Fundamental of computers

UNIT I
Computer
A computer is an electronic device that can accept, store and process
information to produce the required result.
The word “computer” comes from the word “compute” which means to
calculate. We can store bulky data in it. The computer has memory that can
save a lot of information and can take logical decisions like human beings.
Computer is a device that can solve any mathematical operation and it
operates on information or data.

Uses of Computers
Computers have a significant impact on modern society. Now days
nearly every profession uses computers.

Computers are used in

 Airline and Railway Reservations.
 Medical Diagnosis
 Weather Forecasting
 Payment of telephone and electricity bills
 Banking
 Manufacturing products like automobiles, shoes, computer cabinets
etc.
 Cartoon film production
 Space research
 Creation of blueprints for houses.

Now computers have become a very essential part of life.

Computer System Characteristics

The computer has following characteristics

1. Speed:
Computers are very fast computers can perform innumerable
operations in just 1 second. The processing speed of a computer is
generally measured in nanoseconds. The speed of computer is
measured in terms of Million Instructions per seconds. (MIPS)

2. Storage:
A computer can store large amounts of information in its
memory. Computers have very large storage capacity. Every piece of
information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be
recalled as and when required. Even after several years. The
information recalled would be as on the day when it was fed to the
computer.
3. Accuracy:
The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree
of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design. A
computer performs each and every calculation with the same accuracy.
Errors can occur in a computer but these are mainly due to human
rather than technological weaknesses. If the instruction are not correct
or the data is wrong, the result coming out of the computer would be
wrong.
4. Diligence:

Computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of

concentration. It can do work for hours without creating any error. If five
million calculations have to be performed a computer can perform the 5
million calculation with the same accuracy and speed as it performed
the first calculations.

5. Versatility:
Computers can perform a wide range of jobs with speed,
accuracy and diligence. Computers are used for diverse purposes such
as accounting, generating, pay-slips, keeping track of manager’s
appointments, play games during the recreation hours.

All computers systems perform the following five basic

operations. The computer is capable to do following works.

6. Inputting:
The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system is known as inputting. We can enter data and can give
instructions to perform a particular task.

7. Storing:
Data’s and information can be stored in a computer system. The
stored data and information are available for initial or for additional
processing as and when required.

8. Processing:
The computer system can perform arithmetic operations or
logical operation (like comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than
etc.) on data in order to convert them into useful information.

9. Outputting:
A computer gives result of a work. The process of producing
useful information or result for the user is known as output. Output can
be getting on monitor that can be only visually seen or in printed form
through a printer.

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10. Controlling :
In computer system controlling means directing the manner and
sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.

Limitation of Computer:
The computer provides too many facilities and benefits to the user. But
it has some limitations. Those are as following:

Hasn’t I.Q.:
The computer hasn’t I.Q. It has to be told what to do and in what
sequence. Only user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.

No Feelings:
The computer has no feelings and no instincts because it is a machine.
Computer cannot make judgments of their own. Its judgment is based on the
instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

Can’t remove error itself :

The computer can’t remove errors itself. If an unanticipated situation
arises, computers will produce wrong results or abandon the task. They do
not have potential to work out alternate solutions.

Can’t work without human being:

Computer can’t perform any task on its own. It can’t take independent
decision. It requires human instruction to take a decision or what to do.

HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

Computers are invented as a result of man’s search for fast and

accurate calculating device. Computer is developed passing through different
stages. They are as following:

Abacus :
Abacus is considered to be the first computer and was invented by the
Chinese about 5000 years ago. The basic purpose of the device is to make
calculations. It consists a rectangular frame with a number of strings. Each
string has a collection of beads. These beads are used to perform
calculations.

Charles Babbage’s Mechanical Computer :

Charles Babbage invented the first mechanical computer during the
period of 1830 to 1850. This computer performed basic arithmetic functions.
Babbage is known as the father of modern digital computers.

Punched Cards :
The next device that contributed to the evolution of computers was the
punched cards. These cards were made up of special pulp refer. Machines
were used to make holes in the card and to store information.

