For the experienced athlete select this link for examples of event specific annual training

programs.

Referenced Material

1. WYLLEMAN, P. et al. (2004) Career Transitions in Sport. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise, 5 (1), p. 7-20

Page Reference

The reference for this page is:

 MACKENZIE, B. (1997) Planning the Training [WWW] Available from:

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/plan.htm [Accessed 4/11/2012]

Associated Pages

The following Sports Coach pages should be read in conjunction with this page:

 Articles on Planning
 Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD)
 Personal Exercise Plan
 Sports Massage
 Tapering for Competition
 Training Programmes

Additional Sources of Information

For further information on this topic see the following:

 BEASHEL, P. & TAYLOR, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and

Sport. UK: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd.
 DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. UK: Harcourt
Publishers Ltd.
 McARDLE, W. et al. (2000) Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
 BEASHEL, P. & TAYLOR, J. (1997) The World of Sport Examined. UK: Thomas
Nelson & Sons Ltd.
 GALLIGAN, F. et al. (2000) Advanced PE for Edexcel. Oxford; Heinemann Educational
Publishers
 BIZLEY, K. (1994) Examining Physical Education. Oxford; Heinemann Educational
Publishers
Training Programs
A training program has to be developed to meet the individual needs of the athlete and take into
consideration many factors: gender, age, strengths, weaknesses, objectives, training facilities etc.
As all athletes have different needs, a single program suitable for all athletes is not possible.

Example Programs

Young or inexperienced athletes

The following are examples of general Track and Field training programs suitable for young or
inexperienced athletes (fundamental and foundation stages):

 Sprints - 100 metres, 200 metres, 400 metres and the sprint hurdles
 Endurance - 800 metres, 1500 metres, 5km, 10km, walks and steeplechase
 Throws - shot, discus, hammer and javelin events
 Jumps - long jump, high jump, triple jump and the pole vault

Experienced athletes

The following are example of track and field programs suitable for experienced athletes:

Track Events

 100 metres  1.5 kilometres

 200 metres  3 kilometres
 300 metres  5 kilometres
 400 metres  10 kilometres
 800 metres

Field Events

 Discus  Long Jump

 Javelin  Pole Vault
 Shot  Triple Jump
 High Jump

Road Running

The following are examples of Road Running training programs suitable for experienced
endurance athletes:

 Half Marathon - for the experienced endurance athlete

  Half Marathon - for the novice endurance athlete - based on mileage
 Half Marathon - for the novice endurance athlete - based on time

 Marathon - for the experienced endurance athlete

 Marathon - for the novice endurance athlete - based on mileage
 Marathon - for the novice endurance athlete - based on time

Triathlon

The following are examples of Triathlon training programs suitable for experienced athletes:

 Triathlon - Half Olympic distances - Novice

 Triathlon - Olympic distances - Novice
 Triathlon - Olympic Distances - Elite

Fell Running

Fell running programs are available for the:

 Bob Graham Round (24 hour fell race)

Team Sports

Acceleration and speed over a short distance and the endurance to repeatedly perform these is
very important for most team sports e.g. American Football, Basket Ball, Baseball, Cricket, Field
Hockey, Rugby, Soccer etc. The following are examples of programs to develop these fitness
components:

 40 yard Dash
 60 yard dash

Page Reference

The reference for this page is:

 MACKENZIE, B. (2001) Training Programs [WWW] Available from:

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/trainprog.htm [Accessed 4/11/2012]

Associated Pages

The following Sports Coach pages should be read in conjunction with this page:

 How to develop a Training Program

 Planning Articles
 Personal Exercise Plan
 Planning the Training
  Tapering for Competition

Additional Sources of Information

For further information on this topic see the following:

 BEASHEL, P. & TAYLOR, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and

Sport. UK: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd.
 DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. UK: Harcourt
Publishers Ltd.
 McARDLE, W. et al. (2000) Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
 BEASHEL, P. & TAYLOR, J. (1997) The World of Sport Examined. UK: Thomas
Nelson & Sons Ltd.
 GALLIGAN, F. et al. (2000) Advanced PE for Edexcel. Oxford; Heinemann Educational
Publishers
 BIZLEY, K. (1994) Examining Physical Education. Oxford; Heinemann Educational
Publishers

Skill Classification
There is a large range of sporting activities each requiring a set of skills. Skills have many
characteristics that can change in different situations, which makes classifying them difficult.
Accepting that skills cannot be neatly labelled, we place them on a continuum.

Skill classification systems are based on the view that motor skills are affected by three factors:

 how precise a movement is

 whether the movement has a definite beginning and end
 whether the environment affects the performance of the skill

The Gross and Fine Continuum (Davis 2000)

This continuum is concerned with the precision of movement - gross and fine skills.

Gross skills: involve large muscle movements which are not very precise and include many
fundamental movement patterns such as walking, running and jumping. The shot putt is an
example of a primarily gross skill.

Fine skills: involve intricate precise movements using small muscle groups and generally
involve high levels of hand-eye coordination. A snooker shot or playing the piano are examples
of fine skills.
The Open and Closed Continuum (Galligan 2000)

This continuum is concerned with the effects of the environment on skills (Knapp 1967)

Open skills: sports such as Netball, Football, and Hockey involve open skills. The environment
is constantly changing and so movements have to be continually adapted. Skills are
predominantly perceptual and externally paced, for example a pass in football.

Closed skills. These skills take place in a stable, predictable environment and the performer
knows exactly what to do and when. Skills are not affected by the environment and movements
follow set patterns and have a clear beginning and end. The skills tend to be self-paced, for
example a free throw in Basketball, and serving in Squash or Tennis.

