See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/8172134

Competencies in Professional Psychology.

Article  in  American Psychologist · December 2004

DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.774 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS
302 14,952

1 author:

Nadine Kaslow
Emory University
315 PUBLICATIONS   13,735 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Nadine Kaslow on 10 November 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

internship supply and demand: 1999 Association of Psy-
chology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers’ match impli-
cations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,
31, 288 –294.
Logsdon-Conradsen, S., Sirl, K. S., Battle, J., Stapel, J.,
Anderson, P. L., Ventura-Cook, E., et al. (2001). Formal-
ized postdoctoral fellowships: A national survey of post-
doctoral fellows. Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice, 32, 312–318.
Rehm, L. P., Kaslow, N. J., & Rabin, A. S. (1987). Cogni-
tive and behavioral targets in a self-control therapy pro-
gram for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 4, 60 – 67.
Seligman, M. E. P., Peterson, C., Kaslow, N. J., Tanen-
baum, R. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (1984). Attributional style
and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Ab-
normal Psychology, 93, 235–238.
Competencies in Professional Psychology
Nadine J. Kaslow
Emory University School of Medicine
There has been a burgeoning interest in competency-based
education and credentialing in professional psychology.
This movement gained momentum at the Competencies
Conference: Future Directions in Education and
Credentialing in Professional Psychology. After defining
professional competence, the author focuses on the
identification and delineation of foundation, core, and
specialty competencies within professional psychology.
Attention is then paid to developmentally informed and
innovative approaches to training in these competencies.
Finally, consideration is given to state-of-the-art
Editor’s Note
Nadine J. Kaslow received the Award for Distinguished
Contributions to Education and Training in Psychology.
Award winners are invited to deliver an award address at
the APA’s annual convention. A version of the award ad-
dress was delivered at the 112th annual meeting, held July
28 –August 1, 2004, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Articles based on
award addresses are reviewed, but they differ from unso-
licited articles in that they are expressions of the winners’
reflections on their work and their views of the field.
774
approaches to the assessment of these competencies for
educational and credentialing purposes.
The past two decades have witnessed a burgeoning interest
in competency-based education, training, and credentialing
in professional psychology (Sumerall, Lopez, & Oehlert,
2000). Education and training groups have articulated com-
petency-based training models, including the National
Council of Schools and Programs of Professional Psychol-
ogy (NCSPP; Bourg et al., 1987; Peterson, Peterson,
Abrams, & Stricker, 1997), scientist–practitioner clinical
psychologists (Belar, 1992), counseling psychologists
(Stoltenberg et al., 2000), and clinical scientists (http://
psych.arizona.edu/apcs/apcs.html). The Committees on Ac-
creditation in the United States and Canada moved to com-
petency-based approaches to accreditation during the
1990s. Thus, the accreditation of professional education
and training programs in psychology is based largely on
the program’s ability to demonstrate how and the extent to
which foundational competencies for the profession are
developed in the students they graduate. Various groups
have identified foundation, core, and specialized competen-
cies. Competence is now granted a separate section in the
2002 revision of the American Psychological Association
(APA) “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct” (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code; APA,
2002a). Further, consensus on competency-based regula-
tions to facilitate mobility for professional psychologists
has been achieved in Canada.
The competencies-based movement gained momentum
at the Competencies Conference: Future Directions in Edu-
cation and Credentialing in Professional Psychology, held
in 2002. This multinational conference brought together
representatives from diverse constituency groups to focus
on the identification, training, and assessment of competen-
cies within professional psychology (Kaslow et al., 2004).
Initiated by the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral
and Internship Centers, cosponsorship was obtained from
APA; education and training groups under the auspices of
the Council of Chairs of Training Councils; credentialing
and regulatory bodies affiliated with the Council of Cre-
dentialing Organizations in Professional Psychology; ethnic
minority psychology organizations; and other educational
and professional institutions. Eight of the 10 workgroups
were formed around competency domains: (a) ethical and
legal issues, (b) individual and cultural diversity, (c) scien-
tific foundations and research, (d) psychological assess-
ment, (e) intervention, (f) consultation and interprofessional
collaboration, (g) supervision, and (h) professional develop-
ment. Two other workgroups focused on the assessment of
competence and specialties.
