Minoufiya University

Faculty of Science
Geology Department

Subsurface Geology
Lecture Notes

Complied by:

Dr. Mohammed Farouk

2011-2012
Subsurface Geology:

It focuses on the study of the subsurface geological features and structures that found
beneath the ground level. This require to have sources for data for the subsurface
foundations so we will have information to study the geological features and make maps
for it. These techniques are also important and applicable to other fields of study, and
geologists, geophysicists, engineers, and students in related fields, such as mining,
groundwater, environmental, or waste disposal, should benefit from this text as well. The
objectives of subsurface petroleum geology are to find and develop oil and gas reserves.
These objectives are best achieved by the use and integration of all available data and the
correct application of these data. This course covers various aspects of geo-science
interpretation and the construction of subsurface maps and cross sections based upon data
obtained from well logs, seismic sections, and outcrops. It is concerned with correct
structural interpretation and mapping techniques and how to use them to generate the
most reasonable subsurface interpretation that is consistent with all the data. Subsurface
geological maps are perhaps the most important way used to explore for undiscovered
hydrocarbons and to develop proven hydrocarbon reserves. However, the subject of
subsurface mapping is probably the least discussed, yet most important, aspect of
petroleum exploration and development. As a field is developed from its initial discovery,
a large volume of well, seismic, and production data are obtained. With these data, the
accuracy of the subsurface interpretation is improved through time. The most accurate
interpretation for any specific oil or gas field can be prepared only after the field has been
extensively drilled and most of the hydrocarbons have been depleted. However, accurate
and reliable subsurface interpretations and maps are required throughout all exploration
and development activities.
The main sources of data required for the subsurface study are:
1 - The Geophysical Methods
2- The drilling
The Geophysical Methods
Various geophysical surveying methods have been and are used on land and offshore.
Each of these methods measures something that is related to subsurface rocks
and their geologic configurations. Rocks and minerals in the earth vary in several
ways. These include:
• Density – mass per unit volume. The gravity method detects lateral variations in
density. Both lateral and vertical density variations are important in the seismic
method.
• Magnetic susceptibility – the amount of magnetization in a substance exposed to
a magnetic field. The magnetic method detects horizontal variations in susceptibility.
• Propagation velocity – the rate at which sound or seismic waves are transmitted
in the earth. It is these variations, horizontal and vertical, that make the seismic
method applicable to petroleum exploration.
• Resistivity and induced polarization – Resitivity is a measure of the ability to
conduct electricity and induced polarization is frequency-dependent variation in
resistivity. Electrical methods detect variations of these over a surface area
• Self-potential - ability to generate an electrical voltage. Electrical methods also
measure this over a surface area.
• Electromagnetic wave reflectivity and transmissivity – reflection and transmission
of electromagnetic radiation, such as radar, radio waves and infrared radiation,
is the basis of electromagnetic methods.
The primary advantages of the gravity and magnetic methods are that they are
faster and cheaper than the seismic method. However, they do not provide the detailed
information about the subsurface that the seismic method, particularly seismic
reflection, does. There may also be interpretational ambiguities present.
Electrical methods are well suited to tracking the subsurface water table and
locating water-bearing sands Seismic methods can also be used for this purpose.
Electromagnetic methods are useful in detecting near surface features such as
ancient rivers.
 DRILLING
☯ Making a hole or well to
make access into reservoir and to produce hydrocarbon (oil & gas) from
subsurface.

To collect the subsurface geological and reservoir data/information for further

hydrocarbon exploration as well as development.
Legend:
 1. Mud tank
 2. Shale shakers
 3. Suction line (mud pump)
 4. Mud pump
 5. Motor or power source
 6. Vibrating hose
 7. Draw-works
 8. Standpipe
 9. Kelly hose
 10. Goose-neck
 11. Traveling block
 12. Drill line
 13. Crown block
 14. Derrick
 15. Monkey board
 16. Stand (of drill pipe)
 17. Pipe rack (floor)
 18. Swivel (On newer rigs this may be replaced by a top drive)
 19. Kelly drive
 20. Rotary table
 21. Drill floor
 22. Bell nipple
 23. Blowout preventer (BOP) Annular
 24. Blowout preventers (BOPs) pipe ram & shear ram
 25. Drill string
 26. Drill bit 27. Casing head 28. Flow line
OIL EXTRACTING HISTORY
􀂾In the earliest day of oil production, oil was collected from surface seepages.

􀂾Mine shafts were dug to make a well (like water well in Java) to produce shallow oil.

􀂾In the early 19th century peoples developed cable tool drilling

TYPE OF DRILLING :
• Cable Tool Drilling
• Rotary Rig Drilling

TYPE OF RIG :
• Onshore drilling rigs
• Semi-submersible rigs
• Jack-up units
TYPE OF WELL DRILLING :
• Conventional Drilling
• CABLE TOOL DERRICK
• Slant Drilling
THE MUD CIRCULATION PR OCESS
• There's more to drilling than simply rotating the bit.
• Fluid is circulated while the drilling proceeds.
• Powerful pumps move the fluid down
the pipe, through the bit and back to the surface, carrying the cuttings and
other debris with it.
• Thus, on a rotary rig (unlike the cable tool), drilling can be continuous as
stopping to bail the cuttings is no longer required.
• The drilling mud also stabilizes the walls of the hole.
MUD LOGGING DEFINITION, THEORY & LAG CALCULATIONS
Mud logging is a service that qualitatively and quantitatively obtains data from,
and makes observations of, drilled rocks, drilling fluids and drilling parameters in
order to formulate and display concepts of the optional, in situ characteristics of
formations rocks with the primary goal of delineating hydrocarbon “shows”
worthy of testing.
The mud logging unit is the information center on the rig site to serve both
exploration and drilling.

General Purposes
1 Optimized drilling efficiency.
2 - Comprehensive formation evaluation.
3 - Improved well site safety.

Role played by Mud Logging Unit

1 The collection of the rock cuttings which is geologically described,

examined for any oil shows and then packed.
2 The hydrocarbon & some non hydrocarbone gas monitoring while drilling.
3 The monitoring of the drill fluid volume and to immediately inform the
personnel in charge about any change in that volume
4 Confirming with the driller about any drilling breaks.
5 The generation of mud logs and graphs during the drilling of the well,
acquisition of the data and producing a final well report.
6 The monitoring of the drilling parameters & informing the personnel in
charge about any anomalies.
7 Monitoring the trips and updating a trip sheet at a five-stand basis
8 The detection and evaluation of the formation pressure, the hydraulics
 optimization and the well control.
The mud logging unit is considered the information centre of the rig site as the
unit participates in the monitoring of each and every rig operation.

TYPES OF MUD LOGGING UNITS

1 Off-line mud logging units.

2 On-line mud logging units.

4 A- Mud Logging Off-line service features

5 The off line mud logging unit includes a number of separate panels. Each panel
works independently and is responsible for measuring a definite parameter. There
is no communication between these panels. No automatic calculations can be
done and no data storage. All panel calibrations are done manually.

