Electronics-I: Answer

ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Define and explain conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
Answer:
Conductor: Conductors (e.g. Copper,

Aluminium) are those substances which easily
allow the passage of electric current through
them. It has least resistivity and highest
conductivity. In terms of energy band, the
valence band and conduction band overlap
each other.
Semiconductor: Semiconductors (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc.) are those

substances whose electrical conductivity lies in
between conductor and insulators. It has
medium resistivity and medium conductivity.
In terms of energy band, the valence band is
almost filled and conduction band is almost
empty. Further, the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band is very
small ( 1eV).
Insulator: Insulators (e.g. Wood, Glass etc.) are

those substances which do not allow the
passage of electric current through them. It has
highest resistivity and least conductivity. In
terms of energy band, the valence band is full
while the conduction band is empty. Further,
the energy gap between valence and
conduction bands is very large ( 15eV). MEC
PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

3rd Semester
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Question: What is the value of forbidden energy gap (Eg) in case of Ge

and Si.
Answer: The gap between valence band and conduction band on the energy
level diagram is called forbidden energy gap. It is denoted by Eg. In case of Ge,
the value of Eg is 0.7eV and in case of Si, the value of Eg is 1.1eV.
Question: Define semiconductor and classify it.
Answer:
Semiconductor: Semiconductor (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc.) are those

substances whose electrical conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators.
Classification of semiconductor: There are two types of semiconductor.

They are:
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is

known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
2. Extrinsic semiconductor: The semiconductor which is produced by

adding a small amount of impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor in order to
increase its conductivity is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are two
types. They are:
(a) p-type semiconductor

(b) n-type semiconductor
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Question: Write the main features of semiconductor./ Write down the

properties of semiconductor.
Answer: Semiconductors (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc) are those substances

whose electrical conductivity lies in between conductors and insulators. In
terms of energy band, the valence band is almost filled and conduction band is
almost empty.
Main features/properties of semiconductor:
1. The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more

than a conductor.
2. Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance i.e.
the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa.
3. When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. Arsenic, Gallium etc.) is added to
a semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably.
Question: What is valence electron?
Answer: The electron in the outermost orbit of an atom is known as valence

electron. If the number of valence electron in an element is less, then the
conductivity of that element will increase i.e. current flow will increase.
Question: Define valence band, conduction band, forbidden energy gap.
Answer:
Valence Band: The range of energies possessed by valence electron is known

as valence band.
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Conduction Band: The range of energies possessed by conduction band
electrons is known as conduction band.

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Forbidden Energy Gap: The separation between conduction band and

valence band on the energy level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap.
Question: What is doping? Explain its necessary or importance.
Answer:
Doping: The process of adding impurity to a semiconductor in order to

increase its conductivity is known as doping.
Necessary or importance: The conductivity of pure or intrinsic

semiconductor is very less. To increase conductivity of pure or intrinsic
semiconductor, some impure materials (pentavalent or trivalent) are mixed
with it. Generally, as impure materials, pentavalent arsenic and antimony or
trivalent gallium and indium are being mixed. In a word, doping is necessary
to increase conductivity.
Question: Define and explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
Answer:
Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is

known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron pairs

are created. When electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor,
the current conduction takes place by two processes, namely-free electrons
and holes. The free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some
covalent bonds of thermal energy. At the same time holes are created in the
covalent bonds. The total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of
currents due to free electrons and holes.
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Extrinsic semiconductor: The semiconductor which is produced by adding a
small amount of impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor in order to increase
its conductivity is known as extrinsic semiconductor.

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The conductivity of pure or intrinsic semiconductor is very less. For

increasing conductivity some other materials (Pentavalent or trivalent) are
mixed with Ge or Si. Then materials are generated is called extrinsic
semiconductor. The process of mixing other materials with Ge or Si is called
doping. The amount and type of such impurities have to be closely controlled
during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor. Generally for 108 atoms of
semiconductor, one impurity atom or impure material is added.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are two
types. They are
1. p-type semiconductor
2. n-type semiconductor
Question: Describe p-type and n-type semiconductor.
Answer:
p-type semiconductor: When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added

to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.
The addition of trivalent impurity

provides a large number of holes in
the semiconductor. Typical examples
of trivalent impurities are gallium
(atomic no. 31) and indium (atomic
no. 49). Such impurities which
produce p-type semiconductor are
known as acceptor impurities because
the holes created can accept the
electrons. Figure: Structure of p-type

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semiconductor
n-type semiconductor: When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is

added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.
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The addition of pentavalent

impurity provides a large number
of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Typical
examples of pentavalent impurities
are arsenic (atomic no. 33) and
antimony (atomic no. 51). Such
impurities which produce n-type
semiconductor are known as
donor impurities because they
donate or provide free electrons to Figure: Structure of n-type
the semiconductor crystal. semiconductor
Question: Compare the characteristics of Silicon and Germanium.
Answer: The comparison between the characteristics of Silicon and

Germanium is given below-
Silicon Germanium
1. The valence electrons in silicon 1. The valence electrons in
are in the third orbit. germanium are in the fourth orbit.
2. Silicon is less unstable than 2. Germanium is more unstable than
germanium at high temperature. silicon at high temperature.
3. Atomic number of silicon is 14. 3. Atomic number of germanium is 32.
4. The energy gap between valence 4. The energy gap between valence
band and conduction band is 1.1eV. band and conduction band is 0.7eV.
Question: Explain majority and minority charge carrier.
Answer:
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Majority charge carrier: When forward bias is applied to PN junction, then
those charge carriers for which majority current flows is called majority
charge carrier.

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In n-type material, free electrons are considered majority carriers since the
majority portion of current in n-type material is by the flow of free electrons.
Similarly, in p-type material, holes are considered majority carriers since the
majority portion of current in p-type material flows due to holes.
Minority charge carrier: When reverse bias is applied to PN junction, then

the charge carrier for which leakage current flows is called minority charge
carrier.
In p-type material, free electrons are considered minority carriers. So,

minority current or leakage current flows due to free electron in p-type
material. In n-type materials, holes are considered minority carriers. so, in n-
type material minority current or leakage current flows due to holes.
Question: Explain the effect of temperature on semiconductor.
Answer:
Effect of temperature on semiconductor: The electrical conductivity of a

semiconductor changes appreciably with temperature variation.
(i) At absolute zero: At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are
tightly held by the semiconductor atoms. The inner orbit electrons are bound
whereas the valence electrons are engaged in co-valent bonding. At this
temperature, the covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free
electrons. Therefore, the semiconductor crystal behaves as a perfect insulator.
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Figure: At absolute zero temperature

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In terms of energy band description, the valence band is filled and there is a
large energy gap between valence band and conduction band. Due to the non-
availability of free electrons, a semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
(ii) Above absolute zero: When the temperature is raised, some of the
covalent bonds in the semiconductor break due to the thermal energy
supplied. The breaking of bonds sets those electrons free which are engaged
in the formation of these bonds. This means that a few free electrons exist in
the semiconductor. These free electrons can constitute a very little electric
current if potential difference is applied across the semiconductor crystal.
This shows that the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the rise in
temperature. At room temperature, current through a semiconductor is too
small to be any practical value.
Figure: Above absolute zero temperature
In terms of energy band diagram, as the temperature is raised, some of the

valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to enter into the conduction band
and this become free electrons. At each time, a valence electron enters into the
conduction band, a hole is created in the valence band.
Question: What is Zener diode?

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Answer: A properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown
voltage is known as zener diode according to the name of American scientist
C. Zener. The symbol of zener diode is same as PN diode but different at
cathode which looks like ‘Z’. The symbol of zener diode is given below:
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Figure: Zener Diode
Question: Write down the characteristics/properties of Zener diode.
Answer: The characteristics/properties of zener diode is given below:
1. A zener diode is similar to PN diode except that it is properly doped for

a sharp breakdown voltage.
2. A zener diode is always reverse connected i.e. it is always reverse
biased.
3. A zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage called zener voltage (VZ).
4. When forward biased, its characteristics are just like a PN diode.
5. The zener diode is not immediately burnt just because it has a sharp
breakdown voltage.
Question: What is stabilization?
Answer:
Stabilization: The process of making an operating point independent of

temperature changes or variations in transistor parameters is known as
stabilization.
Stabilization of operating points necessary due to following reasons:

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i. Temperature dependence of IC.
ii. Individual variation.
iii. Thermal runaway.