Knapp (1967) suggests that skills can fit on a continuum between open and closed.

The External and Internal Paced Continuum (Galligan 2000)

This continuum is concerned with the timing of movements (often used with the open-closed
continuum) - internal and external paced skills.

Internally paced or self-paced skills: the performer controls the rate at which the skill is
executed. These skills are usually closed skills. i.e. javelin throw, discus.

Externally paced skills: the environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of
performing the skill. The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control
his/her rate of movement. These skills involve reaction, and are usually open skills. i.e. in ball
games the performer must time his actions with the actions of other players and the ball.

The Discrete, Serial and Continuous Continuum (Galligan 2000)

This continuum is concerned with how well defined the beginning and end of the skill are -
discrete, serial and continuous skills.

Discrete skills are brief, well-defined actions that have a clear beginning and end. They are
single, specific skills, which make up the actions involved in a variety of sports such as hitting
and throwing. Hockey. i.e. a penalty flick in.

Serial Skills are a group of discrete skills strung together to make a new and complex
movement. i.e. the sequence of skills for the triple jump.

qContinuous skills have no obvious beginning or end. The end of one cycle of movements is the
beginning of the next, and the skill is repeated like a cycle. These skills could be stopped at any
moment during the performance of the skill. i.e. Swimming, Running, Cycling.

Individual, Coactive and Interactive skills (Davis 2000)

Individual skills are those performed in isolation. e.g. high jump.

Coactive skills are those performed at the same time as others but without direct confrontation.
e.g. swimming.

Interactive skills are those performed where other performers are directly involved. e.g. rugby,
netball.

Simple and Complex skills (Galligan 2000)

A simple skill is one that is straight forward, requires little concentration and cognitive ability.

A complex skill involves a large attention span because they are complicated and are practiced
in training repeatedly to make it easier to perform in competition.

Low and High Organisation

A low organisation skill is very easy and uncomplicated like riding a bike. The phases that
make up the skill are usually discrete and might be practiced separately to make your technique
better.

A high organisation skill has a complex amount of phases involved which cannot be broken
down and practiced separately as they are linked closely together. They require large amounts of
attention.

Self and Externally paced skills (Davis 2000)

Self paced skills are those that are initiated by the performer and externally paced skills are
those where the timing of the performance of the skill is not controlled by the performer, but by
an outside influence.

Variable and Fixed Practice (Galligan 2000)

A major factor influencing the development of a skill is practice of which there are two main
types:

 Variable - practicing a skill in a variety of different contexts and experiencing the full
range of situations in which the technique or tactic might be used in competition. The
skill is applied to a number of different environments in practice, allowing both the
development of the skill and the ability to adapt the skill to a range of possible situations.
This is vital for open and interactive skills
 Fixed - a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, often referred to as a drill. This type
of practice is ideal for skills that are always performed in the same way. Closed,
interactive and coactive skills tend to require fixed practice to allow the motor sequence
to be perfected
Massed and Distributed Practice (Galligan 2000)

The organisation of a practice session will depend greatly on those involved and the activity
being practiced. Depending on the amount of experience, the skill level and the performer's
fitness, practice may be organised in two ways (Galligan 2000):

 Massed - the skill is practiced until learnt without taking a break. These sessions are
good for athletes with high level of fitness and experience and suited to fixed practice
 Distributed - practice is interspersed with breaks that can either be rest or another skill.
These sessions are good for athletes with lower levels of fitness and experience and
suited to variable practice

Referenced Material

Skill Development
When we choose to move, the action is controlled by the conscious brain using a collection of
learned movements. For the movement to progress successfully, the athlete requires information
feedback.

Types of skill

There are a number of different types of skills:

 Cognitive - or intellectual skills that require thought processes

 Perceptual - interpretation of presented information
 Motor - movement and muscle control
 Perceptual motor - involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills

How do we teach a new skill?

The teaching of a new skill can be achieved by various methods:

 Verbal instructions
 Demonstration
 Video
 Diagrams
 Photo sequences

The Learning Phases - Fitts & Posner

Fitts and Posner (1967)[3] suggested that the learning process is sequential and that we move
through specific phases as we learn. There are three stages to learning a new skill:
  Cognitive phase - Identification and development of the component parts of the skill -
involves formation of a mental picture of the skill
 Associative phase - Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves
practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill
 Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves
little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers
reach this stage

The leaning of physical skills requires the relevant movements to be assembled, component by
component, using feedback to shape and polish them into a smooth action. Rehearsal of the skill
must be done regularly and correctly.

Schmidt's Schema Theory

Schmidt's theory (Schmidt 1975)[2] was based on the view that actions are not stored rather we
refer to abstract relationships or rules about movement. Schmidt's schema is based on the theory
that that every time a movement is conducted four pieces of information are gathered:

 the initial conditions - starting point

 certain aspects of the motor action - how fast, how high
 the results of the action - success or failure
 the sensory consequences of the action - how it felt

Relationships between these items of information are used to construct a recall schema and a
recognition schema. The Recall schema is based on initial conditions and the results and is used
to generate a motor program to address a new goal. The recognition schema is based on sensory
actions and the outcome.

Adam's Closed Loop Theory

Adam's theory (Adams 1971)[1] has two elements:

 Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired through practice

 Memory trace - responsible for initiating the movement

The key feature of this theory is the role of feedback.