6 B- Mud Logging On-line service features

7 1-Minimum human interference:
8 - Random errors minimized, i.e best accuracy.
9 - More time for interpretation & More time for monitoring.
10 2- Fully computerized service:
11 - High speed data processing (possible data transmission)
12 - Better presentation of data & On time decision making.
13 3- Best possible equipment design:
14 - Maximum possible accuracy.
15 - Minimum systematic errors & Minimum down time.
16 4- Intrinsic safety:
17 - Safety environment
18 - Safety equipment & Efficient warning system.
DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
1 Mud Logging Unit Captain.
2 The Unit captain is the senior mud logging engineer on the location. He has
primary responsibility for the maintenance, management and provision of
service by the logging unit, its equipment and personnel to the client.
3 Mud Logger.
4 He is responsible for the maintenance and correct operation of the
equipment. He is responsible for the collation and presentation of the
information monitored in accordance with company standard procedures
and customer requirements to ensure a high quality service.

The Mud Logging Theory & Lag Calculations

1 Theory:
2 The mud logging theory is based on the mud cycle principal. The mud is sucked
from the pits (Active Pit) and pumped via the drilling string down to the hole
bottom. The mud is then bumped against gravity through the annulus up to the
shakers. The time necessary to get the drilled samples to the surface is exactly the
time required to pump the mud volume through this passage. This is calculated
and is known as Lag time or lag strokes
Lag Time
1 Lag Deinitions:
2 Lag time is the time the mud takes to travel inside the hole between two
specified depth points.
3 The time taken between the surface to the bottom of the hole is called ”lag
down“or“Lag in”.
4 The time taken between the bottom of the hole to the surface is called ”lag-
up“ or “bottoms’up”.
 5 The surface to surface time is called “Complete cycle” or In/Out time.
Temperature Gradient
Temperature is generally a function of depth because of the earth’s natural
geothermal gradient. Normal heat flow within the earth’s crust produces a gradient
of approximately 1.5F for each 100 feet of depth below the surface. The
temperatures required to produce crude oil occur between 5,000 and 20,000 feet of
depth. Temperatures below 20,000 feet are generally too high and only generate
gas. Temperatures above 5,000 feet are not usually sufficient enough to transform
the material into crude oil. There are, of course, exceptions to the rules. Geologic
conditions such as volcanism and tectonics (folding and faulting) can change or
effect the temperature gradient.
Graph 1 Temperature vs. Depth
Pressure Gradient
Most pressure that affects rocks is due to the weight of overlying rocks and is
called overburden pressure. Overburden pressure is a function of depth and
increases one pound per square inch for each foot of depth. At 3000 feet, for
example, the overburden pressure would be 3,000 pounds per square inch.
Hydrocarbons evolve from an immature stage to oil generation, oil cracking (wet
gas stage), and finally to dry gas generation because of overburden pressure and
the associated increase in temperature

Figure 12 Hydrocarbon formation as a function of burial of the

source rock
Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir
Physical characteristics of a reservoir include original deposition and subsequent
changes, the type of reservoir, sandstone or carbonate, which was discussed previously,
depth, area, thickness, porosity, permeability, and capillary pressure.

Depth

The physical characteristics of a reservoir are greatly affected by the depth at which they
occur.

Shallow reservoir— Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately compacted

reservoir rock with accumulation under an anticline or some trap. The hydrocarbons
would generally be better separated as a result of lower internal reservoir pressures, less
gas in solution and oil of increased viscosity, resulting from lower temperatures.
Deep reservoir— Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less
separated with more gas in solution and oil of reduced viscosity because of higher
temperatures. There is often a reduction in porosity and permeability due to increased
compaction.

Area and Thickness

The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable importance in
determining if a reservoir is a commercial one or not. The greater the area and thickness
of the reservoir, the greater the potential for large accumulations of oil and gas. However,
there are reservoirs that produce substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that are not of
considerable size.
Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of void space in a rock to the total volume of rock, and reflects the
fluid storage capacity of the reservoir. total volume of rock volume of void space

Porosity () Porosity is expressed as a percentage on a log. When used in calculations,

however, it is important that porosity be expressed in decimal form.

Primary Porosity— Amount of pore space present in the sediment at the time of deposition, or
formed during sedimentation. It is usually a function of the amount of
space between rock-forming grains.

Secondary Porosity— Post depositional porosity. Such porosity results from groundwater
dissolution, recrystallization and fracturing.

Effective Porosity vs. Total Porosity— Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume
available to free fluids. Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix whether effective or
noneffective.
Fracture porosity
results from the presence of openings produced by the breaking or shattering of a rock. All rock
types are affected by fracturing and a rocks composition will determine how brittle the rock is
and how much fracturing will occur. The two basic types of fractures include natural
tectonically related fractures and hydraulically induced fractures. Hydraulic fracturing is a
method of stimulating production by inducing fractures and fissures in the formation by
injecting fluids into the reservoir rock at pressures which exceed the strength of the rock.
Hydraulic fracturing can tremendously increase the effective porosity and permeability of a
formation
Factors controlling the Porosity:

After its formation, petroleum may migrate from the source rock into porous and
permeable beds where it accumulates and continues its migration until finally trapped.
The forces causing this migration are

1. Compaction of sediments as depth of burial increases.

2. Diastrophism: crustal movements causing pressure differentials and consequent

subsurface fluid movements.

3. Capillary forces causing oil to be expelled from fine pores by the preferential
entry of water.

4. Gravity which promotes fluid segregation according to density differences.

Typical Porosity Magnitude

Type of sedimentary rocks porosity

Clean, consolidated and reasonably uniform sand 20%

Carboniferous rocks (limestone and dolomite) 6 – 8%

Quantitative Use of Porosity Data

Let us assume that porosity has been measured and may be used to determine the quantity
of fluid which may be stored within the rock.

Consider a bulk volume of rock with a surface area of 1 acre and a thickness of 1 foot.
This constitutes the basic rock volume measurement used in oil field calculations, an
acre-foot.

It is a standard practice to express all liquid volumes in terms of barrels (bbl). Conversion
factors used are:
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 acre-ft = 43,560 ft3
1 bbl = 42 gal = 5.61 ft3

1 acre-ft =

Then the pore space within a rock,

Vp (bbl/acre-ft) = 7758 x 
where  is the porosity of the rock

Oil in Place = N =

where N = tank oil in place, bbl/acre-ft

 So = Fraction of pore space occupied by oil (the oil
saturation)

Sw = The water saturation

Bo = The formation volume factor for the oil at the reservoir
pressure,
res. bbl/STB

The water within the pore is commonly called the connate water.

Reserve estimation

Any oil finding has to be interpretated in term of money or in term of economic

evaluation.

Initial Oil in Place (IOIP) has already being defined in term of bbl/acre.ft. It can also be
expressed as

Where A = area of reservoir in acre

h = height or thickness of reservoir in feet

 = porosity in fraction
So = oil saturation in fraction
Bo = Oil formation volume factor, res bbl/STB

Only a portion of the IOIP that can be recovered. This portion is known as the oil
reserve.

Oil reserve is dependent on the recovery factor (RF).

 Reserve = IOIP x RF
Permeability

Permeability is defined as a measure of a rock’s ability to transmit fluids.

An empirical relationship was developed by a French hydrologist Henry D’arcy who

studied the flow of water through unconsolidated sand.

This law in its differential form is:

where v = apparent flow velocity

 = viscosity of the flowing fluid
dP/dL = pressure gradient in the direction of the flow
k = permeability of the porous media
Consider the linear system of the figure below

dP

P1
P2
q1
q2

L dL

Typical permeability magnitude

In general, rocks having a permeability of 100 md or greater are considered fairly

permeable, while rocks with less than 50 md are considered tight.

