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Sustainable sludge management in developing countries

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DOI: 10.2166/wst.2004.0656

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Sustainable sludge management in developing countries

Water Science and Technology Vol 49 No 10 pp 251–258 © IWA Publishing 2004

B. Jimenez, J.A. Barrios, J.M. Mendez and J. Diaz
Institute of Engineering, National University of Mexico (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-472, Coyoacan 04510,
Mexico, D. F. Mexico (E-mail: BJimenezC@iingen.unam.mx)

Abstract Worldwide, unsanitary conditions are responsible for more than three million deaths annually. One
of the reasons is the low level of sanitation in developing countries. Particularly, sludge from these regions
has a high parasite concentration and low heavy metal content even though the available information is
limited. Different issues needed to achieve a sustainable sludge management in developing nations are
analysed. Based on this analysis some conclusions arise: sludge management plays an important role in
sanitation programs by helping reduce health problems and associated risks; investments in sanitation
should consider sludge management within the overall projects; the main restriction for reusing sludge is the
high microbial concentration, which requires a science-based decision on the treatment process, while
heavy metals are generally low; adequate sludge management needs the commitment of those sectors
involved in the development and enforcement of the regulations as well as those that are directly related to its
generation, treatment, reuse or disposal; current regulations have followed different approaches, based
mainly on local conditions, but they favour sludge reuse to fight problems like soil degradation, reduced crop
production, and the increased use of inorganic fertilizers. This paper summarises an overview of these
issues.
Keywords Developing countries; public health; regulation; sanitation; sludge management

Introduction
The lack of sanitation in developing countries is the main environmental concern since
many waterborne diseases are transmitted from faeces to humans through water and soil
pollution. Developing nations have a sanitation coverage that ranges from 57 to 88% as
shown on Table 1. It is clear that urban coverage is higher than rural, even though the
amount of people living in rural communities is higher than that established in cities.
According to the United Nations about 48% of the world’s population lives in urban settle-
ments, but in certain regions like Latin America and the Caribbean this number reaches
76% (United Nations, 2002). Unsanitary conditions are responsible for nearly 2.5 million
deaths annually worldwide from diarrhoea, 600,000 from typhoid fever and about 50% of
the urban population, and a larger percentage of rural inhabitants, has a high risk of morbid-
ity due to these conditions (WHO, 1998). Most of the deceased are children under five and
the amount of deaths is equivalent to one child dying every 15 seconds. Moreover, about
one third of the population in developing countries is infected by intestinal worms (e.g.
Ascaris and Trichuris; WHO/UNICEF, 2000).
Approximately 94% of the more than 4 billion diarrhoeal episodes, and all the infections

Table 1 Average sanitation coverage in developing countries by region (WHO/UNICEF, 2000)

Region Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation

coverage, % coverage, % coverage, %

Africa 76 45 57
Asia 85 60 71
Latin America and Caribbean 88 64 81
Europe* 96 77 88
* Limited information available 251
 caused by Ascaris (>61 million people), Trichuris (>45 million people) and hookworms
(>152 million people) occurred in these countries in 1990 (Murray and Lopez, 1996). These
parasites are of great concern in developing countries due to their high occurrence and sur-
vivability. Ascaris for example is one of the most resistant helminths and may survive up to
several years in the environment. Also, it is directly related to the use of wastewater for
agricultural irrigation and the land application of sludge (EPA, 1991). Table 2 summarizes
some of the characteristics of such parasites. Even though the symptoms may range from
B. Jimenez et al.

