Heavy equipment 

or heavy machinery refers to heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for

executing construction tasks, most frequently ones involving earthwork operations or other large
construction tasks. Heavy equipment usually comprises five equipment systems:
implementation, traction, structure, power train, control and information.[1]

Heavy equipment has been used since at least the 1st century BCE when the ancient Roman
engineer Vitruvius described a crane in De architectura when it was powered via human or animal
labor.

Heavy equipment functions through the mechanical advantage of a simple machine,

the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied, making tasks which could take
hundreds of people and weeks of labor without heavy equipment far less intensive in nature. Some
equipment uses hydraulic drives as a primary source of motion.

The term "plant" is used to refer to any mobile type of heavy machinery.

Until the 19th century and into the early 20th century heavy machines were drawn under human or
animal power. With the advent of portable steam-powered engines the drawn machine precursors
were reconfigured with the new engines, such as the combine harvester. The design of a core tractor
evolved around the new steam power source into a new machine core traction engine, that can be
configured as the steam tractor and the steamroller. During the 20th century, internal-combustion
engines became the major power source of heavy equipment. Kerosene and ethanol engines were
used, but today diesel engines are dominant. Mechanical transmission was in many cases replaced
by hydraulic machinery. The early 20th century also saw new electric-powered machines such as
the forklift. Caterpillar Inc. is a present-day brand from these days, starting out as the Holt
Manufacturing Company. The first mass-produced heavy machine was the Fordson tractor in 1917.

The first commercial continuous track vehicle was the 1901 Lombard Steam Log Hauler. The use of
tracks became popular for tanks during World War I, and later for civilian machinery like the
bulldozer. The largest engineering vehicles and mobile land machines are bucket-wheel excavators,
built since the 1920s.

"Until almost the twentieth century, one simple tool constituted the primary earthmoving machine:
the hand shovel – moved with animal and human powered, sleds, barges, and wagons. This tool was
the principal method by which material was either sidecast or elevated to load a conveyance, usually
a wheelbarrow, or a cart or wagon drawn by a draft animal. In antiquity, an equivalent of the hand
shovel or hoe and head basket—and masses of men—were used to move earth to build civil works.
Builders have long used the inclined plane, levers, and pulleys to place solid building materials, but
these labor-saving devices did not lend themselves to earthmoving, which required digging, raising,
moving, and placing loose materials. The two elements required for mechanized earthmoving, then
as now, were an independent power source and off-road mobility, neither of which could be
provided by the technology of that time."[2]

Container cranes were used from the 1950s and onwards, and made containerization possible.

Nowadays such is the importance of this machinery, some transport companies have developed
specific equipment to transport heavy construction equipment to and from sites.

Most of the major equipment manufacturers such as Caterpillar,[3] Volvo,[4] Liebherr,[5] and Bobcat

have released or have been developing fully or partially electric-powered heavy equipment.
Commercially-available models and R&D models were announced in 2019 and 2020.[6]

Robotics and autonomy has been a growing concern for heavy equipment manufacturers with
manufacturers beginning research and technology acquisition.[7] A number of companies are
currently developing (Caterpillar and Bobcat) or have launched (Built Robotics) commercial solutions
to the market.

A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at

slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery such as that used
in agriculture, mining or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle
that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and
originally) tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements may be towed
behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the
implement is mechanised.

The word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent noun of trahere "to pull". The first recorded
use of the word meaning "an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or ploughs" occurred in 1896,
from the earlier term "traction engine" (1859).

Traction engines

The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century were portable engines – steam engines
on wheels that could be used to drive mechanical farm machinery by way of a flexible belt. Richard
Trevithick designed the first 'semi-portable' stationary steam engine for agricultural use, known as a
"barn engine" in 1812, and it was used to drive a corn threshing machine.[5] The truly portable engine
was invented in 1893 by William Tuxford of Boston, Lincolnshire who started manufacture of an
engine built around a locomotive-style boiler with horizontal smoke tubes. A large flywheel was
mounted on the crankshaft, and a stout leather belt was used to transfer the drive to the equipment
being driven. In the 1850s, John Fowler used a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine to drive
apparatus in the first public demonstrations of the application of cable haulage to cultivation.

In parallel with the early portable engine development, many engineers attempted to make them
self-propelled – the fore-runners of the traction engine. In most cases this was achieved by fitting a
sprocket on the end of the crankshaft, and running a chain from this to a larger sprocket on the rear
axle. These experiments met with mixed success.[6] The first proper traction engine, in the form
recognisable today, was developed in 1859 when British engineer Thomas Aveling modified
a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine, which had to be hauled from job to job by horses, into a
self-propelled one. The alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft
and the rear axle.[7]
1882 Harrison Machine Works steam-powered traction engine

The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the
standard form of the traction engine had evolved and would change little over the next sixty years. It
was widely adopted for agricultural use. The first tractors were steam-powered plowing engines.
They were used in pairs, placed on either side of a field to haul a plow back and forth between them
using a wire cable. In Britain Mann's and Garrett developed steam tractors for direct ploughing, but
the heavy, wet soil of England meant that these designs were less economical than a team of horses.
In the United States, where soil conditions permitted, steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows.
Steam-powered agricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century until reliable internal
combustion engines had been developed.[8]