Many productive limestone and dolomite matrices have permeability below 1 md but due
to the associated solution cavities and fractures which contribute the bulk flow of the
flow capacity.
Current stimulation techniques of acidizing and hydraulic fracturing allow commercial
production to be obtained from reservoir rocks once considered too tight to be of interest.

The oil and gas reservoirs in Malaysia are having permeability between 50 to 2000
milliDarcy.

Subsurface Pressure

The elevated pressures encountered with depth are due to one or both of the causes:
1. Hydrostatic pressure imposed by the weight of fluid (predominantly water)
which fills the voids of the rocks above and/ or contiguous with the reservoir
in question.
2. Overburden pressure die to the weight of the rocks and their fluid content
existing above the reservoir.

It is more common to find subsurface pressures varying as a linear function of depth with
a gradient close to the hydrostatic gradient of fresh to moderately saline water.

Departures from this behaviour, both higher or lower, are considered abnormal.

The abnormally high pressures are more important as a source of serious drilling and
production hazards.

Magnitude of subsurface Pressure

Pressure-depth relationships are commonly spoken of in terms of gradients. The

hydrostatic gradient in fresh water is 0.433 psi/ft of depth which is the quotient of 62.4
lb/ft3 divided by 144 in2/ft2.
Since most subsurface waters are saline, it is common to find the gradient to be more than
0.433 psi/ft.

Studies from 100 high pressure wells in Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast showed a pressure
gradient of 1.0 psi/ft.

This figure is commonly used and may be obtained by using an average water saturated
rock specific gravity 0f 2.3.

Hence the overburden gradient is

2.3 x 0.433  1.0 psi/ft

Subsurface Temperature

The earth is assumed to contain a molten core, it is logical to assume that temperature
should increase with depth. This temperature-depth relationship is commonly a linear
function of the form:

TD = Ta + D
Where TD = temperature of the reservoir at any depth, D
Ta = average surface temperature
 = temperature gradient, degrees/100 ft
D = depth, hundreds of ft

A normal gradient seems to about 1.6 0F/100 ft, although it should be noted considerable
variations occur in various areas.

Several devices for measuring subsurface temperature are available and will be discussed
under temperature logging.
 THE INVASION PROCESS
During the drilling of the well the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column is
usually reater than the pore pressure of the formations. This prevents the well
from “blowing out.” The resultant pressure differential between the mud column
and formation forces mud filtrate
into the permeable formation, and the solid particles of the mud are deposited on
the borehole wall where they form a mud cake. Mud cake usually has a very low
permeability (of the order of 10-2-10-4 md) and, once developed, considerably
reduces the rate of further mud filtrate invasion (Fig. 2-3). Very close to the
borehole most of the original formation water and some of the hydrocarbons may
be flushed away by the filtrate. This zone is referred to as the flushed zone. It
contains, if the flushing is complete, only
mud filtrate; if the formation was originally hydrocarbon bearing, only residual
hydrocarbons. Further out from the borehole, the displacement of the formation
fluids by the mud filtrate is less and less complete, resulting in a transition from
mud filtrate
saturation to original formation water saturation. This zone is referred to as the
transition or invaded zone. The extent or depth of the flushed and transition
zones depends on many parameters. Among these are the type and
characteristics of the drilling mud, the formation porosity, the formation
permeability, the pressure differential, and the time since the formation was first
drilled. Generally, the lower the formation porosity, the
deeper the invasion. The undisturbed formation beyond the transition zone is
referred to as the noninvaded, virgin, or uncontaminated zone. Sometimes in oil-
and gas-bearing formations, where the mobility of the hydrocarbons is greater
than that of the water because of relative permeability differences, the oil or gas
moves away faster than the interstitial water.
In this case, there may be formed between the flushed zone and the uninvaded
zone an annular zone with a high formation water saturation (Fig. 2-3). Annuli
probably occur, to some degree, in most hydrocarbon-bearing formations. Their
influence on log measurements depends on the radial location of the annulus
and its severity (i.e., magnitude of formation water saturation in the annuli relative
to the formation water saturation in the noninvaded zone). Annuli do disappear in
time through dispersion.
In fractured formations the mud filtrate invades easily into the fractures, but it
may penetrate very little into the unfractured blocks of low-permeability matrix.
Therefore, only a small portion of the total original formation fluids (formation
water and, if present, hydrocarbons) is displaced by the filtrate-even very close to
the borehole. In this case, no true flushed zone exists.
 Resistivity
Resistivity is usually measured in units of ohms – meter2 / meter or; “ohm-meters”.
 
Electrical Resistivity provides information about the fluid that is in the pore spaces within
the rock matrix in oil and water wells.  Because electrical resistivity is controlled by ion
flow in liquids, the E-log will provide confirmation of the existence of water, water
quality, and/or hydrocarbon content of the rock matrix.  The electrode spacing (A to M)
used on the E-log tool is directly related to the depth of measurement.  When multiple
spacings are used, resistivities of different depths are measured.  It is possible to form
conclusions on invasion and permeability based on resistivity measurements made at two
or more different depths into the formation. . If no invasion has occurred, then both
shallow and deep curves will read the same resistivity. If invasion has occurred, then the
shallow resistivity will reflect the resistivity of the invading mud filtrate and the deep
resistivity will reflect the formation fluid resistivity.  Resistivity curves should read the
same and depart only where invasion occurs.
 
In a water well, higher resistivity in a saturated zone implies higher quality water. Total
Dissolved Solids in water is related to the resistivity of water. Although certain
conditions apply, as Total Dissolved Solids decrease, water resistivity increases. (Turcan,
1966) 
 
In wells having hydrocarbons, increasing resistivity in sandstone or carbonate zones may
be an indication of increasing hydrocarbon content.
 
The amount of fluid contained in a formation is directly related to porosity. Porosity
affects formation resistivity. In water filled pore spaces, as the volume of water increases,
the capacity for more ions increases. More ions mean more conductivity.
 
Conductivity and Resistivity are inversely related.
 
Conductivity is expressed in unit (mhos )
 
In the SI system of units, Siemens are used to replace mhos. 1 Siemens = 1 Mho.
 
Formation resistivity is affected by three factors: Salt Concentration, Temperature, Pore
volume (porosity).
 
Formation Resistivity Factor (F) is a fundamental concept in log interpretation and
analysis. The formation resistivity factor is defined as the ratio of the electrical resistivity
of a rock 100 percent saturated with water to the resistivity of the water with which it is
saturated, (Archie, 1942).
 
The equation is:             F = Ro/Rw                  (Referred to as Archie’s Equation)
 
Given Rw = .05,
 
If Ro = 5.0 then F = 100
 
If Ro = 1.25 then F = 25
 
If Ro = .55 then F = 11
 

POROSITY FROM RESISTIVITY:

 

Archie found a relation of Formation Resistivity Factor (F) to Porosity () as follows:

                                    F = a / m

 
The constants (a) and (m) are related to lithology.
 
Cementation factor (m) in a consolidated sandstone or a porous limestone is 1.8 to
2.0. In a clean unconsolidated sandstone values for (m) may be as low as 1.3 and the
constant (a) is equal to 1.0.
 
An empirical formula based on studies of core data from numerous localities has
resulted in the equation:
 

 F = 1 / 

 
Porosity of 10 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 100
 
Porosity of 20 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 25
 
Porosity of 30 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 11
 
 
Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as previously
calculated with F = Ro/Rw above.
 