This article presents the current state of the field of
competency-based education, training, and credentialing.
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
Commonly used definitions are provided. Information on
the identification and delineation of foundation, core, and
specialty competencies relevant to professional psychology
is shared. Effective approaches to across- and within-com-
petency domains are elucidated. Finally, strategies for the
comprehensive and integrative assessment of competence
across the professional life span are offered.
Definitions
The dictionary defines competence as the state or quality of
being properly or well qualified. Competence connotes mo-
tivation and action to achieve a level of qualification or
capability. Competence refers to an individual’s capability
and demonstrated ability to understand and do certain tasks
in an appropriate and effective manner consistent with the
expectations for a person qualified by education and train-
ing in a particular profession or specialty thereof.
Epstein and Hundert (2002) proffered an excellent defi-
nition of professional competence for the medical profes-
sion, which is apt for professional psychology as well.
They purported that competence is “the habitual and judi-
cious use of communication, knowledge, technical skills,
clinical reasoning, emotions, values, and reflection in daily
practice for the benefit of the individual and community
being served” (p. 227). They further asserted that compe-
tence depends on habits of mind, including attentiveness,
critical curiosity, self-awareness, and presence. As such,
competence connotes the capability of critical thinking and
analysis; the successful exercise of professional judgment
in assessing a situation and making decisions about what to
do or not do based on that assessment; and the ability to
evaluate and modify one’s decisions, as appropriate,
through reflective practice. These actions must be executed
in accord with ethical principles, standards, guidelines, and
values of the profession and require public verification
(Rodolfa et al., in press). Further, competence is develop-
mental, as what is expected differs depending on the indi-
vidual’s stage of professional functioning. In addition,
competence is context dependent, as different competen-
cies, aspects of each competency, and execution of each
competency varies depending on the setting and
environment.
“Competencies” are elements of competence (Kaslow et
al., 2004) that are observable, measurable, containable,
practical, derived by experts, and flexible (Stratford, 1994).
Building on prior work in the field, the NCSPP was a key
group that articulated what competencies mean for profes-
sional psychology—namely, that competencies are com-
posed of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which, as a co-
herent group, are necessary for professional practice. They
correlate with performance, can be evaluated against well-
accepted standards, and can be enhanced through training
and development (Parry, 1996).
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
In some contexts, the term competence is used to imply
a minimum threshold. This approach is found in some cre-
dentialing efforts. Indeed, there are minimal competencies
that are required for one to be considered a professional.
As some of the aforementioned definitions suggest, how-
ever, a competency-based approach also refers to a more
aspirational striving toward excellence that is espoused by
many education and training professionals, practitioners,
and credentialers (particularly in the credentialing of spe-
cialists). Aspirational competencies are those for which one
strives to achieve, and those who achieve them often are
considered the experts.
Identification
It is recommended that there be a culture shift away from a
focus on core curriculum toward an emphasis on the identi-
fication of overarching competencies and subcompetencies
within each competency domain (Kaslow et al., 2004).
Systematic efforts are needed to ascertain these subcompe-
tencies, as there continues to be a lack of consistent agree-
ment with regard to all of the key subcomponents of each
domain, and concordance will set the stage for more con-
sistent training and assessment models. In addition, more
effort is needed in determining the overlap in knowledge,
skills, and attitudes across competency areas, as well as in
setting specific thresholds for expected competency at dif-
ferent developmental levels, ranging from novice to com-
petent for independent practice to expert/master (e.g., spe-
cialist). Such an articulation would allow for more efficient
and integrated models of education and training and
credentialing.
Foundational Competencies
Agreement is beginning to emerge that both diversity and
ethical practice are foundational competencies. Some as-
pects of other competencies may also be considered foun-
dational (Rodolfa et al., in press); however, for this discus-
sion, they are examined in the context of the core
competency domain in which they fall. Competence in eth-
ics involves the following overlapping components: knowl-
edge of ethical/professional codes, standards and guide-
lines, statutes, rules, regulations and case law; ability to
recognize ethical and legal issues across the range of psy-
chological activities; ability to recognize and reconcile con-
flicts among relevant codes and laws and to deal with con-
vergence, divergence, and ambiguity; capacity to apply the
aforementioned knowledge and skills in situations related
to professional activities; skill in seeking out information
and ability to know when to consult as well as how to of-
fer consultation; skill in assertively and appropriately rais-
ing ethical and legal issues; ability to adopt or adapt one’s
own ethical decision-making model and apply it with per-
sonal integrity and contextual sensitivity; ability to build
and participate in a collaborative, supportive peer network;
775
capacity to self-assess; and knowledge and awareness of
self (de la Fuentas, Willmuth, & Yarrow, in press).