Gasoline-powered tractor

Dan Albone with his 1902 prototype Ivel Agricultural Motor, the first successful gasoline-powered
tractor

Line of tractors plowing a field in the 1940s

In 1892, John Froelich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor in Clayton County,
Iowa, US.[9][10][11] A Van Duzen single-cylinder gasoline engine was mounted on a Robinson engine
chassis, which could be controlled and propelled by Froelich's gear box.[12] After receiving a patent,
Froelich started up the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company and invested all of his assets. However,
the venture was very unsuccessful, and by 1895 all was lost and he went out of business.[13][14][15][16]

Richard Hornsby & Sons are credited with producing and selling the first oil-engined tractor in Britain
invented by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. The Hornsby-Akroyd Patent Safety Oil Traction Engine was made
in 1896 with a 20 hp engine. In 1897, it was bought by Mr. Locke-King, and this is the first recorded
sale of a tractor in Britain. Also in that year, the tractor won a Silver Medal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. That tractor would later be returned to the factory and fitted with a caterpillar
track.

The first commercially successful light-weight petrol-powered general purpose tractor was built
by Dan Albone, a British inventor in 1901.[17][18] He filed for a patent on 15 February 1902 for his
tractor design and then formed Ivel Agricultural Motors Limited. The other directors were Selwyn
Edge, Charles Jarrott, John Hewitt and Lord Willoughby. He called his machine the Ivel Agricultural
Motor; the word "tractor" did not come into common use until later. The Ivel Agricultural Motor was
light, powerful and compact. It had one front wheel, with a solid rubber tyre, and two large rear
wheels like a modern tractor. The engine used water cooling, by evaporation. It had one forward and
one reverse gear. A pulley wheel on the left hand side allowed it to be used as a stationary engine,
driving a wide range of agricultural machinery. The 1903 sale price was £300. His tractor won a
medal at the Royal Agricultural Show, in 1903 and 1904. About 500 were built, and many were
exported all over the world.[19] The original engine was made by Payne & Co. of Coventry. After 1906,
French Aster engines were used.

The first successful American tractor was built by Charles W. Hart and Charles H. Parr. They
developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine and set up their business in Charles City, Iowa. In 1903, the
firm built 15 tractors. Their 14,000-pound #3 is the oldest surviving internal combustion engine
tractor in the United States, and is on display at the Smithsonian National Museum of American
History in Washington, D.C. The two-cylinder engine has a unique hit-and-miss firing cycle that
produced 30 horsepower at the belt and 18 at the drawbar.[20]

An early Fordson discing a field in Princess Anne County, Virginia, in 1925

In 1908, the Saunderson Tractor and Implement Co. of Bedford introduced a four-wheel design, and

went on to become the largest tractor manufacturer in Britain at the time. While the earlier, heavier
tractors were initially very successful, it became increasingly apparent at this time that the weight of
a large supporting frame was less efficient than lighter designs. Henry Ford introduced a light-
weight, mass-produced design which largely displaced the heavier designs. Some companies
halfheartedly followed suit with mediocre designs, as if to disprove the concept, but they were
largely unsuccessful in that endeavor.[21]

While unpopular at first, these gasoline-powered machines began to catch on in the 1910s, when
they became smaller and more affordable.[22] Henry Ford introduced the Fordson, a wildly popular
mass-produced tractor, in 1917. They were built in the U.S., Ireland, England and Russia, and by
1923, Fordson had 77% of the U.S. market. The Fordson dispensed with a frame, using the strength
of the engine block to hold the machine together. By the 1920s, tractors with gasoline-
powered internal combustion engines had become the norm.

Tractor Cassani model 40HP, at the Museo nazionale della scienza e della tecnologia Leonardo da
Vinci of Milan

The first three-point hitches were experimented with in 1917, however it was not until Harry
Ferguson applied for a British patent for his three-point hitch in 1926 that they became popular. a
three-point attachment of the implement to the tractor and the simplest and the only statically
determinate way of joining two bodies in engineering. The Ferguson-Brown Company produced the
Model A Ferguson-Brown tractor with a Ferguson-designed hydraulic hitch. In 1938 Ferguson
entered into a collaboration with Henry Ford to produce the Ford-Ferguson 9N tractor. The three-
point hitch soon became the favorite hitch attachment system among farmers around the world.
This tractor model also included a rear Power Take Off (PTO) shaft that could be used to power three
point hitch mounted implements such as sickle-bar mowers. This PTO location set the standard for
future tractor developments.

Tractor configurations

Tractors can be generally classified by number of axles or wheels, with main categories of two-wheel
tractors (single-axle tractors) and four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors); more axles are possible but
uncommon. Among four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors), most are two-wheel drive (usually at the
rear); but many are two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive (often with articulated
steering), or track tractors (with steel or rubber tracks).

Volvo T25, 1956, gasoline tractor

The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle below
and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the center), and
the engine in front of the driver, with two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This
basic design has remained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost
all modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort.
In some localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California,
the "Caterpillar" or "crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior
traction and flotation. These were usually maneuvered through the use of turning brake pedals and
separate track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.

