EXAM FOR HYDROGEOLOGIST/ GEOLOGIST JOB VACANCY

1. Before the test begins there are certain data that should be collected. These include:
 Review the well drilling and construction report and become familiar with
information on the wells to be tested.
 Check and ensure the proper operation of pump, generator and other field
equipment.
 Assemble sufficient number of field data forms and graph papers to complete the
field assignment.
 Selection of discharge measuring device such as orifice, weir, flow meter or
container to accurately measure the discharge rate.
 Take sufficient pipe to transport the discharge from the pumping well to an area
beyond the expected cone of depression.
 The discharge pipe must have a gate valve to control the pumping rate.
2. For the ff types of Aquifers hydraulic property can be calculated using :
 For steady state flow confined aquifer
- Thiem method(equation) = T,k,Ws
 For steady state flow Un confined aquifer
-Thiem analysis
 For unsteady state flow confined aquifer(k,T,S, Ws)
- Theis method
- Cooper-Jacoob’s method
 For un steady state flow unconfined aquifer(k,T,S, Ws)
- Neuman’s curve fitting method
 For un steady state flow Leaky aquifer
- Hantush-Jacob method
- Walton graphical method
3. What does mean by short Normal and Long Normal resistivity logging method?
Geophysical borehole logging is the process of measuring physical, chemical and
structural properties of penetrated geological formations usually using logging tools that
are lowered in to borehole on a wire line cable. Geophysical down hole logging provides in
situ information about the physical properties of the rock strata and ground water.
Electrical well logs can be made only with in water or drilling fluid in a well. They are used
in open holes to determine the electrical resistivity of the rock, which together with other
physical parameters can be used to drive a litho logical log for the bore hole.
Earth resistivity can be measured in a bore hole by lowering two current electrodes and
measuring the resistivity b/n two additional electrodes. A number of different
configurations are used in resistivity logging. These include:
 Short – Normal: - curve indicates the resistivity of the zone close to the bore
hole. It is in this area that the drilling fluid may have invaded the formations.
 Long – Normal: - spacing has more spacing b/n electrodes and thus measures
the resistivity farther away from the bore hole – Presumably, beyond the influence
of the drilling fluid.
 Note:-
 Both the short normal and long normal resistivity measure a greater
radius of influence than the single – point resistance.
4. What is Mud drilling method?
 This Technique can be described as a drilling method by which a well is drilled
by using a rotating bit to which a down ward force is applied and assisted with
water and bentonite to carry away the drilling cuttings. Water and bentonite
were used as drilling fluids, and those were efficient in caring removing cuttings
from the well.
 Functions of Drilling Fluids:
 Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string.
 Clean the bottom of the well beneath the bit.
 Transport cuttings to the surface.
 Suspend drill cuttings in the annulus when circulation is stopped.
 Drop off the cuttings at the surface.
 Support the walls of the well.
 Control subsurface pressure.
 Stabilize the well

4.1 Types of Drilling Fluids

 Compressed air (very effective in dry formations in arid climates, in competent
consolidated rock.)
 Foam (when too much water is encountered when air drilling formations such as clays
and shale’s.)
 Clear water (used where formation water pressures are normal or subnormal, although
it does not work well in highly permeable or water-sensitive formations.)
 Water-based mud(bentonite)
5. Drive equation for  s (drawdown) between t1=10 and t2 =100, where s1 is
drawdown at t1 using cooper Jacob equation?

2.3Q  2.25Tt 
T log 2 
4 s1   r S 

Write when to use the equation.