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The Mark-I Computer :
This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was designed
by Howard A. Aikne it collaboration with IBM.
This machine was proved to be extremely reliable. It was very complex
in design and huge in size.
It was capable of performing five basic arithmetic operations, addition,
subtractions, multiplication, and division and table reference.
The Atonasoff - Berry Computer (1939-42)
This electronic machine was developed by Atanasoff to solve certain
mathematical equations. It used 45 vaccum tubes for internal logical and
capacitors for storage.

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)

It was the first electronic computer. It was built by a team of professors
at more school of university of Pennsylvania. It was a bulky machine
consisting of 18000 vaccum tubes. It was based on decimal arithmetic.

It was faster than mark.1 computer it could store and manipulate very
small amount of information. Its use was limited.

Electronic Discrete Variable automatic Computer (EDVAC)

It was designed on stored program concept. Dr. John Von Neumann
introduced it. The basic idea of stored program is that a sequence of
instructions as well as data can be stored in the memory of computer.
Neumann got a share of credit for introducing the ideas of storing both
instructions and data in the binary form (0&1) (in 1950 Cambridge).

The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDASC)

The Britisher’s developed EDSAC. The machine was developed by a
group of scientists headed by Professor Maurice Wilkes at the Cambridge
University. This machine accomplished addition operation is 1500
microseconds.

The Universal Automatic computer (UNIVAC)

The UNIVAC was the first digital computer. UNIVAC machines were
produced the first of which was installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and
was used continuously for 10 years.

The IBM Corporation introduced the FOI Commercial Computer. The

improve models of UNIVAC were introduced.

Generations of computer
The word “Generation” for computers indicates a step in technology.
Every step includes a major change in the components used for constructing
a computer. The term “generation” was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies.

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First Generations :
The computers produced between 1942-1955 are called the first
generation computers. They were extremely large with low reliability. These
machines were made possible by the invention of “Vaccum Tube”. IBM 650
was the most popular first generation computer. It was used for both business
and scientific applications.

Advantages of first generation computer

 Vaccum Tubes were the only electronic components available
during those days.
 Vaccum Tube technology made possible the advent of electronic
digital computers.
 These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
They could perform computations in milliseconds.

Vacuum tube, punched card. Magnetic drum internal memory. Machines &
Assembly lang.

Disadvantages of first generation computer

 Too bulky in size.
 Unreliable
 Thousand of vaccum tubes that were used emitted large amount of
heat and burnt out frequently.
 Air conditioning required.
 Prone to frequent hardware failures.
 Constant maintenance required.
 Not portable
 Manual assembly of individual component into functioning required.
 Commercial production was difficult and costly.
 Limited commercial use.

Second Generation:
In second-generation computers advanced technology can be used.
Vaccum tubes were replaced by Transistors. These components were smaller
in size, easier to manufacture, less power consuming, cheaper & more
durable.
Computer storage technique improved with the use of magnetic disks.
The machine language was replaced by high-level language like FORTRAN
IBM 700 was one of the computers.

Advantages of Second Generation Computer:

 Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.
 More reliable
 Less heat generated

These computers were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds

to microseconds.

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Less prone to hardware failures
Better portability
Wider Commercial use.

Disadvantages of Second Generation Computer

 Air conditioning required.
 Frequent maintenance required.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit
was required.
 Commercial production was difficult and costly.

Third Generation
The third generation computers employed integrated circuits. The
integrated circuits (IC) based on the small, medium and large Scale
integration (LCI) Technology replaced Transistors. The LCI technology led to
the development of very small but extremely powerful micro- computers.

The third generation computers are much cheaper and more reliable
than the second Generation computers. They are faster with more capacity
and allow connection of a wide. Variety of peripherals, particularly magnetic
disk units.

Advantages of third generations computers:

 Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers.
 Even more reliable than second-generation computers.
 Even lower heat generated than second generation computers.
 These computers were able to reduce computational times from
microseconds to Nanoseconds.
 Maintenance cost is low because hardware failures are rare.
 Easily portable.
 Totally general purpose. Widely used for various commercial
applications all over the world.
 Less power requirements than previous generation computers.
 Commercial production was easier and cheaper.

Disadvantages:
 Air conditioning required in many cases.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC
chips.

Operating system, word processing and improvement in software. Mini

computer.

Fourth Generation
The fourth generation computers used VLSI (very large scale
integration) technology. The VLSI devices have thousands of more
components packed into an assembly. This technology led to the
development of microprocessors, where on entire CPU circuitry is placed on a

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single chip. This generation used a newer electronic technology, which
enabled them to be even smaller and faster than third generations.