A modern 4-wheel drive farm tractor in the Netherlands

Four-wheel drive tractors began to appear in the 1960s. Some four-wheel drive tractors have the
standard "two large, two small" configuration typical of smaller tractors, while some have four large,
powered wheels. The larger tractors are typically an articulated, center-hinged design steered by
hydraulic cylinders that move the forward power unit while the trailing unit is not steered
separately.

A modern steerable all-tracked power unit planting wheat in North Dakota

In the early 21st century, articulated or non-articulated, steerable multitrack tractors have largely
supplanted the Caterpillar type for farm use. Larger types of modern farm tractors include
articulated four-wheel or eight-wheel drive units with one or two power units which are hinged in
the middle and steered by hydraulic clutches or pumps. A relatively recent development is the
replacement of wheels or steel crawler-type tracks with flexible, steel-reinforced rubber tracks,
usually powered by hydrostatic or completely hydraulic driving mechanisms. The configuration of
these tractors bears little resemblance to the classic farm tractor design.

Engine and fuels

The predecessors of modern tractors, traction engines, used steam engines for power.

Gasoline and kerosene

Since the turn of the 20th century, internal combustion engines have been the power source of
choice. Between 1900 and 1960, gasoline was the predominant fuel, with kerosene (the Rumely Oil
Pull was the most notable of this kind) and ethanol being common alternatives. Generally, one
engine could burn any of those, although cold starting was easiest on gasoline. Often, a small
auxiliary fuel tank was available to hold gasoline for cold starting and warm-up, while the main fuel
tank held whatever fuel was most convenient or least expensive for the particular farmer. In the
United Kingdom, a gasoline-kerosene engine is known as a petrol-paraffin engine.

Diesel

Dieselisation gained momentum starting in the 1960s, and modern farm tractors usually
employ diesel engines, which range in power output from 18 to 575 horsepower (15 to 480 kW). Size
and output are dependent on application, with smaller tractors used for lawn mowing, landscaping,
orchard work, and truck farming, and larger tractors for vast fields of wheat, maize, soy, and other
bulk crops.

Liquefied petroleum gas

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or propane also have been used as tractor fuels, but require special
pressurized fuel tanks and filling equipment, so are less prevalent in most markets.

Biodiesel

In some countries such as Germany, biodiesel is often used.[23][24] Some other biofuels such as straight
vegetable oil are also being used by some farmers.[25][26]

Transmission

Most older farm tractors use a manual transmission with several gear ratios, typically three to six,
sometimes multiplied into two or three ranges. This arrangement provides a set of discrete ratios
that, combined with the varying of the throttle, allow final-drive speeds from less than one up to
about 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), with the lower speeds used for working the land and the highest
speed used on the road.

Slow, controllable speeds are necessary for most of the operations performed with a tractor. They
help give the farmer a larger degree of control in certain situations, such as field work. However,
when travelling on public roads, the slow operating speeds can cause problems, such as long queues
or tailbacks, which can delay or annoy motorists in cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible
for being duly careful around farm tractors and sharing the road with them, but many shirk this
responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speed differential are
employed where feasible. Some countries (for example the Netherlands) employ a road sign on
some roads that means "no farm tractors". Some modern tractors, such as the JCB Fastrac, are now
capable of much higher road speeds of around 50 mph (80 km/h).
An older model European farm tractor, of the type still common in Eastern Europe

Older tractors usually have unsynchronized transmission designs, which often require the operator
stop the tractor to shift between gears. This mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work
tractors do, and has been circumvented in various ways over the years. For existing unsynchronized
tractors, the methods of circumvention are double clutching or power-shifting, both of which require
the operator to rely on skill to speed-match the gears while shifting, and are undesirable from a risk-
mitigation standpoint because of what can go wrong if the operator makes a mistake – transmission
damage is possible, and loss of vehicle control can occur if the tractor is towing a heavy load either
uphill or downhill – something that tractors often do. Therefore, operator's manuals for most of
these tractors state one must always stop the tractor before shifting, and they do not even mention
the alternatives. As already said, that mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work
tractors do, so better options were pursued for newer tractor designs.

Cutaway of modern tractor

In these, unsynchronized transmission designs were replaced with synchronization or

with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Either a synchronized manual transmission with
enough available gear ratios (often achieved with dual ranges, high and low) or a CVT allow the
engine speed to be matched to the desired final-drive speed, while keeping engine speed within the
appropriate speed (as measured in rotations per minute or rpm) range for power generation (the
working range) (whereas throttling back to achieve the desired final-drive speed is a trade-off that
leaves the working range). The problems, solutions, and developments described here also describe
the history of transmission evolution in semi-trailer trucks. The biggest difference is fleet turnover;
whereas most of the old road tractors have long since been scrapped, many of the old farm tractors
are still in use. Therefore, old transmission design and operation is primarily just of historical interest
in trucking, whereas in farming it still often affects daily life.

In aviation, pushback is an airport procedure during which an aircraft is pushed backwards away

from its parking position, usually at an airport gate by external power.[1][2] Pushbacks are carried out
by special, low-profile vehicles called pushback  tractors or tugs.

