving linear differential equations
of second degree, one of the following rules helps us in finding the particular integral
of
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  0 ...(18)
dx dx
Rule 1: Let y  emx be the solution of Equation (18).
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy d2y
 me mx and  m 2 e mx
dx dx 2
m 2 e mx  Pme mx  Qe mx  0
  m 2  Pm  Q  e mx  0
 m 2  Pm  Q = 0
Thus, y  emx is the solution of Equation (18) if m 2  Pm  Q = 0 .

Corollary: Taking m = 1, y = ex is a solution of Equation (18) if
1+P+Q=0.
Taking m = –1, y = e–x is a solution of Equation (18) if 1 – P + Q = 0.
Taking m = a, y = eax is a solution of Equation (18) if a2 + aP + Q = 0.
Rule 2: Let y  x m be the solution of Equation (18).
Self - Learning
240 Material
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get Linear Differential Equations
Parameters
dy d2y
 mx m 1 and  m(m  1) x m  2
dx dx 2
Putting these values in Equation (18), we get NOTES
m(m  1) x m  2  Pmx m 1  Qx m  0
 m( m  1)  Pmx  Qx 2  0
Thus, y  x m is the solution of Equation (18) if m(m  1)  Pmx  Qx 2  0 .

Corollary: Taking m = 1, y = x is a solution of Equation (18) if P + Qx = 0.
Taking m = 2, y = x2 is a solution of Equation (18) if 2 + 2Px +Qx2 = 0.
Example 5.9: Solve the differential equation
d2y dy
2
 cot x  1  cot x  y  e x sin x.
dx dx
Solution: The given differential equation is
d2y dy
 cot x  1  cot x  y  e x sin x ... (i)
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
Comparing it with 2  P  Qy  R, we get
dx dx
P   cot x,Q  1  cot x, R  e x sin x
Now, P  Q  1   cot x  1  cot x  1  0

Since P + Q + 1= 0, thus y  e x is a part of C.F..
Taking y  ve x ,
dy dv d2y d 2v dv
  ex  e x v and 2  e x 2  2 .e x  ve x
dx dx dx dx dx
Substituting these values in Equation (i), we get
d 2v dv  dv 
ex 2
 2 .e x  ve x  cot x  e x  e x v   1  cot x  ve x  e x sin x
dx dx  dx 
d 2v dv
 2
+  2  cot x   sin x
dx dx
dp dv dp d 2 v
   2  cot x  p  sin x where p  and  2 ...(ii)
dx dx dx dx
dp
This is a linear differential equation in p, i.e.,  P ' p  Q ' , where
dx
P = 2 – cot x and Q = sin x. Thus, its I.F.
e2 x e2 x
= e P ' dx
 e
 2  cot x  dx
e 2 x  log sin x  
elog sin x sin x
Self - Learning
Material 241
Linear Differential Equations Now, the solution of Equation (ii) is given by
Parameters p(I.F)   Q'(I.F)dx  c1
e2 x e2 x
NOTES  p.   sin x. dx  c1
sin x sin x
e2 x e2 x
 p.   c1
sin x 2
e 2 x sin x sin x
 p . 2 x  c1 2 x
2 e e
dv sin x  dv 
   c1e 2 x sin x  p  dx 
dx 2  
 sin x 
 dv    c1e 2 x sin x  dx
 2 
 sin x 
Integrating both sides, we get  dv   
 2
 c1e 2 x sin x  dx

cos x c1e 2 x
v     2sin x  cos x   c2
2 5
Thus, the complete solution of Equation (i) is given by y  ve x
1 x c1e  x
 y   e cos x   2sin x  cos x   c2 e x
2 5
Solution by Removing the First Derivative and Changing the

Dependent Variable
In case the integral of the C.F. is neither known nor can be found using the rules,
there is a need of other method to find the solution of linear differential equation of
second order. Here, we will learn the method which is independent of integral of
C.F.
Consider the linear differential equation of second order
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  R ...(19)
dx dx
Change the dependent variable in the Equation (19) by putting y  uv , where
u and v are the functions of x.
dy dv du d2y d 2v du dv d 2u
Now, u  v and 2
u 2 2 . v 2
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
 d 2v du dv d 2u   dv du 
u 2  2 .  v 2   Pu  v   Q(uv)  R
 dx dx dx dx   dx dx 
Self - Learning
242 Material
d 2v  du  dv  d 2u du  and Method of Variation of
 u 2   Pu  2    2  P  Qu  v  R
dx  dx  dx  dx dx Parameters