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Question: How does zener diode work/perform as a voltage stabilizer?
Answer:
Zener diode as voltage stabilizer: The sharp increase in the characteristic

current-voltage curve for zener diodes above the breakdown voltage makes it
suitable for stabilizing small direct voltages. When the input voltage is
increased beyond the breakdown voltage, the current increases sharply while
the diode resistance gets smaller and smaller. Therefore the voltage at the
zener diode remains nearly constant.
If a load resistor is connected in parallel to the zener diode, the current

flowing through the zener diode is reduced in favour of the load current.
Stabilization is interrupted when there is no more current flowing through the
zener diode. For this reason, the use of zener diodes is limited to relatively
small load currents. Electronic regulation circuits are used for large loads.
There is a closely graduated selection of zener diodes in the voltage range of
3V to 200V, meaning that there are diode types for any desired voltage. Thus
we can say that, a zener diode can be used as a voltage stabilizer.
Question: Write down the difference between zener diode and

semiconductor diode.
MEC
Answer: The difference between zener diode and semiconductor diode is
given below:

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Semiconductor Diode Zener Diode

1. Semiconductor diode allows 1. Zener diode allows current to flow
current to flow through one through both direction.
direction.
2. Semiconductor diode cannot 2. Zener diode can conduct large
conduct a large reverse current. reverse diode.
3. The device will be damaged 3. The device will not be damaged
while conducting a large reverse while conducting a large reverse
current. current.
4. Semiconductor diodes are 4. Zener diodes are used for voltage
normally used for rectification. regulation.
5. Semiconductor diode does not 5. Zener diode has a sharp breakdown
have a sharp breakdown voltage. voltage.
Question: What is rectifier and rectification?
Answer:
Rectifier: A rectifier is an electronic device that converts alternating current

(a.c) which periodically reverses direction to direct current (d.c) which flows
in only one direction.
or, Rectifier is a device by which a.c can be converted into d.c.
Rectification: Rectification is a process by which a.c can be converted into d.c.
Question: Discuss different types of rectifier./ Classify rectifier.
Answer:
Rectifier: Rectifier is a device by which a.c can be converted into d.c.
Classification of rectifier: There are two types of rectifier.

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1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave rectifier

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1. Half-wave rectifier: The rectifier which conducts current only during the
positive half-cycle of a.c supply and suppresses the negative half-cycle of
a.c supply is called half-wave rectifier.
2. Full-wave rectifier: The rectifier which conducts current through the load
in the same direction for both positive half-cycle and negative half-cycle of
a.c supply is called full-wave rectifier.
There are two types of full-wave rectifier.
i. Centre-Tap full-wave rectifier

ii. Full-wave bridge rectifier
Question: How p-n diode can be used as rectifier?
Answer: The a.c input voltage to be rectified, the diode and load RL are
connected in series. During the positive half-cycle of a.c input voltage, the
diode is forward biased and conducts current in the circuit. So, the depletion
layer of p-n junction is decreased. However, during the negative half-cycle of
input a.c voltage, the diode becomes reverse biased. Then the depletion layer
increased. As a result, no current pass through the diode. Thus we get current
flow only for the positive half-cycles and negative half-cycles are suppressed.
In this way diode has been able to do rectification i.e. change a.c (source) into
d.c.
Figure: p-n diode as a rectifier

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So, we can say that p-n diode can be used as a rectifier.

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Question: Define ripple factor ( ) and efficiency of rectifier (η).
Answer:
Ripple factor: The ratio of r.m.s value of a.c. component to the d.c. component
in the rectifier output is known as ripple factor. It is denoted by .
Ripple factor ( ) =
= Iac/Idc
Efficiency of rectifier: The ratio of d.c. power output to the applied input a.c.
power is called efficiency of rectifier. It is denoted by η.
Efficiency of rectifier (η) =
Question: Find the efficiency and ripple factor for half-wave rectifier.
Answer:
Efficiency of half-wave rectifier: Let, v=Vmsin be the alternating voltage

that appears across the secondary winding. Let, rf and RL be the diode
resistance and load resistance respectively. The instantaneous current i is
given by
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Figure: Half-wave rectifier

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d.c. output power: The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore,
in order to find the d.c. power, average current has to be found out.
a.c. power input: The a.c. power input is given by:
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The efficiency will be maximum of rf is negligible as compared to RL.
Maximum efficiency= 40.6%

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Ripple factor of half-wave rectifier: In half-wave rectification,
Irms = Im/2 ; Idc = Im/п
We know,
=
= 1.21
i.e. = 1.21
Question: Find the efficiency and ripple factor for full wave rectifier.
Answer:
Efficiency of full wave rectifier: Let, v=Vmsin be the a.c. voltage to be

rectified. Let, rf and RL be the diode resistance and load resistance
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respectively. The instantaneous current i is given by:

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d.c. output power: The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore,
in order to find the d.c. power, average current has to be found out.
Iav = Idc = ∫
= ∫ * + + ∫ * +
= * +∫ – * +∫
= {Vm/(rf+RL)}[ - {Vm/(rf+RL)}[
= {Vm/(rf+RL)}[-cosп+cos0] - {Vm/(rf+RL)}[-cos2п+cosп]
= {Vm/(rf+RL)}[-(-1)+1] - {Vm/(rf+RL)}[-1-1]
= {Vm/(rf+RL)}(1+1) - {Vm/(rf+RL)}(-2)
= {Vm/(rf+RL)} 2 + {Vm/(rf+RL)} 2
= {Vm/(rf+RL)}(2+2)
= {Vm/(rf+RL)} 4
= . 4Im
= . 2Im
Idc = 2Im/п
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d.c. power output, Pdc = Idc2 RL
= (2Im/п)2 RL

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a.c. input power: The a.c. input power is given by:
Pac = Irms2(rf+RL)
For a full-wave rectified wave, we have,
Irms = Im/√
Pac = (Im/√ )2(rf+RL)
Full-wave rectification efficiency is
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL.
Maximum efficiency = 81.2%
This is double the efficiency due to half-wave rectifier. Therefore, a full-wave

rectifier is twice as effective as a half wave rectifier.
Ripple factor of full-wave rectifier: In full-wave rectification,
Irms= Im/√ ; Idc = 2Im/п
We know,
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= 0.48
i.e. = 0.48
This shows that in the output of a full-wave rectifier, the d.c. component is
more than the a.c. component.
Question: Explain circuit diagram, wave diagram and operations of half

wave rectifier.
Answer:
Half wave rectifier: The rectifier which conducts current only during the
positive half-cycle of a.c supply and suppresses the negative half-cycle of a.c
supply is called half-wave rectifier. In half wave rectifier, during negative half
cycles no current is conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load.
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Operation: The a.c. voltage across the secondary winding AB changes
polarities after every half cycle. During the positive half cycle of input a.c.
voltage, end A becomes positive with respect to end B. this makes the diode
forward biased and hence it conducts current. During the negative half-cycle,
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end A is negative with respect to end B. under this condition, the diode is
reverse biased and it conducts no current. Therefore, current flows through
the diode during positive half-cycles of input a.c. voltage only; it is blocked
during the negative half-cycles. In this way, current flows through load RL
always in the same direction. Hence d.c. output is obtained across RL.
Question: Explain the circuit diagram, wave diagram and operation of

full wave centre-tap rectifier.
Answer:
Full wave centre-tap rectifier: The circuit employs two diodes D1 and D2 as
shown in the figure. A centre-tapped secondary winding AB is used with two
diodes connected so that each uses one half-cycle of input a.c.
Operation: During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of

the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the
diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore, diode D1
conducts while diode D2 does not. The conventional current flow is through
diode D1, load resistor RL and the upper half of secondary winding as shown
by the dotted arrows. During the negative half-cycle end A of the secondary
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winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts
while diode D1 does not. The conventional current flow is through diode D2,
load RL and lower half winding as shown by solid arrows. Referring to figure,

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it may be seen that current in the load RL is in the same direction for both half-
cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, d.c. is obtained across the load RL.
Question: Explain circuit diagram, wave diagram and operation of full

wave bridge rectifier.
Answer:
Full wave bridge rectifier: Four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form
bridge as shown in given figure. The a.c. supply to be rectified is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the transformer. Between
other two ends of the bridge, the load resistance RL is connected.
Operation: During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end P of

the secondary winding become positive and end Q negative. This makes
diodes D1 and D3 forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. These two diodes will be in series
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through the load RL as shown in the given figure (1). The conventional current
flow is shown by dotted arrows. During the negative half-cycle of secondary
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voltage, end P becomes negative and end Q positive. This makes diodes D2 and
D4 forward biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore,
only diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes will be in series through the
load RL as shown in the given figure (2). The current flow is shown by solid
arrows. The current flows from A to B through the load i.e. in the same
direction as for the positive half-cycle. Therefore, d.c. output is obtained
across load RL.
Question: What is the nature of output of rectifier and why?
Answer: The nature of output of rectifier is pulsating d.c. The fact that a
pulsating d.c. contains both d.c. and a.c.
components can be beautifully illustrated by
referring figure (a). Figure (1) shows a pure d.c.
component whereas figure (2) shows a.c.
component. If these two waves are added
together, the resulting will be shown in figure (3). Figure (a)
It is clear that the wave shown in figure (3) never becomes negative, although
it contains both a.c. and d.c. components. The striking resemblance between
the rectifier output wave shown in figure (a) and the wave shown in figure (3)
may be noted. It follows, therefore, that a pulsating output of a rectifier
contains a d.c. component and an a.c. component.
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Question: Write down the difference/comparison between half wave and

full wave rectifier.
Answer: The difference between half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier is
given below:
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

