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Kinetics Physics Classes

Director- Triloki Raghav
Mob No. - 9997716805

Semiconductor Devices and Digital Circuits

On the basis of band structure of crystals, solids are divided in three categories.
1. Conductor
2. Insulator
3. Semiconductor
Conductor: - These are the substance or material through which current passed out at low temperature, room
temperature and high temperature.
Note- There is lots of free electrons present inside the conductor.
Insulator: - these are the substance or material through which current does not pass out at low temperature,
room temperature and high temperature.
Note- There is no free electrons present inside the insulator.
Semiconductor: - These are the substance or material through which current passed out high temperature (or
even room temperature) but does not pass out at low temperature.
Note- There is lots of free electrons at high temperature but no free electrons at low temperature.
# Classification of metals (Conductors), insulators and semiconductor:-
Case-I On the basis of conductivity-
For conductor:
𝜌 ~ 10-2 to 10-8 ohm m
𝜎 ~ 102 to 108 S m-1
For insulator:
𝜌 ~ 1011 to 1019 ohm m
𝜎 ~ 10-11 to 10-19 S m-1
For semiconductor:
𝜌 ~ 10-5 to 106 ohm m
𝜎 ~ 105 to 10-6 S m-1
Case-II On the basis of energy bands (or energy levels)-
Roughly Note:-
Energy Bands: - In isolated atom the valence electrons can exist only in one of the allowed orbitals each of a
sharply defined energy called energy levels. But when two atoms are brought nearer to each other, there are
alterations in energy levels and they spread in the form of bands.
Energy bands are of following types
1. Valence band:
The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing valence electrons is known as valence band.
At 0 K, the electrons fill the energy levels in valence band starting from lowest one.
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(i) This band is always fulfilling by electron.

(ii) This is the band of maximum energy.
(iii) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field.
(iv) No flow of current due to such electrons.
(v) The highest energy level which can be occupied by an electron in valence band at 0 K is called fermi
level.
2. Conduction band:
The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing conduction electrons is known as
conduction band or the higher energy level band is called the conduction band.
(i) It is also called empty band of minimum energy.
(ii) This band is partially filled by the electrons.
(iii) In this band the electrons can gain energy from external electric field.
(iv) The electrons in the conduction band are called the free electrons. They are able to move anywhere
within the volume of the solid.
(v) Current flows due to such electrons.
3. Forbidden energy gap:
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band. ∆Eg = (C.B.) min. – (V.B.) max.
(i) No free electron present in forbidden energy gap.
(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap upon the nature of substance.
(iii) As temperature increases (↑), forbidden gap decrease (↓) very slightly.

For conductor:
Energy gap in conductor is approx 0 eV and conduction band overlap with valence band.
For Semiconductor:
Energy gap in conductor is less than 3 eV.

For Insulator:
Energy gap in conductor is greater than 3 eV.
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# Types of semiconductor:-

Case-I On the basis of their chemical composition, there are two types of semiconductor

i. Elemental Semiconductor: - These semiconductors are available in natural form, e.g. silicon and
germanium.
ii. Compound Semiconductor: -These semiconductors are made by compounding the metals, e.g. Cds, GaAs,
CdSe, InP, anthracene polyaniline, etc

Case-II On the basis of purity, there are two types of semiconductor

i. Intrinsic semiconductor
ii. Extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor:- It is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present. An intrinsic
semiconductor is also called undoped semiconductor or i-type semiconductor.

Note-
i. Inet or I = Iconduction electron + Ihole
i.e.
I = I e + Ih
ii. ne = nh = ni (here ni is intrinsic charge carrier concentration)
iii. 𝜇 of e- > 𝜇 of h (here 𝜇 is mobility)
iv. In equilibrium, Rate of generation of e-h pair = rate of recombination of e-h pair
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Extrinsic Semiconductor:- A pure semiconductor when doped with the impurity (PPM = 106:1), is known as
extrinsic semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor
i. N-type semiconductor
ii. P-type semiconductor
Note:
Method of doping- The different method of doping semiconductor are given below
1. The impurity atoms added to semiconductor in its molten state.
2. The pure semiconductor is bombarded by ions of impurity atoms.
3. When in the semiconductor crystal container the impurity atoms are heated , the impurity atoms defuse into
the hot crystal.
N-type semiconductor:-
Intrinsic semiconductor + 15th group element (like P, As, Sb)

Note-
i. ne >> nh
Here, electrons are called majority charge carrier and holes are called minority charge carrier.
i.e.
I= Ie + Ih
I= Ie
ii. Impurity is called Donar impurity because one impurity atom generates one e - .
iii. Energy gap of N-type semiconductor is 1.1eV (av. 1eV)
iv. N-type semiconductor is electrically neutral (not negatively charged).
v. Donor energy level lies just below the conduction band.
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P-type semiconductor:-

Intrinsic semiconductor + 13th group element (like Al, B, In)