d 2v  2 du  dv  1 d 2u P du  R
 2
  P  .    . 2  .  Qv  ...(20) NOTES
dx  u dx  dx  u dx u dx  u
dv
Taking u such that the coefficient of first derivative = 0 (i.e., removing
dx
first derivative from Equation (20)), we get
2 du du P
P+ 0  = dx
u dx u 2
du 1
 u
=
2 
Pdx
1
1 2
Pdx
 log u =
2  Pdx  u = e …(21)
2 du
Since P +  0 , Equation (20) becomes
u dx
d 2 v  1 d 2u P du  R
2
  . 2  .  Qv  …(22)
dx  u dx u dx  u
From Equation (21),
1
du  Pdx  1  1
=e2  P   Pu
dx  2  2
d 2u 1  Pdu d P  1  1 dP  1 2 1 dP
and 2
=   u    P 2u  u  P u u
dx 2  dx dx  2  2 dx  4 2 dx
d 2v  1  1 2 1 dP  P  1   1
2
Pdx
2
   P u  u    P u   Q  v  Re
dx u  4 2 dx  u  2  
1
d 2 v  1 2 1 dP 1 2  2
Pdx
 2
  P   P  Q  v  R e
dx 4 2 dx 2 
1
d 2v  1 dP 1 2  2
Pdx d 2v
 2
  Q   P  v  R e  2  Pv  Q ...(23)
dx  2 dx 4  dx
1
1 dP 1 2
 P ,Q = R e 2 
Pdx
where P = Q  .
2 dx 4
The Equation (23) is called the normal form of the Equation (19).
Equation (23) can easily be integrated and then can be solved for v.
Thus, the general solution of Equation (19) is y = uv, which contains two
arbitrary constants.
Self - Learning
Material 243
Linear Differential Equations d  dy 
 cos x   y cos x  0 .
2 2
and Method of Variation of Example 5.10: Solve the differential equation
Parameters dx  dx 
d  2 dy 
 cos x   y cos x  0
2
NOTES dx  dx 
d2y dy
 cos 2 x 2
  2sin x cos x   y cos 2 x  0
dx dx
d2y dy
 2
 2 tan x  y  0 ...(i)
dx dx
d2y dy
Comparing Equation (i) with 2
 P  Qy  R , we get
dx dx
P = –2 tan x, Q = 1 and R = 0
Putting y  uv in Equation (i), the equation is transformed into
d 2v
 P'v  Q ...(ii)
dx 2
1 1
where u  e  2  Pdx
 e 2
 2 tan x dx
 elog sec x  sec x
1 dP 1 2 1 d 1
P'  Q   P 1  2 tan x    4 tan 2 x 
2 dx 4 2 dx 4
 1  sec 2 x  tan 2 x  1  1  tan 2 x   tan 2 x  2
1
Q'  R e2
Pdx
and 0
d 2v
Putting these values in Equation (ii), it gets transformed into  2v  0
dx 2
…(iii)
Symbolic form of this equation is  D 2  2  v  0
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  2  0  D 2  2  D   2i
Now, the solution of Equation (iii) is given by v  c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x

Thus, the solution of Equation (i) is given by y  uv
 y  sec x  c1 cos 2 x  c2 sin 2 x 
Solution by Changing the Independent Variable

Consider the linear differential equation of second degree
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  R ...(24)
dx dx
Changing the independent variable x to z with the help of relation z = f(x) ,
we get
dy dy dz
 .
dx dz dx
Self - Learning
244 Material
d 2 y d  dy 
  2    and Method of Variation of
dx dx  dx  Parameters
2
d  dy dz  d 2 y  dz  dy d 2 z
  .  2    . 2 NOTES
dx  dz dx  dz  dx  dz dx
Substituting these values in the Equation (24), we get
2
d 2 y  dz  dy d 2 z  dy dz 
2    . 2  P  .   Qy  R
dz  dx  dz dx  dz dx 
d 2z dz
P
d 2 y dx 2 dx dy  Qy  R
  2  2
dz  dz  dz  dz  2  dz  2
     
 dx   dx   dx 
d2y dy
  2
 P1  Q1 y  R1 ...(25)
dz dz
d2z dz
P
where P1  dx
2
dx , Q  Q , R  R
2 1 2 1 2
 dz   dz   dz 
     
 dx   dx   dx 
Here, P1, Q1 and R1 are the functions of x but can be expressed as the
functions of z with the help of the relation between z and x.
1. Choosing z such that the Coefficient of P1 is Zero.
d2z dz
2
P
P1  dx 2
dx  0
 dz 
 
 dx 
d2z
2
d2z dz d2z dz  dx   P
  2  P  0  2  P dz
dx dx dx dx
dx
dz dz
e 
 Pdx
log    Pdx 
dx dx
   Pdx  dx
Integrating again, we get z    e 
 