 Analyse the reference model actions, the result of those actions and the desired goals
 Refine the reference model to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

There are three core concepts of social learning theory

1. people can learn through observation

2. mental states are an essential part of this process
 3. it will not necessarily result in a change of behaviour

In Bandura et al. (1961)[4] studies children observed an adult acting aggressively toward a doll.
When the children were later allowed to play with the doll, they began to imitate the aggressive
actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a

behaviour
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a
behaviour
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media

Kolb's Learning Cycle

Kolb (1984)[5] developed a theory of experiential learning that can give us a useful model by
which to develop our learning. The model comprises of four stages:

 Concrete Experience - doing or having an experience

 Reflective Observation - reviewing & reflecting on the experience
 Abstract Conceptualisation - concluding & learning from the experience
 Active Experimentation - planning & trying out what you have learned

The following link provides a diagram of Kolb's learning styles

Whitmore Learning Cycle

Whitmore (1984)[6] identified that our learning cycle generally takes us through four stages:

 Unconscious incompetence - no understanding

 Conscious incompetence - low performance, recognition of flaws and weak areas
 Conscious competence - improved performance, conscious effort
 Unconscious competence - higher performance, natural automatic effort

Transfer of learning

Transfer of learning can take place in the following ways:

 Skill to skill
o this is where a skill developed in one sport has an influence on a skill in another
sport. If the influence is on a new skill being developed then this is said to be
proactive and if the influence is on a previously learned skill then this is said to
be retroactive
 Theory to practice
 o the transfer of theoretical skills into practice
 Training to competition
o the transfer of skills developed in training into the competition situation

Effects of transfer of learning

The effects of transfer can be:

 Negative
o Where a skill developed in one sport hinders the performance of a skill in another
sport
 Zero
o Where a skill in one sport has no impact on the learning of a new sport
 Positive
o Where a skill developed in one sport helps the performance of a skill in another
sport
 Direct
o Where a skill can be taken directly from sport to another
 Bilateral
o Transfer of a skill from side of the body to the other - use left and right
 Unequal
o A skill developed in one sport helps another sport more than the reverse

How do we assess skill performance?

Initially, compare visual feedback from the athlete's movement with the technical model to be
achieved. Athletes should be encouraged to evaluate their own performance. In assessing the
performance of an athlete, consider the following points:

 Are the basics correct?

 Is the direction of the movement correct?
 Is the rhythm correct?

It is important to ask athletes to remember how it felt when correct examples of movement are
demonstrated (kinaesthetic feedback).

Appropriate checklists/notes can be used to assist the coach in the assessment of an athlete's
technique. The following are some examples:

 Sprint Technique
 Running Technique for the Middle Distance runner

How are faults caused?

Having assessed the performance and identified that there is a fault then you need to determine
why it is happening. Faults can be caused by:
  Incorrect understanding of the movement by the athlete
 Poor physical abilities
 Poor co-ordination of movement
 Incorrect application of power
 Lack of concentration
 Inappropriate clothing or footwear
 External factors e.g. weather conditions

Strategies and Tactics

Strategies are the plans we prepare in advance of a competition, which we hope will place an
individual or team in a winning position. Tactics are how we put these strategies into action.
Athletes in the associative phase of learning will not be able to cope with strategies, but the
athlete in the autonomous phase should be able to apply strategies and tactics.

To develop strategies and tactics we need to know:

 the strengths and weaknesses of the opposition

 our own strengths and weaknesses
 environmental factors

Conditioning
One of the misconceptions in the sports world is that a sports person gets in shape by just playing
or taking part in his/her chosen sport. If a stationary level of performance, consistent ability in
executing a few limited skills is your goal, then engaging only in your sport will keep you there.
However, if you want the utmost efficiency, consistent improvement, and balanced abilities
sportsmen and women must participate in year round conditioning programs.

The bottom line in sports conditioning and fitness training is stress, not mental stress, but
adaptive body stress. Sportsmen and women must put their bodies under a certain amount of
stress (overload) to increase physical capabilities.

Health & Fitness

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its constitution of 1948 as "a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity".

Fitness is the ability to meet the demands of a physical task.

The Components of Fitness

Basic fitness can be classified in four main components: strength, speed, stamina and flexibility.
However, exercise scientists have identified nine components that comprise the definition of
fitness (Tancred 1995)[1]:

 Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against resistance
(e.g. holding or restraining an object or person)
 Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive
burst of movements. The two components of power are strength and speed. (e.g. jumping
or a sprint start)
 Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid
succession in opposing directions (e.g. ZigZag running or cutting movements)
 Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a handstand) or
while moving (e.g. a gymnastics stunt)
 Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being impeded by
excess tissue, i.e. fat or muscle (e.g. executing a leg split)
 Local Muscle Endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work (e.g.
rowing or cycling)
 Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles and
their ability to use it (e.g. running long distances)
 Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contraction time after
time (e.g. continuous explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)
 Co-ordination- the ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective
movements are achieved.

Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to develop
as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation.

Physical Fitness

Physical fitness refers to the capacity of an athlete to meet the varied physical demands of their
sport without reducing the athlete to a fatigued state. The components of physical fitness are
(Davis 2000)[2]:

 Body Composition
 Endurance
 Flexibility
 Strength
 Speed

Motor Fitness

Motor Fitness refers to the ability of an athlete to perform successfully at their sport. The
components of motor fitness are (Davis 2000)[2]:

 Agility
 Balance
  Co-ordination
 Power (speed & strength)
 Reaction Time

Improving your condition

Identify the most important fitness components for success in your sport or event and then design
sport/event specific conditioning and training programs that will enhance these fitness
components and energy systems.