With regard to individual and cultural diversity, there
has been a dramatic increase in attention paid to competent
practice with diverse groups of individuals (APA, 2002b,
2004; Division 44, 2000). The Ethics Code underscores the
importance of diversity considerations in all aspects of pro-
fessional functioning. Competence in diversity requires
self-awareness of one’s own attitudes, biases, and assump-
tions and knowledge about various dimensions of diversity
and appropriate professional practice with persons from
diverse groups (Daniel, Roysircar, Abeles, & Boyd, 2004).
Core Competencies
There is a consensus that all professional psychologists
should engage in scientifically-minded practice, which en-
tails the ability to access and apply current scientific
knowledge appropriately and habitually; contribute to
knowledge; critically evaluate interventions and their out-
comes; practice vigilance about how sociocultural variables
influence scientific practice; and routinely subject one’s
work to the scrutiny of colleagues, stakeholders, and the
public (Bieschke, Fouad, Collins, & Halonen, 2004).
The following are associated with competence in psy-
chological assessment: background in psychometric theory;
knowledge of the scientific, theoretical, empirical, and con-
textual bases of psychological assessment; knowledge,
skill, and techniques to assess the cognitive, affective, be-
havioral, and personality dimensions of human experience
with reference to individuals and systems; ability to assess
intervention outcomes; ability to evaluate the multiple
roles, contexts, and relationships within which clients and
psychologists function, and the reciprocal impact of these
on assessment activity; ability to establish, maintain, and
understand the collaborative professional relationship that
provides a context for psychological assessment; under-
standing of the relationship between assessment and inter-
vention, assessment as an intervention, and intervention
planning; and technical assessment skills (Krishnamurthy et
al., 2004).
Competence in intervention incorporates intervention
planning, intervention implementation, intervention evalua-
tion, and practice management (Spruill et al., 2004). Inter-
vention planning refers to the integration of theory, re-
search, and practice; assessment; case formulation; and the
selection of the best strategy for intervention. Under the
rubric of intervention implementation is the effective exe-
cution of a treatment plan, management of special situa-
tions, termination skills, working with and within various
care systems, general case-management abilities, and self-
care. Intervention evaluation refers to performance apprais-
al/self-evaluation skills and effective use of supervision and
consultation. Practice management requires knowledge
about the service delivery settings in which interventions
776
are conducted and the current health care financing system,
as well as management skills.
Competence in consultation and interprofessional col-
laboration requires acquiring knowledge in theories of or-
ganizations, organizational behavior, systems, consultation,
and interprofessional collaboration; modes of consultation
and interprofessional collaboration; effects of social poli-
cies; pertinent research; group dynamics/theory; laws and
legislation; ethical standards and guidelines; assessment of
consumer needs for services; and business practices (Arre-
dondo, Shealy, Neale, & Winfrey, 2004). Being effective
in consultation and interdisciplinary collaboration requires
strong interpersonal and communication skills, project
management abilities, and the systematic examination of
available data and/or generation of new data.
Psychologists have increasingly identified supervision as
a core competency (Falender et al., 2004). The aspects of
knowledge that are components of supervision are areas
that are being supervised and supervision models, theories,
modalities, and research; ethics and legal issues specific to
supervision; evaluation procedures and outcome measure-
ment; awareness and knowledge of diversity within super-
vision–supervisee pairings and with clients; and the con-
duct of research on supervision. The skills necessary for a
minimally competent supervisor include the capacity to
build and sustain a supervisory relationship/alliance; teach-
ing and didactic skills; ability to use scientific thinking and
to translate scientific findings to practice; ability to perform
and balance multiple roles in the supervisory context; skills
in evaluation and assessment, including self-assessment;
ability to foster the supervisee’s growth and development;
and capacity to implement a developmental approach to the
supervisory process.