typical diarrhoea to pneumonia, in some cases they may cause death of the infected person.
Figure 1 shows the infection rate by some parasites in developing countries, grouped by
region. Even though the number of cases reported in China for Ascaris and Trichuris infec-
tions is the highest (approximately 25 and 17 million, respectively), the rate of infection is
higher in other Asia and Islands countries. In contrast, hookworm infections predominate
in India, considering both the total number of cases (approximately 47 million) and the
infection rate. By treating the sludge those rates should be reduced within a reasonable
period.
The fact that these problems happen in the developing world is not a coincidence since
the population of these countries has mainly low or middle incomes. This situation, com-
bined with a variety of needs, sometimes makes sanitation a less crucial priority.
Nonetheless, there is a global concern, including such countries, to treat wastewater to
reduce the environmental and public health impacts. Thus, the increase in the number of
wastewater treatment plants in developing countries will result in an important increment
in the amount of sludge generated. This sludge needs to be adequately treated and managed
to reduce the negative impact of its application or disposal. However, the amount of waste-
Table 2 Mode of transmission and symptoms of infections caused by selected parasites present in sludge
(Adapted from EPA, 1991)

Parasite Mode of transmission Symptoms

Ascaris spp. Ingestion of contaminated water, Diarrhoea; kidney, heart,

food or soil bladder, pancreas, liver, and
lung infections; intestinal
obstruction; pneumonia
Trichuris spp. Ingestion of contaminated food Chronic haemorrhages
Hookworms (Ancylostoma spp. Skin penetration or soil contact Bronchopneumonia; anaemia
and Necator spp.)

6,000
Ascaris Trichuris Hookworms
Infection rate, per 10 5 inh.

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

-
India China Other Asia Sub-Saharan Latin America Middle Eastern
and Island Africa and Caribbean Crescent
countries
Region
Figure 1 Infection rate by selected parasites in developing countries by region (1990 data; Murray and
252 Lopez, 1996).
water and sludge treated is generally low. As an example, Asian countries treat an average
of 35% of the total wastewater generated while in Latin America–Caribbean and Africa
that number drops to 14 and 0%, respectively (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). Several reasons
have an influence on this, and they include economical, technical, and political issues. The
understanding of these issues will allow a sustainable sludge management.

Economical issues

B. Jimenez et al.
Globally, economics are the key factor that all decision makers take into account to evalu-
ate projects. Many wastewater treatment plants do not include sludge management within
their treatment schemes, and, until recently, sanitation projects have started to consider
them as part of the overall programs. In many cases sludge is applied, disposed or
discharged without any treatment and sometimes it is just air dried. One of the restrictions
that should be taken into account is that sludge management represents up to 50% of the
total wastewater treatment cost (Campbell, 2000). Some developing countries have been
receiving external support to finance sanitation programs but in many cases the total invest-
ment (national + external) is not enough to achieve the goals. Table 3 presents the average
investment in sanitation in some developing regions.
While the investment shown in Table 3 is considerable, it represents only 25% of that for
water supply. This reflects that the priority is providing people with drinking water, some-
what neglecting the importance of sanitation and its direct relation with public health.
Clearly, the investment in sludge management is just a tiny fraction of that for sanitation.
Also, the national investment in research is, in most countries, very low which increases the
dependence on foreign technologies and information.
In general, environmental cost is often seen as the fees that are paid for some ecological
damage that has been done already, but emphasis should be made on reducing those fees by
preventing those damages. In addition, some other factors are not considered when valuing
the environmental cost of sludge management. Some of these factors include potential sav-
ings in the economic resources destined for public health, particularly to treat waterborne
diseases; a decrease in the use of chemical fertilizers for crop production, which in the case
of mineral phosphorus is limited; and a reduction in land degradation, which costs between 5
and 10% of the agricultural production in developing countries (Young, 1998). In this
regard, it must be considered that from 5 to 7 million hectares of arable land worldwide are
being lost every year through soil degradation (Rhoades, 1997). The adequate management
of sludge may have a beneficial impact on those aspects by breaking the cycle of pathogens
and parasites, providing nutrients for soil fertility, and improving soil conditions (structure,
organic matter content, and water retention capacity). In addition, the use of sludge for food
production may increase the yield of certain crops and it would help to satisfy the demands of
lower income nations, reducing at the same time the cost of inorganic fertilizers.