Conditioning Exercises

The following are examples of general conditioning exercises:

 General core stability exercises

 General all round body conditioning exercises using dumbbells
 General conditioning exercises for the upper body
 General and specific leg conditioning exercises
 Specific exercises to develop lower leg strength and foot speed

Why should I exercise on a regular basis?

Not convinced on the benefits of a regular training regime then have a read of the the benefits of
exercising page.

I am new to training so what should I do?

Visit the general fitness training program page to get an insight into a simple weekly training
program that will help develop your general level of fitness.

Referenced Material

1. TANCRED, B. (1995) Key Methods of Sports Conditioning. Athletics Coach, 29 (2), p.

19
2. DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Training for physical fitness. In: DAVIS, B. et al. Physical
Education and the study of sport. Spain: Harcourt Publishers, p.121-122

Heart Rate Training Zones

Heart rate training zones are calculated by taking into consideration your Maximum Heart Rate
(MHR) and your Resting Heart Rate (RHR). Within each training zone, subtle physiological
effects take place to enhance your fitness.

The Energy Efficient or Recovery Zone - 60% to 70%

Training within this zone develops basic endurance and aerobic capacity. All easy recovery
running should be completed at a maximum of 70%. Another advantage to running in this zone
is that while you are happily fat burning you may lose weight and you will be allowing your
muscles to re-energise with glycogen, which has been expended during those faster paced
workouts.

The Aerobic Zone - 70% to 80%

Training in this zone will develop your cardiovascular system. The body's ability to transport
oxygen to, and carbon dioxide away from, the working muscles can be developed and improved.
As you become fitter and stronger from training in this zone it will be possible to run some of
your long weekend runs at up to 75%, so getting the benefits of some fat burning and improved
aerobic capacity.

The Anaerobic Zone - 80% to 90%

Training in this zone will develop your lactic acid system. In this zone, your individual anaerobic
threshold (AT) is found - sometimes referred to the point of deflection (POD). During these heart
rates, the amount of fat being utilised as the main source of energy is greatly reduced and
glycogen stored in the muscle is predominantly used. One of the by-products of burning this
glycogen is lactic acid. There is a point at which the body can no longer remove the lactic acid
from the working muscles quickly enough. This is your anaerobic threshold (AT). Through the
correct training, it is possible to delay the AT by being able to increase your ability to deal with
the lactic acid for a longer period of time or by pushing the AT higher.

The Red Line Zone 90% to 100%

Training in this zone will only be possible for short periods. It effectively trains your fast twitch
muscle fibres and helps to develop speed. This zone is reserved for interval running and only the
very fit are able to train effectively within this zone.

Heart rate variations for a given intensity

A reduction in heart rate for a given intensity is usually due to an improvement in fitness but a
number of other factors might explain why heart rates can vary for a given intensity:

 Dehydration can increase the heart rate by up to 7.5%

 Heat and humidity can increase the heart rate by 10 beats/minute
 Altitude can increase the heart rate by 10 to 20%, even when acclimatised
 Biological variation can mean the heart rate varies from day to day by 2 to 4 beats/minute

Resting Heart Rate

To determine your resting heart rate (RHR) is very easy. Find somewhere nice and quiet, lie
down and relax. Position a watch or clock where you can clearly see it whilst lying down. After
20 minutes determine your resting pulse rate (beats/min). Use this value as your RHR.
If you have a heart rate monitor then put it on before you lie down. After the 20 minutes check
the recordings and identify the lowest value achieved. Use this value as your RHR.

The heart is a muscle so with regular exercise it will become larger and become more efficient as
a pump. As a result you will find your resting heart rate gets lower so you will need to check
your RHR on a regular basis (e.g. Monthly).

Calculation of a zone value

The calculation of a zone value, X%, is performed in the following way:

 Subtract your RHR from your MHR giving us your working heart rate (WHR)
 Calculate the required X% on the WHR giving us "Z"
 Add "Z" and your RHR together to give us the final value

Example: The athlete's MHR is 180 and their RHR is 60 - determine the 70% value

 MHR - RHR = 180 - 60 = 120

 70% of 120 = 84
 84 + RHR = 84 + 60 = 144 bpm

Training Zone Heart Rate Calculator

Please remember that any equation used to determine your maximum heart rate (MHR) is only a
best guess and not a guarantee of your true MHR value. The use of an equation implies that
everyone of the same age has the same MHR! To determine your true MHR you should consider
conducting a Stress Test.

The calculator determines your maximum heart rate (MHR) based on the equation: 217 - ( age ×
0.85 ) (Miller et al. 1993)[1]

If you know your true MHR then adjust your "Age" so that the correct value appears in the "Max
Heart Rate" window.

Enter your age, resting heart rate, the lower and upper training zone values (%) and then select
the 'Calculate' button.

Age years Max Heart Rate bpm

Resting Heart Rate bpm Working Heart Rate bpm
Lower Training Zone % which is a Heart Rate of bpm
Upper Training Zone % which is a Heart Rate of bpm

Free Calculator
  Training Zone Heart Rate Calculator - a free Microsoft Excel spreadsheet that you can
download and use on your computer. The spreadsheet will be loaded into a new window.

Maximum Heart Rate

Athletes who use a heart rate monitor as a training aid need to identify their actual maximum
heart rate in order to determine their appropriate training zones. Maximum heart rate (MHR) can
be determined by undertaking a maximum heart rate stress test which although relatively short
does require you to push your body and your heart to the very limit. It can also be predicted
using a formula but the variation in actual MHR of 95% of individuals of a given age will lie
within a range of ±20 beats/minute (Gellish 2007)[1].