Therefore:

Ro/Rw = F = 1 / 

 
Rearranging:
 
                                     

                          (1/Ro/Rw)1/2

 
 
Requirements for this method are 100 percent water saturation, Rw is known and
mineral conduction is not present.
 
 
Using Shallow Resistivity from a pad mounted measurement:
 
Given Resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo and Resistivity of the mud filtrate, Rmf,
porosity may be obtained a follows:
 
 
 

                         a Rmf/Rxo)1/m

   where a = .62, m = 2.15

Fluid Saturations

Within the earth there is no such condition as a perfect vacuum. Any void space
in the rock will be 100% filled with fluids or other materials. Ideally, hydrocarbons
dominate this pore volume within the rock. The fluids within these void spaces
may include gases at low pressures, consequently with low densities.
Porosity is a rock property. Properties indicating fluids or other materials present
within that porosity, however, are not rock properties but reservoir properties.

Relative presence of fluids within the porosity is indicated by the fluid saturations.
Assume that in Our Reservoir the only fluids or materials present or potentially
present within the porosity are hydrocarbon liquid, hydrocarbon gas, and water.
This water is normally salt water, but since the salt is in solution within the water,
it is not considered separately. The relative presence of these three fluids within
the void spaces is given by:
• Oil saturation, So - the percentage of the void space containing liquid
hydrocarbons at reservoir conditions.
• Gas saturation, Sg (implying hydrocarbon gas) – the percentage of the void
space containing gaseous hydrocarbons at reservoir conditions.
• Water saturation, Sw - the percentage of the void space containing water at
reservoir conditions.
If these should be the only fluids present or potentially present, they will tend to
separate according to their densities, although degree of separation will be
limited by surface tension and capillary pressure effects. If all three fluids should
be present, the hydrocarbons will tend to migrate upward, with the gas
accumulating above the oil and the salt water below the oil, as shown in Figure
13. Under this condition, there is a gas zone (gas cap), oil zone, and water zone.

Figure 13. Hydrocarbon Reservoir with Gas Cap, Oil Zone, and Water Zone
Assume that for Our Reservoir, the only fluids present or potentially present are
hydrocarbon liquid, hydrocarbon gas, and water. For Our Reservoir, since the
reservoir fluid pressure (PR) is significantly higher than the bubble point pressure
(BPP) of the hydrocarbon liquid, no gas cap should exist. Figure 14 is
representative of Our Reservoir.

Consider the oil, gas, and water saturations in the oil zone of Our Reservoir.
Assume that, after completion of the discovery well, logs were run in the well to
determine various hydrocarbon reservoir properties, including rock properties
and reservoir fluid properties. A well log is measured information relative to depth
within a well. Assume that from these logs, it is determined that at the selected
datum depth of 5,750 ft in the oil zone of this reservoir, S o = 80%. There should
be no gas present originally within Our Reservoir, since the BPP is significantly
less than the reservoir fluid pressure. Therefore, S g = 0%. Since the only fluids
present or potentially present are assumed to be
hydrocarbon liquid, hydrocarbon gas, and salt water, S w should equal 20%.

In summary, for Our Reservoir, So = 80%, Sg = 0%, and Sw = 20% in the oil zone.
Note that a simple, yet fundamentally important equation applies to this condition:
So + Sg + Sw = 100%

Shaly Formations
Not all rocks are perfect insulators when dry. Many ores, such as galena and chalcopyrite,
have high conductivities and conduct electrical current even when totally dry. Obviously,
the resistivity and water s&ration equations, which assume that the saturating fluid is the
only electrically conductive medium, do not apply when the rock matrix is also
conductive. Fortunately, in most oil provinces a significant quantity of conductive
mineral in a potential reservoir rock is rare, but when the rock does contain a conductive
mineral, the log interpretation must consider that conductivity. Clays and shales,
however, are not rare, and they do contribute to formation conductivity. Shale exhibits
conductivity because of the electrolyte that it contains and because of an ion-exchange
process whereby ions move under the influence of the impressed electric field between
exchange sites on the surface of the clay particles. The effect of the shaliiess on shaly
sand conductivity is often disproportionately large relative to the quantity of shale. The
actual effect depends on the amount, type, and dishibution of the shale and on the natare
and relative
amount of the formation water. Evaluation of shaly formations, usually shaly sands, is
somewhat complex. All logging measurements are influenced by the shale, and
corrections for shale content are required. Through the years, investigators have proposed
various interpretation models for shaly sands. In some cases, the model is based upon the
shale existing in a particular geometry within the shaly sand; for example, the shale may
exist in the form of thin laminae between layers of clean sand, or as grains or nodules in
the sand matrix structure, or may be dispersed throughout the pore system of the sand in
the form of accumulations adhering to or coating the sand grains. Other shaly sand
models are based upon some. specific characteristic of the shale, such as its cataion
exchange capacity or surface area. Regardless of the basic assumption, most shaly sand
interpretation models employ a weighted-average techniques to evaluate the relative
contributions of the sand and shale phases to the overall shaly sand response.
 WELL LOGGING
The well logging is a branch of Geophysical Engineering (Applied Geophysics) which
deals with the measurements of the physical properties of the geological formations
penetrated by a borehole. In oil-field terminology, a "log" is a record made during or after
drilling a well. It indirectly gives a report on the geological formations penetrated.

Types of well logs: Electrical resistivity

Self potential
Radioactivity
Density
Acoustic velocity
Magnetic susceptibility and others

What is well logging:

Well log is a continuous record of measurement made in Bore hole respond to variation
in some physical Properties of rocks through which the bore hole is Drilled.
Traditionally logs are display on girded papers as shown in Figure.
Now a days the log may be taken as films, images, and in Digital format.
Wireline logging is performed with a sonde lowered into the Borehole or well

Ttypes of wireline logging :

1. Open hole logging
2. Cased hole logging
. COMPUTERIZED
 SP Log

The SP curve is a recording versus depth of the difference between the electrical
potential of a movable electrode in the borehole and the electrical potential of a fixed
surface electrode. Opposite shales the SP curve usually defines a moreor- less straight
line on the log, called the shale baseline. Opposite permeable formations, the curve shows
excursions from the shale baseline; in thick beds, these excursions (deflections) tend to
reach an essentially constant deflection defining a sand line. The deflection may be either
to the left (negative) or to the right (positive), depending primarily on the relative
salinities-of the formation water and of the mud filtrate. If the formation water salinity is
greater than the mud filtrate salinity, the deflection is to the left. For the reversed salinity
contrast, the deflection is to the right. The position of the shale baseline on the log has no
useful meaning for interpretation purposes. The SP sensitivity scale is chosen and the
shale baseline position is set by the engineer running the log so that the curve deflections
remain in the SP track. The SP log is measured in millivolts (mV). An SP curve cannot
be recorded in holes filled with nonconductive muds because such muds do not provide
electrical continuity between the SP electrode and the formation. Furthermore, if the
resistivities of the mud filtrate and formation water are about equal, the SP deflections
will be small and the curve will be rather featureless.