Although many aircraft are capable of moving themselves backwards on the ground using reverse
thrust (a procedure referred to as a powerback),[1] the resulting jet blast or prop wash would cause
increased noise, damage to the terminal building or equipment, and hurt airport staff due to high-
speed debris. This debris would also be sucked into the engine, as it is in normal use, and cause
excessive wear - a major cause of wear on aircraft engines is during ground use.[3] A pushback is
therefore the preferred method when ground-handling aircraft.
Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick), bucket and
cab on a rotating platform known as the "house".[1] The house sits atop an undercarriage
with tracks or wheels. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often
mistakenly called power shovels.[citation needed] All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator
are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic
motors.[2] Due to the linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is
fundamentally different from cable-operated excavators which use winches and steel ropes to
accomplish the movements.[3]

Excavators are also called diggers, JCBs[4] (a proprietary name, in an example of a generic
trademark), mechanical shovels, or 360-degree excavators (sometimes abbreviated simply to
"360"). Tracked excavators are sometimes called "trackhoes" by analogy to the backhoe.[5] In
the UK and Ireland, wheeled excavators are sometimes known as "rubber ducks".[6] Excavators
are used in many ways:

 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations

 Material handling
 Brush cutting with hydraulic saw and mower attachments
 Forestry work
 Forestry mulching
 Demolition with hydraulic claw, cutter and breaker attachments
 Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining
 River dredging
 Hydro excavation to access fragile underground infrastructure using high pressure
water
 Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile driver
 Drilling shafts for footings and rock blasting, by use of an auger or hydraulic drill
attachment
 Snow removal with snowplow and snow blower attachments

A backhoe loader, also called a loader backhoe, digger in layman's terms, or colloquially

shortened to backhoe within the industry, is a heavy equipment vehicle that consists of a tractor-
like unit fitted with a loader-style shovel/bucket on the front and a backhoe on the back. Due to its
(relatively) small size and versatility, backhoe loaders are very common in urban engineering and
small construction projects (such as building a small house, fixing urban roads, etc.) as well as
developing countries. This type of machine is similar to and derived from what is now known as a
TLB (Tractor-Loader-Backhoe), which is to say, an agricultural tractor fitted with a front loader
and rear backhoe attachment.
The true development of the backhoe actually began in 1947 by the inventors that started the
Wain-Roy Corporation of Hubbardston, Massachusetts. In 1947 Wain-Roy Corporation
developed and tested the first actual backhoes. In April 1948 Wain-Roy Corporation sold the very
first all hydraulic backhoes, mounted to a Ford Model 8N tractor, to the Connecticut Light and
Power Company for the sum of $705.[1]
Evolving in parallel to development in the U.S., backhoes were first produced in the UK in 1953
by JCB, but it was just a prototype. The world's first backhoe loader with factory warranty was
introduced in the U.S. by J.I. Case in 1957. Their Model 320 was the world's first serial backhoe
loader. Although based on a tractor, a backhoe loader was and is almost never called a tractor when
both the loader and the backhoe are permanently attached. Backhoe loaders are also not generally
used for towing and usually do not have a power take-off (PTO) as often this is used to drive the
hydraulic pump operating the attachments. When the backhoe is permanently attached, the
machine usually has a seat that can swivel to the rear to face the hoe controls.
Removable backhoe attachments almost always have a separate seat on the attachment itself.

A typical European backhoe-loader; these usually have a side-shift backhoe mount and vertical
stabilizers.

In Britain and Ireland they are commonly referred to simply as JCBs; they are popularly called "JCB"
in India. In the United States, they are often referred to as "backhoes", although the term 'backhoe'
only refers to one component. In Russia they are referred as excavator-loaders.

In 1970, Hy-Dynamic, now a division of Bucyrus-Erie, manufacturer of the Dynahoe, was the first
company to incorporate a four-wheel drive system into their backhoe loaders, allowing these
models to go over almost any terrain with little difficulty. Since the backhoe was invented, several
companies such as Caterpillar and John Deere have changed the backhoe's back arm to be slightly
curved like that of an excavator, which can allow more maneuverability.
A dump truck, known also as a dumping truck, dump trailer, dumper trailer, dump
lorry or dumper lorry or a dumper for short, is used for transporting materials (such
as dirt, gravel, or demolition waste) for construction as well as coal. A typical dump truck is
equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic rams to
lift the front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground behind
the truck at the site of delivery. In the UK, Australia, South Africa and India the term applies to
off-road construction plants only and the road vehicle is known as a tip lorry, tipper lorry (UK,
India), tipper truck, tip truck, tip trailer or tipper trailer or simply a tipper (Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa).