Calculation of Maximum Heart Rate

The easiest and best known method to calculate your maximum heart rate (MHR) is to use the
formula

 MHR = 220 - Age

Dr. Martha Gulati et al

Research conducted by Gulati et al. (2010) [3] identified that the traditional male-based calculation
(220-age) overestimates the maximum heart rate for age in women. They investigated the
association between HR response to exercise testing and age with 5437 women. It was found that
mean peak heart rate for women = 206 - (0.88 x age).

Londeree and Moeschberger

A paper by Londeree and Moeschberger (1982)[2] from the University of Missouri-Columbia

indicates that the MHR varies mostly with age, but the relationship is not a linear one. They
suggest an alternative formula of

 MHR = 206.3 - (0.711 × Age)

Londeree and Moeschberger (1982) looked at other variables to see if they had any effect on the
MHR. They found that neither sex nor race makes any difference but they did find that the MHR
was affected by the activity and levels of fitness.

Studies have shown that MHR on a treadmill is consistently 5 to 6 beats higher than on a bicycle
ergometer and 2 to 3 beats higher on a rowing ergometer. Heart rates while swimming are
significantly lower, around 14 bpm, than for treadmill running. Elite endurance athletes and
moderately trained individuals will have a MHR 3 or 4 beats slower than a sedentary individual.
It was also found that well trained over 50s are likely to have a higher MHR than that which is
average for their age.
Miller et al

A paper by Miller et al. (1993)[4] proposed the following formula as a suitable formula to
calculate MHR

 MHR = 217 - (0.85 x Age)

USA Researchers

Evidence from USA researchers, Jackson et al. (2007)[5], identified the following formula as
more accurately reflecting the relationship between age and maximum heart rate.

 MHR = 206.9 - (0.67 x age)

UK Researchers

Research by Whyte et al. (2008)[7] came up with with the following formulae for predicting
maximum heart rates in both endurance and anaerobically trained athletes:

 Male athletes - MHR = 202 - (0.55 x age)

 Female athletes - MHR = 216 - (1.09 x age)

Miller, Londeree and Moeschberger

To determine your maximum heart rate you could use the following, which combines the Miller
formula with the research from Londeree and Moeschberger.

 Use the Miller formula of MHR = 217 - (0.85 × age) to calculate MHR
 Subtract 3 beats for elite athletes under 30
 Add 2 beats for 50 year old elite athletes
 Add 4 beats for 55+ year old elite athletes
 Use this MHR value for running training
 Subtract 3 beats for rowing training
 Subtract 5 beats for bicycle training

Calculator

The following calculator will determine your Maximum Heart Rate for the various formulae
discussed above. Enter your Age, Sport, Experience and then select the "Calculate" button.

Age - Sport - Experience -

Combined Londeree, Moeschberger and Miller MHR= bpm

Londeree and Moeschberger (1982) MHR= bpm
 Miller et al (1993) MHR= bpm
USA Researchers (2007) MHR= bpm
UK Researchers (2007) - Male Athletes MHR= bpm
UK Researchers (2007) - Female Athletes MHR= bpm
M. Gulati et al. (2010) - Female Athletes MHR= bpm

% MHR and %VO2 Max

It is possible to estimate your exercise intensity as a percentage of VO2 Max from your training
heart rate. Swain et al. (1994)[6] using statistical procedures examined the relationship between
%MHR and %VO2 Max. Their results led to the following regression equation:

 %MHR = 0.64 × %VO2 Max + 37

The relationship has been shown to hold true across sex, age and activity.

Calculator

The following calculator will do the conversion for you. Enter a value, select the parameter
(MHR or VO2 max) and then select the "Calculate" button.

Value= %
= %

VO2 and Power

It is possible to estimate your power (Watts) based on your VO2 max (L/Min).

 Power = (VO2 - 0.435) / 0.01141

Body Types & Build

Success as an athlete comes from a combination of athletic ability and our body build. The three
components of body build are type, size and composition. A system, developed by W.H. Sheldon
(c.1940)[2], uses the terms ectomorph, endomorph, or mesomorph to describe the body build of
an individual.

Body Type
There are three extremes of body types.

Endomorph

Endomorph (711)

 A pear shaped body

 A rounded head
 Wide hips and shoulders
 Wider front to back rather than side to side.
 A lot of fat on the body, upper arms and thighs

An endomorphic individual typically has short arms and legs and a large amount of mass on their
frame. Their mass hampers their ability to compete in sports requiring high levels of agility or
speed and perform sustained weight bearing aerobic activities such as running. Sports of pure
strength, like power lifting, are perfect for an endomorph. They can gain weight easily and lose
condition quickly if training stops.

Sports Benefits

 Size benefits sports such as rugby where bulk is useful, provided it can be moved
powerfully
 Tend to have large lung capacity which can make them suited to sports such as rowing
 They can increase muscle mass much more easily than ectomorphs

Mesomorph

Mesomorph (171)

 A wedge shaped body

 A cubical head
 Wide broad shoulders
 Muscled arms and legs
 Narrow hips
 Narrow from front to back rather than side to side.
 A minimum amount of fat

A mesomorphic individual excels in strength, agility, and speed. Their medium structure and
height, along with their tendency to gain muscle and strength easily makes them a strong
candidate for a top athlete in any sport. They can sustain low body fat levels and find it easy to
lose and gain weight.
Sports Benefits

 Respond well to cardiovascular and resistance training

 Can sustain low body fat levels
 All muscle groups can be used to derive positive training adoption
 Dependent on the sports' needs they can easily gain or lose weight

Ectomorph

Ectomorph (117)

 A high forehead
 Receding chin
 Narrow shoulders and hips
 A narrow chest and abdomen
 Thin arms and legs
 Little muscle and fat

A predominantly ectomorphic individual is long, slender and thin, and therefore power and
strength sports are perhaps not suitable as their slight build leaves them susceptible to injuries.
While they can easily get lean and hard, their lack of musculature severely limits their chances in
sports requiring mass. Ectomorphs dominate endurance sports and gymnastics. They can archive
low levels of body fat which can be detrimental to health and for females in endurance sports it
can result in a cessation of periods and iron deficiency.