Origin of the SP

The deflections on the SP curve result from electric currents flowing in the mud in the
borehole. These SP currents are caused by electromotive forces in the formations, which
are of electrochemical and electrokinetic origins.
Another component of the electrochemical potential is produced at the edge of the
invaded zone, where the mud filtrate and formation water are in direct contact. Here
Na+ and Cl- ions can diffuse (move) from either solution to the other. Since Cl- ions have
a greater mobility than Na+ ions, the net result of this ion diffusion is a flow of negative
charges (Cl- ions) from the more concentrated to the less concentrated solution. This is
equivalent to a conventional current flow in the opposite direction, indicated by the
straight Arrow A in the upper half of Fig. 3-2. The current flowing across the junction
between solutions of different salinity is produced by an electromagnetic force (emf)
called liquid-junction potential. The magnitude of the liquid-junction potential is only
about one-fifth the membrane potential.
Factors affecting SP log measurements
 Rmf/Rw (Salinity effect) Fresh mud: negative SP, Saline mud: positive SP.
 Shale or clay content Shale reduces SP.
 Permeability
 Presence of hydrocarbon
 Bed thickness: SP decreases when bed thickness decreases.
 Invasion: Reduces SP.
 Mud filtrate: The magnitude and direction of SP deflection from the shale
baseline depends on relative resistivities of the mud filtrate and the formation
water.
 Resistive formations
Application of SP log:

 Differentiation between shaly, clean and shale zones.

 Differentiation between Permeable and non-permeable zones.
 Calculation of Rw.
 Determination of the volume of shale.
 For correlation purposes
 For sedimentological analysis and facies studies.
 GAMMA RAY LOGGING
Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the emission of rays caused by the spontaneous change of one element
into another. Although several types of rays are emitted, only gamma rays have
enough penetration to be of practical use in logging the natural radioactivity of rocks.

Radioactivity of Rocks

All natural rocks contain some radioactive material. However, compared to that of
uranium or radium ore, even of low grade, the radioactivity of most rocks is very
small. The radioactivity of a rock is usually expressed in terms of equivalent amount of
radium per gram of rock required to produce the same gamma ray intensity. Although
there is no fixed rule regarding the amount of radioactivity a given rock may have,
shales, clays and marls are generally several times more radioactive than clean sands,
sandstones, limestones and dolomites.

Because shales, clays and marls have radioactivities that are of the same order, the
term "shale" will generally be used here to denote any of these three formations.
Similarly, for the sake of simplification, the term "sand" will be used to denote either
sands, sandstones, limestones, and dolomites, since these four rocks have
radioactivities of the same order.

The radioactivity of clean sands, i.e., sands free of shaly materials (shale, clay, marl)
is generally very low. Sands that contain some shaly material have a somewhat higher
radioactivity, and the increase is proportional to the amount of shale contained.
Therefore, shaly sands and sandy shales generally have a radioactivity that is between
that of clean sands and that of shale. In a given area, the radioactivity of shales does
not generally vary too much, so that a gamma ray log is an approximate measurement
of the quantity of shale contained in a formation.

The radioactivity of shale varies from area to area. In the tertiary and more recent
formations, i.e., those usually found in the Gulf Coast and in California, the
radioactivity of the sediments, as a whole, is generally several times weaker than in
the older rocks found in other petroleum provinces.
Some organic marine shales have a much higher radioactivity than the ordinary shales
in the same area. However, they are generally relatively thin and are not found too
frequently. When present, marine shales make excellent geologic markers.

Interpretation of Gamma Ray Logs

The interpretation of gamma ray logs can be summarized as follows:

1. In a given area, only the relative radioactivity of the various rocks is of significance.

2. Rocks of low radioactivity include primarily clean sands, sandstones, limestones,

and dolomites. Anhydrite, salt, lignite and coal have also a low radioactivity. Their
radioactivity increases when they are shaly.

3. Ordinary shales have a much higher radioactivity than the rocks listed above. The
radioactivity of sandy shales is less than that of shales. Shales are sufficiently high in
radioactivity and can generally be easily distinguished from the other rocks on a
gamma ray log.

Cased Holes

Most of the gamma rays emitted by the formation can penetrate casing, so that a
gamma ray curve can be obtained in cased holes, although the amplitudes of the curve
are somewhat reduced. For example, a 5/16 inch thickness of steel reduces the
gamma ray intensity about one fourth.

Effect of Mud

The mud has two effects on the gamma ray curve:

1. It absorbs a small percent of the radiation and therefore reduces the log amplitude;
unless the hole diameter is very large (more than 24") this effect is very small and can
be ignored.

2. The shale or clay contained in the mud increases the radioactivity background, so
that even clean sands show a slight radioactivity on the log. If the mud is uniform, this
small increase is constant from top to bottom. However, if the shale has settled at the
bottom of the hole there will be an increase in the radioactivity measured in this
interval that has to be considered when interpreting the log. The effect of the mud on
the gamma ray log is the same whether the mud is fresh or salty. Because this effect is
usually very small, a gamma ray log is very useful in wells containing salty mud since,
in this case, the electric log is generally poor.

Effect of Hole Size

The larger the hole, the smaller the gamma ray intensity reaching the probe.
However, this effect is small and can generally be neglected.

Applications of Gamma Ray Logs

The GR sonde contains a detector to measure the gamma radiation originating in the
volume of formation near the sopde. Scintillation counters are now generally used
for this measurement. They are much more efficient than the Geiger-Mueller counters
used in the past. Because of its higher efficiency, a scintillation counter need only be
a few inches in length; therefore, good formation detail is obtained. The GR log may be,
and usually is, run in combination with most other logging tools and cased hole
production services. The GR log is particularly useful for defining shale beds when the
SP is distorted (in very resistive formations), when the SP is featureless (in freshwater-
bearing formations or in salty mud; i.e., when Rmf - R,), or when the SP cannot be
recorded (in nonconductive mud, empty or air-drilled holes, cased holes). The bed
boundary is picked at a point midway between the maximum and minimum deflection of
the anomaly.
many regions, can be used quantitatively as a shale indicator. It is also used for the
detection and evaluation of radioactive minerals, such as potash or uranium ore.
Its response, corrected for borehole effect, is practically proportional to the KzO content,
approximately 15 API units per 1% of K20. The GR log can also be used for delineation
of non-radioactive minerals.

Gamma ray logs are used in the following instances.

1. To log cased holes (no electric log can be obtained in cased holes).

2. To log dry holes (no electric log can be obtained in holes that do not contain
water or mud).

3. To log holes containing salt water or salty mud (the electric logs obtained in
such holes are generally poor).

4. To supplement the information given by the electric log (identification of

formations, estimating the amount of clay in sands, etc.)

5. To locate radioactive ores, uranium in particular.

6. To help locate lignite and coal beds.

7. To help locate clay and fresh water sands.

 Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log (NGS)

Like the GR log, the NGS natural gamma ray spectrometry log measures the natural
radioactivity of the formations. Unlike the GR log, which measures only the total
radioactivity, this log measures both the number of gamma rays and the energy level of
each and permits the determination of the concentrations of radioactive potassium,
thorium, and uranium in the formation rocks.

This tool measures the number and energy of naturally occurring gamma rays in the
formation and distinguishes between elements and daughter products of three main
radioactive families; uranium, thorium and potassium.