1. In half wave rectifier, number of 1. In full wave rectifier, centre tap
diode is 1. type has two diodes and bridge type
has four diodes.
2. In half wave rectifier, 2. In centre tap type, transformer is
transformer is not necessary. necessary but in bridge type
transformer is not necessary.
3. In half wave rectifier maximum 3. Maximum efficiency in both centre
efficiency is 40.6%. tap and bridge type is 81.2%.
4. Ripple factor is 1.21. 4. Ripple factor in both centre tap and
bridge type is 0.48.
5. Output frequency is fin. 5. Output frequency in both centre tap
and bridge type is 2fin.
6. Peak inverse voltage is Vm. 6. In centre tap type, peak inverse
voltage is 2Vm and bridge type, peak
inverse voltage is Vm.
Question: What is filter circuit and filtering? Write down the necessity of
filter circuit.
Answer:
Filter circuit: A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of
rectifier output and allows the d.c. component to reach the load.
Filtering: Filtering is a process by which the a.c. component of rectifier output

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is removed and the d.c. component is allowed to reach the load.
Necessity of filter circuit: Generally, a rectifier is required to produce pure

d.c. supply for using at various places in the electronics circuits. However, the

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output of a rectifier has pulsating character i.e. it contains a.c. and d.c.
components. The a.c. component is undesirable and must be kept away from
the load. To do so, a filter circuit is used which removes the a.c. component
and allows only the d.c. component to reach the load. This is the necessity of
filter circuit.
Question: Explain different types of filter circuit.
Answer: A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of

rectifier output but allows the d.c. component to reach the load.
The most commonly used filter circuits are
1. Capacitor filter
2. Choke input filter
3. Capacitor input filter or -filter.
Capacitor filter circuit: Capacitor filter circuit consists of a capacitor C

placed across the rectifier output in parallel with load RL. The pulsating direct
voltage of the rectifier is supplied across the capacitor. As the rectifier voltage
increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load.
Figure: Capacitor filter circuit MEC

Choke input filter: Choke input filter consists of a choke (inductor) L
connected in series with the rectifier output and a filter capacitor C across the
load.

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Figure: Choke input filter
Capacitor input filter or -filter: Capacitor input filter or -filter consists of

a filter capacitor C1 connected across the rectifier output, a choke L in series
and another filter capacitor C2 connected across the load.
Figure: Capacitor input filter/ 𝛑-filter
Question: What is pulsating dc? How it can be purified?
Answer:
Pulsating d.c: AC mixed DC components is called pulsating d.c. It has two

components; one component is d.c and another is a.c.
Purification of pulsating d.c: When a pure ac supply is given into a rectifier

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then we get pulsating dc. To purify this pulsating dc a filter circuit is needed.
When the pulsating dc wave enters into the filter circuit then the inductor of
the filter circuit opposes the ac portion because of comparatively high
resistance and for d.c. portion the inductor acts as a conductor, because f=0
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then XL=2пfL=0. As a result maximum d.c. will flow through the load with a
small amount of a.c. This small amount of a.c. is minimized by the capacitor
because capacitor is low resistive for a.c. So, a.c. goes through the capacitor
and absorbed by it. But d.c. portion goes directly through the load because for
d.c. portion capacitive resistance is infinity. (f=0, XC= = ). Thus maximum
a.c. is blocked and almost pure d.c. will go through the load but 100% d.c.
cannot be found on the load. In this way the pulsating d.c. can be purified.
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Question: What is transistor?
Answer:
Transistor: A transistor consists of two pn junction formed by sandwiching

either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
Or, Transistor is a three terminal, three-layer and two junction semiconductor

device which is used as an amplifier.
There are two types of transistor. They are-
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor
Figure: Transistor
Question: Distinguish between PNP and NPN transistor.
Answer: Distinguish between PNP and NPN transistor is given below:
PNP Transistor NPN Transistor

1. PNP is made by two p-type and 1. NPN is made by two n-type and one
one n-type semiconductor. p-type semiconductor.
2. The current direction is inward. 2. The current direction is outward.
3. In PNP transistor, majority 3. In NPN transistor, majority carrier
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carrier is hole. is electron.
4. In PNP transistor, minority 4. In NPN transistor, minority carrier
carrier is electron. is hole.
5. Symbol of PNP transistor 5. Symbol of NPN transistor

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Question: Explain the construction and operation of transistor.
Answer:
Construction: A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by

sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of
opposite types. There are two types of transistor. One is pnp and other is npn
transistor.
The emitter layer is heavily doped and collector only lightly doped. The ratio
of total layer to the central layer is 150:1. A transistor has three terminals
emitter, base and collector.
Operation: The basic operation of a transistor will be described using the pnp
transistor. The pnp transistor is considered without base-collector connection
(Figure-a). Then the majority carrier flows through the circuit as it is forward
biased. Then we considered the pnp transistor without emitter bas
connection. Then the minority carrier flows through the circuit as it is reverse
biased.
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Figure: (a) Figure: (b)
We can say one pn junction of a transistor is reverse biased whereas other is

forward biased. When majority carrier flows through the emitter then the

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carrier will refuse across the forward biased pn junction into the n-type
material. Since the sandwiched n-type material is very thin and has a low
conductivity, a very small number of these carriers will take this path of high
resistance to the base terminal. The current flow the base terminal is very
small considered few micro amperes. As the base collector junction is
reversed biased then all carrier pass through the circuit. Only 5% of the input
passes through the base and 95% of the input passes through the collector.
Now, we can say that emitter current is the sum of collector and base current.
i.e. IE = IC + IB
Question: Describe the working principle of p-n-p and n-p-n transistor?
Answer:
Working principle of npn transistor: The npn transistor with forward bias
to emitter-base junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The
forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through
the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes.
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Figure: Basic connection of npn transistor

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As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less
than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base current IB. the remainder
(more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector
circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base currents
i.e. IE = IB + IC
Working principle of pnp transistor: The basic connection of a pnp

transistor is given below in the figure. The forward bias causes the holes in
the p-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter
current IE. As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the
electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons.
Figure: Basic connection of pnp transistor
The remainder (more than 95%) crosses into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the
collector circuit. It may be noted that current conduction within pnp
transistor is by holes.
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Question: Deduce the relation between different amplification factors.

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Answer:
Relation between and :
We know,
IE = I C + I B
From the definition of amplification factor of common base,
= [ = ]
α =
This is the relation between and .
Relation between β and α:
We know,
IE = I C + I B
or, IB = I E - IC
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From the definition of amplification factor of common emitter,

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= [ = ]
β =
This is the relation between β and α.
Relation between γ and α:
We know,
IE = I C + I B
or, IB = I E - IC
From the definition of amplification factor of common collector,
=
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= [ = ]

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γ =
This is the relation between γ and α.
Relation between γ and β:
We know,
IE = I C + I B
From the definition of amplification factor of common collector,
= +
= 1+β [ = ]
γ = 1+β
This is the relation between γ and β.
Question: Explain the region of operations of transistor?
Answer: There are three regions of operations of transistor. They are-
1. Cut off region

2. Saturation region
3. Active region
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1. Cut off region: The point where the load line intersects the base current
(IB)=0 curve is known as cutoff region. At this point, the base current (I B)=0
and only small collector current exists. At cut off, the base-emitter junction no

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linger remains forward biased and normal transistor action is lost. The
collector-emitter voltage is nearly equal to VCC i.e.
VCE(cutoff)=VCC
2. Saturation region: The point where the load line intersects the IB=IB(sat)
curve is called saturation. At this point, the base current is maximum and so is
the collector current. At saturation, collector-base junction no longer remains
reverse biased and normal transistor action is lost.
IC(sat)= ; VCE=VCE(sat)=Vknee
3. Active region: The region between cut off and saturation is known as
active region. In the active region, collector-base junction reverse biased while
base-emitter junction remains forward biased. Consequently, the transistor
will function normally in this region.
Question: Distinguish between CB, CE and CC./ Compare CB, CE and

CC.
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Answer: Distinguish between CB, CE and CC is given below:

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Characteristics Common Base Common Common Collector

(CB) Emitter (CE) (CC)
1. Input Low(<100Ω) Low(<750Ω) Very high (>750KΩ)
resistance
2. Output Very high High (>45KΩ) Low(<50Ω)
resistance (>450KΩ)
3. Voltage gain About 150/ 150 About 500/ 500 Less than 1/<1
4. Application For high For audio For impedance
frequency frequency matching
5. Current gain No (less than 1) High (β) Appreciable
Question: Describe the load line and operating points of transistor.
Answer:
Load line: The resistance RC connected to the device is called load or load
resistance for the circuit and therefore, the line we have just constructed is
called the load line.
Consider a common emitter npn transistor circuit where no signal is applied.