Standard dump truck[edit]

A standard dump truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. The bed is
raised by a vertical hydraulic ram mounted under the front of the body, or a horizontal hydraulic
ram and lever arrangement between the frame rails and the back of the bed is hinged at the back
of the truck. The tailgate can be configured to swing up on top hinges (and sometimes also to
fold down on lower hinges)[11] or it can be configured in the "High Lift Tailgate" format
wherein pneumatic rams lift the gate open and up above the dump body.
In the United States most standard dump trucks have one front steering axle and one (4x2[a] 4-
wheeler)) or two (6x4 6-wheeler) rear axles which typically have dual wheels on each side.
Tandem rear axles are almost always powered,[b] front steering axles are also sometimes
powered (4x4, 6x6). Unpowered axles are sometimes used to support extra weight.[c] Most
unpowered rear axles can be raised off the ground to minimize wear when the truck is empty or
lightly loaded, and are commonly called "lift axles".[12][13]
European Union heavy trucks often have two steering axles. Dump truck configurations are two,
three, and four axles. The four-axle eight wheeler has two steering axles at the front and two
powered axles at the rear[14] and is limited to 32 metric tons (35 short tons; 31 long tons) gross
weight in most EU countries.[15] The largest of the standard European dump trucks is commonly
called a "centipede" and has seven axles. The front axle is the steering axle, the rear two axles
are powered, and the remaining four are lift axles.[16]
The shorter wheelbase of a standard dump truck often makes it more maneuverable than the
higher capacity semi-trailer dump trucks.

Semi trailer end dump

truck[edit]

6×4 semi-tractor with two-axle trailer

A semi end dump is a tractor-trailer combination wherein the trailer itself contains the
hydraulic hoist. In the US a typical semi end dump has a 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle trailer with
dual tires, in the EU trailers often have 3 axles and single tires. The key advantage of a semi end
dump is a large payload. A key disadvantage is that they are very unstable when raised in the
dumping position limiting their use in many applications where the dumping location is uneven or off
level.[17]

A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move or load materials such

as soil, rock, sand, demolition debris, etc. into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump
truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car).

There are many types of loader, which, depending on design and application, are variously called
a bucket loader, front loader, front-end loader, payloader, high lift, scoop, shovel, skip
loader, wheel loader, or skid-steer.
A loader is a type of tractor, usually wheeled, sometimes on tracks, that has a front-mounted
wide bucket connected to the end of two booms (arms) to scoop up loose material from the
ground, such as dirt, sand or gravel, and move it from one place to another without pushing the
material across the ground. A loader is commonly used to move a stockpiled material from
ground level and deposit it into an awaiting dump truck or into an open trench excavation.

Loaders are used mainly for loading materials into trucks, laying pipe, clearing rubble, and
digging. A loader is not the most efficient machine for digging as it cannot dig very deep below
the level of its wheels, like a backhoe or an excavator can. The capacity of a loader bucket can
be anywhere from 0.5 to 36 m3[1] depending upon the size of the machine and its application. The
front loader's bucket capacity is generally much bigger than a bucket capacity of a backhoe
loader.

The major components included in a loader are the engine (diesel in almost all cases), the
hydraulic components (such as pumps, motors and valves) and the transmission components
(gearbox, axles, wheels/tracks, pumps, motors, etc.). The engine runs both the hydraulics and
the transmission, and these in turn move the front attachment (a bucket, forks, sweeper, etc.) to
manipulate the material being handled, and the wheels or tracks to move the machine around
the jobsite.

An aerial work platform (AWP), also known as an aerial device, elevating work platform
(EWP), cherry picker, bucket truck or mobile elevating work platform (MEWP) is a
mechanical device used to provide temporary access for people or equipment to inaccessible
areas, usually at height. There are distinct types of mechanized access platforms and the
individual types may also be known as a "cherry picker" or "scissor lift".

They are generally used for temporary, flexible access purposes such as maintenance and
construction work or by firefighters for emergency access, which distinguishes them from
permanent access equipment such as elevators. They are designed to lift limited weights —
usually less than a ton, although some have a higher safe working load (SWL)[1] — distinguishing
them from most types of cranes. They are usually capable of being set up and operated by a
single person.
There are several distinct types of aerial work platforms, which all have specific features which
make them more or less desirable for different applications. The key difference is in the drive
mechanism which propels the working platform to the desired location. Most are powered by
either hydraulics or possibly pneumatics. The different techniques also reflect in the pricing and
availability of each type.

Aerial device[edit]

Aerial devices were once exclusively operated by hydraulic pistons, powered by diesel or
gasoline motors on the base unit. Lightweight electrically powered units are gaining popularity for
window-cleaning or other maintenance operations, especially indoors and in isolated courtyards,
where heavier hydraulic equipment cannot be used. Aerial devices are the closest in appearance
to a crane – consisting of a number of jointed sections, which can be controlled to extend the lift
in a number of different directions, which can often include "up and over" applications.
The most common type of aerial device are known in the AWP industry as knuckle boom lifts or
articulated boom lifts, due to their distinctive shape, providing easy access to awkward high
reach positions.
This type of AWP is the most likely of the types to be known as a "cherry picker", owing to its
origins, where it was designed for use in orchards (though not just cherry orchards). It lets the
picker standing in the transport basket pick fruit high in a tree with relative ease (with the jointed
design ensuring minimum damage to the tree). The term "cherry picker" has become generic,
and is commonly used to describe articulated lifts (and more rarely all AWPs).
Another type of aerial device is a straight boom lift or telescopic boom lift, which as its name
suggests has a boom that extends straight out for direct diagonal or vertical reach by the use
of telescoping sections, letting you take full advantage of the boom length range.
Some AWPS are classified as spider lifts due to the appearance of their legs as they unfold,
extend and stabilise, providing a wide supportive base to operate safely. These legs can be
manual or hydraulic (usually depending on size and price of the machine).
AWPs are widely used for maintenance and construction of all types, including extensively in the
power and telecommunications industries to service overhead lines, and in arboriculture to
provide an independent work platform on difficult or dangerous trees. A specialist type of the
articulated lift is the type of fire apparatus used by firefighters worldwide as a vehicle to provide
high level or difficult access. These types of platforms often have additional features such as a
piped water supply and water cannon to aid firefighters in their task.