   Pdx  dx
For the relation z    e  , P1 will be zero and Equation (25)
 
reduces to
d2y
 Q1 y  R 1 ...(26)
dz 2
Self - Learning
Material 245
and Method of Variation of 1
If Q1 is constant or a constant multiplied by , then Equation (26) can be
Parameters z2
solved easily giving the value of y in terms of z. Then, by replacing z in terms of x,
NOTES we get the general solution of Equation (24).
2. Choosing z such that the Coefficient of Q1 is Constant.
Q1  a 2 (say)
2
Q
 a  a   = Q
dz
 2
2 2
 dz   dx 
 
 dx 
dz dz 1
a  Q   Q
dx dx a
1
a
z Q dx
1
a
For the relation z  Q dx , Q1 = a2 and Equation (25) reduces to
d2y dy
2
 P1  a 2 y  R1 ...(27)
dz dz
If P1 is a constant, then Equation (27) can be solved easily giving the value
of y in terms of z. Then, by replacing z in terms of x, we get the general solution of
Equation (24).
Example 5.11: Solve the differential equation
d2y dy
2
  3sin x  cot x   2 y sin 2 x  e  cos x sin 2 x .
dx dx
d2y dy
2
  3sin x  cot x   2 y sin 2 x  e  cos x sin 2 x ...(i)
dx dx
d2y dy
Comparing it with 2
 P  Qy  R , we get
dx dx
P  3sin x  cot x, Q  2sin 2 x and R  e  cos x sin 2 x
dz
e  e 
 P dx   3sin x  cot x  dx
Let  e3cos x  log sin x  sin x.e3cos x
dx
Integrating, we get
1 3cos x 1
z   e3cos x sin x dx   e  3sin x  dx   e3cos x
3 3
1
On changing the independent variable x to z by the relation z   e
3cos x
,
3
Equation (i) reduces to the form
d2y dy
2
 P1  Q1 y  R1 …(ii)
Self - Learning dz dz
246 Material
Q 2sin 2 x 2 2 Linear Differential Equations
where P1  0, Q1     and Method of Variation of
sin 2 x  e3cos x   3z 
2 2 2
 dz  9z2 Parameters
 
 dx 
R e  cos x sin 2 x NOTES
and R1  
sin 2 x  e3cos x 
2 2
 dz 
 
 dx 
7
e  cos x 7 7
3cos x  3   3 z  3  
1 
 

  e 7 cos x
 e z 3
 3
6 cos x 7/3
e
Substituting these values in Equation (ii), it becomes
7
d2y 2 1 
 2 y   7/3 z 3
 3
2
dz 9z
Multiplying by z 2 , we get
1
d2y 2 1 
z2  y   7/3 z 3 ...(iii)
 3
2
dz 9
Putting z  et  log z  t
d d d2
 z   D and z 2 2  D  D  1
dz dt dz
Now, Equation (iii) reduces to
t
 2 1 3
 D  D  1  9  y   37 / 3 e
 
2
Its auxiliary equation is D  D   0
2
9
2 1
 9D 2  9D  2  0  D  ,
3 3
2 1
C.F.  c e 3 t  c e 3 t  c z 2 / 3  c z1/ 3
1 2 1 2
2/3 1/ 3
 1   1 
 c1   e3cos x   c2   e3cos x   A1e2 cos x  A 2 e cos x
 3   3 
 1  3t 
1
and P.I.  
2  7/3
e 
D2  D   3 
9
t t
1  1  3 9  1  3
  e   e
1 1 2  37 / 3   
6  37 / 3 
 
9 3 9
1

1 1
1  1 3cos x  3
 z
 .
 3   3 e 
6  3 6  3
1/ 3 1/ 3
 
1 1 e  cos x
 . e  cos x 
6  3  3
1/ 3 1/ 3
6
e  cos x
Thus, the solution of Equation (i) is y  A1e2cos 2 x  A 2 ecos x  .
6 Self - Learning
Material 247
Parameters Check Your Progress
d2y dy
  x 2  2 x    x  2  y  x3e x .
NOTES dx dx
d2y dy
 x sin x  cos x   x cos x  y cos x  sin x  x sin x  cos x  .
2
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
12. Solve x 2 2
 x  9 y  0,given that y = x3 is a part of solution.
dx dx
d2 y   dy 
13. Solve the differential equation  dx 2  y  cot x  2  dx  y tan x   sec x .
   