The output characteristics of this circuit are given below.
The value of collector-emitter voltage VCE at any time is given by
VCE=VCC - ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values, therefore, it is a first degree equation and can
be represented by a straight line on the output characteristics. This is called
d.c. load line. To add load line, two end points of the straight line is needed.
These two points can be obtained as below:
(i) When the collector current IC=0, then collector-emitter voltage is

maximum and is equal to VCC
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i.e. Max. VCE = VCC - ICRC
= VCC ( IC=0)

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It gives the first point B (OB=VCC) on the collector-emitter voltage axis as

shown in figure(ii).
(ii) When collector-emitter voltage VCE=0,

the collector current is maximum and is
equal to VCC/RC
i.e. VCE = VCC - ICRC
or, 0 = VCC - ICRC
Max. IC = VCC/RC
(iii)
It gives the second point A (OA = VCC/RC) on the collector current axis as
shown in figure (ii). By joining these two points d.c. load line AB is
constructed.
Operating point: The zero signal values

of IC and VCE are known as the operating
point. It is called operating point because
the variations of IC and VCE take place
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about this point when signal is applied. It
is also called quiescent (silent) point or Q-
point because it is the point on IC-VCE

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characteristic when the transistor is silent i.e. in the absence of the signal.
Question: Draw and explain the different connection of a transistor.
Answer: There are three kinds of connections of a transistor. They are-
1. Common base connection

2. Common emitter connection
3. Common collector connection
1. Common base connection: In this circuit the input is given to the emitter
and output is taken from the collector. Here for pnp common base connection
the emitter is forward biased and collector is reverse biased. The emitter base
voltage is VEE and the collector base voltage is VCB. For npn common base
connection emitter is forward biased and collector is reverse biased. Output is
taken from the load situated in the collector side.
2. Common emitter connection: In this type of connection input is applied

between base and emitter and output is taken from the collector and emitter.
In this circuit emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output
circuits and hence the name is common emitter connection. In pnp and npn
the input voltage is forward biased and output voltage is reverse biased.
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3. Common collector connection: In this circuit input is applied between

base and collector and output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here
collector of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits. There
is no voltage gain in CC circuit. The circuit is often used for impedance
matching. As the collector is common both in input and output circuit, it is
called common collector connection circuit.
Question: Explain the characteristics curves of different transistor

connections.
Answer: There are three kinds of transistor connection. They are-
1. Common base connection

2. Common emitter connection
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3. Common collector connection
1. Characteristics of common base connection: It is divided into input and

output characteristics.

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a) Input characteristic: It is the curve between emitter current IE and

emitter base voltage VEB at constant collector base voltage VCB. The
emitter current id generally taken along y-axis and emitter-base voltage
along x-axis.
(i) The emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in
emitter base voltage VEB. It means that input resistance is very
small.
(ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector base
voltage VCB.
Input resistance, ri = at constant VCB.
b) Output characteristic:
(i) The collector current IC varies with VCB only at very low voltage.
(ii) When the value of VCB is raised above 1-2V, the collector current
becomes constant. It means that IC is independent on VCB and
dependent on IE.
(iii) A very large change in collector base voltage produces only a tiny
change in collector current.
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Output resistance, ro = at constant IE.

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2. Characteristics of common emitter connection:
a) Input characteristic:
(i) It resembles that of a forward biased diode curve.
(ii) As compared to CB arrangement, IB increases less rapidly with
VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than CB
circuit.
Input resistance, ri = at constant VCE.
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b) Output characteristic: It is the curve between collector current IC and
collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant base current IB.

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(i) The collector current IC varies

with VCE between 0 and 1V
only. After this collector
current almost constant and
independent of VCE.
(ii) Above knee voltage IC is almost
constant. However a small
increase in IC with increase VCE
is caused by current depletion
layer getting wider.
(iii) For any value of VCE above knee voltage IC is approximately equal
to β IB.
Output resistance, ro = at constant IB.
Question: Explain different types of biasing method used in transistor.
Answer: There are many kinds of biasing method. The following methods are
commonly used.
1. Base resistor method
2. Emitter bias method
3. Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
4. Voltage-divider bias
1. Base resistor method: In this method a high resistance RB is connected

between the base and positive end of supply for npn transistor and between
base and negative end of supply for pnp transistor.
Circuit analysis: It is required to find the value of RB so that required

collector current flows in the zero signal condition. Let, IC be the required zero
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signal collector current,

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IB =
Consider the close circuit ABENA and

applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law we get,
VCC = IBRB + VBE
or, IBRB = VCC - VBE
or, RB =
Since VBE is very small as compared to

VCC,
RB =
2. Emitter bias method: For this biasing method we have to draw an

equivalent circuit. The positive voltage +VCC is applied on the top RC and
negative voltage –VEE is applied to the bottom RE.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
-IBRB – VBE – IERE + VEE = 0
or, VEE = IBRB + VBE + IERE (1)
We know, IC IE and IC = βIB
IB =
Putting the value of IB in equation (1) we get,
VEE = . RB + VBE + IERE

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or, VEE–VBE = IE ( + RE)

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or, IE =
( )
Since, IC IE, we have,
IC =
( )
3. Biasing with collector feedback resistor: In this method one end of RB is

connected to the base and the other end is connected to the collector.
Circuit analysis: The required value of RB

needed to give the zero signal current IC can be
determined as follows-
VCC = ICRC + IBRB + VBE
or, IBRB = VCC – VBE – ICRC
or, RB =
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or, RB = [ IC = βIB]

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RB =
4. Potential/Voltage divider bias method: This is the most widely used

method of providing biasing and stabilization to a transistor. Suppose that the
current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current IB is very small
therefore it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing
through R2 is also I1.
I1 =
Voltage across resistance R2 is
V2 = R2
Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the base

circuit,
V2 = VBE + VE
or, V2 = VBE + IERE
or, IE =
Since, IE IC
IC =
RE =
VCC = ICRC + VCE + V
or, VCE = VCC – VE – ICRC

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or, ICRC = VCC – VE – VCE
or, RC =

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Question: Explain BJT as a switch.
Answer: The switching action of a transistor can be explained by the output

characteristics of a CE circuit. The load line is drawn for the load R C and
collector supply VCC. It can be explained by off region, on region and by active
region.
1. Off region: When the input voltage is zero or negative then the
transistor is said to be in the off condition. In this condition I B=0 and
collector current is equal to the collector leakage current ICEO.
Power loss = Output current Output voltage
= VCC ICEO
Since ICEO is very small and it is negligible, the power loss is very low i.e.
the transistor has a high efficiency as a switch in the off condition.
2. On region: In on condition, the input voltage is positive. In this

condition the saturation collector current is
IC(sat) = (VCC-Vknee)/RC
Power loss = Output voltage Output current
Output voltage is equal to knee voltage.
Power loss = Vknee IC(sat)
Again the efficiency as a switch in on condition is high.
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3. By active region: It is the region that lies between off and on condition. In
this region the transistor operates as a linear amplifier where small changes
in input current causes relatively large changes in output current.
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Question: Describe transistor as an amplifier.
Answer: A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an
amplifier.
The weak signal is applied between emitter base junction and output is taken
across the load RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to achieve
faithful amplification the input circuit
should always remain forward biased. To
do so a dc voltage VEE is applied in the input
circuit in addition to the signal as shown in
the figure. This dc voltage and its
magnitude is such that it always keeps the
input circuit forward biased regardless of
the polarity of the signal. As the input
circuit has low resistance therefore a small
signal change in signal voltage causes an appreciable change in emitter
current. This causes almost the same change in collector current. The collector
current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large voltage
across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the
amplifier form in the collector circuit. It is in this way that a transistor acts as
an amplifier.
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Question: What is h-parameter/Hybrid parameter/Mixed parameter?
Answer:
Hybrid/h/Mixed parameter: Every linear circuit having input and output

terminals can be analysed by four parameters (one measured in ohm, one in
mho and two dimensionless) is called hybrid or h parameter or mixed
parameter.
Hybrid means “mixed”. Since those parameters have mixed dimensions, they
are called hybrid parameters.
Question: Describe the limitations of h parameter.
Answer: The h parameter approach provides accurate information regarding

the current gain, voltage gain, input impedance and output impedance of a
transistor amplifier. However, there are two major limitations on the use of
these parameters.
1. It is very difficult to get the exact values of h parameters for a particular

transistor. It is because these parameters are subject to considerable
variation-unit to unit variation, variation due to change in temperature
and variation due to change in operating point. In predicting an
amplifier performance, care must be taken to use h parameter values
that are correct for the operating point being considered.
2. The h parameter approach gives correct answer for small a.c. signals
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only. It is because a transistor behaves as a linear device for small
signals only.