6. How do you decide duration of pumping test?

 The length of a pumping test depends upon both the test purpose and the hydraulic
properties of the aquifer. Usually the test is continued till the water level is
stabilized
 Make compatible the test duration with the intended purpose of the well and/or the
test.
 the period of pumping depends on the type of aquifer and the degree of accuracy
desired in establishing its hydraulic characteristics
 7. What are those parameters that we estimate from constant pumping test?
 to determine the sustainable abstraction rate
 to determine the aquifer parameters
- transmissivity
- Storage coefficient (specific yield for unconfined aquifers and storativity for
confined aquifers)
 to determine physical limitation of an aquifer (recharge and discharge boundaries)
 to collect groundwater samples for field and further laboratory analysis
8. Which of the following is false about the purpose of pre pumping test? Pre pumping test is
used to determine:
A) The maximum anticipated drawdown. (For most pumping tests, a major portion of
the drawdown will occur in the first few hours of pumping.)
B) The volume of water produced at certain engine (pump) speeds and drawdown.
C) The best method to measure the yield.
D) Whether the discharge from the pump is piped far enough away to avoid recharge.
E) Whether the observation wells are located so that they exhibit sufficient drawdown to
produce usable data.
F) None
9. What are the most common methods employed in drilling deep wells?
 Direct and Reverse circulation mud rotary
 Direct and reverse circulation air-rotary with casing drive
 Cable tool method.
Note: - The terms direct and reverse refer to the direction in which the drilling fluid (mud or
air) is circulated.
 In direct drilling, the drilling fluid is circulated down the string of drill tools out the bit
and up the annulus between the tools string and the well wall. In reverse, as the name
implies, the direction of circulation is reverse that of direct drilling.
a. Cable tool
 Particularly suited to water poor areas. Cable tool drilling more easily identifies each
water bearing formation penetrated, even those of small yields.
 Efficient use of personnel. Cable tool rigs are often operated by a less person
when compared to other drill rigs.
9.2 Direct Circulation Mud Rotary Method
 Direct circulation is the most popular of the rotary drilling methods.
 In direct circulation rotary drilling fluid (water or water with additives-mud) is pumped
down the drill pipe and out through the ports or jets in the drill bit.
 The drilling fluid emerging through the drill bit itself circulates through the bit, picking
up debris and drill cuttings, to be circulated back up the well, traveling between the
drill string and the walls of the well (also called the 'annular space').
9.3 Reverse Circulation Mud Rotary Method
 Reverse circulation drilling was developed to allow for larger well drilling without the
limiting factors of drilling fluid pump capacities.
 The drilling fluid flows from the mud pit down the well outside the drill rods and passes
upward through the bit. Cuttings are carried into the drill rods and discharged back
into the mud pit.
 Reverse mud is a cost effective method for drilling wells of 24" and greater. This
method is most successful in unconsolidated formations.
9.4 Direct Air Rotary Drilling Method
 In air rotary drilling, air alone lifts the cuttings from the well.
 The air, forced down the drill pipe, escapes through small ports at the bottom of the
drill bit, thereby lifting the cuttings and cooling the bit. The cuttings are blown out the
top of the well and collect at the surface around the well.
 Air drilling has many advantages:
 Good well cleaning
 Excellent information on what is happening down the hole
 Immediate indication of water shows with the opportunity to determine
quantity and quality of water encountered
 Low pollution risk
 Fast penetration
 High bit life
 Air is readily available.
 Air drilling can be done only in semi-consolidated or consolidated materials.
9.5 Reverse Air Rotary drilling Method
 This method is most successful when drilling in soft sedimentary rock and
unconsolidated sand and gravel.
 This method requires adequate water to be successful.
 Reverse air drilling is seen as an excellent approach for municipal supply wells.
 Reverse air drilling have the ff advantages:
 Rapid removal of cuttings
 No plugging of the aquifer with drilling fluids
 No use of mud pumps during the air drilling stage
 Extended bit life
 Easier estimation of formation yield
 Loss of circulation zones not a factor
 Samples easily obtained
9.6 Down the Hole Air Hammer Drilling Method
 Drill effectively in hard formations; rotary bits require very high pull down pressures.
 Advantages of Down the Hole Hammer
 Fastest hard formation penetration method
 Aquifer not tampered with by mud
 Extended bit life
 Cold weather non factor
 Easy yield estimates
 No mud pumps
10. What is well logging?
 Is a subsurface investigation technique, which helps to understand better and to
commence proper evaluation of the subsurface condition
 It is a technique that consists of recording characteristic properties of various strata in
terms of depth.
a. Geological logging
 Reveals the geologic character of each stratum, the depth at which changes in
character observed and the thickness of the strata.
b. Geophysical logging methods
 Provide indirect evidences of subsurface formations.
 11. What are the Purpose of Well logging (geological and geophysical) /Sampling?