Log Presentation

The NGS log provides a recording of the amounts (concentrations) of potassium,

thorium, and uranium in the formation. These are usually presented in Tracks 2 and 3 of
the log (Fig. 3-10). The thorium and uranium concentrations are presented in parta per
million @pm) and the potassium concentration in percent (%). In addition to the
concentrations of the three individual radioactive elements, a total (standard) GR curve is
recorded and presented in Track 1. The total response is determined by a linear
combination of the potassium, thorium, and uranium concentrations. This standard curve
is expressed in API units. If desired, a “uranium free”
measurement (CGR) can also be provided. It is simply the summation of gamma rays
from thorium and potassium only. Borehole Correction Curves The response of the NGS
tool is a function not only of the concentration of potassium, thorium, and uranium but
also of hole conditions (hole size and mud weight) and of the interactions of the three
radioactive elements

Applications
The NGS log can be used to detect, identify, and evaluate radioactive minerals. It also
can be used to identify clay type and to calculate clay volumes. This, in turn, can provide
insight into the source, the depositional environment, the diagenetic history, and the
petrophysical characteristics (surface area, pore struchue, etc.) of the rock. The thorium
and potassium response or the thorium-only response of the NGS log is often a much
better shale indicator than the simple GR log or other shale indicators. Shaly-sand
interpretation programs such as GLOBAL* and ELAN* can thereby benefit from its
availability.

The NGS log can also be used for correlation where beds of thorium and potassium
content exist. The combination of the NGS log with other lithology sensitive
measurements (such as photoelectric absorption, density, neutron, sonic) permits the
volumetric mineral analysis of very complex lithological mixtures. In. less complex
mixtures, it allows the minerals to be identified with greater certainty and volumes to be
calculated with permeable streaks may have higher uranium salt content than less
permeable intervals greater accuracy. The
uranium response of the NGS log is sometimes useful as a. “moved fluid” indicator for
field wells drilled into previously produced reservoirs.
 POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOGS

DENSITY TOOLS:

Density tools are designed to measure bulk density of the formations in a well. The tool is
comprised of a “mandrel” made of very dense metal that allows collimation of
backscattered gamma rays and a “caliper” that is used to assert side-ways pressure to
force the density tool against the sidewall of the well. The density measuring
instrumentation in the tool usually consists of a scintillation detector and pulse
conditioning circuits. A source of gamma radiation in the form of an encapsulated
(sealed) gamma ray emitting source is used. The source is commonly made of Cesium
137 or other gamma ray emitter. Back-scattered gamma rays are collimated by a
“window” in the side of the tool. The gamma rays are sensed by a scintillation detector.
A scintillation detector uses a scintillation crystal made of a material like sodium Iodide
that converts incoming gamma rays into photons of light thru a process called
“scintillation”. The photons of light are emitted by the scintillation crystal and are
detected by a photo-multiplier tube. The photo-multiplier tube converts photons into
electrons thru a “photo-electric process” that removes electrons from a photo sensitive
surface within the tube. The photons are detected – electrons are produced and successive
stages of “dynode” electrodes within the photo-multiplier tube further amplify the photon
“pulses”. The resulting output is in the form of electrical pulses representing the detected
back-scattered gamma rays.
COMPTON SCATTERING:

Gamma rays emitted by a density tool undergo several possible interactions when they
collide with matter.

The first interaction, at low energy, the photo-electric effect is the dominant interaction.
When low energy gamma rays collide with an atom and it’s energy is absorbed by the
atom, a photo-electron is emitted.

A second interaction, at intermediate energy, the Compton effect is the dominant

interaction. The colliding gamma ray scatters (bounces) from an electron giving up part
of it’s energy. The energy of the scattered gamma ray is a function of the angle of the
collision. Each successive collision results in reduction of energy until the gamma ray is
absorbed by a photo-electric interaction.

The third possible interaction, at high energies, greater than 1.02 Mev., the gamma ray is
converted into an electron-positron pair. This interaction is called pair production. The
positron represents anti-matter. When it interacts with an electron, they annihilate one
another and produce two gamma rays. The two gamma rays travel in opposite directions
with equal energies of 0.51 Mev. These lower energy gamma-rays interact with other
atoms and are eventually subjected to Compton scattering and finally absorbed by a
photo-electric interaction.

Gamma ray sources containing Cesium 137 are low energy sources. The relatively low
energy of this source excludes the possibility of counting the results of pair production
making radiation intensity measurements only due to the effect of Compton scattering
and the photo-electric effect.

BULK DENSITY:

The number of back-scattered gamma rays is directly related to the electron density of the
surrounding materials. Fortunately, electron density is very closely proportional to bulk
density for most low mass elements

Since the intensity of the gamma source may be considered constant and the
geometry of the tool is also constant and the linear absorption coefficient for
common rocks is constant for the energy levels involved, the validity of using
gamma intensity as a method of measuring formation bulk density is established.

Since counts are inversely related to formation bulk density, high counts indicate
low density, and lower counts indicate higher density.

BOREHOLE COMPENSATION:

Density logging tools have a relatively shallow depth of investigation. The

measurements are therefore subject to effects of mudcake and borehole rugosity. To
compensate for these effects, a two detector density tool is used. Two detectors
having two spacings, short and long, with reference to the source have count rates
based on their respective distances from the source. In an ideal borehole, the count
rates are known for a given tool design. A graph can be constructed having a
straight line (referred to as a spine) that represents the ratio of count rates for
various bulk densities. Additional lines referred to as ribs are plotted representing
deviations from the spine due to various mudcake densities and thicknesses.
Borehole compensation is done thru computer calculation based on count rate
deviation from the spine.

POROSITY FROM DENSITY:

Formation bulk density is related to porosity (), fluid density and matrix density
of the rock material.

Bulk density (b) is the sum of the fluid density ( f) of the pore space and the
density of the matrix (ma).

Rearranging the equation,

 = (ma – b) / (ma – f)

Porosity () can be calculated given bulk density (b), if fluid density (f) and
matrix density (ma)
Application of Density Log

• The density tool is extremely useful as it has high accuracy and exhibits small
borehole effects.

• Major uses include:

– Porosity.
- Lithology (in combination with the neutron tool).

• Mechanical properties (in combination with the sonic tool).

• Acoustic properties (in combination with the sonic tool).
• Gas identification (in combination with the neutron tool).
POROSITY FROM Sonic LOG
 
Sonic TOOL:
 
The interaction of acoustic waves in a rock matrix affect velocity and
attenuation of the acoustic signal. Rock density, porosity, saturation and
fracturing have different affects that contribute to a very complex acoustic
signal which contains an abundance of information.
 
Acoustic tools are designed to generate an acoustic signal (sound wave)
having significant energy that will travel through the borehole fluid, rock
formation and back through the borehole fluid to an acoustic receiver.
Acoustic transmitters may be piezoelectric crystal or magnetostrictive. Both
types of transmitters convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy in the form of an acoustic wave travels into the
surrounding formation and is received by an acoustic receiver usually of the
piezoelectric type.
 
Acoustic waves traveling in an elastic media are subject to stress and strain.
Most of the interaction of acoustic waves in a rock formation can be
described mathematically using the theory of elastic waves in an elastic
media. In an elastic medium with small strains, the strain is directly related
to the stress that caused it. This relation is referred to as “Hooke’s Law”.
The total strain is the sum of the strains produced by the individual stresses.
 