d2y 1 dy  1 1 6 
2
 1/ 3   /3  4/3  2  y  0 .
dx x dx  4 x 6x x 
d 2 y dy
15. Solve the differential equation x 2
  4 x 3 y  8 x 3 sin x 2 .
dx dx
d2y dy
 3x5  a 2 y  x 2 .
dx dx
5.5 METHOD OF VARIATION OF

PARAMETERS
In mathematics, variation of parameters, also known as variation of constants, is a
general method to solve inhomogeneous linear ordinary differential equations. For
first order inhomogeneous linear differential equations, it is usually possible to find
solutions through integrating factors or undetermined coefficients with considerably
less effort, although those methods leverage heuristics that involve guessing and is
not appropriate for all inhomogeneous linear differential equations.
Here, we shall learn the method to find the complete primitive of a linear
equation whose C.F. is known. In this method, the constants of the C.F. are taken
as the functions of independent variables.
Consider the linear differential equation of second degree
d2y dy
2
 P  Qy  R ...(28)
dx dx
Let the C.F. of Equation (28) be
y  c1u  c2 v …(29)
where c1 and c2 are two arbitrary constants.
Clearly, u and v are the integrals of
d2y dy
Self - Learning 2
 P  Qy  0
248 Material
dx dx
  u   Pu   Qu  0 ...(30) Linear Differential Equations
Parameters
and v  Pv  Qv  0 ...(31)
Let the constants c1 and c2 in Equation (28) be the functions of x and the
complete primitive of Equation (28) be NOTES
y  c1 ( x)u  c2 ( x )v ...(32)
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy
 c1 ( x)u  c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v  c2 ( x)v
dx
dy
   c1 ( x )u   c2 ( x )v  c1 ( x )u  c2 ( x )v 
dx  
Let c1(x) and c2(x) satisfy the condition c1 ( x)u  c2 ( x)v = 0 ...(33)
dy
Thus, we get  c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v
dx
Again differentiating with respect to x, we get
d2y
 c1 ( x)u   c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v   c2 ( x)v
dx 2
c1 ( x)u   c1 ( x )u   c2 ( x )v  c2 ( x)v  P  c1 ( x )u   c2 ( x )v   Q c1 ( x)u  c2 ( x)v   R

 
 c1 ( x ) u   Pu   Qu   c2 ( x ) v  Pv  Qv   c1 ( x )u   c2 ( x )v  R

 
Substituting the values from Equation (28) and Equation (29), we get
 c1 ( x)  0  c2 ( x)  0  c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v  R
 c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v  R  c1 ( x)u   c2 ( x)v  R = 0 ...(34)
Solving the Equations (33) and (34) for c1 ( x), c2 ( x) , we get
c1 ( x) c2 ( x) 1
 
vR uR uv  vu 
vR uR
 c1 ( x)  , c2 ( x) 
uv  vu uv  vu
vR uR
Integrating, we get c1 ( x)    dx  a, c2 ( x )   dx  b
W W
u v
where W = uv  vu  u  v
vR uR
Putting these values in Equation (32), we get y  u  dx  v  dx
W W
which is the particular solution of Equation (28).
Self - Learning
Material 249
Linear Differential Equations Example 5.12: Apply the method of variation of parameters to solve
Parameters d2y 2
 a y  cosec ax .
dx 2
NOTES d2y 2
Solution: The given differential equation is  a y  cosec ax ...(i)
dx 2
Symbolic form of the equation is  D 2  a 2  y  cosec ax
Its auxiliary equation is D 2  a 2  0  D 2   a 2  D   ia

C.F. = A cos ax  Bsin ax
Let the complete solution of Equation (i) be y  u cos ax  v sin ax ...(ii)
where u, v are unknown functions of x.
 y  uy1  vy2 where y1  cos ax and y2  sin ax
y1 y2
Let W
y1 y2
cos ax sin ax
 W  a  cos 2 ax  sin 2 ax   a
 a sin ax a cos ax
y2 R
Now u    dx  c1 where R  cosec ax
W

sin ax cosec ax 1
  dx  c1   dx  c   x  c
a a 1
a 1
y1R
and v  dx  c2
W
 
cos ax cos ec ax cot ax
 dx  c  dx  c  log sin ax  c
a 2 a 2
a2 2
Substituting the value of u and v in equation (ii), we get

 x   log sin ax 
y     c1  cos ax   2
 c2  sin ax
 a   a 
x log sin ax
 y  c1 cos ax  c2 sin ax  cos ax  sin ax
a a2
which is the complete solution of Equation (i).
Check Your Progress