To obtain information on substrata in vertical line from the surface which reveal
character, depth and thickness of various strata
To determine which strata are water bearing
To make correlation and subsurface mapping
To get indirect evidences of subsurface information possibly about the aquifer and the
nature of fluid present.
Note: - Regardless of sampling method, each sample should be completely and accurately
identified and it has to contain the following information:
 The depth it is taken from
 The thickness of the material it represent
 Its sequence in the well log.
12. What are the main objectives of preparing proper well design?
 The highest yield with minimum drawdown consistent with aquifer capability.
 Good quality water with proper protection from contamination.
 Water that remains sand free.
 A well that has a long life (25 years or more).
 Reasonable short-term and long-term costs.

13. Indicate those conditions/parameters which contribute to head lose in pumping well?
 Head loss is due to:
 Well loss
 Aquifer loss
14. What is the difference b/n Well Loss and Aquifer loss?
 Well loss (turbulent flow)
 Is the drawdown required to overcome resistance to turbulent flow in the
vicinity of the well, through the screen and up to the well
 is the difference between the actual measured drawdown in the pumping well
and the theoretical drawdown which is expressed by the Theis equation,
 Well losses are losses in head, which may occur in the immediate vicinity of the
well.
 It is the vertical distance, in the meters of drawdown, between the line of
piezometers and the pumping well line (if there were not any well losses, the
well data would fall along the line of piezometers) (Krešić, 1997).
 Aquifer loss (Laminar flow)
 Is the drawdown caused by resistance to laminar flow within the aquifer.
 Is the head loss that occurs in the aquifer where the flow is laminar.
 They are time dependent and vary linearly with the well discharge.
 The extra head loss induced for instance by partial penetration of a well is also
included in the aquifer losses.
15. What are the objectives of pump test?
o The general objectives of a pumping test are to determine:
 The performance characteristics and efficiency of the well (well test)
 The Hydraulic parameters of the aquifer(Aquifer test)
 The Hydraulic parameters of a basin (basin test)
 o The specific aims of pumping test are:
 To check the well efficiency (construction performance)
 To determine the potential of a well and sustainable discharge of the well
 To select the appropriate type of pump and its position in the well
 To obtain information about the ground water quality of the well
 To keep data and information of the pumping well
16. Describe briefly purpose of each types/steps of pumping test?
o There are two stages in performing pumping test.
 Pre- test (provisional test) and
 Final test

Pre Test (provisional test)

 Is performed for the short period and done to check the ff points:
o To estimate the possible discharge of the well
o To check the maximum anticipated draw down of the water level and to see its
speed
o Used to decide the pump position for the next stage of test
o To decide on the best method to measure the yield.
o To determine the number of step test and their discharges
o To know whether the pump is proper or not for the well
o To check all the equipments are well function
Final Test

The final test includes:

 Step draw down test

 Constant rate test
 Recovery test

a. Step draw down test

 This test is performed to obtain the following information:
 To estimate the borehole performance
 To determine the efficiency of the borehole (whether the well need further
development or not)
 To determine the hydraulic characteristics of the well, i.e., to calculate aquifer and
well losses
 To determine a suitable discharge rate for the constant rate test
 To check or look at fracture positions.
b. Constant rate test
 Is performed by pumping the well for a significant length of time with a constant rate.
 The following are the desired out puts of this type of test:
a. to determine the sustainable abstraction rate
b. to determine the aquifer parameters, i.e,
 transmissivity
  Storage coefficient i.e. (specific yield for unconfined aquifers and storativity
for confined aquifers.
c. to determine physical limitation of an aquifer (recharge and discharge boundaries
d. to collect groundwater samples for field and further laboratory analysis
c. Recovery Test
 When pumping stopped at the end of the last step draw down and the constant rate test,
water level rises towards its pre- pumping level.
 It helps to verify the accuracy of the pumping data and assist to confirm the results of the
aquifer parameters determined by the constant rate.
 At the initial period, it recovers fast due to high head difference and gradually becomes slow
and sluggish as the water level approaches the original water level.
 Recovery measurement data are more reliable than the pumping data for the very reason
that no pumping is involved during this test and hence no water level leading problem
associated with the pumping action is encountered
𝑳𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍−𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆
The % of Recovery = * 100%
𝑳𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏

17. How do you relate well design with well efficiency?

 The performance of the well can be asses from the efficiency of the well. If the well is
100% efficient it is a perfect well. As the efficiency declines it indicates that the well
designed poorly.
 A good design can minimize well losses in a given situation but never eliminate them.

18. Describe how we can identify aquifer types and lateral extension from pumping test?
 From log-log and semi-log plots of the theoretical time-drawdown relationships for
confined (it can be seen that the time drawdown relationship at early pumping times
is not linear, but at later times it is),
- When a confined aquifer is pumped, the loss of hydraulic head propagates
rapidly because the release of water from storage is entirely due to the
compressibility of the aquifer material and that of the water.
- The drawdown will be measurable at great distances from the well, say several
hundred meter or more.

Unconfined (have infinite lateral extent and with a delayed yield)

- The loss of head propagates slowly. Here, the release of water from storage is
mostly due to the dewatering of the zone through which the water is moving, and
only partially due to the compressibility of the water and aquifer material.
Unless pumping continues for several days, the drawdown will only be
measurable fairly close to the well, say not much more than about 100 m.

 From geological log, water level and the plot of draw down versus time curve on semi
logarithmic paper, you can identify the aquifer type and lateral extension.
 If the curve of step draws down tests become almost horizontal during conduction
pumping test in hard rock’s it is the sign of reaching at different fracture positions.
 The plot of drawdown versus time will reveal the effects of boundaries or other
hydraulic features if they are encountered during the test, and will indicate when
enough data for a solution have been recorded.
19. What are the parameters that consider during water quality test?
  Conductivity (is measure of the ionic strength of water)
 PH (is measure of water quality of acidity and alkalinity)
 Nacl
 Temperature(amount of O2)
20. Describe all the hydro-geological units.
 According to water storage and transmission properties, geological formations can be
classified into four.
 Aquifer: - an aquifer as a geological formation, group of formations, or part of a
formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant
quantities of water to wells and springs.
 Aquiclude:-This is saturated geological formation which, although capable of absorbing
water slowly, will not transmit it fast enough to yield a significant supply for a well.
 Aquifuge :-a geological formation with non-interconnected openings or interstices is
called the aquifuge because it neither absorbs nor transmits water.
 Aquitard: - any geological formation of a rather impervious nature that transmits water
at a slower rate than an aquifer but for water supply is called an aquitard.
21. What are the geological formations that are important for Ground water occurrence?
 Geological materials that are generally considered to be good aquifers include
unconsolidated sands and gravels, sedimentary rocks such as sandstones or
carbonates with abundant primary pores, and sedimentary rocks containing
significant secondary porosity resulting from fractures or dissolution, or both.
 Certain igneous rocks, such as basalt containing abundant cooling fractures or
interconnected vesicles, can also be productive aquifers.
22. Describe Darcy’s law.
 The flow rate through porous media is proportional to the head loss and inversely proportional to
the length of the flow path. This statement is known universally as Darcy’s law. By definition, the
rate of flow is directly proportional to the sample cross sectional area perpendicular to the flow
direction.
23. Describe the types of aquifers.
 A confined Aquifer:-is bounded above and below by an aquiclude.
- Groundwater in a confined aquifer is under pressure and will rise up inside a
borehole drilled into the aquifer.
- The level to which the water rises is called the potentiometric surface
 Unconfined aquifer:-also known as water table aquifer
- is bounded below by an aquiclude or aquitard, but is not restricted by any
confining layer above it.
- It receives recharge directly from the infiltration of rainfall and surface water.
- The depth to the water table varies according to factors such as the topography,
geology, season and tidal effects, and the quantities of water being pumped from
the aquifer.
- Water in a well penetrating unconfined aquifer is at atmospheric pressure and
does not rise above the water table.
 A leaky aquifer :-also known as semi-confined aquifer,
- is an aquifer whose upper and lower boundaries are aquitards, or one boundary is
aquitard and the other is an aquiclude.
- Water is free to move through the aquitards, either upward or downward.
- If a leaky aquifer is in hydrological equilibrium, the water level in a well taping it
may coincide with the water table. The water level may also stand above or below
the water table.
24. Define the following terms. (5%)
a. Porosity: - which is the major geological criteria for occurrence of ground water, is
a quantitative measurement of the interstices or voids present in the
rock/ sediment.
- Porosity of earth’s material is controlled by availability of open spaces.
- Porosity (n) of a sediment or rock is determined by the ratio of the volume
of voids with total volume of the sample.
𝑽𝒗
n= X100% ……………
𝑽𝑻
Where as
Vv is volume of voids
VT is total volume
n is porosity