Core values necessary for minimal competence include
an investment in ethical conduct principles; a commitment
to using psychological science as it informs supervision; an
appreciation of the social context in which the supervision
is embedded; a willingness to assume responsibility for the
client and the supervisee and to find a balance between
clinical and training needs; a respectful attitude toward the
supervisee; a sensitivity to diversity; a value placed on pro-
viding a balance of support and challenge; and a commit-
ment to lifelong learning, professional growth, and ac-
knowledging the limits of one’s own competence.
Professional development reflects more of an underlying
capacity or capability than a specific competency (Elman,
Illfelder-Kaye, & Robiner, in press) and includes interper-
sonal functioning, critical thinking, and self-assessment.
Interpersonal functioning refers to social and emotional
intelligence, the capacity to relate effectively with others,
developing one’s own professional approaches and persona,
internalizing professional standards, seeing oneself as a
cultural being, and understanding the impact of one’s own
culture on interactions with others. Critical thinking implies
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
thinking like a psychologist—that is, assuming a psycho-
logical and scientific approach to problem solving. Self-
assessment refers to having the capacity for self-reflection,
possessing an accurate assessment and awareness of one’s
level of knowledge and skill, and using this information to
gauge one’s readiness to provide professional services in
specific areas of practice (Belar et al., 2001). As noted pre-
viously, self-assessment is also a requirement for ethical
practice.
Specialty Competencies
There are competencies that are distinctive to particular
specialties (Rodolfa et al., in press). The acquisition of spe-
cialty competencies should occur last in the training se-
quence and require more sophisticated credentialing. Spe-
cialty competencies build on the broader and more general
foundation and core competencies through application to
distinctive practice parameter patterns that require relevant
specialized or advanced knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Given that the various specialties are distinctive but not
mutually exclusive, some specialty competencies may be
shared, and others may be uniquely associated with a par-
ticular specialty.
Training
Competency-based education is designed to ensure that the
learner attains a predetermined and clearly articulated level
of competence in a given domain or professional activity.
It focuses not only on the acquisition of competence but
also on the development of the capability to adapt to
change; exhibit sound judgment and wise action in com-
plex, unique, and uncertain situations involving conflicting
values and ethical stances; generate new knowledge; and
continue to improve performance (Fraser & Greenhalgh,
2001).
It is imperative that competency-based education and
training be developmentally informed; there must be a
training sequence that incorporates progressively more
complex and sophisticated content and methods for teach-
ing the subcompetencies of each domain. Training ap-
proaches vary depending on the stage of competency de-
velopment (e.g., beginner, advanced beginner, competent,
proficient, and expert; Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986) and the
training site. The extent to which individuals should have
exposure, experience, and expertise for each competency
domain at each level of training should be determined
(Roberts et al., 1998). As psychologists, we need to go
beyond identifying threshold levels of competence for li-
censure and specialty certification to defining threshold
levels of competency for readiness to start practicum, in-
ternship readiness, internship completion, and the awarding
of the doctoral degree. Such identification will guide the
development of training experiences; model for students
how to navigate the process of becoming competent psy-
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
chologists; and help determine those students and psychol-
ogists with competence problems and develop appropriate
remediation efforts to ensure that they achieve an accept-
able level of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the do-
mains in question.
Training is most effective when it occurs in the context
of a respectful and facilitative learning environment. Close
mentoring relationships are key (Johnson & Huwe, 2003;
Prinstein & Patterson, 2003). Training should include a
combination of didactic, experiential, and mentoring com-
ponents. Critical instructional strategies in addition to ap-
propriate didactic training include experiential projects,
modeling, working alongside role models, role plays with
feedback, vignettes, in-vivo experiences, supervised experi-
ence, and other applied real-world experiences.
One instructional strategy used increasingly in medical
student education is problem-based learning (Boud &
Feletti, 1997; Evensen & Hmelo, 2000). This approach can
be readily applied to training programs in psychology. Stu-
dents can be presented with a vignette of a person with
psychological problems and invited to discuss what they do
and do not know about the problem, pursue answers to
questions that pique their curiosity, and share with their
peers what they have learned. This approach facilitates the
attainment of new knowledge, the development of skills in
applying basic psychological knowledge to clinical prob-
lems, the reasoning process required for approaching clini-
cal problems, the effective use of available information
resources, the skills to teach others, the ability to work as a
team, and the skills that will assist in lifelong learning.