Note-

i. nh >> ne
Here, holes are called majority charge carrier and electrons are called minority charge carrier.
i.e.
I= Ie + Ih
I= Ih
ii. Impurity is called Acceptor impurity
iii. Energy gap of P-type semiconductor is 0.7eV (av. 1eV)
iv. P-type semiconductor is electrically neutral (not positively charged)
v. Acceptor energy level lies just above the valence band

Special Note-

a) In Intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni
b) In Extrinsic semiconductor, ne ≠ nh
but (nenh) = (ni)2

here, ni = is charge carrier concentration before doping

ne = is density of electron after doping
nh = is density of holes after doping
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# p-n Junction:-
A p-n junction is an arrangement made by a close contact of p-type semiconductor with n-type semiconductor
Or
A p-n junction is a boundary or interface between p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor.

# Formation of p-n junction:-

N.C.E.R.T. Page no. 478-479

(Two important process occur during the formation of a p-n...................................................In a p-n junction
under equilibrium there is no current)

Note-1
Potential barrier (Vb) - The potential difference created across the P-N junction due to the diffusion of electron
and holes is called potential barrier (or barrier potential)
Again,
Vb = 0.7 volt in Silicon p-n junction
Vb = 0.3 volt in Germanium p-n junction
Note-2
Depletion Layer - Due to diffusion, neutrality of both N and P-type semiconductor is disturbed, a layer of
negative charged ions appear near the junction in the P-crystal and a layer of positive ions appears near the
junction in N-crystal. This layer is called depletion layer
(i) In depletion layer all covalent bond are complete therefore there is no free hole and no free electron in
depletion region
1
(ii) Width of depletion layer (d) ∝
doping concentraion
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(iii) Depletion is directly proportional to temperature.

(iv) Semiconductor diode (p-n junction diode) – It is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at
the ends for the application of an external voltage.
Symbol of p-n junction diode is given below

(v) The P-N junction diode is equivalent to capacitor in which the depletion layer acts as a dielectric.

# Biasing:-
There are two methods for biasing the p-n junction diode
i. Forward biasing
ii. Reverse biasing

# p-n junction diode under forward biasing:-

Here current is flow by majority charge carrier.

When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal, it is said to be forward biased. The applied voltage
mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across the p-side and n-side of the junction is
negligible. The direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the barrier potential Vb. The depletion layer
width decrease and the barrier height are reduced. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V b-V).

# p-n junction diode under reverse biasing:-

Here, current is flow by

minority charge carrier and the current is also known as leakage current or dark current
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When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that n-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and p-side to the negative terminal, it is said to be reverse biased. The applied voltage
mostly drops across the depletion region. The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier
potential. The depletion layer width increase and barrier height is also increase. The effective barrier height
under reverse bias is (Vb+V).

# I-V characteristic of p-n junction diode:-

Case-I Characteristic of diode in forward biasing:

Note-
∆V
1. From R = , R comes out to be very small in forward biasing.
∆I
2. Knee voltage is 0.3 volt for Ge and 0.7 for Si

Case-II Characteristic of diode in reverse biasing:

Note-
∆V
1. From R = , R comes out to be very high in reverse biasing.
∆I
2. I-V characteristic for semiconductor diode in forward and reverse biased is given below-
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Note-

i. Semiconductor diode behave as a conductor in forward biasing (because it offer very low resistance in
forward bias)
ii. Semiconductor diode behave as a insulator in reverse bias (because it offer very high resistance in forward
bias)
iii. Ideal diodes behave as a perfect insulator in reverse biasing.
iv. Diodes allow the current only in forward biasing or in other word diodes allow the current only in one
direction so diodes are also known as unidirectional devices or electric valve.

# Applications of p-n junction diode:-

1. P-n junction diode as a rectifier

2. Zener diode
3. Photodiode
4. Solar cell
5. Light emitting diode (L.E.D.)

# p-n junction diode as a rectifier:-

Rectifier is a circuit arrangement which convert A.C. in to D.C. It is of two types

Principle of rectifier- When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, it offers less resistance and a current flow
through it ; but when it is reverse biased, it offer high resistance and almost no current flows through it.
i. Half wave rectifier
ii. Full wave rectifier

Case-I p-n junction diode as a half wave rectifier-

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Working- When A.C. is supplied to the primary, the secondary of the transformer supplies desired alternating
voltage across A and B. During the positive half cycle of A.C., the end A is positive and end B is negative. The
diode D is forward biased and current I flow through RL. As the input voltage increase or decrease, the current I
also increase or decrease and so does output voltage across the load RL. Output voltage across RL is of same
waveform as the positive half wave of the input. During the negative half cycle, the end A becomes negative and
B positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. No voltage appears across R L. In the next positive
half cycle, again we get output voltage. The output voltage is unidirectional but pulsating. Since the voltage
across the load resistance appears only during the positive half cycle of the input A.C., this process is called half-
wave rectification and the arrangement used is called a half-wave rectifier.