Computers like IBM PCs, Apple Macintosh, sun Spare stations etc. fall
under this generation of computers.

Advantages of fourth generation computer:

 Low cost machine.
 High speed
 Large memory
 Small size
 Less power consumption
 Floppy disk is used as storage device. Semi conductor internal
memory. Improve in software (spread sheet)
 Hardware failure is negligible
 Heat generated is negligible
 Cheapest among all generations.

Disadvantages
Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of ISI
chip.

Fifth Generation
Scientists are now at work on the fifth generation computers. They aim
to bring us machines with genuine I.Q. This Generation is under development.
Size of computers became small like laptop. Notebook etc. Development of
Internet, multimedia and develop software according to task like according to
business, hospital and traffic control etc.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Today several types of computers are available in the market. Through each
computer we can do different type of work like: Calculation work, weather
forecasting. Statistical analysis for business management etc. All types of
computers are available in different sizes. They have different capabilities.

That’s why computer is divided/classified according the 3 following basis:

1. Classification based on application/computational method.

2. Classification based on purpose.
3. Classification based on size and capability.

1. Classification based on application:

In applications computer is designed for different type of work according to
requirement. Computer is divided in three parts on the basis of application.

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 (i) Analog Computer
(ii) Digital Computer
(iii) Hybrid Computer

(i) Analog Computer:

Analog computer is a special purpose computer. Through their we can
take result in the form of measurement because this type of system is worked
on quantity like in petrol pump, weather forecasting, temperature etc. Analog
computers process data input in a continuous form. Data’s such as voltage,
resistance or temperature are represented in the computer as a continuous,
unbroken flow of information. Inside this computer analog signals are used for
working. They are worked in the form of wave.

Advantages :
 Analog computers carried out measurement by a few single
purpose devices. So the analog computer offers low cost.

Disadvantages:
 The main disadvantage of an analog computer is the accuracy
factor. The result of analog computers are not accurate.
 Analog computer has limited storage capacity.
 Analog computers are not suitable for processing business data.

(ii) Digital Computers:

It is a general computer. It is used for all general purposes. It gives
accurate result because this computer uses digital signals for working. A
digital computer can count, and accept numbers and letters through various
input devices. The input devices convert the data into electronic pulses and
perform arithmetical operations on numbers in discrete form. They are also
capable of.

1. Strong data for processing.

2. Performing logical operations.
3. Editing or deleting the input data.

Advantages:
 Digital computers gave any desired level of accuracy. It can be
achieved by considering as many places of decimal as are
necessary.
 Digital computers are most suitable for business application.

Disadvantages:
 The main disadvantage is high cost of digital computer.
 Digital computers have complexity in programming.

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(iii) Hybrid Computers
This computer is a combination of analog and digital computer. For this
computer both analog and digital signals worked. It can convert’s the analog
signal to digital signal and digital signal to Analog signal. This type of system
is mostly used in hospitals. Modem is an example of hybrid system.

2. Classification based on purpose.

Computers are also designed according to work. There are two types of
computer in this category.

(i) General purpose computer

(ii) Special purpose computer

(i) General purpose computer:

General-purpose computer is a normal computer. Which is used
everywhere. This type of computer can do programming, calculation,
accounting work, painting work etc. This computer is mostly used in homes,
schools and colleges etc. Digital computer is an example of general-purpose
computer. It is available in different sizes.

(ii) Special purpose computer:

This computer is designed according to different tasks like for weather
forecasting to make a film in photo studio etc. These computers are used
rarely. In the category of special purpose computer digital. Hybrid and analog
computer exist.

3. Classification based on size and capability:

In this category computer is divided into four parts

(i) Micro computer

(ii) Mini computer
(iii) Mainframe Computer
(iv) Super Computer

1. Micro Computer
It is very smallest computer. This type of computer consist a
microprocessor and associated storage and input/output devices. It is portable
we can move it easily from one place to another. Its storing capacity is very
slow. Its speed is also slow. We can do normal calculations in this computer.
Its data transfer rate is very slow. We cannot connect more than one terminal
in this system.
Example like Palmtop, Notebook etc.