This methodology engenders in students enthusiasm for
learning and awareness that there is always more to learn.
It behooves psychologists to consider implementing this
and other approaches in an interdisciplinary format to af-
ford students a more enriching learning experience.
Training differs considerably on the basis of the model
and objectives of the program, the substantive areas of
study, and the competency requirements for licensure in a
particular jurisdiction. Programs vary in the extent to
which their training efforts target knowledge, skills, and
attitudes in each core competency domain and have devel-
oped more rigorous methods for training some competen-
cies than others. Historically, educators have developed
strategies for training scientific foundations, intervention,
psychological assessment, and ethics. This training has
been particularly strong in the knowledge and skill aspects
of these competencies. More recently, training methods
related to diversity have been developed and implemented
(Arthur & Achenbach, 2002). More attention needs to be
given to training in supervision, professional development,
consultation, advocacy and public policy, and other new
and emerging competency domains. There needs to be
more emphasis on inculcating in students a value on self-
777
reflection and self-assessment, as well as lifelong continu-
ous learning and improvement.
Work on training for capability, not just competency,
highlights the importance of the extent to which psycholo-
gists can adapt to change, generate new knowledge, and
continue to improve their performance (Fraser & Green-
halgh, 2001; Halpern, 1998). Thus, it is important to iden-
tify when generalization and potential barriers to generali-
zation occur. Just as psychologists need to adapt to change,
the profession must respond to changes in psychological
knowledge and the marketplace and reevaluate the compe-
tencies necessary for professional practice.
Assessment of Competence
The assessment of competence fosters learning, evaluates
progress, assists in determining the effectiveness of the
curriculum and training program, and protects the public.
As part of a culture of competence, more systematic atten-
tion needs to be paid to the assessment of overall compe-
tence in both integrated and competency-by-competency
formats at all stages of training and career functioning
(Roberts, Borden, & Christiansen, in press). Assessment
techniques used for licensure and other credentialing (e.g.,
board certification) might begin during education and train-
ing at developmentally appropriate times. This could result
in a “culture shift” in psychology, so that methods of as-
sessment are used continuously throughout a psychologist’s
training and career (Roberts et al., in press).
Psychologists are uniquely poised to develop and utilize
reliable, valid, and innovative approaches for assessing all
aspects of competence and all domains of competence rele-
vant to the profession. The assessment armamentarium
should enable one to determine what one knows (knowl-
edge), if one knows how (competence), if one shows how
(performance), and how one does (action) (Miller, 1990).
Psychologists must develop measures that reflect practice
in real situations and devise assessments that predict future
performance. It is recommended that developments in the
assessment of competence be integrated from other disci-
plines and that evaluators be trained in how to give direct,
specific, and accurate feedback in a supportive, comprehen-
sible, and meaningful fashion.
The assessment of competence needs to take into ac-
count developmental factors. This can be accomplished by
ascertaining which competencies should be mastered and
when and by establishing developmentally appropriate as-
sessment criteria. The assessment of competence needs to
be culturally informed and to include an evaluation of the
person’s cultural competence, broadly defined. Assessment
approaches are most effective if they integrate formative
(i.e., corrective feedback for further development) and
summative (i.e., conclusive evaluations for progression and
gatekeeping purposes) evaluations, as these are mutually
informative processes.
778
One effective strategy for evaluating competence is self-
assessment (Belar et al., 2001). The profession needs to
develop useful models for self-assessment and train people
in self-assessment methods. Because self-assessment may
not line up with other assessment methods (Constantine &
Ladany, 2000), we need to teach people how to engage in
honest reflection of their own performance from the onset
of training to the end of their career (Stewart et al., 2000).
Optimally, the assessment of competence is a multi-trait,
multi-method, multi-informant process. The specifics
should depend on the domain or aspect of competence be-
ing assessed and the level of performance expected. Multi-
trait refers to both the assessment of all competency do-
mains and to the associated knowledge, skills, and
attitudes. Psychologists do a reasonable job of evaluating
knowledge, but assessment methodologies with regard to
skills and attitudes are less well-developed and utilized. In
regard to multi-method processes, psychologists’ assess-
ments would be more optimized if, in addition to depend-
ing on commonly used paper-and-pencil measures, typi-
cally of knowledge (e.g., the Examination for Professional
Practice in Psychology) and supervisor ratings, they paid
greater attention to work samples (e.g., videotape record-
ings, assessment or therapy reports, research portfolios) and
direct observation. Colleagues in the medical (Barrows,
1993) and social work (Linsk & Tunney, 1997) professions
have increasingly come to use Objective Structured Clini-
cal Examinations with standardized patients for evaluating
specific and overall skills.