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Question: Name the h-parameters with unit.
Answer: There are four hybrids or h-parameters. They are-
1. Input impedance (h11)= ; unit ohm
2. Reverse voltage gain (h12)= ; unit no (dimensionless)
3. Current gain (h21)= ; unit no (dimensionless)
4. Output admittance (h22) = ; unit mho
Question: Explain determination of h parameters./Deduce h11, h12, h21, h22.
Answer: The major reason for the use of h parameters is the relative ease
with which they can be measured. The h parameters of a circuit is shown in
the given figure
We know that voltage and currents of the circuit in above figure can be
expressed in terms of h parameters as under-
v1 = h11i1 + h12v2 (i)
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2 (ii)
(i) If we short the output terminals, we can say that output voltage, v2=0.
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Putting v2=0 in both equation (i) and (ii) we get,
v1 = h11i1 + h12 0
or, v1 = h11i1
h11 = ; for v2=0 i.e. output shorted.
and, i2 = h21i1 + h22 0
or, i2 = h21i1
h21 = ; for v2=0 i.e. output shorted.
Since, h11 is a ration of voltage and current, it is an impedance and is called

‘input impedance with output shorted’. Similarly, h21 is the ratio of output and
input current and is called ‘current gain with output shorted’.
(ii) If we open the input terminals, we can say that i1=0
Putting the value of i1=0 in both equation (i) and (ii) we get,
v1 = h11 0 + h12v2
or, v1 = h12v2
h12 = ; for i1=0 i.e. input open.
and, i2 = h21 0 + h22v2

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or, i2 = h22v2
h22 = ; for i1=0 i.e. input open

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Since h12 is a ratio of input and output voltages and is called ‘voltage feedback
ratio with input terminals open’. Similarly, h22 is a ratio of output current and
output voltage and is called ‘output admittance with input terminals open’.
Question: Draw and explain h-parameter equivalent circuit of transistor.
Answer:
h-parameter equivalent circuit:
Figure 1
Figure (1) shows a linear circuit. It is required to draw the h parameter

equivalent circuit of figure (1). We know that voltages and current of the
circuit in figure (1) can be expressed in terms of h parameters as under:
v1 = h11i1 + h12v2 (i)
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2 (ii)
Figure 2
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Figure (2) shows h parameter equivalent circuit of figure (1) and is derived
from equations (i) and (ii). The input circuit appears as a resistance h11 in
series with a voltage generator h12v2. This circuit is derived from equation (i).
The output circuit involves two components: a current generator h21i1 and
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shunt resistance h22 and is derived from equation (ii). The following points are
worth not about the h parameter equivalent circuit.
This circuit is called hybrid equivalent because its input portion is a Thevenin
equivalent or voltage generator with series resistance while output portion is
Norton equivalent or current generator with shunt resistance. Thus it is a
mixture or a hybrid. The symbol ‘h’ is simply the abbreviation of the word
hybrid.
Question: Deduce the equation of input impedance (Zin), current gain

(Ai), voltage gain (Av) and output impedance (Zout) of transistor in terms
of h-parameter.
Answer: Any linear circuit with input and output has a set of h parameters.
We shall now develop formulas for input impedance, current gain, voltage
gain, output impedance of a linear circuit in terms of h parameters.
1. Input impedance: Consider a linear circuit with a load resistance rL

across its terminals as shown in given figure. The input impedance Zin of
this circuit is the ratio of input voltage to input current i.e.
Zin = -------------------- (i)
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We know,
v1 = h11i1 + h12v2
Putting the value of v1 in equation (i) and we get,

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From the output circuit,
i2 = -(v2/rL)
Again,
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2
Zin = h11 –
( )
This is the equation of input impedance.
2. Current gain:
Current gain Ai of the circuit is given by,

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Ai = -------------------- (i)
From the output circuit,

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v2 = -i2rL
We know,
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2
or, i2 = h21i1 – h22i2rL [ v2 = -i2rL]
or, i2 + h22i2rL = h21i1
or, i2(1+h22rL) = h21i1
or, =
Putting the value of in equation (i) and we get,
Ai =
This is the equation of current gain.
3. Voltage gain:
The voltage gain of the circuit is given by,
AV =
= [ v1 = i1. Zin]
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or, AV = . ---------------------(i)

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While developing expression for input impedance, we found that,
=–
( )
From equation (i) we get,
AV = [– ]
( )
AV =–
( )
This is the equation of voltage gain.
4. Output impedance: In order to find the output impedance, the load rL

need to be removed, the signal voltage v1 has to be set to zero and a
generator of voltage v2 need to be connected at the output terminals.
By definition, the output impedance Zout is
Zout = --------------------(i)
With v1=0 and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input circuit, we
have,
0 = i1h11 + h12v2
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or, i1h11 = -h12v2
or, i1 =-

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Again,
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2
or, i2 = h21(- )+ h22v2
or, i2 =- + h22v2
or, i2 = v2 (h22 - )
or, =
From equation (i) we get,
Zout =
This is the equation of output impedance.
Question: Define FET./ What is FET?
Answer:
Field Effect Transistor (FET): A field effect transistor is a three terminal

semiconductor device in which current conduction is happened by one type of
carrier, either by hole or electron and current flow is controlled by an electric
field.
Question: Define JFET.

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Answer:
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET): A junction field effect transistor is a

three terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction is by one
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type of carrier i.e. electrons or holes. The JFET has high input impedance and
low noise level
Question: Write down the salient features of JFET.
Answer: The salient features of JFET are given below:
1. A JFET is a three terminal voltage controlled semiconductor device i.e.

input voltage controls the output characteristics of JFET.
2. The JFET is always operated with gate source pn junction reverse
biased.
3. In a JFET, the gate current is zero i.e. IG=0 A.
4. Since there is no gate current , ID=IS
5. The JFET must be operated between VGS=0 V and VGS(off).
6. Because of two gates are at the same potential, both depletion layers
widen or narrow down by an equal amount.
7. The JFET is not subjected to thermal runaway when the temperature of
the device increases.
8. The drain current ID is controlled by changing the channel width.
9. Since JFET has no gate current, there is no β rating of the device.
Question: Write down the advantage and disadvantage of JFET.
Answer:
Advantage of JFET: The advantage of JFET is given below:
1. It has a very high input impedance. This permits high degree of isolation
between the input and output circuits.
2. The operation of a JFET depends upon the bulk material current carriers
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that do not cross junctions.
3. A JFET has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
4. A JFET has a very high power gain.
5. A JFET has a smaller size, longer life and high efficiency.

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Disadvantage of JFET:
1. Small gain-bandwidth product.

2. Greater susceptibility to damage in handling them.
Question: Write down the uses of JFET.
Answer: The uses of JFET are given below:
1. As a buffer amplifier: A buffer amplifier is a stage of amplification that

isolates the preceding stage from different stage. For the high input
impedance and low output impedance a JFET is used as an excellent
buffer amplifier.
2. Phase shift oscillators: The oscillators also work with JFET. The phase-
shift oscillators use the high input impedance to minimize the loading
effect.
3. As RF amplifier: JFET is used as RF amplifier in the receiver.
Question: Differentiate between BJT and JFET.
Answer: The difference between BJT and JFET is given below:
BJT JFET
1. Both hole and electron take part 1. Either hole or electron takes part to
to current conduction. current conduction.
2. It is called bipolar transistor. 2. It is called unipolar transistor.
3. Input circuit is always forward 3. Input circuit is reverse biased.
biased.
4. Input impedance is low. 4. Input impedance is high.
5. In BJT base controls the current 5. In JFET gate controls the current
flow. flow.
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6. There are two junctions in BJT. 6. No junction is applied in JFET.
7. The base current might be μA. 7. The gate current is zero.
8. Noise level is high from JFET. 8. Boise level is very low or small.
9. Symbol 9. Symbol
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Question: Write down the name of parameters of JFET and define them./
Define the parameters of JFET.
Answer: Like vacuum tubes, a JFET has certain parameters which determine
its performance in a circuit. The main parameters of JFET are-
1. a.c. drain resistance

2. Transconductance or mutual conductance
3. Amplification factor
1. a.c. drain resistance (rd): It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage

( VDS) to the change in drain-current ( ID) at constant gate source voltage.
a.c. drain resistance, rd = VDS/ ID at constant VGS.
2. Transconductance (gfs): It is the ratio of change in drain current ( ID) to

the change in gate-source voltage ( VGS) at constant drain source voltage.
Transconductance, gfs = ID/ VGS at constant VDS.
3. Amplification factor (μ): It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage

( VDS) to the change in gate source voltage ( VGS) at constant drain current.
Amplification factor, μ = VDS/ VGS at constant ID.

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Question: Deduce the relation between JFET parameters.
Answer: We know,
a.c. drain resistance (rd) = at constant VGS.
Transconductance (gfs) = at constant VDS.
Amplification factor (μ) = at constant ID.
The relationship among JFET parameters can be established as under:
We know,
μ=
Multiplying the numerator and denominator in R.H.S by ID and we get,
μ=
= rd gfs
μ = rd gfs
i.e. amplification factor = a.c. drain resistance transconductance
This is the relation between JFET parameters.
Question: Why FET is called unipolar transistor and field effect

transistor?
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Answer: A field effect transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in

which current conduction is happened by one type of carrier, either by hole or
electron and current flow is controlled by an electric field.
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In FET, there is only one type of carrier, holes in p-type channel and electrons
in n-type channel. For this reason it is called unipolar transistor.
In FET, current flow is controlled by an electric field and that’s why it is called
field effect transistor.
Question: Describe the construction of JFET.
Answer: A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two pn

junctions at the sides. The bar forms the conducting channel or path for the
charge carriers. if the bar is of n-type, it is called n-channel JFET and if the bar
is of p-type, it is called p-channel JFET. The two pn junctions forming diodes
are connected internally and a common terminal is taken out. It is called gate.
The other two terminals are called source and drain which are taken out from
the bar. Hence JFET has three terminals namely gate (G), source (S) and drain
(D).
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Question: Express the drain current equation of JFET.
Answer: The relation between IDSS and VP is shown in figure. We note that
gate-source cut off voltage [i.e. VGS(off)] on the transfer characteristic is equal to
pinch off voltage VP on the drain characteristic.
i.e. VP = VGS(off)
For example, if a JFET has VGS(off) = -4V, then VP = 4V
The transfer characteristic of JFET shown in given figure is part of a parabola.