b. Permeability: - is the ability of the rock/unconsolidated sediment to transmit or pass

waters through it.
c. Transmissivity:- Rate of flow of water through unit-wide vertical strip of aquifer
under a unit hydraulic gradient.
- Measures the rate groundwater moves through the entire thickness of an aquifer.
T = K*m…………….. m = aquifer thickness
d. Storage coefficient, S(Storativity):-the volume of water that is released per unit
surface area by a unit decrease in hydraulic head.
e. Specific Storage (Ss):- is volume of water release per unit decline of hydraulic head
per unit volume of saturated thickness is termed as Specific
Storage. It is related with storativity by the following formula.
s = SS b …………………………….
Where b is aquifer thickness
f. Specific yield: - Storage term for unconfined aquifer is termed as Specific yield. It is
equivalent to the volume of water released from a saturated material
owing to the action of gravity, more or less equal to the effective
porosity of the material. Sine in unconfined aquifer removal of water
involves a direct dewatering of the aquifer specific yield is much
higher than specific storage of confined aquifer.
- Specific yield is defined as the volume of water released from storage by an
unconfined aquifer per unit surface area of aquifer per unit decline of the water
table.
g. Homogeneity: - a homogeneous unit is one that has the same properties at all
location.
- If an aquifer property is independent of position within a geologic formation, the
formation is homogeneous.
h. Heterogeneity: - A homogeneous unit is one that has the same properties at all location if
not the material is heterogeneous.
- If an aquifer property is dependent on position within a geologic formation, the
formation is heterogeneous.

i. Isotropic: - Isotropic material is one that has the same hydraulic conductivity in all
direction.
 - If an aquifer property is independent of the direction of measurement at a point
in a geologic formation, then the formation is isotropic.

j. An isotropic: - If an aquifer property varies with the direction of measurement at a point

in a geologic formation, then the formation is anisotropic.

25. Define the ff terms.

a. Specific capacity:
- Is the ratio of discharge (Q) to the total draw down (St).
- Helps to check the well respond in terms of draw down to discharge rate.
- The higher the specific capacity is the better the well performance.
b. Hydraulic conductivity (K):
- Is a measure of the ability of a fluid to move through interconnected void spaces in
the sediment or rock
c. Safe yield:
- The yield of the well can be used as a safe yield by considering different
constraints.
𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑿 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
- Safe yield = 𝟏
Available head = Pump position – static water level