Digital Diary
Microcomputers were first available for widespread use in the 1970’s
when it becomes possible to put CPU into a small silicon chip.

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2. Mini Computer
Minicomputer is bigger than microcomputer. It is known as general-
purpose computer. This computer is used in schools, colleges and homes etc.
These computers can perform more complex tasks and cost more than
microcomputers. They are larger is size and they have less amount of storage
capacity.

They are used for processing data and analyzing results of

experiments. They are also used for controlling ad monitoring production
processes. Its data transfer rate is high. We can connect many computers
app. 50 computers. Some examples are PDP 11/42, Vax 11, and IBM series.

Desktop and laptop computers etc.

Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers are more powerful and costly than minicomputer.
They are special computers, big in size. They are capable to handle all kinds
of scientific and business applications. They can process several million
instructions per second. Its storing capacity is very high and data transfer rate
is too high. It has large on-line secondary storage capacity. We can connect
more than 500 computers through this. They are used in Wan. These
computers consume more electricity.

A number of devices like magnetic tape drivers, hard disk drive, visual
display units; plotter, printers and telecommunication terminals can be
attached with mainframe computers.

Mainframe computer such as ES/9000 family of IBM Corp. are used for
such applications as payroll computations, accounting, business transaction
information retrieval and airline seat reservations.

They are used in big companies and factories like BHEL, BSNL, and
NTPC etc.

(iv) Super Computer

Super computer is the largest and fastest computer. They are also
costliest computer. They are not used for commercial data processing. They
are used in fields like Science and Defence.
These computers are used for designing and launching missiles
weather forecasting, bio-decimal research aircraft design and automobile
design.
Supercomputer can process 64 bits or more at a time. Its processing
speed ranges from 10,000 million instructions per second (MIPS) to 1.2 billion
instructions P/sec.
They can support 10,000 terminals at a time. They have huge numbers
of storage and other devices connected to them.

Example of Supercomputer is CRAY-1, CRAY-2, and CRAY-3.

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Today India is making Super Computer PARAM-10000.
Personal Computer (IBM PC)
First personal computer is designed by IBM (International Business Machine)
company. In this computer 8056 microprocessor was fixed. In this computer
data storing is in kilobyte. In this computer one or two floppies were used.
There was no hard disk in the computer. 8 bit data is use in personal
computer. We can do mathematical calculation in this computer.

PC-XT
This computer is designed after personal computer 8088 microprocessor is
used in PCXT. This computer has hard disk. Its storing capacity is in
megabyte. There is one or two floppy disk can be used. Its data-transferring
rate is higher than personal computer because it contains 12-bit data bus.

PC-AT
This computer is modification of PCXT. Its speed is too fast. In this computer
80286 microprocessor is fixed. 16-bit data bus is used in PCAT. One floppy
disk is used in this computer. Its storing capacity is in Giga byte (GB). Its data
transfer is fast.

Types of PC (Personal Computer)

Personal computer is divided into following four types:
1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. Notebook
4. Palmtop

1. Desktop
Desktop is a microcomputer. It can be shift from one place to another place. It
can be put over table. It is used in home, schools, college etc. Its storage
capacity is very high. This type of computer provides the facility of networking.
Through this computer we can joint more than one computer system. Its
storage capacity is in the form of GB. We can use floppy disk & CD.

Many types of input devices are used with this PC like light pen, OMR, MICR,
scanners etc. This computer is a general-purpose computer. It is costlier than
microcomputer.

2. Laptop
Laptop is a briefcase type computer. It works with electricity as well as with
battery. Its working is similar to desktop computer. It is costlier than desktop.
Its storage capacity is in Giga bytes (GB). Floppy and CD is used in laptop. In
this computer LCD (Liquid Crystal display) is used instead of CRT (Cathode
ray tube) picture tube.

3. Notebook
Notebook’s size is very small. It can be keep inside of pocket but in this
computer we can’t work like a desktop and Laptop computers. There is no

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typing pad is available in this computer. Light pen is used in this computer to
write information. Light pen is directly worked on screen. Through this we can
access internet, storing capacity in MB. It is mostly used in calculators and
sending messages. It is very cheap. It can be run with both electricity and
battery. They have the size of a notebook. There weight is in approx. 3 to 4
kg.

Examples contura 3/20 and Acer Anware etc.