Scissor lift
A scissor lift is a type of platform that can usually only move vertically. The mechanism to
achieve this is the use of linked, folding supports in a criss-cross X pattern, known as
a pantograph (or scissor mechanism). The upward motion is achieved by the application of
pressure to the outside of the lowest set of supports, elongating the crossing pattern, and
propelling the work platform vertically. The platform may also have an extending deck to allow
closer access to the work area, because of the inherent limits of vertical-only movement.
The contraction of the scissor action can be hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanical (via
a leadscrew or rack and pinion system). Depending on the power system employed on the lift, it
may require no power to descend, able to do so with a simple release of hydraulic or pneumatic
pressure. This is the main reason that these methods of powering the lifts are preferred, as it
allows a fail-safe option of returning the platform to the ground by release of a manual valve.
Apart from the height and width variables, there are a few considerations required when
choosing a scissor lift. Electric scissor lifts have smaller tyres and can be charged by a standard
power point. These machines usually suit level ground surfaces and have zero or minimal fuel
emissions. Diesel scissor lifts have larger rough terrain tyres with high ground clearance for
uneven outdoor surface conditions. Many machines contain outriggers that can be deployed to
stabilise the machine for operation.

A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains,

and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is
mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places. The device uses one
or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in transportation for the loading
and unloading of freight, in construction for the movement of materials, and in manufacturing for
the assembling of heavy equipment.
There are many different types of cranes, each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the
smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high
buildings. Mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, to facilitate constructions by
reaching tight spaces. Large floating cranes are generally used to build oil rigs and salvage
sunken ships.
Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known
as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.
There are four principal types of mobile cranes: truck mounted, rough-terrain, crawler, and
floating.
Truck-mounted
The most basic truck-mounted crane configuration is a "boom truck" or "lorry loader", which
features a rear-mounted rotating telescopic-boom crane mounted on a commercial truck chassis.

Rough terrain

Rough terrain crane

A rough terrain crane has a boom mounted on an undercarriage atop four rubber tires that is
designed for off-road pick-and-carry operations. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the
crane for hoisting.[48]
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. The engine is usually mounted in the
undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and 4
wheel steering for traversing tighter and slicker terrain than a standard truck crane, with less site
prep.
Crawler

Crawler crane

A crawler crane has its boom mounted on an undercarriage fitted with a set of crawler tracks that
provide both stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from about 40 to 4,000
long tons (44.8 to 4,480.0 short tons; 40.6 to 4,064.2 t).
The main advantage of a crawler crane is its ready mobility and use, since the crane is able to
operate on sites with minimal improvement and stable on its tracks without outriggers. Wide
tracks spread the weight out over a great area and are far better than wheels at traversing soft
ground without sinking in. A crawler crane is also capable of traveling with a load. Its main
disadvantage is its weight, making it difficult and expensive to transport. Typically a large crawler
must be disassembled at least into boom and cab and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its
next location.

Floating

Floating crane

Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port construction, but they are also used
for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships.
Some floating cranes are mounted on pontoons, others are specialized crane barges with a lifting
capacity exceeding 10,000 short tons (8,929 long tons; 9,072 t) and have been used to transport
entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can be found
on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of 7,100 tonnes (7,826 short tons;
6,988 long tons) each. For 50 years, the largest such crane was "Herman the German" at
the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three constructed by Nazi Germany and captured in the
war. The crane was sold to the Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known as Titan.[51]
Railroad

Rail crane

A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest form is a crane mounted
on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane are used
for maintenance work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling
facilities.
A forklift (also called lift truck, jitney, fork truck, fork hoist, and forklift truck) is a powered
industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short distances. The forklift was developed in
the early 20th century by various companies, including Clark, which made transmissions,
and Yale & Towne Manufacturing, which made hoists.[1][2][3] Since World War II, the use and
development of the forklift truck have greatly expanded worldwide. Forklifts have become an
indispensable piece of equipment in manufacturing and warehousing.[4] In 2013, the top 20
manufacturers worldwide posted sales of $30.4 billion, with 944,405 machines sold.[5]

Design types

Low lift truck[edit]

Powered pallet truck, usually electrically powered.[13] Low lift trucks may be operated by a person
seated on the machine, or by a person walking alongside, depending on the design.

Stacker[edit]
Usually electrically powered. A stacker may be operated by a person seated on the machine, or by a
person walking alongside, depending on the design.