One process for securing feedback from multiple infor-
mants is the use of 360-degree evaluations, in which sys-
tematic input is gleaned by means of a comprehensive sur-
vey (often computerized) from one’s supervisors, a diverse
cadre of both peers and subordinates, and oneself (Atkins
& Wood, 2002). Others from whom feedback may be re-
ceived include one’s clients. This process provides input
about professionalism, interpersonal and communication
skills, emotional intelligence, and interpersonal functioning.
It allows individuals to gain a greater appreciation of how
they are viewed by others, areas of strength, aspects of
their personal functioning that they can improve on, and
where there are discrepancies between their self-percep-
tions and the perceptions of others. The process is most
effective if it is associated with the development of a sys-
tematic action plan to address specific areas for
self-improvement.
Attention also needs to be given to assessing capabilities
(Fraser & Greenhalgh, 2001). Psychologists need to ascer-
tain whose performance merits the distinction of capability
in a particular competency domain. Finally, educators,
trainers, credentialers, and regulators must collaboratively
create strategies for evaluating competencies that are con-
sistent and integrative across the spectrum of training and
practice.
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
 Concluding Comments
A competency-based approach to education and training
enhances the relationship among learning goals, curricular
design, outcome measures, and program improvement; al-
lows trainers to better define the skills for graduates to per-
form; facilitates a better match between instructional meth-
ods and goals; ensures breadth of training; provides a
structure for keeping pace with current trends; ensures the
competence of graduates; and improves the accountability
of training programs (Benjamin, 2001; Halonen et al.,
2002; Sumerall et al., 2000). Competency-based education
and credentialing allow educators and credentialers to pro-
vide detailed feedback in new ways to trainees, faculty,
training directors, and institutions; provide psychologists
with a systematic definition of the profession and needed
common identity as members of a recognized professional
discipline that encompasses practice, science education, and
the public interest; increase the likelihood that the profes-
sion can continue to self-govern; and provide the public
and policymakers with a clear understanding of what a
psychologist is and does (Benjamin, 2001; Halonen et al.,
2002). This orientation creates an educational experience
that provides a means for self-assessment and for lifelong
learning.
However, psychologists face multiple challenges in im-
plementing a competencies-based approach. It is difficult to
define psychology in a coherent fashion (Lipsey, 1990),
and psychologists have had problems in delineating uni-
form standards and expectations. It is important that doing
so does not lead to a required curriculum that would place
unwanted constraints on programs and prohibit the diver-
sity of training approaches needed to keep abreast of
changes in psychology and related fields (Benjamin, 2001).
Psychologists must not define competencies in a manner
that reduces the profession to a collection of specific skills
that might or might not require extensive educational/expe-
riential training, and as a result, train technicians rather
than professionals (Sumerall et al., 2000). In addition, edu-
cation and training programs that focus on competence
may not pay sufficient attention to training for capability
(aspirational levels of competence; Fraser & Greenhalgh,
2001) nor to the development of effective remediation
strategies for individuals with competence problems (Be-
mak, Epp, & Keys, 1999; Elman & Forest, 2004;
O’Connor, 2001). Psychologists currently lack reliable and
valid strategies for evaluating complex skills and attitudes
and thus tend to evaluate easily measurable knowledge and
skills. Finally, a competency-based system will take time
and money to develop, implement, and evaluate.
Despite these challenges, it is incumbent upon psycholo-
gists to develop a developmentally informed, competency-
based model that allows for innovation, creativity, flexibil-
ity, individualization, and program diversity. Clear
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
competency-based expectations at specific levels of training
and professional development create better communication
across the training and credentialing spectrum. Psychology
has lagged behind other professions in defining what pro-
fessional psychologists know and can do, and as a result,
psychologists have largely failed to communicate the na-
ture of their competence to the public and to policymakers.