4. Palmtop
Palmtop is a small computer. It has the size of a pocket calculator. It is not as
powerful as desktop. They support only a few applications.

It can be keep inside of pocket its storage capacity is in MB (mega byte).

Through this calculation can be done and can store information also. It is
mostly used in stock exchange. Through this we can access Internet. Its
screen is smaller than notebook. It is cheap approx Rs.10, 000 to 12,000.

Example HP 95 LX.

Workstations
In workstation computers desktop computer is use. In this more than one
desktop computer can be connected with each other. Monitors are very big
like 19”. monitor configuration of workstation system is very high, like
processor speed, memory storage, size of RAM etc. (Similar to server) speed
of connected computer depend upon workstation .

Workstation is not a different category of computer but this is used to control

other system. We can use floppy, CD printer in workstation. Computers can
be controlled connected through it.

Basic computer organization

1. Central processing unit: (CPU)

A central processing unit (CPU) controls the execution of programs and

performs the calculations. The CPU is also called as the brain of the
computer. This is because executions of any task by a computer are
controlled entirely by the CPU.

CPU takes information from the input unit and processes it according to
instructions.

A CPU performs following tasks: -

 Manipulating alphabetic or alphanumeric data like word processing,

letter
 Writing, sorting in alphabetic or alphanumeric orders, editing,
making catalog etc.

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  Converting data of one form into another.
 Communicating data to far off distances.
 Storing the data temporarily and retrieving it as and when required.
 CPU does everything in binary language (0&1)

Arithmetical and Logical Unit (ALU)

Computer’s has to do a large number of calculations and computations. ALU
is designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations, like add, subtract,
multiply, divide and logical operations of and or comparisons such as less
than, equal to or greater than. It can do complex calculations with fast speed.

ALU takes data from memory unit and returns information to memory unit.
ALU used a number of registers and accumulators for short-term storage of
characters while doing calculations or computations.

Control unit
This unit controls the internal functioning of the computer and input or output
units the control unit directs call operations inside the computer. It is known as
nerve center of the computer. It manages and co- ordinates the entire
computer system.

This unit obtains instruction from the programs stored in main memory,
interprets the instructions and issues signals that cause/ help other units of
the system to execute them.

Input Unit
Input unit is a device which provides man to machine communication with
computer. Input of any form is first converted into binary electronic signals
(0 &1), which can be understood by CPU. This process is called digitizing.

Inputs data may be linguistic, mechanical, graphical, and audiovisual.

 Linguistic input is given to computer by keyboard or punch cards,

floppy disk, magnetic tape and cassettes.
 Audio input is given to computer through voice data entry (VDE),
which has got a microphone.
 The graphical data is put in computer with the help of electronic
data tablets (digitizers)

Work of input unit

 The input units converts our everyday languages into binary
patterns for the machine and transfer it to the memory.
 The memory stores the input information (the program and data). It
also stores the data processed in the arithmetic unit.
 Data and instructions from the memory are transferred to control
unit and from arithmetic unit by the control unit.
 The arithmetic unit processes the data and sends it back to the
memory.

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  From the memory, the processed data is converted from binary
patterns to humanly understandable language.

OUTPUT UNIT
Output unit of computer gives result. The output coming from the CPU is in
the form of electronic binary signals which needs conversion to make it
understandable by human beings, i.e. graphical, alphanumeric in human
language, audio – visual. Output units perform this function. The output
can be given:

1. On the screen by visual display unit.

2. In printed form by printers
3. In graphic form by plotters.
4. In audible sound form by speech synthesizers.
5. Through other output devices.

Computer System Memory

Memory is a location to store something. Computer memory is used to store
data, information and programs. A computer works like the human brain,
computer can’t do work without it.

Computer uses two types of storage or memory.

Memory
Internal / Primary External / Secondary
Ram Rom Floppy Disk
Dram Sram Prom EPROM EEPROM HARD DISK

CD ROM

TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTERS

Primary or Internal memory

Internal memory is known as main memory or primary memory. The primary
memory of a computer stores the data provided by the user and the
instruction provided by the programs. It is a portion of CPU where current data
or program resides for execution in computer.

It stores the results also which can be there after transferred to output unit.
The primary memory is placed on the motherboard in the form of chips.