Counterbalanced forklift

Standard forklifts use a counterweight at the rear of the truck to offset, or counterbalance, the
weight of a load carried at the front of the truck.[15] Electric-powered forklifts utilise the weight of the
battery as a counterweight and are typically smaller in size as a result.

Sideloader

A sideloader[16] is a piece of materials-handling equipment designed for long loads. The operator’s
cab is positioned up front on the left-hand side. The area to the right of the cab is called the bed or
platform. This contains a central section within it, called the well, where the forks are positioned.
The mast and forks reach out to lift the load at its central point and lower it onto the bed. Driving
forwards with a load carried lengthways allows long goods, typically timber, steel, concrete or
plastics, to be moved through doorways and stored more easily than via conventional forklift trucks.

Order-picking truck

Similar to a reach truck, except the operator either rides in a cage welded to the fork carriage or
walks alongside, dependent on design. If the operator is riding in the order picking truck, they wear a
specially-designed safety harness to prevent falls. A special toothed grab holds the pallet to the
forks. The operator transfers the load onto the pallet one article at a time by hand. This is an
efficient way of picking less-than-pallet-load shipments and is popular for use in large distribution
centers.

A reach truck with a pantograph allowing the extension of the forks in tight aisles.

Truck-mounted forklift

Also referred to as a sod loader. Comes in sit-down center control. Usually has an internal
combustion engine. Engines are almost always diesel, but sometimes operate on kerosene, and
sometimes use propane injection as a power boost. Some old units are two-stroke compression
ignition; most are four-stroke compression ignition. North American engines come with advanced
emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no
emission control systems.

Specialized trucks[edit]

A straight mast container handler at Haikou Xiuying Port, Hainan, China

Container handler moving two empty 53-foot boxes by their 40-foot posts

At the other end of the spectrum from the counterbalanced forklift trucks are more 'high-end'
specialty trucks

Marina forklifts
These lifts are found in places like marinas and boat storage facilities. Featuring tall masts, heavy
counterweights, and special paint to resist seawater-induced corrosion, they are used to lift boats in
and out of storage racks. Once out, the forklift can place the boat into the water, as well as remove it
when the boating activity is finished. Marina forklifts are unique among most other forklifts in that
they feature a "negative lift" cylinder.[23] This type of cylinder allows the forks to actually descend
lower than ground level. Such functionality is necessary, given that the ground upon which the
forklift operates is higher than the water level below. Additionally, marina forklifts feature some of
the longest forks available, with some up to 24 feet long. The forks are also typically coated in
rubber[24] to prevent damage to the hull of the boats that rest on them.

Methods of propulsion[edit]

Internal combustion[edit]

Engines may be diesel, kerosene, gasoline, natural gas, butane, or propane-fueled, and may be
either two-stroke spark ignition, four-stroke spark ignition (common), two-stroke compression
ignition, and four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American Engines come with
advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically
have no emission control systems.[citation needed]

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)[edit]

These forklifts use an internal combustion engine modified to run on LPG. The fuel is often stored in
a gas cylinder mounted to the rear of the truck. This allows for quick changing of the cylinder once
the LPG runs out. LPG trucks are quieter than their diesel counterparts, while offering similar levels
of performance.[28]

Battery-electric[edit]

Powered by lead-acid batteries or, increasingly, lithium-ion batteries; battery-electric types include:

cushion-tire forklifts, scissor lifts, order pickers, stackers, reach trucks and pallet jacks. Electric
forklifts are primarily used indoors on flat, even surfaces. Batteries prevent the emission of harmful
fumes and are recommended for indoor facilities, such as food-processing and healthcare sectors.

Hydrogen fuel cell[edit]

See also:  Fuel cell forklift

Hydrogen fuel cell forklifts are powered by a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.
[29]
 The reaction is used to generate electricity which can then be stored in a battery and
subsequently used to drive electric motors to power the forklift. This method of propulsion produces
no local emissions, can be refueled in three minutes, and is often used in refrigerated warehouses as
its performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.[10]

forklift components[edit]

A typical counterbalanced forklift contains the following components:

Image of an electric forklift with component descriptions

 Truck frame – the base of the machine to which the mast, axles, wheels, counterweight,
overhead guard and power source are attached. The frame may have fuel and hydraulic
fluid tanks constructed as part of the frame assembly.

 Counterweight – a mass attached to the rear of the forklift truck frame. The purpose of the
counterweight is to counterbalance the load being lifted. In an electric forklift, the large
battery may serve as part of the counterweight.

 Cab – the area that contains a seat for the operator along with the control pedals, steering
wheel, levers, switches and a dashboard containing operator readouts. The cab area may be
open-air or enclosed, but it is covered by the cage-like overhead guard assembly. When
enclosed, the cab may also be equipped with a cab heater for cold climate countries along
with a fan or air conditioning for hot weather.[30]

 Overhead guard – a metal roof supported by posts at each corner of the cab that helps
protect the operator from any falling objects. On some forklifts, the overhead guard is an
integrated part of the frame assembly.[31]

 Power source – may consist of an internal combustion engine that can be powered by LP
gas, CNG, gasoline or diesel fuel. Electric forklifts are powered by either a battery or fuel
cell that provides power to the electric motors; some fuel cell forklifts may be powered by
multiple fuel cells at once. For warehouses and other indoor applications, electric forklifts
have the advantage of not producing carbon monoxide.[32][33]

 Tilt cylinders – hydraulic cylinders that are mounted to the truck frame and the mast. The tilt
cylinders pivot the mast backwards or forwards to assist in engaging a load.