17. Apply the method of variation of parameters to solve
d2y dy
2
 5  6 y  2e x .
dx dx
d2y
18. Apply the method of variation of parameters to solve 2  n 2 y  sec nx .
Self - Learning dx
250 Material
5.6 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’ and Method of Variation of
Parameters
1. x  e6t (c1 cos t  c2 sin t ) ; y  e6t [(c1  c2 ) cos t  (c1  c2 )sin t ]

NOTES
4 t e 2t 1 t 7 2t
; y   c1  c2  t  1 e  e  e
4 t
2. x = (c1 + c2t)e + e  4
25 36 25 36
3. x  c1e2t  c2 e t cos( 3t  c3 ) ;
 2 
y  c1e 2t  c2 e  t cos  3t  c3   and
 3
  
z  c1 e 2t  c2 e t cos  3t  c3  
 3 
4. ax 2  by 2  cz 2  c1 ; a 2 x 2  b 2 y 2  c 2 z 2  c2
y x
5. xyz1/ 3  a ; x 2  y 2  b
6. x + y = c1; x  c1 log z  c2
6
7. x3  y 3  c1 ; x  y   c2
3 3
z
x
8. y  c1  (c2  c3 log x) x  (log x)
2
2
9. y  c1 x 1  c2 x 2  e x x 2
10. y  x 2 e x  xe x  c1 xe x  c2 x
1 1
11. y  c2 x  c1 cos x  x cos 2 x  sin 2 x
4 2
12. y  kx 3  c2 x 3
 tan x  sin x
13. y  cos x c1  c2 x     c1  c2 x  cos x 
 2  2
14. y  e  c x  c2 x 2 
2/ 3
3/ 4 x 3
1
15. y  c1e x  c2 e  x  sin x 2

2 2
a  a  1
16. y  c1 cos 2
 c2 sin  2  2 2
2x  2x  a x
17. y  c1e 2 x  c2 e3 x  e x
1 x
2 
18. y  log cos nx  cos nx  sin nx  c1 cos nx  c2 sin nx
n n
Self - Learning
Material 251
and Method of Variation of 5.7 SUMMARY
Parameters
 In mathematics, an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is a differential

NOTES equation containing one or more functions of one independent variable and
the derivatives of those functions.
 Basically, an ordinary differential equation is a relation that contains function
of only one independent variable, and one or more of than two dependent
variables.
 The equation may be ordinary or partial depending upon the ordinary or
partial derivatives. To solve such equations, you will require as many numbers
of simultaneous differential equations as are the number of dependent
variables.
 By eliminating x, we can get a linear differential equation in y and t which
when solved gives the value of y in terms of t. Further, the value of y can be
obtained by putting the value of x in the given equation.
 x or y can also be eliminated by differentiating one of the given equations or
both. Then, we can solve the resulting equation to get other variables.
 If the symbolic form of the equations be F1(D)x + F2(D)y = T1
and  1(D)x +  2(D)y = T2
d
where D denotes . Also, T1 and T2 are functions of independent variable t
dt
and F1(D), F2(D),  1(D) and  2(D) are all rational integral functions of D
with constant coefficients.
 If the multipliers l, m, n be such that
dx dy dz ldx  mdy  ndz
  
P Q R lP  mQ  nR
Choose l, m, n such that lP + mQ + nR = 0, and hence ldx + mdy +
ndz = 0
dx dy dz
 If the given equations are P  Q  R
dx dy
First take any two members of P  Q (say) and integrate it to get one of
the equation of the complete solution.
dy dz
Again, take other two members  (say) and integrate it also to get
Q R
another equation of the complete solution. These two equations so obtained
form the complete solution.
 Homogeneous linear equation is an equation of the form
n 1
dny n 1 d y
P0 x n n
 P1 x n 1
 ...  Pn y  X
dx dx
where P0, P1, P2, …, Pn are constants and X is either a constant or a