Computer’s main memory is formed by a large number of basic units i.e.

“memory cells”. Computer at lightning speed can retrieve any data or
instruction stored in the memory. Main high-speed memory is limited in size
and costly to buy.

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Main memory stores:
 Instructions waiting to be obeyed by other components of the CPU.
 Instructions currently being obeyed.
 Data waiting processing.
 Data currently being processed.
 Processed data awaiting output.

Use of Primary memory

The primary storage section is used for four purposes.

1. Data are fed into an input storage area where they are held until ready
to be processed.
2. A working storage space is used to hold the data being processed and
the intermediate result of such processing.
3. An output storage area holds the finished results of the processing
operations until they can release.
4. The primary storage section contains a program storage area that
holds the processing instructions.

Classification of Primary Memory

Primary memory classified into following group
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read only memory)

1. RAM
Whenever a computer receives any information, it stores it in the RAM. Input
data is stored in this memory before it goes to the processor for actual
processing. The storage capacity of RAM may vary in different computers.
The characteristics of RAM are: -
 We can read data from RAM as well as write data onto RAM. Ram
is also called Read and w0rite memory.
 Ram is volatile, because information stored in RAM is lost when the
computer is switched off.

RAM can be of two types

1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
2. SRAM (Static RAM)

1. DRAM – (Dynamic RAM)

In DRAM the memory element have less retention period and loses its value
unless it is refreshed. Refreshing is a process where the RAM is read and
rewritten. This kind of RAM requires extra circuits for refreshing. These are
relatively slow but less costly compared to static RAM. This kind of memory is
therefore used in mass scale.
A dynamic RAM chip provides volatile storage. The data stored are lost
in the event of power failure.

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2. STATIC RAM:
SRAM chips are also volatile storage devices. Static RAM elements once set
to their values, don’t loose them if the power supply doesn’t go off. If some
value is stored, it will remain in the main memory till the power is on. SRAM
chips are more complicated and take up more spaces for a given storage
capacity.
Static RAMS are faster, SRAM takes time to read from or write into any
location. SRAM is more expensive SRAM is not used for large memories.

Rom (Read Only Memory)

There are portions in the computer memory where no writing is allowed. The
contents are pre written and can only be read. Such memories are called
Read only Memory (ROM). It is used for micro-programs not available to
normal programmes.
The term read only means that the storage can’t be attired by regular
program instructions. The information from the memory may be read out but
rush information can’t be written into it (BIOS)

An important application of RAM is to stores tables, which don’t change Ex.

Table of, trigonometry.

Information stored in ROM is not lost if the computer is switched off. ROM is
non-volatile. ROM’s program.

TYPES OF ROM
ROM can be of following four types

1. Programmable read only memory (PROM)

2. Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)
3. Electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM)
4. Electrically alterable ROM (EAROM)

1. PROM
PROM are those in which the user can insert the contents of choice only
once. It can only be read and never written means recorded information can’t
be changed. PROM is non-volatile storage.

2. EPROM
In EPROM information can be erased and the chip can be programmed
to record different information. Eraser is achieved by exposing the chip to
ultraviolet light. EPROM is also known as UPROM (ultraviolet PROM) or
EAPROM (electricity Alterable)

3. EAROM
It is a recently developed type of memory can be programmed and
erased by electrical signals. This type is called electrically alterable read only
memory.

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4. EEPROM
It is a memory, which can be easily re programmed by the application
of a small voltage.

Secondary Memory
This memory is designed for user. We can store information in permanent
form. These devices hold the mass of information, which may be transferred
for use during processing as and when required.

 It has much larger capacity but it is not as fast.

 Computer takes slightly more time to retrieve data from secondary
storage.
 Secondary memory is ultimate in sized and much cheaper than
main memory.

Advantages of secondary storage

 Secondary storage used to store programs and data is a machine –
readable form for processing. It provides a means of retaining
information on a permanent basis.
 It provides space for retaining working file’s, it is used to retain
copies of files.
 Secondary storage is external to the CPU. A secondary storage
device is also a peripheral device just as input or output device.
 Some secondary storage devices permit random access to data
others only serial access.
 Disk devices provide random access. It is possible to go direct to
any item.
 Tape devices provide serial access.