An acoustic waveform is subject to reflection and refraction. Because the
waveform moves in all directions and encounters varying interactions, when
waveforms rejoin, they may have constructive or destructive interference
with each-other. Among the interactions, Plane waves referred to as “P
waves” and shear waves referred to as “S waves” a formed. These waves,
called “head waves” are among the first to arrive at the receiver. Various
other waves are produced; conical waves, pseudo-Rayleigh waves, and
Stoneley or tube waves.
 
It should be noted that P waves travel faster than S waves.
 
Matrix velocity – If a rock were truly elastic it would have no porosity. But,
rock contains pore spaces, fractures and other discontinuities. The velocity
of propagation in a rock matrix is therefore affected by pressure, porosity,
pore fluid, fraction of the pore space containing a given fluid (saturation),
fluid type and temperature. Pressure has the effect of closing micro-fractures
and increasing velocity. Porosity has the effect of reducing velocity of S
waves. Temperature affects fluid velocity and therefore has an effect on
overall velocity.
􀂾 The sonic tools create an acoustic signal and measure how long it takes to pass
through a rock.

􀂾 By simply measuring this time we get an indication of the formation properties.

􀂾 The amplitude of the signal will also give information about the formation

A simple tool that uses a pair of transmitters and four receivers to compensate for
caves and sonde tilt.

• The normal spacing between the transmitters and receivers is 3' - 5'.
• It produces a compressional slowness by measuring the first arrival transit times.

• Used for:
– Correlation.
– Porosity.
– Lithology.
POROSITY FROM NEUTRON LOGS

WHAT ARE NEUTRONS?

A neutron is a neutral particle approximately the same mass as a proton. Neutrons

interact almost exclusively with atomic nuclei. Neutron energies are measured in electron
volts (ev), thousands of ev (Kev) and millions of ev (Mev).

Neutrons are classified by energy as follows:

Fast Neutrons: Above 500 KeV

Intermediate: 1 KeV to 500 KeV
Slow: Below 1KeV

Slow Neutrons are classified further:

Epithermal: .1 KeV to 1 KeV approx.

Thermal: Below .1 KeV approx.

Thermal neutrons are referred to as “thermal” because they are in thermal equilibrium.

Neutron sources:

Spontaneous fission – Cf-252 produces neutrons through a process of spontaneous

fission. The neutrons produced from this process have energies between 250 KeV and 2
MeV. The energies are too low for some applications but are acceptable for others. This
source has the advantage of being compact however, it is expensive.

Alpha – neutron sources – This type of source is most commonly used. Alpha particle
sources such as Pu, Po, Am, are combined with Be (beryllium). As the alpha particles
bombard the beryllium, neutrons are produced. The energies of these neutrons are
between 1 MeV and 12 MeV. The higher energy levels permit deeper penetration and
greater depths of investigation.

Neutron generators – Portable neutron sources can be made using a Deuteron beam
impinging on a tritium target and in the process generating neutrons. These neutrons
have an energy of 14.1 MeV. A high voltage source is used to create the energy
necessary to drive the beam of deuterons into the target. Because the reaction is caused
by an electronic circuit – this source can be turned on or off. Neutron generators are
expensive and operate for only 100 to 200 hours. Because of the high energy it is not
suitable for water content logging.

NEUTRON TOOLS:

Neutron tools are designed to accommodate one of the sources described above and at a
fixed spacing, a detector is used to detect the resulting captured neutron reaction
products.

Four detector types are used:

BF3 counters – This is a common detector similar to a Geiger-mueller tube. The

efficiency is fairly low.

He3 counters – This is a more modern detector similar to the BF3 detector but 4 to 20
times more efficient.

Epithermal neutron detectors – This is a cadmium shielded gas type detector.

Gamma ray detectors – This detector is used to detect gamma rays of capture rather than
neutrons.
• The first neutron tools used a chemical neutron source and employed a single detector
which measured the Gamma Rays of capture. They were non-directional. The units of
measurement were API units where 1000 API units were calibrated to read 19% in a
water-filled limestone. The tool was badly affected by the borehole environment.

• The second generation tool was the Sidewall Neutron Porosity (SNP). This was an
epithermal device mounted on a pad.

• The current tool is the Compensated Neutron Tool (CNT). The latest tool is the
Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS), using an electronic source for the neutrons and
measuring in the epithermal region.
BOREHOLE COMPENSATION:

Borehole compensation is necessary for the following factors:

Gap:

Gap corrections are used to correct for the gap between the tool and the borehole wall. In
tools that are designed for eccentric logging – for example sidewall neutron tools, a
caliper presses the tool against the side of the borehole. Sidewall neutron tools reduce the
effect of the borehole. Dual spacing Neutron tools are also designed to reduce the effect
of the borehole on neutron response. Logging companies publish correction charts for
gap for both one and two detector tools.

Apparent porosity increases as standoff (gap) increases.

Mudcake:

Apparent porosity increases below 22 percent and decreases above 22 percent because of
mudcake on the borehole wall.

Hole size:

The distance neutrons travel is largely determined by the volume of hydrogen. It is

important to measure and have knowledge of borehole size and rugosity – particularly
washouts. Charts that correct for hole size are published. Increased borehole size,
increases porosity 1 percent for each inch directly.

Salt:
Because sodium chloride is not very effective in slowing neutrons, yet is contained in the
pore space in solution with water, corrections are applied to porosity for sodium chloride
content in the pore space.

Casing:

Casing (cement) affects neutron logging. Each inch of cement causes apparent porosity
to increase 2.66 percent.

POROSITY FROM NEUTRON TOOLS:

A Neutron tool gives an “indication” of porosity.

Neutron tools are calibrated in API Neutron Units. The API test facility located at the
University of Texas in Houston Texas is used for this purpose. A value of 1000 API
Neutron Units is assigned to any neutron tool in a water filled hole having 7 - ½ inch
diameter in Indiana Limestone of 19 percent porosity. One API neutron Unit is 1/1000 of
the difference between tool instrument zero and the reading in the Indiana Limestone.

Tool suppliers develop a transform to convert API Neutron Units to Porosity for the tools
they produce. Since the tools are calibrated in a Limestone matrix – corrections must be
made for logging in other matrix materials.

CORRECTION FOR SHALE:

Corrections must be made for out of matrix log data. If a neutron log has been calibrated
for limestone matrix, the logged porosity will be in error if the matrix differs from
limestone.

Sandstone – clay/shale sequences are common in logging.

In a sandstone matrix, apparent porosity decreases 4 percent.

In a Dolomite matrix, apparent porosity increases 6 percent.

Shale contains water in the form of “bound water”. The water content is measured as
porosity. If a measure of water content is desired – no correction is necessary. If the
objective is to accurately measure porosity, then a correction must be applied.

To determine Shale Volume (Vsh) from a gamma log:

L-C
Vsh = -------
S-C

Where:

L = gamma reading in the zone of interest

C = gamma reading in Clean sand formation
S = gamma reading in shale

When density and neutron logs are available; Shale volume can be calculated as follows:

(n) – (d)
Vsh = ----------------
 (nsh) -  (dsh)

Where:

 (n) = Neutron Porosity

 (d) = Density Porosity
 (nsh) = Neutron Porosity in Shale
 (dsh) = Density Porosity in Shale

CORRECTION FOR GAS:

Gas is less dense than water and contains less hydrogen in the same pore space. When it
is known that gas is present in a formation, a correction is necessary. Correction charts
are published for this purpose.
 Application of Neutron Log

• The Neutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation porosity, but the fact that
it is really just a hydrogen detector should always be kept in mind
• It is used to detect gas in certain situations, exploiting the lower hydrogen density,
or hydrogen index
• The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous measurement of the
induced radiation produced by the bombardment of that formation with a neutron
source contained in the logging tool which sources emit fast neutrons that are
eventually slowed by collisions with hydrogen atoms until they are captured
(think of a billiard ball metaphor where the similar size of the particles is a
factor).  The capture results in the emission of a secondary gamma ray; some
tools, especially older ones, detect the capture gamma ray (neutron-gamma log). 
Other tools detect intermediate (epithermal) neutrons or slow (thermal) neutrons
(both referred to as neutron-neutron logs).  Modern neutron tools most commonly
count thermal neutrons with an He-3 type detector.
 Resistivity Logs

The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining hydrocarbon saturation.