Self - Learning function of x.
252 Material
n 1 Linear Differential Equations
dny n 1 d y
 The homogeneous equation P0 x n

n
P1 x n 1
 ...  Pn y  X and Method of Variation of
dx dx Parameters
can be reduced into a linear equation with constant coefficients by changing

the independent variable x to z. NOTES
 Linear differential equation of second order is an equation of the form
d2y dy
2
P Qy R
dx dx
where P, Q and R are the functions of x.
 The techniques which will yield the solution for linear differential equation of
d2y dy
second order 2  P  Q y  R , where P, Q and R are the functions of
dx dx
x, are as follows:
 Changing the dependent variable when one integral belonging to the
C.F. is known
 Removing the first derivative and changing the dependent variable
 Changing the independent variable
 By using the method of variation of parameters
 In mathematics, variation of parameters, also known as variation of constants,
is a general method to solve inhomogeneous linear ordinary differential
equations.
 For first order inhomogeneous linear differential equations, it is usually
possible to find solutions through integrating factors or undetermined
coefficients with considerably less effort, although those methods leverage
heuristics that involve guessing and is not appropriate for all inhomogeneous
linear differential equations.
5.8 KEY TERMS

 Linear differential equation: It is a differential equation in which the
dependent variable and all its derivatives appear only in the first degree and
are not multiplied together.
 Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE): An Ordinary Differential
Equation (ODE) is a differential equation containing one or more functions
of one independent variable and the derivatives of those functions.
 Linear differential equations of second order: It is an equation of the
d2y dy
form 2
 P  Q y  R, where P, Q and R are the functions of x.
dx dx
Self - Learning
Material 253
and Method of Variation of 5.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
Parameters
EXERCISES
NOTES Short-Answer Questions
1. What do you mean by linear differential equations with constant coefficients?
2. What are homogeneous linear ordinary differential equations/
3. Explain about the linear differential equation of second order giving examples.
4. Why the transformation of equations are done by changing the dependent
variable and the independent variable?
5. When is method of variation of parameters used?
6. Solve the following differential equations by the homogeneous equation
method.
(i)  2 xz  yz  dx   2 yz  xz  dy   x 2  xy  y 2  dz  0
(ii)  x 2 y  y 3  y 2 z  dx   xy 2  x 2 z  x3  dy   xy 2  x 2 y  dz  0
(iii) yz 2  x 2  yz  dx  zx 2  y 2  zx  dy  xy 2  z 2  xy  dz  0
(iv) z 2 dx   z 2  2 yz  dy   2 y 2  yz  xz  dz  0
(v) 2z 2
 xy  y 2  zdx   2 z 2  x 2  xy  zdy   x  y   xy  z 2  dz  0

d4 y
(i)  4y  0
dx 4

4 2
(ii) D  13D  36 y  0 
(iii)  D  ( a  b)D  ab  y  0
2
6
 6
(iv) D  a y  0 
(v) D 4
 2n 2 D2  n 4 y  0 
d2 y
(vi)  y  sec x
dx 2
d2 y dy
(vii) 2
4  4 y  e 2 x  e2 x
dx dx
 4
(viii) D  1 y  sin 2 x
(ix)  D 
2
 4D + 3 y  sin 3 x cos 2 x
(x)  D 
3
 3D 2  4D  2 y  e x  cos x
Self - Learning
254 Material
d2 y dy and Method of Variation of
(xi) 2
4  4 y  8( x 2  e 2 x  sin 2 x )
dx dx Parameters
d3 y d2 y dy
(xii)  6  1  x2
dx 3
dx 2 dx NOTES
d2x dx dx
8. Solve 2
4  3 x  0 , given that for t = 0, x = 0 and  12 .
dt dt dt
d2x dx
9. Solve 2
 b 2 x  k cos bt , given that x = 0 and  0 , when t = 0.
dt dt
1. Discuss the characteristic features of linear differential equations with constant
coefficients and homogeneous linear ordinary differential equations giving
appropriate examples.
(i)  2 xyz  y 2 z  yz 2  dx   x 2 z  2 xyz  xz 2  dy   x 2 y  xy 2  2 xyz  dz  0
(ii) z 2 dx   z 2  2 yz  dy   2 y 2  yz  xz  dz  0
dx dy dz
(iii)  z  z  cos x   z  z 2   1  z 2   y  sin x   0
2
dt dt dt
(iv)  2 x 2 y  2 xy 2  2 xyz  1 dx   x3  x 2 y  x 2 z  2 xyz  2 y 2 z  2 yz 2  1 dy
  xy 2  y 3  y 2 z  1 dz  0
3. Solve the following simultaneous equations:

dx dy
(i)  3x  2 y ;  5x  3 y  0
dt dt
d2x dy d2y dx
(ii) 2
 2  x  e t
cos t ; 2
 2  y  et sin t
dt dt dt dt
dx dy
(iii)  ax  by ;  a ' x  b ' y
dt dt
dx dy dx dy
(iv)   2 y  2 cos t  7sin t ;   2 x  4cos t  3sin t
dt dt dt dt
dx dy
(v)  5 x  2 y  t ,  2 x  y  0 ; given that x = y = 0 when t = 0
dt dt
d 2 y dz dy dz
(vi) 2 2
  4 y  2 x ; 2  4  3z  0
dx dx dx dx
d2x 2
2 d y
(vii)  4 x  5 y  t ;  5x  4 y  t  1
dt 2 dt 2
ldx mdy ndz
(viii) (m  n) yz  (n  l ) zx  (l  m) xy
Self - Learning
Material 255
dx dy dz
Parameters
(ix) x( y 2  z )   y ( x 2  z )  z ( x 2  y 2 )
dx dy dz
NOTES (x) x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xy  2 xz
dx dy dz
(xi) 1  y  1  x  z
dx dy dz
(xii) y  x  xyz 2 ( x 2  y 2 )
 dx dy dz
(xiii) x( x  y )  y ( x  y )  ( x  y )(2 x  2 y  z )
dx dy dz
(xiv) 1  2  3x 2 sin( y  2 x)
4. Solve the differential equations by changing the dependent variable.

d2y dy
(i) 1  x 2   x  y  x 1  x 2 
3/ 2
2
dx dx
d2y dy
(ii) x 2
  2 x  1   x  1 y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(iii) x 2
 2  x  1   x  2  y   x  2  e x
dx dx
d2y dy
(iv)  x sin x  cos x  2
 x cos x  y cos x  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(v) x 2
  x  2   2 y  x3
dx dx
d 2 y dy
(vi) x   1  x  y  x 2 e  x
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
(vii) 2
 (1  cot x)  y cot x  sin 2 x
dx dx
d2y dy 1
 x  y  0 given that y  x  is
dx dx x
one integral.
d2y dy
6. Solve the differential equation 1  x 2  2
 x  m 2 y  0 given that
dx dx
1
y  ce m sin x
is a solution.
7. Solve the following differential equations by removing first derivative:
d2y dy
(i) x 2 2
 2  x2  x    x2  2 x  2 y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(ii) 2
 2 tan x  5 y  e x sec x
Self - Learning dx dx
256 Material
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  3 y  e x
2
(iii) and Method of Variation of
2
dx dx Parameters
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  1 y  3e x sin 2 x  5e2 x  6
2
(iv) 2
dx dx NOTES
2
d y 2 dy  2
(v) 2
   1  2  y  xe x
dx x dx  x 
d2y dy
(vi) x 2 (log x) 2 2
 2 x log x   2  log x  2(log x) 2  y  (log x)3 x 2
dx dx
1 2
d2y dy
 
x
(vii) 2
 2 x  x 2
 5 y  xe 2
dx dx
d2y dy
 4 x   4 x 2  1 y  e x  5  3cos 2 x 
2
(viii) 2
dx dx
d 2 y 2 dy
(ix) 2
  n2 y
dx x dx
d  dy  dy
 x  y   2x  2 y  x y  0
2
(x) x
dx  dx  dx
8. Solve the following differential equations by changing the independent
variable:
d 2 y 2 dy a 2
(i)  .  y0
dx 2 x dx x 4
d2y dy
(ii) x 2
  4 x 2  1  4 x 3 y  2 x3
dx dx
d2y dy
(iii) 2
 cot x  4 y cos ec2 x  0
dx dx
d 2 y  1  dy
(iv)   1    4 x 2 e 2 x y  4  x 2  x 3  e 3 x
dx 2  x  dx
d 2 y 81 dy x 2
(v) 81  x 2   .  y0
dx 2 x dx 9
d2y dy
(vi) 2
 tan x   cos 2 x  y  0
dx dx
d2y dy
(vii) 2
  8e 2 x  2   4e 4 x y  e6 x
dx dx
d2y dy
(ix) 1  x   1  x   y  4cos log(1  x)
2
2
dx dx
9. Apply the method of variable of parameters to solve the following differential
equations:
d2y
(i)  y  cos ec x
dx 2
d2y
(ii)  y  tan x
dx 2
Self - Learning
Material 257
d2y dy
and Method of Variation of (iii) 2
 2  5 y  e  x sec 2 x
Parameters dx dx
d2y
(iv)  y  e 2 x sin e  x
NOTES dx 2
d2y dy
(v) 1  x 2  2
 4 x  1  x 2  y  x
dx dx
d2y dy e3 x
(vi)  6  9 y 
dx 2 dx x2
d2y dy
(vii) ( x  2) 2
 (2 x  5)  2 y  ( x  1)e x
dx dx
10. Verify that y = x and y = x2 – 1 are linearly independent solutions of
d2y dy
x 2
 1
dx 2
 2 x  2 y  0 . Find the general solution of
dx
2
 x 2  1 ddx 2y  2 x dy  2 y  6  x 2  1 .
2
dx