UNIT II

Input Devices
Those devices’s, which are used to giving instructions or data in CPU, are
known as input devices. Data and instructions must be entered into the
memory of the computer to perform computation. The input devices carry out
this task.

All input devices provide data to memory in binary form (codes of 0.41)
working principles of each device is different. All devices will have an
interface, which will enable the device to communicate with the system.

Functions of Input devices

1. It accepts (read or input) the data form outside world.
2. It converts the data into the ASCII code or binary form.
3. It sends data in binary form to the computer for further processing.

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Names Of Input Devices
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Light Pen
4. OCR (Optical Character Reader)
5. OMR (Optical Mark Reader)
6. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)
7. Bar Code Reader
8. Joy stick
9. Voice Recognition
10. Digital camera
11. Web Camera

1. Keyboard
It is a general-purpose device as like a typewriter machine. We can
type alphabets, numerical and special characters through it. A computer
contains only binary number in the form of 0 &1. It has some function keys
also. It is connected with CPU.

2. Mouse
This device is worked on GUI (Graphical user interface) based
applications GUI based application contains written commands. We use a
mouse click to execute these commands. It is connected with CPU. Mouse
has two button left and right.

3. Light Pen
Light pen is a free hand writing pen. We can draw any sketch and can
do signatures. This device is connected with CPU. This pen contains the laser
beams to draw anything. It is used over the screen (monitor) and light pen
pad.
One can sign an authority letter from far place by light pen.

4. OCR (Optical Character Reader)

It is a special device. It reads only special character, which is known as
optical character. These optical characters are in combination of black and
white. Computer reads 1 for the black and 0 for the white character.

Scanner is also a part of OCR. It is like as photocopy machine. Through this

device we can input image and data inside of computer. This device doesn’t
give a hardcopy result as like photocopy machine.

There are two types of scanners:-

1. Hand remote scanner
2. Flat bed scanner

Hand remote scanner is used for small images. Composing for visiting cards,
marriage card and monos.

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5. OMR (Optical mark reader)
It is also a special device. It is used in the examinations like in railway,
bank or PET Exam. This device reads special characters, which are
appeared on computerized sheet. The software handles this device.

6. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)

This device is used only in banks. It read MICR number, which are
appeared or mentioned at the bottom of cheque or drafts. These numbers are
used to stop delicacy.

There are two types of MICR number fonts: -

1. E-13 B font style

This type of font is used in India and U.S.A. It contains 0 to 9 numbers
and 4 special characters.

2. CMC- 7 Font style

This style is used in Europe. It contains 0 to 9 numbers and a to z
alphabets and 5 special characters.

7. BAR CODE READER

It is a special device, which reads the bars and appeared on various
items. This device stops the delicacy of the products. Each bar contains the
manufacturing number and item.

CODE NUMBER

8. Joystick:
This device is similar to mouse. But is not used nowadays. This device
contains a stick, which can easy to move. The mouse pointer is moved on the
screen according to movement of stick. But today mouse is used in place of
that.

9. VOICE RECOGNITION
It is also an input device. It detects voice.

10. DIGITAL CAMERA

Digital camera is also an input device. Through this device we can
store still photographs in a computer. This device can work with computer as
well as without computer.

11. WEB CAMERA

This camera is mostly used in Internet. This device reads the moveable
movies but it doesn’t work without computer.

OUTPUT DEVICES:
Those devices, which are used to give a softcopy or hardcopy result is
known as output devices. This output can be displayed on monitor or printed
on paper by using a printer.

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Names of output devices: -
1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Plotters
4. Speaker

Hardcopy result can be derived from printer. Softcopy result can be seen on
monitor.

1. Monitor or visual display unit: -

A screen like T.V. connected to the computer is called the video display
unit (VDU). It displays graphics, characters and number on screen.

Monitor has following characteristics: -

1. The computer has a screen to display output.
2. The computer screen is called VDU or monitor.
3. The monitor of the computer resembles a television screen.
4. It can display colored as well as black and white output.
5. A computer can display data in two modes, text and graphics. In text
mode, individual characters are displayed. In graphics mode, images
are displayed.
6. Images are formed on the monitor’s screen by a card called the display
adaptor card. The PC can’t display output without this card.
7. This unit provides soft copy result.
8. We can see its output visually.