Sports Benefits

 Light frame makes them suited for aerobic activity like gymnastics
 Smaller body surface area also enhances their suitability for endurance activity
 Their body is better at thermo regulation, important in endurance based sports

Somatotype

Sheldon evaluated the degree a body type was present on a 1 to 7 scale where 1 is the minimum
and 7 is the maximum.

All athletes are made up of the three extreme body types so we are all part endomorph, part
mesomorph and part ectomorph. Using a score of one to seven, we can grade our bodies on each
of the extreme body types. e.g. two, six, three means: two (low endomorphy); six (high
mesomorphy); three (low ectomorphy). In this way, we can compare our body type with that of
other athletes. This method of body typing is known as somatotyping - height is not taken into
consideration.
The "perfect" bodybuilder would perhaps be a 173, while 475 might be better suited for football,
and 147 a basketball player. Having scores in multiple body types, for instance the football
player's 475, does not mean he has all of the traits of each body type mixed together. It may
mean he has the heavy thick build of the Endomorph combined with superior musculature and
strength of the Mesomorph, with the above average height of the Ectomorph.

Greek researchers Bayios et al. (2006)[1] evaluated 518 elite Greek basketball, volleyball and
handball players. Their results indicated the following somatotypes (endomorph, mesomorph &
ectomorph) for each sport:

Sport Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomorph

Volleyball players 3.4 2.7 2.9
Basketball players 3.7 2.7 2.9
Handball players 4.2 4.7 1.8

Body Size

Body size refers to the athlete's height and weight. The ideal size for an athlete depends on the
sport or event and sometimes the position they play in their sport (consider the various body
sizes in a Rugby team). There are standard ideal weight charts based on an individual's height.

Body Composition

Body composition refers to the athlete's body fat. In most sports, the athlete will try to keep
his/her levels of body fat to a minimum. In general the higher the percentage of body fat the
poorer the performance.

Aqua Running
Brad Walker explains the techniques of aquatic running.

Aqua running, running in deep water, is a way of continuing your training while injured or an
alternative form of training that can be beneficial to your training program[1-5].

Aqua Running Technique

Aqua running can be divided into the basic technique and advanced techniques. It is important
that the basic technique is mastered before the advanced techniques are attempted.

Basic Technique

The basic technique is similar to jogging (recovery running). The idea is to reach out with the
leading leg and pull it through the water strongly and evenly. The trailing leg needs to be actively
pulled forward (because of the increased resistance of the water) at the same time. The front foot
should land in front of the body's centre of gravity. Keep the knees low and actively dorsiflex the
rear foot at push-off. Arm action should be as for land running.

Advanced Technique

1. Max Speed

The aim is to make the legs go as fast as possible. The strides are kept as short as the athlete can
make them. The legs are moved up and down with the landing slightly behind the centre of
gravity. Arm action should be as for land running.

2. Heel Lift

The idea of this is to keep the upper leg as still as possible while flexing the lower leg. This is
just like a hamstring curl but upright. If is difficult for the athlete to achieve full flexion and great
concentration is required to perform this technique properly. If done correctly there is a slight
tendency for the athlete to move backwards in the water but this is normal (for this stride only).
The hands can be used to prevent this and to stabilize the body.

3. High Knees

In this technique the athlete is required to drive the leading leg up as high as possible. A slight
forward lean is recommended with the trailing leg landing significantly behind the centre of
gravity and the arms need to be very active.

4. Middle Stride

This is the most difficult pattern to learn and is used in the most demanding workouts. It should
mimic the running style of a 400m/800m runner with the leading leg landing slightly in front of
the centre of gravity. The trailing leg must be strongly curled up at the back of the stride to
reduce the force needed to bring it forward. The arms must be vigorously used.
Flotation devices

The great advantage of flotation devices is that they allow the athlete to learn the
proper running technique without having to keep themselves afloat.

The Aqua-jogger is convenient and easy to wear, but is less effective for larger,
heavier athletes because of its constant buoyancy factor.

In addition, flotation devices like the Aqua-jogger need to be worn tightly and this
may constrict breathing in some athletes.

The picture, to the right, shows one of the flotation vests that are very similar to a life
jacket, except that it provides a greater amount of freedom to move around.

Technique monitoring

The increased resistance of the water will highlight any mechanical and functional weaknesses
the athlete may have in their running technique. This is especially true of imbalances in hip
abduction/adduction, hip flexion/extension, and torso movement (abdominal/lower back),
hamstring /quadriceps strength. For the most advanced deep water running practitioner, even
calf/ankle can be analysed and corrected.

The coach must monitor the following movement patterns and feedback corrective action to the
athlete:

1. Foot placement
2. Hip position (in all three planes)
3. Hip/upper leg angle (at both ends of the range of motion)
4. Ankle angle (at both ends of the range of motion)
5. Knee angle (at both ends of the range of motion)
6. Mid-line displacement
7. Arm position

All of these should be checked to ensure that they follow as closely as possible the movement
pattern used on land. Remember an athlete's stride length and stride rate in water are very
different when compared to land based running.