Technical issues
The most important consideration within this topic is the quality of the sludge since it will
determine the stabilisation process to be applied. As mentioned previously, most of the
Table 3 Investment in sanitation in developing countries: 1990–2000 average (WHO/UNICEF, 2000)

Region Annual investment, ×109 US dollars

National investment External support

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Urban sanitation Rural sanitation
Africa 0.195 0.063 0.215 0.068
Asia 0.901 0.050 0.120 0.032
Latin America and Caribbean 1.062 0.051 0.381 0.009
253
 parasitic diseases are reported in these countries and their exposure routes may be linked to
wastewater and sludge. To illustrate this, Table 4 shows the concentration of helminth ova
in sludge generated in some developing countries. Those numbers far exceed the concen-
tration in countries with high incomes (1.4–9.7 Ascaris ova/g TS; Pedersen, 1981).
Moreover, there is limited information on the microbial quality of sludge from developing
countries, in many cases due to the restricted analytical capacity and financial resources.
Nonetheless, some countries are making important efforts to characterise the sludge for
B. Jimenez et al.

microbial content.
In the case of Mexican sludge, most of the ova reported in Table 4 correspond to Ascaris
spp. (approximately 83%). This helminth is the most resistant to conventional stabilisation
processes, and it is inactivated only when the process is carried out at temperatures higher
than 50°C or extreme pH conditions (>12 units). As a result, processes like composting,
lime stabilization or thermophilic aerobic or anaerobic digestion should be used to reduce
their densities but their application should be based on certain criteria. For instance, long
retention times required for composting may be practical in small plants but prohibitive in
large cities because of the land required. On the other hand, thermophilic digestion may be
an option if qualified personnel are in charge of the operation of the plant and there is
enough space to build the reactors. Finally, lime treatment is an attractive process consider-
ing the short retention time necessary to stabilise the sludge but the increase in the total
mass of solids may raise the cost of transportation to the application or disposal site.
Currently, some alternative processes have demonstrated a high efficiency against
helminths but they should be evaluated in terms of economics to determine their appli-
cability in developing countries. For example, treatment of sludge with peracetic acid
reduced helminth ova concentrations from 112 to 5.5 ova/g TS in raw and treated sludge,
respectively (Barrios et al., 2001a). In addition, the use of sludge for brick production may
be seen as an attractive option, especially in those countries where the need for housing is a
priority.
Sometimes, foreign technologies are used for stabilisation purposes but the lack of
information about the quality of the sludge to be treated limits their success. As a result, the
risk of infection is still very high, jeopardizing the acceptance of sludge for beneficial pur-
poses. It is important to characterise the sludge before designing the treatment facilities. In
those cases where sludge is not being produced, at least a complete microbial characterisa-
tion of the wastewater must be performed to make a rough estimate of the density of
pathogens and parasites in the sludge that would be produced. Here the involvement of
local groups (i.e. professional associations, research groups, universities) is of great impor-
tance to select technologies on a case-by-case basis.

Table 4 Microbial concentration in sludge from different developing countries (all concentrations are in
log10 units/gram of total solids, except helminth ova which are in ova/g TS)

Country Salmonella Protozoa cysts Bacteriophages Helminth ova Reference

Brazil 1–3 <1–3 1–76 Thomaz-Soccol et

al., 2000
Chile 3.5 2.7 Castillo et al., 2002
Egypt (liquid primary) Mean: 1.4; Mean: 67; Hall, 2000
Max: 2.6 Max: 735
Egypt (dewatered primary) Mean: 0.5; Mean: 8; Hall, 2000
Max: 1.9 Max: 124
Ghana 76 Hall, 2000
Mexico 7–8 2–4 (G) 3–6 73–177(v) Jiménez et al.,
2002
(G) Giardia spp., (v) viable ova.
254
 With respect to heavy metal content, reports from Brazil, Chile, China, Mexico, and
South Africa indicate that their concentrations are well below the limits for land application
according to the US EPA (Andreoli et al., 1999; Leppe et al., 2002; Wang, 1997; Barrios et
al., 2001b; Smith and Vasiloudis, 1989, in Snyman et al., 2000). However, in some coun-
tries particular limits have been established depending on local conditions. For example,
the 1997 South African Sludge Guidelines propose very strict limits that are based on pro-
tection of the aquatic environment, limiting the potential land application. On the other