A rather complex mathematical analysis yields the following expression for
drain current.
ID = IDSS* ( )
+
Where,
ID = drain current at given VGS
IDSS = shorted-gate drain current
VGS = gate-source voltage
VGS(off)= gate-source cut off voltage
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Question: Describe the output characteristics of JFET.
Answer:
Output characteristics of JFET: The curve between drain current (ID) and
drain-source voltage (VDS) of a JFET at constant gate-source voltage (VGS) is
known as output characteristics of JFET. Keeping VGS fixed at some value, say
1V, the drain-source voltage is changed in steps. Corresponding to each value
of VDS, the drain current ID is noted. The figure shown in below shows a family
of output characteristics.
The following points may be noted from the characteristics:
1. At first, the drain current ID rises rapidly with drain-source voltage VDS
but then becomes constant. The drain-source voltage above which drain
current becomes constant is known as pinch off voltage. In figure, OA is
the pinch off voltage VP.
2. After pinch off voltage, the channel width becomes so narrow that
depletion layers almost touch each other.
3. The characteristics resemble that of a pentode value.
Question: Describe the operation of JFET.

MEC
Answer:
Operation of JFET: In a JFET, the two pn junctions at the sides form two
depletion layers. The current conduction is happened by charge carrier

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
through the channel between the two depletion layers and out of the drain.
The input voltage is reversed biased. A JFET operates on the basis of width
and resistance of conducting channel by changing the input voltage. The
working of JFET is given below:
1. When a voltage VDS is applied between drain and source terminals and
voltage on the gate is zero (Fig-i) then the depletion layer is created. The
size of these layers determines the width of the channel and hence the
current conduction through the bar.
2. When a reverse voltage VGS is applied between the gate and source (fig-
ii) the width of the depletion layers is increased. This reduces the width
of conducting channel, thereby increasing the resistance of n-type bar.
For this reason, the current from source to drain is decreased. On the
other hand, if the reverse voltage on the gate is decreased, the width of
depletion layers also decreases. This increases the width of the
conducting channel and hence increases source to drain current.
Question: Define (i) pinch off voltage (ii) gate-source cut off voltage (iii)
shorted-gate drain current.
MEC
Answer:
(i) Pinch off voltage (VP): The minimum drain-source voltage at which the
drain current essentially becomes constant is called pinch off voltage.
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ELECTRONICS-I
The pinch off voltage is denoted by VP. It is always less than VDS. When
VDS>VP then the drain current becomes constant and when VDS=VP then
channel becomes closed.
(ii) Gate-source cutoff voltage (VGS(off)): It is the gate-source voltage where

the channel is completely cut off and the drain current becomes zero. It
is denoted by VGS(off).
(iii) Shorted-gate drain current (IDSS): It is the drain current with source
short-circuited to gate (i.e. VGS=0) and drain voltage (VDS) equal to pinch
off voltage. It is sometimes called zero-bias current.
MEC

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Define amplifier and amplification.
Answer:
Amplifier: The device or circuit by which the strength of a weak signal can be
raised is known as amplifier.
Amplification: The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without

any change in shape of wave is known as amplification.
Question: What is differential amplifier (DA)?
Answer:
Differential amplifier (DA): A differential amplifier (DA) is an electronic

circuit which can accept two input signals and amplify the difference between
these two input signals.
Question: Define CMRR, Voltage gain.
Answer:
Common-mode rejection radio (CMRR): A differential amplifier should
have high differential voltage gain (ADM) and very low common-mode voltage
gain (ACM). The ratio of differential voltage gain (ADM) to the common mode
voltage gain (ACM) is called common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
MEC
CMRR =
Very often, The CMRR is expressed in decibels (dB). The decibel measure for
CMRR is given by-
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ELECTRONICS-I
CMRRdB = 20log10 = 20log10CMRR
Voltage gain: The voltage gain of a DA operating in differential mode is called

differential-mode voltage gain and is denoted by ADM.
The voltage gain of DA operating in common mode is called common mode

voltage gain and is denoted by ACM. It’s value is ideally zero but practically less
than 1.
Question: Draw and explain the circuit diagram of DA.
Answer: A differential amplifier (DA) consists of two transistors Q1 and Q2

which are identical in characteristics. They share a common positive supply
VCC, common emitter resistance RE and a common negative supply VEE. The
following points should be noted about the DA.
1. The differential amplifier (DA) is a two input terminal device using at

least two transistors. There are two output terminals marked 1 (Vout1)
and 2(Vout2).
MEC
2. The DA transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched so that their characteristics

are the same.

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ELECTRONICS-I
3. The collector resistors RC and RC₂ are equal.

4. The supply can be applied in DA as two following ways-
a) The signal is applied to one input of DA and other is grounded.
This is called signal ended input arrangement.
b) The signals are applied to both inputs. It is called dual ended or
double ended arrangement.
5. We can take output from DA as following two ways-
a) The output can be taken from one end of output and ground. This
is called single ended output arrangement.
b) The output can be taken from both ends of outputs i.e. between
the collectors of Q1 and Q2. This is called double ended or
differential output arrangement.
6. Generally, the DA is used for signal ended output.
Question: Write the names of parameter of DA.
Answer: Differential amplifier has two parameters.
1. Output offset voltage

2. Input offset current
1. Output offset voltage: Even though the transistors in the differential

amplifier are very closely matched, there are some differences in their
electrical characteristics. One of these differences is found in the values of V BE
for the two transistors when VBE VBE₂ an imbalance is created in the
differential amplifier. The DA may show same voltage at the output even when
the voltage applied between two input terminals is zero. This is called output
offset voltage. The method of eliminating output offset voltage is to apply an
input offset voltage between two input terminals to make output 0 V. The
value of input offset voltage required to eliminate the output offset voltage is
MEC
given by,
( )
Viᴏ = , [A is gain of voltage]

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2. Input offset current: At the time of eliminating output offset voltage, there
will be slight difference between the input currents to the non-inverting and
inverting inputs of the device. The slight difference in input current is called
input offset current.
Question: Explain the operation of RC coupled amplifier.
Answer:
Operation: When ac signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it

appears in the amplified form across its collector load RC. The amplified signal
developed across RC is given to the base of next stage through coupling
capacitor CC. the second stage does further amplification of the signal. In this
way the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is
considerably increased.
It may be mentioned here that total gain is less than the product of the gains
of individual stages. It is because when a second stage is made to follow the
1st stage, the effective load resistance of 1st stage is reduced due to the
shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of
MEC
the stage which is loaded by the next stage. For instance, in a three stage
amplifier, the gain of first and second stages which has no loading effect of
subsequent stage remains unchanged. The overall gain shall be equal to the
product of the gains of three stages.

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: What is MOSFET? Classify it.
Answer:
MOSFET: A field effect transistor (FET) that can be operated in the

enhancement-mode is called a MOSFET.
A MOSFET is an important semiconductor device and can be used in any of the

circuits covered for JFET. However, a MOSFET has several advantages over
JFET including high input impedance and low cost of production.
Classification of MOSFET: There are two basic types of MOSFET. They are-
1. Depletion type MOSFET or D-MOSFET

2. Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET
Question: Why it is called MOSFET/IGFET?
Answer: The SiO2 layer is an insulator. The gate terminal is made of a metal
conductor. Thus, going from gate to substrate, there is a metal oxide
semiconductor and hence the name MOSFET. Since the gate is insulated from
the channel, the MOSFET is sometimes called insulated-gate FET (IGFET).
However this term is rarely used in place of the term MOSFET.
Question: Discuss about the construction of D-MOSFET.
Answer: The constructional details of n-channel D-MOSFET is shown in the

figure below. It is similar to n-channel JFET except with the following
modifications/remarks:
(i) The n-channel D-MOSFET is a piece of n-type material with a p-type

region on the right and an insulated gate on the left as shown in the
MEC
figure. The free electrons flowing from source to drain must pass
through the narrow channel between the gate and the p-type region.
(ii) A thin layer of metal oxide is deposited over a small portion of the
channel. A metallic gate is deposited over the oxide layer. As SiO2 is an
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ELECTRONICS-I
insulator, therefore, gate is insulated from the channel. The

arrangement forms a capacitor. One plate of this capacitor is the gate
and the other plate is the channel with SiO2 as the dielectric.
(iii) It is usual practice to connect the substrate to the source (S) internally
so that a MOSFET has three terminals i.e. source (S), gate (G) and drain
(D).
(iv) Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either
negative or positive voltage to the gate. Therefore, D-MOSFET can be
operated in both depletion-mode and enhancement-mode.
Question: Discuss about the construction of E-MOSFET.
Answer: The figure given below shows the constructional details of n-

channel E-MOSFET. Its gate construction is similar to that of D-MOSFET. The
E-MOSFET has no channel between source and drain unlike the D-MOSFET.
The substrate extends completely to the SiO2 layer so that on channel exists.
MEC
The E-MOSFET requires a proper gate voltage to form a channel. E-MOSFET
can be operated only in enhancement mode. In short, the construction of E-
MOSFET is quite similar to that of D-MOSFET except for the absence of a
channel between the drain and source terminals.