 Mast – the vertical assembly that does the work of raising and lowering the load. It is made
up of interlocking rails that also provide lateral stability. The interlocking rails may either
have rollers or bushings as guides. The mast is driven hydraulically, and operated by one or
more hydraulic cylinders directly or using chains from the cylinder or cylinders. It may be
mounted to the front axle or the frame of the forklift. A 'container mast' variation allows the
forks to raise a few meters without increasing the total height of the forklift. This is useful
when double-loading pallets into a container or under a mezzanine floor.[34]

 Carriage – the component to which the forks or other attachments mount. It is mounted into
and moves up and down the mast rails by means of chains or by being directly attached to
 the hydraulic cylinder. Like the mast, the carriage may have either rollers or bushings to
guide it in the interlocking mast rails.[32]

 Load backrest – a rack-like extension that is either bolted or welded to the carriage in order
to prevent the load from shifting backward when the carriage is lifted to full height.[32]

 Attachments – may consist of a mechanism that is attached to the carriage, either

permanently or temporarily, to help in the proper engagement of the load. A variety of
material-handling attachments are available. Some attachments include sideshifters,
slipsheet attachments, carton clamps, multipurpose clamps, rotators, fork positioners,
carpet poles, pole handlers, container handlers and roll clamps.

 Tires – either solid for indoor use, or pneumatic for outside use.[35]

Attachments[edit]

Below is a list of common forklift attachments:[36]

 Dimensioning devices – fork truck-mounted dimensioning systems provide dimensions for

the cargo to facilitate truck-trailer space utilization and to support warehouse automation
systems. The systems normally communicate the dimensions via 802.11 radios. NTEP-
certified dimensioning devices are available to support commercial activities that bill based
on volume.

 Sideshifter – a hydraulic attachment that allows the operator to move the tines (forks) and
backrest laterally. This allows easier placement of a load without having to reposition the
truck.[37]

 Rotator – to aid the handling of skids that may have become excessively tilted, and for other
specialty material-handling needs, some forklifts are fitted with an attachment that allows
the tines to be rotated. This type of attachment may also be used for dumping containers for
quick unloading.

 Fork positioner – a hydraulic attachment that moves the tines (forks) together or apart. This
removes the need for the operator to manually adjust the tines for different-sized loads.

 Roll and barrel clamp attachment – a mechanical or hydraulic attachment used to squeeze
the item to be moved. It is used for handling barrels, kegs, or paper rolls. This type of
attachment may also have a rotate function. The rotate function would help an operator to
insert a vertically-stored paper into the horizontal intake of a printing press for example.[38]

 Pole attachments – in some locations, such as carpet warehouses, a long metal pole is used
instead of forks to lift carpet rolls. Similar devices, though much larger, are used to pick up
metal coils.

 Carton and multipurpose clamp attachments – hydraulic attachments that allow the
operator to open and close around a load, squeezing it to pick it up. Products like cartons,
boxes and bales can be moved with this type of attachment. With these attachments in use,
the forklift truck is sometimes referred to as a clamp truck.[38]

 Slip sheet attachment (push-pull) – a hydraulic attachment that reaches forward, clamps

onto a slip sheet and draws the slip sheet onto wide and thin metal forks for transport. The
attachment will push the slip sheet and load off the forks for placement.
 Drum handler attachment – a mechanical attachment that slides onto the tines (forks). It
usually has a spring-loaded jaw that grips the top lip edge of a drum for transport. Another
type grabs around the drum in a manner similar to the roll or barrel attachments.

 Man basket – a lift platform that slides onto the tines (forks) and is meant for hoisting
workers. The man basket has railings to keep the person from falling and brackets for
attaching a safety harness. Also, a strap or chain is used to attach the man basket to the
carriage of the forklift.

 Telescopic forks – hydraulic attachments that allow the forklift to operate in warehouses
designed for "double-deep stacking", which means that two pallet shelves are placed behind
each other without any aisle between them.

 Scales – fork truck-mounted scales enable operators to efficiently weigh the pallets they
handle without interrupting their workflow by travelling to a platform scale. Scales are
available that provide legal-for-trade weights for operations that involve billing by weight.
They are easily retrofitted to the truck by hanging on the carriage in the same manner as
forks hang on the truck.

 Single-double forks – forks that in the closed position allow movement of a single pallet or
platform but when separated, turn into a set of double forks that allow carrying two pallets
side by side. The fork control may have to replace the side-shifter on some lift trucks.

 Snow plough – a mechanical attachment that allows the forklift operator to easily and
quickly move snow. The snow plough can often also be utilised at other times of the year as
an attachment to clean up workplaces.[39]

 Skips – a mechanical attachment that is fitted to the forklift to allow safe and speedy
removal of waste to the appropriate skip or waste compactor. There are two types of skips:
the roll-forward type and the bottom-emptying type.[40]