Author’s Note
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Nadine J. Kaslow, Department of Psychiatry
and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Med-
icine, Grady Health System, Atlanta, GA 30303. E-mail:
nkaslow@emory.edu
References
American Psychological Association. (2002a). Ethical prin-
ciples of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psy-
chologist, 57, 1060 –1073.
American Psychological Association. (2002b). Guidelines
on multicultural education, training, research, practice,
and organizational change for psychologists. Washington,
DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2004). Guidelines
for psychological practice with older adults. American Psy-
chologist, 59, 236 –260.
Arredondo, P., Shealy, C., Neale, M. C., & Winfrey, L. L.
(2004). Consultation and interprofessional collaboration:
Modeling for the future. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
80, 787– 800.
Arthur, N., & Achenbach, K. (2002). Developing multicul-
tural counseling competencies through experiential learn-
ing. Counselor Education and Supervision, 42, 2–14.
Atkins, P. W. B., & Wood, R. E. (2002). Self- versus oth-
ers’ ratings as predictors of assessment center ratings: Vali-
dation evidence for 360-degree feedback programs. Person-
nel Psychology, 55, 871–904.
Barrows, H. S. (1993). An overview of the uses of stan-
dardized patients for teaching and evaluating clinical skills.
Academic Medicine, 68, 443– 453.
Belar, C. D. (1992). Education and training conferences in
graduate education. In A. E. Puente, J. R. Mathews, &
C. L. Brewer (Eds.), Teaching psychology in America: A
history (pp. 285–299). Washington, DC: American Psycho-
logical Association.
779
Belar, C. D., Brown, R. A., Hersch, L. E., Hornyak, L. M.,
Rozensky, R. H., Sheridan, E. P., et al. (2001). Self-assess-
ment in clinical health psychology: A model for ethical
expansion of practice. Professional Psychology: Research
and Practice, 32, 135–141.
Bemak, F., Epp, L. R., & Keys, S. G. (1999). Impaired
graduate students: A process-model of graduate program
monitoring and intervention. International Journal for the
Advancement of Counseling, 21, 19 –30.
Benjamin, L. T. (2001). American psychology’s struggle
with its curriculum: Should a thousand flowers bloom?
American Psychologist, 56, 735–742.
Bieschke, K. J., Fouad, N. A., Collins, F. L., & Halonen,
J. S. (2004). The scientifically-minded psychologist: Sci-
ence as a core competency. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
80, 713–724.
Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (Eds.). (1997). The challenge of
problem-based learning (2nd ed.). London: Kogan-Page.
Bourg, E. F., Bent, R. J., Callan, J. E., Jones, N. F.,
McHolland, J. D., & Stricker, G. (Eds.). (1987). Standards
and evaluation in the education and training of profes-
sional psychologists. Norman, OK: Transcript Press.
Constantine, M. G., & Ladany, N. (2000). Self-report mul-
ticultural counseling competence scales: Their relation to
social desirability attitudes and multicultural case conceptu-
alization ability. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47,
155–164.
Daniel, J. H., Roysircar, G., Abeles, N., & Boyd, C.
(2004). Individual and cultural diversity competency: Focus
on the therapist. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 80, 755–
770.
de la Fuentas, C., Willmuth, M. E., & Yarrow, C. (in
press). Ethics education: The development of competence,
past and present. Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice.
Division 44. (2000). Guidelines for psychotherapy with
lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. American Psychologist,
55, 1440 –1451.
Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over ma-
chine. New York: Free Press.
Elman, N. S., & Forest, L. (2004). Psychotherapy in the
remediation of psychology trainees: Exploratory interviews
780
with training directors. Professional Psychology: Research
and Practice, 35, 123–130.
Elman, N., Illfelder-Kaye, J., & Robiner, W. (in press).
Professional development: A foundation for psychologist
competence. Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice.
Epstein, R. M., & Hundert, E. M. (2002). Defining and
assessing professional competence. Journal of the Ameri-
can Medical Association, 287, 226 –235.
Evensen, D. J., & Hmelo, C. E. (Eds.). (2000). Problem-
based learning: A research perspective on learning inter-
actions. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Falender, C. A., Cornish, J. A. E., Goodyear, R., Hatcher,
R., Kaslow, N. J., Leventhal, G., et al. (2004). Defining
competencies in psychology supervision: A consensus
statement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 80, 771–786.