Electricity can pass through a formation only because of the conductive water it contains.
With a few rare exceptions, such as metallic sulfide and graphite, dry rock is a good
electrical insulator. Moreover, perfectly dry rocks are very seldom encountered. herefore,
subsurface formations have ftite, measurable resistivities because of the water in their
pores or absorbed in their interstitial clay. The resistivity of a formation depends on:
l Resistivity of the formation water. l Amount of water present. . Pore structure geometry.
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance is the resistance measured between
opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance at a specified temperature. The meter
is the unit of length and the ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. In abbreviated form,
resistivity is

R = rA/L,

where
R is resistivity in ohm-meters,
r is resistance in ohms,
A is area in square meters,
and
L is length in meters.

The units of resistivity are ohm-meters squared per meter, or simply ohm-meters (ohm-
m). Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity and is expressed in mhos per meter. To
avoid decimal fractions, conductivity is usually expressed in millimhos per meter
:where 1000 mmho/m = 1 mho/m ,)mmho/m(
Formation resistivities are usually from 0.2 to 1000 ohm-m. Resistivities higher than
1000 ohm-m are uncommon in permeable formations but are observed in impervious,
very low porosity (e.g., evaporites) formations. Formation resistivities are measured by
either sending current into the formation and measuring the ease of the electrical flow
through it or by inducing an electric current into the formation and measuring how large
it is.

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRICAL LOGS

During the fist quarter-century of well logging, the only resistiviry logs available were
the conventional electrical surveys. Thousands of them were run each year in holes
drilled all over the world. Since then, more sophisticated resistivity logging methods have
been developed to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone, R,,, and the true resistivity
of the uninvaded virgin zone, R, The conventional electrical survey (ES) usually
consisted
of an SP, l&in. normal, 64-in. normal, and 18-ft S-in. lateral devices. Since the ES log is
the only log available in many old wells, the measurement principles and responses are
covered in this section. For more detailed information on old electric logs,

Principle

Currents were passed through the formation by means of current electrodes, and voltages
were measured between measure electrodes. These measured voltages provided the
resistivity determinations for each device. In a homogeneous, isotropic formation of
infinite extent, the equipotential surfaces surrounding a single
current-emitting electrode (A) are spheres. The voltage between an electrode (M) situated
on one of these spheres and one at infinity is proportional to the resistivity of the
homogeneous formation, and the measured voltage can be scaled in resistivity units.
Resistivity Devices
In the normal device (Fig. 7-I), a current of constant intensity is passed between two
electrodes, A and B. The resultant potential difference is measured between two other
electrodes, M and N. Electrodes A and M are on the sonde. B and N are, theoretically,
located an infinite distance away. In practice, B is the cable armor, and N is an electrode
on the bridle (the insolation-covered lower end of the cable) far removed from A and M.
The distance AM is called the spacing (l&in. spacing for the short normal, &in. spacing
for the long normal), and the point of inscription for the measurement is at 0. midway
between A and M

In the basic lateral devic, a constant current is passed between A and B, and the potential
difference between M and N, located on two concentric spherical eqoipotential surfaces
centered on A, is measured. Thus, the voltage measured is proportional to the potential
gradient between M-and N. The point of inscription is at 0, midway between M and N.
The spacing A0 is 18 ft 8 in. The sonde used in practice differs from that shown in Fig. 7-
2 in that the positions of the current and measuring electrodes are interchanged; this basic
sonde described above. Also, all electrodes are in
the borehole, with N located 50 ft 10 in. above M. Generally, the longer the spacing, the
deeper the device investigates into the formation. Thus, of the ES resistivity logs, the
1%ft S-in. lateral has the deepest investigation and the l&n. normal the shallowest. In
practice, however, the apparent resistivity, R,, recorded by each device is affected by the
resistivities and geometricaJ dimensions of all media around the device (borehole,
invaded and uncontaminated zones, and adjacent beds). kormal and Lateral Curves
In the following examples, the shapes of the normal and lateral curves are described for a
few typical cases. All cases correspond to noninvaded formations. To read the
conventional resistivity logs correctly, a knowledge of these typical curve shapes is
required.
Dipmeter Log

Dipmeter come in several versions, four-arm dipmeters and six-arm dipmeters. High
resolution dipmeters record all the necessary information for computing formation dip
and azimuth. A secondary application is the use of the dipmeter measurements of hole
deviation and direction to determine
 Subsurface mapping
To demonstrate reservoir properties in a plan view projection with objectives to
promote optimal field development.
• The maps will be used for
well placement, reserves calculation, reservoir performance monitoring.
• Mapping is part of reservoir characterization, therefore the results of which very
depend on the expert’s working knowledge in applied geologic models

Types of Maps

• TOP/SURFACE MAPS :

– Structure Map
– Fault Map
– Unconformity Map
• THICKNESS MAPS :
– Isopachous Map 􀃆 Gross & Net

• OTHERS & COMBINED MAPS :

– Isoporosity Map - Isopermeability Map
– Pressure Map - Saturation Map
– Productivity Map - Shale Map
– Net to Gross Sand Map - Etc.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE FOR RESERVOIR CORRELATION &

MAPPING

LOG ANALYSIS (Electro-Facies, Reservoir Parameters, Stratigraphy, Structure, Etc.)

• SEISMIC INTERPRETATION (Structure, Reservoir Continuity, Hydrocarbon
Indications)

• Sedimentary Facies, Depositional Environments & Sequence Stratigraphy

• Models Of Basins & Reservoirs, And Also Regional Geology Of The Mapped Field

trends of sedimentation & major tectonic and it’s ramifications

• Basic Reservoir Engineering

pressure regime, models, fluid properties and production performance.

• Basic Coordinate Systems/Geometry & Base Map, well trajectory

Structure Contour Map:

Structure contour maps are basically the same as topographic maps, where the
surface being mapped is some geologic surface. Geologic surfaces commonly
mapped in this way are:

 a stratigraphic horizon.

 a fault surface.

 top of the groundwater table.

 a seismic reflection surface.

There are some differences with standard topographic maps. Your surface does
not have to be continuous everywhere, but can be truncated. For example the
surface created by the top of a sill can be truncated by a fault.

You can also contour and 'map' other features than a physical surface. In this
case the z axis instead of being elevation can be any physical/chemical
parameter. For example, you can contour geophysical parameters such as the
acceleration of gravity, or the strength of a magnetic field. When working with
contaminant plumes the z parameter is the concentration of some contaminant.
Isopach maps are where you are contouring the thickness of some unit.

When contouring you are assuming that for some x,y area the z values form a
smooth continuous surface.