B. Jimenez et al.
hand, the State of Parana (Brazil) and Chile considered local conditions to determine the
limits, both stricter than EPA’s, and restrict the amount of sludge that may be land applied
to 50 dry tons, in Parana (over a 10 year period), and 15 dry tons per year in Chile. In these
two cases beneficial reuse is the proposed route for sludge.
Finally, the need for standardised techniques for sludge characterisation should be con-
sidered, together with the technical capabilities of developing countries. In this regard, an
important effort has been made by the European Union to develop common procedures
with this goal in mind (Leschber and Spinosa, 1998). This may be of special importance
when sludge is applied in agriculture for crops that would be traded in an increasing global
market.

Political issues
Political issues involve different aspects of sludge management. One of the most important
is an appropriate legislation that favours the reuse of sludge instead of its final disposal.
However, several sectors are involved in this topic and sometimes they follow different
trends. As an example, certain groups may object to land application of sludge arguing the
potential pollution with heavy metals, while others may push for a better microbial quality
to avoid diseases. All these concerns must be weighed out to try to find an equilibrated leg-
islation that establishes guidelines that may be attainable but, to achieve this, there needs to
be a commitment from those sectors involved in the development and enforcement of the
regulations.
It is not practical to set limits that would assure the quality of the sludge if such quality is
not based on scientific data. Also, the adoption of foreign limits is not always the best way
to promote the reuse of sludge. Instead, intensive studies that range from sludge characteri-
zation to demonstration projects would provide valuable information that will help support
regulations, and if applicable, adopt or adapt the appropriate foreign limits. Such is the case
of the proposed Mexican sludge regulation (Mexican Official Standard NOM-004-ECOL-
2001) that adopted the US EPA limits for heavy metals and faecal coliforms and modified
the limits for Salmonella and helminth ova, based on the quality of the sludge. In this case
the main difference is that the limits for these two pathogens apply for both classes of
sludge (A and B) while EPA only requires monitoring them in class A sludge. Also, the
Mexican standards consider total ova (viable + non-viable) while EPA uses only viable
ova. In contrast, enteric viruses are not included in the proposed standard since their analy-
sis is not widely practised but it should be considered in the future.
On the other hand, the proposed sludge regulation in Chile is based on EPA’s part 503
for microbial content (with the exception of MS-2 bacteriophages instead of enteric virus-
es) but it sets heavy metal limits that depend on the application purpose (agriculture or soil
reclamation; Mena, 2002). Additionally, monitoring of nutrients and heavy metals in soils
that would receive sludge is required. In this case, little information is available on the fea-
sibility to meet the proposed limits, especially with respect to microbial densities.
Currently, some facilities are storing the sludge in monofills waiting for the regulation to be
approved and, at the same time, large companies are performing studies that may support or
object the limits proposed. In any case, regulations should consider both the quality of the 255
 Table 5 Limits for heavy metals in sludge for different countries (all values in mg/kg dry sludge)

Parameter US EPA Brazil Chile China Mexico South Africa

Parana Agricultural Eroded Soil Soil Good Excellent
State application soils pH<6.5 pH>6.5

As 75 20 40 75 75 75 41 15
Cd 85 20 8 40 5 20 85 39 15.7
Cr 1,000 600 1,000 3,000 1,200 1,750
B. Jimenez et al.