Orient Longman.
Hall.
and Sons.
Publishing House.
Self - Learning
258 Material

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B.Sc.

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL

MADHYA PRADESH BHOJ (OPEN) UNIVERSITY - BHOPAL

2. Dr (Prof) Anil Rajput

2. Dr H.S.Tripathi 5. Dr (Prof) Anil Rajput

3. Dr Neelam Wasnik 6. Dr (Prof) Rajkumar Bhimtae

Copyright © Reserved, Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

UNIT-I: Successive Differentiation and Asymptotes Unit-1: Successive Differentiation and

UNIT-3: Integration of Transcendental Functions, Reduction, Unit-3: Integration of Transcendental

UNIT-4: Differential Equations

Unit-5: Linear Differential Equations Unit-5: Linear Differential Equations and

UNIT 2 CURVATURE 47-104

3.3.2 Reduction Formulae for  tan x dx and  cot x dx

3.3.3 Gamma Function

UNIT 4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 179-224

UNIT 1 SUCCESSIVE and Asymptotes

y  a 2  x 2 and y   a 2  x 2 are the two branches of the curve x + y = a

nth Differential Coefficient of (ax + b)m

yn  m( m  1)(m  2)....(m  n  1)(ax  b) m  n a n

And if m < n, then yn = 0

nth Differential Coefficient of sin (ax + b)

nth Differential Coefficient of eax sin bx

Solution: Given, p 2  a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2 

1.3 LEIBNITZ THEOREM

D m1 (uv)  ( D m 1u )v  m 1

(b) x 2 yn  2  (2n  1) xyn  1  (n 2  1) yn = 0

Example 1.4: If y = [log {x  (1  x 2 )}]2 , prove that

Cross-multiplying and squaring both sides, we get

Calculation of ‘nth’ Derivative at x = 0

Solution: We have y= [ x  (1  x 2 )]m …(i)

Solution: Given, y = (sin 1 x)2

From Equation (i), when x = 0, y1 (0) = 0

NOTES 7. If y = x 2 sin x , then find the value of yn.

1.4 MACLAURIN AND TAYLOR SERIES

an infinite series which is written as  an .

1.4.1 Taylor’s Infinite Series

Suppose, Rn tends to 0 as n   . Then, we have

= 9  0.2  0.05  0.001 = 8.849

Check Your Progress

Fig. 1.1 Graph of the Curve

1.5.1 Asymptotes Parallel to Axes of Co-Ordinates

 lim x  c , i.e., x  c as y   … (3)

It can be arranged in descending powers of y as follows:

Where,   x), 1  x),..., n  x) are polynomials in x.

Therefore, Equation (3) gives 0(c) = 0, so that c is a root of the equation

Theorem 1.2: If y = mx + c is an asymptote to the curve f(x, y) = 0, prove that

Proof: Let y = mx + c, be an oblique asymptote to the curve f(x, y) = 0,

Now, from Equation (6), y  mx  c  p 1  m2

 lim ( y  mx)  lim (c  p 1  m2 )

Thus, lim ( y  mx)  c … (8)

Oblique Asymptotes of the General Algebraic Curves NOTES

(a0 y n  a1 y n 1 x  a2 y n  2 x 2  ...  an x n )  (b1 y n 1  b2 y n  2 x  b3 y n 3 x 2  ...  bn x n 1 )

The above equation can be put into the form

Dividing both sides of Equation (9) by xn, we get

Arranging the above equation in descending powers of x, we get

we see that 1 is a factor of the numerator..

1.5.5 Intersection of a Curve and Its Asymptotes

and n  1 (m) = 2 (m) = 14m  6m 2  4

The slopes of the asymptotes are given by n (m) = 0  3 (m)  0

Fig. 1.5 Asymptotes of Polar Curves

This is the required equation of the asymptote in polar co-ordinates.

Check Your Progress