An aim of aqua running should be the smooth application of power over the entire range of
motion in a horizontal direction. The improper application of power, even with the proper
technique, can result in two effects:

 bobbing - which occurs if the application of power is mostly vertical and/or only with the
driving leg
 moving backwards - which occurs when the direction of thrust is horizontal but power is
applied only during the recovery phase
Training Sessions

Studies[1-5] have shown that aqua running sessions can be benificial for all athletes. The
difference we have is that aqua running is almost running on the spot so distance cannot be
measured. A simple approach is to determine the number of strides the athlete would take to
complete the distance on land and to use the stride count in an aqua running session.

Example: If the athlete takes 60 strides to run 100 metres then for a 100 metres interval session
in water record the time to complete 60 strides.

Lactic Acid
The expression "lactic acid" is used most commonly by athletes to describe the intense pain felt
during exhaustive exercise, especially in events like the 400 metres and 800 metres. When
energy is required to perform exercise, it is supplied from the breakdown of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP). The body has a limited store of about 85 grms of ATP and would use it up
very quickly if we did not have ways of resynthesising it. There are three systems that produce
energy to resynthesise ATP: ATP-PC, lactic acid and aerobic.

The lactic acid system is capable of releasing energy to resynthesise ATP without the
involvement of oxygen and is called anaerobic glycolysis. Glycolysis (breakdown of
carbohydrates) results in the formation of pyruvic acid and hydrogen ions (H+). The pyruvic acid
molecules undergo oxidation in the mitochondrion and the Krebs cycle begins. A build up of H+
will make the muscle cells acidic and interfere with their operation so carrier molecules, called
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), remove the H+. The NAD+ is reduced to NADH
that deposit the H+ at the electron transport gate (ETC) in the mitrochondria to be combined with
oxygen to form water (H2O).

If there is insufficient oxygen then NADH cannot release the H+ and they build up in the cell. To
prevent the rise in acidity pyruvic acid accepts H+ forming lactic acid that then dissociates into
lactate and H+. Some of the lactate diffuses into the blood stream and takes some H+ with it as a
way of reducing the H+ concentration in the muscle cell. The normal pH of the muscle cell is 7.1
but if the build up of H+ continues and pH is reduced to around 6.5 then muscle contraction may
be impaired and the low pH will stimulate the free nerve endings in the muscle resulting in the
perception of pain (the burn). This point is often measured as the lactic threshold or anaerobic
threshold (AT) or onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA).

The process of lactic acid removal takes approximately one hour, but this can be accelerated by
undertaking an appropriate cool down that ensures a rapid and continuous supply of oxygen to
the muscles.

Astrand et al. (1986)[1] found that the normal amount of lactic acid circulating in the blood is
about 1 to 2 millimoles/litre of blood. The onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) occurs
between 2 and 4 millimoles/litre of blood. In non athletes this point is about 50% to 60% VO2
max and in trained athletes around 70% to 80% VO2 max.
Lactic acid - friend or foe?

Lactic acid (lactate) is not:

 responsible for the burn in the leg muscles when exercising very fast
 responsible for the soreness you experience in the 48 hours following a hard session
 a waste product

Lactate, which is produced by the body all day long, is resynthesized by the liver (Cori Cycle) to
form glucose that provides you with more energy. Sounds like a friend to me.

Lactate Shuttle

Some of the lactate we produce is released into the blood stream and used directly as a fuel by
heart muscle, and by the liver to produce blood glucose and glycogen (Cori Cycle).

The lactate shuttle involves the following series of events:

 As we exercise pyruvate is formed

 When insufficient oxygen is available to breakdown the pyruvate then lactate is produced
 Lactate enters the surrounding muscle cells, tissue and blood
 The muscle cells and tissues receiving the lactate either breakdown the lactate to fuel
(ATP) for immediate use or use it in the creation of glycogen
 The glycogen then remains in the cells until energy is required

65% of lactic acid is converted to carbon dioxide and water, 20% into glycogen, 10% into
Protein and 5% into glucose.

It has been estimated that about 50% of the lactate produced during intensive exercise is used by
muscles to form glycogen which acts as a metabolic fuel to sustain exercise.

Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle is a series of reactions which occurs in the mitochondria and results in the
formation of ATP. The pyruvic acid molecules from glycolysis undergo oxidation in the
mitochondrion to produce acetyl coenzyme A and then the Krebs cycle begins.

Three major events occur during the Krebs cycle. One guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is produced
which donates a phosphate group to ADP to form one ATP; three molecules of Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and one molecule of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are reduced.
Although one molecule of GTP leads to the production of one ATP, the production of the
reduced NAD and FAD are far more significant in the cell's energy generating process because
they donate their electrons to an electron transport system that generates large amounts ATP.

Cori Cycle
The Cori cycle refers to the metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic
glycolysis in the muscles moves via the blood stream to the liver where it it is converted to blood
glucose and glycogen.

Hydrogen ions

The breakdown of glucose or glycogen produces lactate and hydrogen ions (H+) - for each
lactate molecule, one hydrogen ion is formed. The presence of hydrogen ions, not lactate, makes
the muscle acidic that will eventually halt muscle function. As hydrogen ion concentrations
increase the blood and muscle become acidic. This acidic environment will slow down enzyme
activity and ultimately the breakdown of glucose itself. Acidic muscles will aggravate associated
nerve endings causing pain and increase irritation of the central nervous system. The athlete may
become disorientated and feel nauseous.