Cu 4,300 1,000 1,000 1,500 250 500 4,300 1,500 50.5

Hg 57 16 4 20 5 15 57 17 10
Mo 75 10 20 25
Ni 420 300 80 420 100 200 420 420 200
Pb 840 750 300 400 300 1,000 840 300 50.5
Se 100 50 100 15
Zn 7,500 2,500 2,000 2,800 500 1,000 7,500 2,800 353.5

sludge and the application procedures that guarantee the safe reuse of this product.
The experience in China indicates that sludge legislation is focused mainly on inorganic
chemicals but regulates also the application rates, length of application, and particular con-
ditions (e.g. soil texture, groundwater level; Wang, 1997). Although the allowed heavy
metal concentrations are in general more restrictive than those of EPA, there are no
pathogen limits for land application. As mentioned before, the state of Parana established
strict metals content in sludge and adopted the limits for helminth ova and faecal coliforms
for class A sludge from US EPA. Table 5 summarises the limits for heavy metals in some
developing countries.
In the case of South Africa, sludge regulations classify sludge into four types (Snyman et
al., 2000). Classes A, B, and C are intended for soil amendment while class D may be
applied without restrictions. Each class corresponds to a level of treatment. For example,
class A refers to raw sludge; class B to anaerobically digested or waste activated sludge;
class C and D are produced by lime or heat treatment, composting, irradiation or pasteurisa-
tion. The main difference between the last two types of sludge is the heavy metal content,
which in the case of class D must comply with the strict limits proposed.
The participation of different sectors of the population, including governmental and
non-governmental organizations, is a key factor to understand the role of sludge manage-
ment in the prevention of diseases and as an integral part of sanitation programs. Moreover,
education and communication play an important function in increasing public acceptance
towards biosolids reuse. When people understand the advantage of reducing the risks of
sludge management and the potential benefits of these practices, they might increase their
support for such activities. Also, it should be emphasized that the sludge is a valuable
wastewater treatment by-product rather than a waste by itself. It is crucial to avoid the Not-
In-My-Backyard (NIMBY) perception since it would reduce the acceptance of any
biosolids program. To prevent this, careful planning and execution of all these actions is a
must. As mentioned previously, demonstration projects are a very valuable tool to educate
people on the advantages of reusing sludge in an organized manner.

Conclusions
Sustainable sludge management, and sanitation, in developing countries is limited, but cur-
rently several countries are aware of its importance and it is starting to be recognized as a
priority in the short term. The investment in biosolids programs should be increased and, at
the same time, the cost of sludge treatment should consider the public health and environ-
mental savings to make those programs more attractive to decision makers and the different
256 sectors related to this activity.
 The main issue with respect to sludge management in developing countries is the high
concentration of pathogens and parasites, which is related to the health levels of the popula-
tion of these nations. In contrast, heavy metals appear to be in low levels according to some
studies.
Experiences from all over the world should be shared to increase the knowledge and
establish certain criteria or guidelines to reach a successful sludge management program.
In addition, standardized techniques for sludge sampling and analysis need to be estab-

B. Jimenez et al.
lished to ease the enforcement of local and international regulations.
The use of adequate stabilization processes that considerably reduce the amount of
pathogens and parasites is of great importance to decrease the health problems related to
their application or disposal. This must be considered when sludge facilities are being
designed to reduce the potential negative impact in public health and the environment.
Also, treatment processes must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis since there is no uni-
versal solution. In addition, these technologies should favour the beneficial reuse rather
than promoting sludge reduction, taking into consideration the degradation of agricultural
land and the need for improving crop yields to satisfy the demands of the population in
developing countries. Moreover, countries with considerable soil degradation must think
about sludge applications to amend such soils.
Regulations concerning the use and disposal of sludge should take into account devel-
oped countries’ legislation but those standards must be adapted to local conditions.
Different aspects, like soil characteristics, economics, technical capabilities, and health
levels, are issues that cannot be neglected when developing regulations. Also, adequate
monitoring and enforcement policies are important for future sludge management pro-
grams.

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