Fraser, S. W., & Greenhalgh, T. (2001). Coping with com-
plexity: Educating for capability. British Medical Journal,
323, 799 – 803.
Halonen, J. S., Appleby, D., Brewer, C. L., Buskist, W.,
Gillem, A. R., Halpern, D., et al. (2002). Undergraduate
psychology major learning goals and outcomes: A report.
Retrieved from the American Psychological Association
Web site: http://www.apa.org/ed/pcue/taskforcereport.pdf
Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for trans-
fer across domains. American Psychologist, 53, 449 – 455.
Johnson, W. B., & Huwe, J. M. (2003). Getting mentored
in graduate school. Washington DC: American Psychologi-
cal Association.
Kaslow, N. J., Borden, K. A., Collins, F. L., Forrest, L.,
Illfelder-Kaye, J., Nelson, P. D., et al. (2004). Competen-
cies Conference: Future directions in education and creden-
tialing in professional psychology. Journal of Clinical Psy-
chology, 80, 699 –712.
Krishnamurthy, R., VandeCreek, L., Kaslow, N. J., Tazeau,
Y. N., Milville, M. L., Kerns, R., et al. (2004). Achieving
competency in psychological assessment: Directions for
education and training. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 80,
725–740.
Linsk, N. L., & Tunney, K. (1997). Learning to care: Use
of practice simulation to train health social workers. Jour-
nal of Social Work Education, 33, 473– 489.
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
Lipsey, W. M. (1990). Core curriculum: An idea whose
time has passed. In L. B. H. Ellis (Ed.), Preparing psychol-
ogists for the 21st century: Proceedings of the National
Conference on Graduate Education in Psychology (pp.
114 –119). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Miller, G. E. (1990). Assessment of clinical skills/compe-
tence/performance. Academic Medicine, 65(Suppl.), S63-
S67.
O’Connor, M. F. (2001). On the etiology and effective
management of professional distress and impairment
among psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research
and Practice, 32, 345–350.
Parry, S. R. (1996, July). The quest for competencies.
Training, 48 –56.
Peterson, R. L., Peterson, D. R., Abrams, J. C., & Stricker,
G. (1997). The National Council of Schools and Programs
of Professional Psychology education model. Professional
Psychology: Research and Practice, 28, 373–386.
Prinstein, M. J., & Patterson, M. D. (Eds.). (2003). The
portable mentor: Expert guide to a successful career in
psychology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Roberts, M. C., Borden, K. A., & Christiansen, M. (in
press). Toward a culture of competence: Assessment of
competence in the education and careers of professional
psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and
Practice.
Roberts, M. C., Carlson, C. I., Erickson, M. T., Friedman,
R. M., LaGreca, A. M., Lemanek, K. L., et al., (1998). A
November 2004 ● American Psychologist
View publication stats
model for training psychologists to provide services for
children and adolescents. Professional Psychology: Re-
search and Practice, 29, 293–299.
Rodolfa, E. R., Bent, R. J., Eisman, E., Nelson, P. D.,
Rehm, L., & Ritchie, P. (in press). Core and specialty com-
petencies: Implications for education, credentialing, and
practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice.
Spruill, J., Rozensky, R. H., Stigall, T. T., Vasquez, M.,
Binghman, R. P., & Olvey, C. D. V. (2004). Becoming a
competent clinician: Basic competencies in intervention.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 80, 741–754.
Stewart, J., O’Halloran, C., Barton, J. R., Singleton, S. J.,
Harrigan, P., & Spencer, J. (2000). Clarifying the concepts
of confidence and competence to produce appropriate self-
evaluation measurement scales. Medical Education, 34,
903–909.
Stoltenberg, C., Pace, T. M., Kashubeck-West, S., Biever,
J. L., Patterson, T., & Welch, I. D. (2000). Training mod-
els in counseling psychology: Scientist–practitioner versus
practitioner–scholar. The Counseling Psychologist, 28,
622– 640.
Stratford, R. (1994). A competency-approach to educa-
tional psychology practice: The implications for quality.
Educational and Child Psychology, 11, 21–28.
Sumerall, S., Lopez, S. J., & Oehlert, M. E. (2000). Com-
petency-based education and training in psychology.
Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
781