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Classify D-MOSFET and explain them.
Answer: There are two types of D-MOSFET.
1. n-channel D-MOSFET
2. p-channel D-MOSFET
1. n-channel D-MOSFET: Figure (i) shows the various parts of n-channel D-

MOSFET. The p-type substrate constricts the channel between the source
and drain so that only small passage remains at the left side. Electrons
flowing from source must pass through this narrow channel. The symbol
for n-channel D-MOSFET is shown in figure (ii). The gate appears like a
capacitor plate. Just to the right of the gate there is a thick vertical line
representing the channel. The drain lead comes out of the top of the
channel and the source lead connects to the bottom. The arrow is on the
substrate and points to the n-material, therefore we have n-channel D-
MOSFET. It is a usual practice to connect the substrate to source internally
MEC
as shown in figure (iii). This gives rise to a three terminal device.

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ELECTRONICS-I
2. p-channel D-MOSFET: Figure (i) shows the various parts of p-channel D-

MOSFET. The n-type substrate constricts the channel between the source
and drain so that only a small passage remains at the left side. The
conduction takes place by the flow of holes from source to drain through
this narrow channel. The symbol for p-channel D-MOSFET is shown in
figure (ii). It is usual practice to connect the substrate to source internally.
This results in a three-terminal device whose schematic symbol is shown in
figure (iii).
MEC

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Write down the difference between the characteristics of JFET

and D-MOSFET.
Answer: The difference between the characteristics of JFET and D-MOSFET is

given below:
Devices JFET D-MOSFET

Schematic
symbol
Tranconducta
nce curve
Modes of Depletion only Depletion and enhancement

operation
Commonly Gate bias Gate bias
used bias Self-bias Self-bias
circuits Voltage-divider bias Voltage-divider bias
Zero bias
Advantages Extremely high input Higher input impedance than
impedance a comparable JFET.
Disadvantage Bias instability. Can operate Bias instability. More sensitive
s in the depletion mode. to changes in temperature
than the JFET.
MEC
Question: Write down the difference between the characteristics of D-

MOSFET and E-MOSFET.

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Answer: The difference between the characteristics of D-MOSFET and E-

MOSFET is given below-
Devices D-MOSFET E-MOSFET

Schematic symbol
Transconductance
curve
Modes of operation Depletion and enhancement Enhancement only

Commonly used Gate bias Gate bias
bias circuits Self-bias Voltage-divider bias
Voltage-divider bias Drain-feedback bias
Zero bias
Question: Explain the circuit operation of D-MOSFET.
Answer: Figure (i) shows the circuit of n-channel D-MOSFET. The gate forms
a small capacitor. One plate of this capacitor is the gate and the other plate is
the channel with metal oxide layer as the dielectric. When gate voltage is
changed, the electric field of the capacitor changes which in turn changes the
resistance of the n-channel. Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we
can apply either negative or positive voltage to the gate. The negative-gate
operation is called depletion mode whereas positive-gate operation is known
as enhancement mode.
MEC
(i) Depletion mode: Figure (i) shows depletion-mode operation of n-
channel D-MOSFET. Since gate is negative, it means electrons are on the
gate as shown in figure (ii). These electrons repel the free electrons in
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ELECTRONICS-I
the n-channel, leaving a layer of positive ions in a part of the channel as

shown in figure (ii). In other words, we have depleted (i.e. emptied) the
n-channel of some of its free electrons. Therefore, lesser number of free
electrons are made available for current conduction through the n-
channel. This is the same thing as if the resistance of the channel is
increased. The greater the negative voltage on the gate, the lesser is the
current from source to drain.
Thus by changing the negative voltage on the gate, we can vary the
resistance of the n-channel and hence the current from source to drain.
(ii) Enhancement mode: Figure (i) shows enhancement-mode operation of

n-channel D-MOSFET. Again, the gate acts like a capacitor. Since the gate
is positive, it induces negative charges in the n-channel as shown in
figure (ii). These negative charges are the free electrons drawn into the
channel. Because these free electrons are added to those already in the
channel, the total number of free electrons in the channel is increased.
Thus a positive gate voltage enhances or increases the conductivity of
the channel. The greater the positive voltage on the gate, greater the
conduction from source to drain.
Thus by changing the positive voltage on the gate, we can change the
conductivity of the channel. The main difference between D-MOSFET
MEC
and JFET is that we can apply positive gate voltage to D-MOSFET and
still have essentially zero current. Because the action with a positive

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ELECTRONICS-I
gate depends upon enhancing the conductivity of the channel, the

positive gate operation is called enhancement mode.
Question: Explain the transfer characteristic curve of D-MOSFET.
Answer: The transfer

characteristic curve (or
transconductance curve) for n-
channel D-MOSFET is shown
in the figure below. The
behavior of this device can be
beautifully explained with the
help of this curve as under:
(i) The point on the curve
where VGS=0, ID=IDDS. It is
expected because IDDS is
the value of ID when gate
and source terminals are shorted i.e. VGS=0.
(ii) As VGS goes negative, ID decreases below the value of IDDS till ID reaches
zero when VGS=VGS(off) just as with JFET.
MEC
(iii) When VGS is positive, ID increases above the value of IDDS. The maximum
allowable value of ID is given on the data sheet of D-MOSFET.

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Question: How does common-source D-MOSFET work as an amplifier?
Answer: Figure shows a common-source amplifier using n-channel D-

MOSFET. Since the source terminal is common to the input and output
terminals, the circuit is called common-source amplifier.
Operation: The input signal (Vin) is capacitively coupled to the gate terminal.
In the absence of the signal, d.c. value of VGS=0V. When signal (Vm) is applied,
VGS swings above and below its zero value, producing a swing in drain current
Id .
(i) A small change in gate voltage produces a large change in drain current
as in a JFET. This fact makes MOSFET capable of raising the strength of a
weak signal; thus acting as an amplifier.
(ii) During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the positive voltage on the
gate increases and produces the enhancement-mode. This increases the
channel conductivity and hence the drain current.
(iii) During the negative half-cycle of the signal, the positive voltage on the
gate decreases and produces depletion-mode. This decreases the
conductivity and hence the drain current.
The result of above action is that a small change in gate voltage produces a
large change in the drain current. This large variation in drain current
produces a large a.c. output voltage across drain resistance RD. in this way, D-
MOSFET on transconductance curve.
MEC

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Explain the circuit operation of E-MOSFET.
Answer: The figure given below shows the circuit operation of n-channel E-
MOSFET. The circuit action is as under:
(i) When VGS=0V [figure (i)], there is no channel connecting the source and
drain. The p substrate has only a few thermally produced free electrons
(minority carriers) so that drain current is essentially zero. For this
reason, E-MOSFET is normally OFF when VGS=0V.
(ii) When gate is made positive as shown in figure (ii), it attracts free
electrons into the p region. The free electrons combine with the holes next
to the SiO2 layer. If VGS is positive enough, all the holes touching the SiO2
layer are filled and free electrons begin to flow from the source to drain.
The effect is the same as creating a thin layer of n-type material adjacent
to the SiO2 layer. Thus the E-MOSFET is turned ON and drain current ID
starts flowing from the source to the drain.
The minimum value of VGS that turns the E-MOSFET ON is called threshold
voltage [VGS(th)]
(iii) When VGS is less than VGS(th), there is no induced channel and the drain
current ID is zero. When VGS is equal to VGS(th), the E-MOSFET is turned ON
and the induced channel conducts drain current from the source to the
drain. Beyond VGS(th), if the value of VGS is increased, the newly formed
channel becomes wider, causing ID to increase. If the value of VGS decreases
[not less than VGS(th)], the channel becomes narrower and ID will decrease.
This fact is revealed by the transconductance curve of n-channel E-
MOSFET shown in figure (iii).
MEC

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Explain the construction method of CMOS.
Answer: A very effective logic circuit can be established by constructing a p-

channel and an n-channel MOSFET on the same substrate as shown in Fig.
5.43. Note the induced p-channel on the left and the induced n-channel on the
right for the p- and n-channel devices, respectively. The configuration is
referred to as a complementary MOSFET arrangement (CMOS) that has
extensive applications in computer logic design. The relatively high input
impedance, fast switching speeds, and lower operating power levels of the
CMOS configuration have resulted in a whole new discipline referred to as
CMOS logic design.
The digital integrated circuitry in which both n- and p-channel MOSFETs are
used is called CMOS. One very effective use of the complementary
arrangement is as an inverter. As introduced for switching transistors, an
inverter is a logic element that “inverts” the applied signal. That is, if the logic
levels of operation are 0 V (0-state) and 5 V (1-state), an input level of 0 V will
result in an output level of 5 V, and vice versa. Note in Fig. 5.44 that both gates
are connected to the applied signal and both drain to the output Vᴏ. The source
of the p-channel MOSFET (Q2) is connected directly to the applied voltage VSS,
MEC
while the source of the n-channel MOSFET (Q1) is connected to ground.