Aerobic Capacity

Given that high levels of lactate/hydrogen ions will be detrimental to performance, one of the
key reasons for endurance training is to enable the body to perform at a greater pace with a
minimal amount of lactate. This can be done by long steady runs, which will develop the aerobic
capacity by means of capillarisation (formation of more small blood vessels, thus enhancing
oxygen transport to the muscles) and by creating greater efficiency in the heart and lungs. If the
aerobic capacity is greater, it means there will be more oxygen available to the working muscles
and this should delay the onset of lactic acid at a given work intensity.

Anaerobic Threshold

Lactic acid starts to accumulate in the muscles once you start operating above your anaerobic
threshold. This is normally somewhere between 80% and 90% of your maximum heart rate
(MHR) in trained athletes.

What a low Lactate Threshold means

If your lactate threshold (LT) is reached at low exercise intensity, it often means that the
"oxidative energy systems" in your muscles are not working very well. If they were performing
at a high level, they would use oxygen to break lactate down to carbon dioxide and water,
preventing lactate from pouring into the blood. If your LT is low, it may mean that:

 you are not getting enough oxygen inside your muscle cells
 you do not have adequate concentrations of the enzymes necessary to oxidize pyruvate at
high rates
 you do not have enough mitochondria in your muscle cells
 your muscles, heart, and other tissues are not very good at extracting lactate from the
blood

Improving your Lactate Threshold

The aim is to saturate the muscles in lactic acid in order to educate the body's buffering
mechanism (alkaline) to deal with it more effectively. The accumulation of lactate in working
skeletal muscles is associated with fatigue of this system after 50 to 60 seconds of maximal
effort. Sessions should comprise of one to five repetitions (depends on the athlete's ability) with
near to full recovery.

Training continuously at about 85 to 90% of your maximum heart rate for 20 to 25 minutes will
improve your Lactate Threshold (LT).

A session should be conducted once a week and commence eight weeks before a major
competition. This will help the muscle cells retain their alkaline buffering ability. Improving
your LT will also improve your tlimvVO2max.

Lactate Tolerance Training Sessions

The following table identifies some possible training sessions that can be used to improve your
lactate tolerance:

Distance Pace Recovery Sets x Reps

150 metres 400 metres 90 seconds 3 x 3
300 metres 800 metres 2 minutes 6
150 metres 800 metres 45 seconds 12
150 metres 800 metres 20 seconds 2 x 4
300 metres 1000 metres 90 seconds 9

Sodium Bicarbonate

Energy production via anaerobic glycolysis, which is particularly important for events lasting
between 30 seconds and 15 minutes, increases the acidity inside the muscle cells and very soon
after does the same to the blood. It is this increase in acidity, within the muscle cells, that is a
major factor in producing fatigue. If there was some way to reduce the acidity within the muscle
cells, one could theoretically delay fatigue and thus continue exercising at a very high intensity
for longer.

Sodium bicarbonate is an alkalising agent and therefore reduces the acidity of the blood (known
as a buffering action). By buffering acidity in the blood, bicarbonate may be able to draw more
of the acid produced within the muscle cells out into the blood and thus reduce the level of
acidity within the muscle cells themselves. This could delay the onset of fatigue.

Who might benefit?

The specific athletes who might benefit from bicarb supplementation will typically compete in
events that last between one and seven minutes, i.e. 400 metres to 1500 metres running, 100
metres to 400 metres swimming and most rowing competitions.

Van Montfoort et al. (2004)[2] conducted research with 15 competitive male endurance athletes
who performed a run to exhaustion 90 minutes after ingestion of a sodium agent. The mean run
times to exhaustion were as follows:

 Sodium Bicarbonate - 82.3 seconds

 Sodium Lactate - 80.2 seconds
 Sodium Citrate - 78.2 seconds
 Sodium Chloride - 77.4 seconds

The results suggest that sodium bicarbonate supplementation may be beneficial.

A practical approach

Before using bicarbonate check with the governing body of your sport that the substance is not
contrary to doping regulations.

It is important to experiment with the supplement during training and Williams (1996) [4] suggests
the following procedure, repeated several times, to determine if bicarbonate supplementation is
appropriate for you:

 2 days light training

 perform a time trial
 2 days light training
 repeat the time trial in a similar environment after bicarbonate supplementation

The protocol for the bicarbonate supplementation would be to ingest 0.3 grms of sodium
bicarbonate per kg body weight approximately one to two hours before the time trial. e.g. for a
66kg runner, consume 20 grms of sodium bicarbonate (about four teaspoons).

Side effects

The side effects may take the form of pain, cramping, diarrhoea or a feeling of being bloated.
Drinking up to a litre of water with the supplementation is often effective and should be carried
out as standard. Breaking up the bicarbonate dose into four equal portions and taken over the
course of an hour may also help.

There are potential side effects to taking higher than normal levels of Sodium Bicarbonate so
consult with your doctor first.

Does massage help remove lactic acid?

A study by McMurray (1987)[3] compared the effects of massage, passive recovery, and mild
bicycle riding (about 40% of max oxygen uptake) on lactate metabolism after an exhaustive
treadmill run.

The subjects were trained runners who performed a maximal treadmill run to elevate the level of
blood lactate and induce exhaustion after 4-6 minutes. Researchers sampled the subjects' blood
lactate for up to 20 minutes after exercise and found that passive recovery (lying down supine)
and massage had no effect on blood lactate levels, while mild bicycle riding caused a better
removal of blood lactate 15-20 minutes after exhaustive exercise.

This does not suggest that massage is of no benefit to athletes; all it means is that massage does
not help with the removal of lactic acid.