Case-II p-n junction diode as a full wave rectifier-

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At any instant, the voltage at the end A (input of D1) and the end B (input of D2) the secondary with respect to the
centre tap T will be out of the phase with each other. Suppose during the positive half cycle of AC input the end A
is positive and end B is negative with respect to the centre tap T. Then the diode D1 gets forward biased and
conducts current along the path as indicated by solid arrows. The diode D2 is reversed based and does not
conduct. During the negative half cycle, the end A become negative and the end B become positive with respect
to the centre tap T. The diode D1 gets reversed based and does not conduct. The diode D2 conduct current along
the path as indicated by broken arrows. As during the both half cycles of input AC the current through load RL
flow in the same direction a→b, so we get a pulsating DC voltage across RL. Since output voltage across the load
resistance RL is obtained for both half cycles of input AC, this process is called full wave rectification and
arrangement use is called full wave rectifier.

Limitations-

a) Ripples: - It is unwanted A.C. component in the output of rectifier. Ripples arise due to the fact that diode
conduct slightly in reverse biased. It is known as noise.

b) Filter circuit: - These are used to separate AC component from the output of rectifier or in other word these
circuits are used to filter the output of rectifier.

→ The circuit of a full wave rectifier with a capacitor of capacitance C connected in parallel with its load
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resistance RL. The capacitor have a resistor of Xc = 2πѴC . A high capacitance C offers low capacitive reactance to
high frequency AC component but high, almost infinite to low capacitive reactance DC component. Hence the AC
component is by passed through C or filtered. A smooth DC voltage appears at the load resistance.
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# Zener Diode:-

A junction diode which is heavily doped and specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown region
continuously is called Zener diode.

Zener effect- It is a type of electrical breakdown in a heavily doped reverse biased p-n junction. When a large
reverse bias is applied across such a diode, the depletion layer (d would be very small in Zener diode) and the
energy bands get modified. As the depletion width is very small (<10-7m), even a small voltage (say 4 voltage) will
setup a high electric field of 4×107 V/m. This high electric field strip of; many electrons from valence band which
tunnel to n-side through the thin depletion layer. This method of emission of electrons beyond a certain reverse
biased voltage (Vz) is called internal field emission.

Symbol-

Characteristic:

Special use- Zener diode is used as DC voltage regulator-

The unregulated DC voltage (filtered output of rectifier) is connected to the Zener diode through a series
resistance Rs such that the Zener diode is reversed biased. If the input voltage increases, the current through Rs
and Zener diode also increase. This increase the voltage drop across R s without any change in the voltage across
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the Zener diode. This is because in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the
current through the Zener diode changed. Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through R s and
Zener diode also decreases. The voltage drop across Rs with any change in the voltage across in the Zener diode.
Thus any increase/decrease in the input voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage across the Zener
diode. Thus the Zener diode acts as voltage regulator. We have to select the Zener diode according to the
required output voltage and accordingly the series resistance Rs.

# Photodiode:-

A photodiode is a p-n junction fabricated a photosensitive semiconductor and provided with a transparent
window so as allow light to fall on its junction. It is reversed biased diode.

Symbol-

Characteristic:

→ When the photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy ‘hѴ’ greater than the energy gap Eg of the
semiconductor, addition electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons. This generation of
photo-generated charge careers occurs in or near the depletion region. Due to the junction field, electrons get
collected on n-side and holes on the p-side, setting up an emf. This sends a current through the load. In a reverse
biased photodiode, we can easily observe the change in photocurrent with the change in radiation intensity.
Hence a photodiode can be used to detect optical signals. A photodiode is preferably operated in reverse biased
condition.

Uses:-
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i. In detection of optical signals.

ii. In demodulation of optical signal,
iii. In light-operated switches.
iv. In electronic counters.
v. In security system.

# Solar cell:-

→ A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiations falls on the p-n junction it
works on same principle as the photodiode, except that no external biased is applied end the junction area is
kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident because we are interested in more power. A p-Side wafer of
about 300 𝜇m is taken over which a thin layer nearly 0.3𝜇 of n-side wafer is grown on one side by diffusion
process. Other side of p-side is coated with a metal. The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on. It is
due to following three basic process: Generation, separation and collection.

# Light emitting diode (L.E.D.):-

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It is heavily doped forward biased p-n junction which spontaneously converts the biasing electrical energy in to
optical energy, like infrared and visible light.

Important features of LED are-

i. The colour of light emitted by an LED depends on its band gap energy.
ii. The intensity of light emitted is determined by forward current conducted by the p-n junction.

Uses-

a) In optical communication.
b) Infrared LED is used burglars alarm system.
c) In image scanning circuit for picture phones.

Advantages of LED over convention incandescent lamps:

a) Low operational voltage and less power consumption.

b) Fast action and no warm up time required.
c) Long life and ruggedness.
d) Fast ON/OFF switching capability