3rd Semester
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Question: Explain the operation of CMOS inverter.
Answer: The digital integrated circuitry in which both n- and p-channel

MOSFETs are used is called CMOS. One very effective use of the
complementary arrangement is as an inverter, as shown in Fig. (a). As
introduced for switching transistors, an inverter is a logic element that
“inverts” the applied signal. That is, if the logic levels of operation are 0 V (0-
state) and 5 V (1-state), an input level of 0 V will result in an output level of 5
V, and vice versa when both gates are connected to the applied signal and both
drain to the output Vᴏ. The source of the p-channel MOSFET (Q2) is connected
directly to the applied voltage VSS, while the source of the n-channel MOSFET
(Q1) is connected to ground. For the logic levels, the application of 5 V at the
input should result in approximately 0 V at the output. With 5 V at Vi (with
respect to ground), VGS =Vi and Q1 is “on,” resulting in a relatively low
resistance between drain and source as shown in Fig. (b). Since Vi and VSS are
at 5 V, VGS₂=0 V, which is less than the required VT for the device, resulting in
an “off” state. The resulting resistance level between drain and source is quite
high for Q2, as shown in Fig. (b). A simple application of the voltage-divider
rule will reveal that Vo is very close to 0 V or the 0-state, establishing the
desired inversion process. For an applied voltage Vi of 0 V (0-state), VGS =0 V
and Q1 will be off with VSS₂ = -5 V, turning on the p-channel MOSFET. The result
is that Q2 will present a small resistance level, Q1 a high resistance, and Vo=VSS
= 5 V (the 1-state). Since the drain current that flows for either case is limited
by the “off” transistor to the leakage value, the power dissipated by the device
in either state is very low.
MEC
Figure (a) Figure (b)

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Question: Define and classify clipping circuit. Explain that with

diagram.
Answer:
Clipping circuit: A clipper is used to clip or remove a portion of an ac signal.

The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a
portion of the applied waveform is known as a clipping circuit.
Classification: There are four types of clipping circuit. They are-
1. Positive clipper
2. Negative clipper
3. Biased clipper
4. Combination clipper
1. Positive clipper: A positive clipper is that which removes the positive half
cycles of the input voltage. The figure below shows the typical circuit of a
positive clipper using a diode. As shown the output voltage has all the
positive half cycles removed or clipped off.
Figure: Positive Clipper
2. Negative clipper: A negative clipper is that which removes the negative

half cycles of the input voltage. The figure below shows the typical circuit
of negative clipper using a diode. As shown, the output voltage has all the
negative half cycles removes or clipped off.
MEC
Figure: Negative Clipper

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ELECTRONICS-I
3. Biased clipper: Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of

positive or negative half cycle of the signal voltage. For this purpose biased
clipper is used. The figure below shows the circuit of a biased clipper using
a diode with battery of V volts. With the polarities of battery shown, a
portion of each positive half cycle will be clipped. However, the negative
half cycles will appear as such across the load. Such a clipper is called
biased positive clipper.
Figure: Biased Positive Clipper
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode remains
reverse biased. Therefore, almost entire negative half cycle appears across
the load. It is desired to clip a portion of negative half cycles of input
voltage, the only thing to be done is to reverse the polarities of diode or
battery. Such a circuit is then called biased negative clipper.
Figure: Biased Negative Clipper
4. Combination clipper: It is a combination of biased positive and negative

clippers. With a combination clipper, a portion of both positive and
negative half cycles of input voltage can be removes or clipped as shown in
MEC
figure.

3rd Semester
ELECTRONICS-I
Figure: Combination Clipper
Question: Define and classify clamping circuit. Explain that with

diagram.
Answer:
Clamping circuit: A circuit that places either the positive or negative peak
signal at a desired dc level is known as a clamping circuit. A clamping circuit
(or a clamper) essentially adds a dc component to the signal.
Figure: Clamping Circuit
Classification: There are two types of clamping circuit. They are-
1. Positive clamper
2. Negative clamper
1. Positive clamper: If the shape of the original signal has not changed but
only there is vertical shift in the signal, then such a clamper is called
positive clamper.
MEC
The input signal is assumed to be a square wave with time period T. the
clamped output is obtained across RL. Figure shows the circuit is positive

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ELECTRONICS-I
clamper. Here, the input signal has been pushed upward by V volts so that
negative peaks fall on the zero level.
Figure: Positive Clamping
2. Negative clamper: The negative clamper is the reverse of positive

clamper. It pushes the signal downwards so that the positive peaks fall on
the zero level.
The input signal is assumed to be a square wave with time period T. the
clamped output is taken across RL. Here, only change from the positive
clamper is that the connections of diode are reversed. Figure shows the
circuit is NPN negative clamper.
Question: Write down the applications of clippers.
Answer: There are numerous clipper applications and it is not possible to

MEC
discuss all of them. However, in general, clippers are used to perform one of
the following two functions:
1. Changing the shape of a waveform

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ELECTRONICS-I
2. Circuit transient protection

1. Changing the shape of waveform: Clippers can alter the shape of a
waveform. For example, a clipper can be used to convert a sine wave into a
rectangular wave, square wave etc. They can limit either the negative or
positive alternation or both alternations of an a.c. voltage.
2. Circuit transient protection: Transient can cause considerable damage to
many types of circuits e.g., a digital circuit. In that case, a clipper diode can
be used to prevent the transient from reaching that circuit.
The figure above shows the protection of a typical digital circuit against
transients by the diode clipper. When the transient shown in the figure
occurs on the input line, it causes diode D2 to be forward biased. The diode
D2 will conduct; thus shorting the transient to the ground. Consequently,
the input of the circuit is protected from the transient.
MEC

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ELECTRONICS-I

Question: Define and explain conductor, semiconductor and insulator.

Conductor: Conductors (e.g. Copper,

Semiconductor: Semiconductors (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc.) are those

Insulator: Insulators (e.g. Wood, Glass etc.) are

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

Question: What is the value of forbidden energy gap (Eg) in case of Ge

Question: Define semiconductor and classify it.

Semiconductor: Semiconductor (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc.) are those

Classification of semiconductor: There are two types of semiconductor.

1. Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is

2. Extrinsic semiconductor: The semiconductor which is produced by

(a) p-type semiconductor

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

Question: Write the main features of semiconductor./ Write down the

Answer: Semiconductors (e.g. Germanium, Silicon etc) are those substances

Main features/properties of semiconductor:

1. The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more

Question: What is valence electron?

Answer: The electron in the outermost orbit of an atom is known as valence

Question: Define valence band, conduction band, forbidden energy gap.

Valence Band: The range of energies possessed by valence electron is known

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

Forbidden Energy Gap: The separation between conduction band and

Question: What is doping? Explain its necessary or importance.

Doping: The process of adding impurity to a semiconductor in order to

Necessary or importance: The conductivity of pure or intrinsic

Question: Define and explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is

In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron pairs

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

The conductivity of pure or intrinsic semiconductor is very less. For

Question: Describe p-type and n-type semiconductor.

p-type semiconductor: When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added

The addition of trivalent impurity

electrons. Figure: Structure of p-type

n-type semiconductor: When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is

The addition of pentavalent

Question: Compare the characteristics of Silicon and Germanium.

Answer: The comparison between the characteristics of Silicon and

Question: Explain majority and minority charge carrier.

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

Minority charge carrier: When reverse bias is applied to PN junction, then

In p-type material, free electrons are considered minority carriers. So,

Question: Explain the effect of temperature on semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on semiconductor: The electrical conductivity of a

Figure: At absolute zero temperature

Figure: Above absolute zero temperature

In terms of energy band diagram, as the temperature is raised, some of the

Question: What is Zener diode?

Figure: Zener Diode

Question: Write down the characteristics/properties of Zener diode.

Answer: The characteristics/properties of zener diode is given below:

1. A zener diode is similar to PN diode except that it is properly doped for

Question: What is stabilization?

Stabilization: The process of making an operating point independent of

Stabilization of operating points necessary due to following reasons:

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)

Question: How does zener diode work/perform as a voltage stabilizer?

Zener diode as voltage stabilizer: The sharp increase in the characteristic

If a load resistor is connected in parallel to the zener diode, the current

Question: Write down the difference between zener diode and

PREPARED BY: HASAN BIN FIROZ (533)