Types of Monitor

There are two types of monitors is used to see the results

1. Colour monitor
2. Monochrome monitor

1. Colour Monitor
There are three basic colors used in this monitor. Red, Green, Blue
(RGB). Today color monitors are only available.

2. Monochrome monitor
Monochrome monitor used only two basic colors black and white.
Monitors create information in the form of dots.

Two types of picture tubes are used in a monitor.

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal display)

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

A cathode ray tube screen is generally found in desktop workstations. It
is larger transportable PC models. It is broad. It can’t move easily and
cheaper. It is not used in small portable computer.

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2. LCD
LCD is costly. It occupies less space. It can move easily. Its picture
quality is better.

RESOLUTION
This inside of the screen is coated with dot of phosphorus called pixel.
It can be used for games or graphics or displaying the result of a calculation
done by computer. The more is the number of pixel or dots in a screen, the
better will be the capacity of computer to display on information. This
capability is known as resolution.
Resolution is an important measure of the quality of a monitor. For
monitors the resolution refers to the size of the pixel used in graphics. Pixels
are large in medium resolution graphics and pixels are small in high-resolution
graphics. The resolution ranges change as technology.

DOT PITCH
Dot pitch is not a hardware component. It is a method that is used in a
monitor. Through this option can check the quality of resolution. If two pixels
gape is more increased, monitors resolution isn’t good. The gape of two pixels
can be measure with the help of dot pitch. Pixels are set by machine.

REFRESH RATE
Refresh rate is a method. This option is used for monitor. We can see
the changes of screen with the help of this option.

Right click on desktop - Setting – can set pixel and colour.

Video Cards
1. VGA (Visual graphic adaptor)
2. SVGA (Super visual graphic adaptor)
3. XGA (extended graphic adaptor)

Through this card pixel, monitor colors and resolution can be set. Each card
provides option of different color and pixels.

Best video card is SVGA. It can provide thousands of colors. It provides more
pixels. We can set colors and pixels in windows.

Right click on desktop – setting – can set pixel and colour.

PRINTER
It is an output device used to produce the hard copy of information on
paper. It is used to print the results of an operation performed by the
computer. Printers are popular output devices. The output information is in the
permanent readable form.

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Types of printer
Printer is divided into three parts they are:
1. Character printer
2. Line printer
3. Page printer

1. Character Printer: This printer prints only one character at a time. In

this printer character size is fixed previously. Example: - Dot matrix
printer.
2. Line printer: This printers print an upper part of complete line. It prints
one line of text at a time. In this printer alphabets size are not fixed.
That’s why its prints text as well as graphical information. Example: -
Chain or drum printer
3. Page printer: This printer can print both types information text as well
as graphical information. It can print one page at a time. Its speed is
very fast Example: - Laser printer.

Printer is divided into two categories

1. Impact printer
2. Non impact printer

1. Impact printer
Those printers, in which hammer technology is used for printing, are
known as impact printer. In impact printer the typeface means head or needle
strike on an inked ribbon and makes a mark on the paper. The most
commonly used impact printer is the dot matrix printer.

Type of impact printer:

1. Dot matrix printer
2. Drum printer 300 to 2000 lines per minute
3. Chain printer 400 to 2500 character per minute
4. Daisy wheel printer 10 to 50 cps.

Dot Matrix printer

Dot matrix print characters, which are formed by using dots. It speed
range is 30 CPS to 600 CPS (character per second). It can print both text and
graphics. These types of printer can print in any language without any
additional hardware. They can be made to print in different colors by changing
ribbons. DMP is mainly used to print internal reports and memos needed by
organization.

DMP has following features:

The printer head of DMP has a vertical array of pins. As the head
moves across the paper, pins strike on inked ribbon to form a pattern of dots
on the papers. Using 5 dot rows and 7-dot columns form the capital letters. It
is called 5x7 matrix.
There are pins in the print head the bottom 2 pin is used for dissenting
letters of lower case like p.q.g.y. DMP’s are very versatile. It character set can
be changed by software for different styles, alphabets or graphic symbols.

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 DMP are capable of faster printing speed than solid font printers. Its
printing character quality is not quite good. A 5x7 matrix produces readable
text but other matrix sizes are also used.

Non impact printer

Those printers in which hammer technique isn’t used called non-impact
printer. In non- impact printers, there is no contact between the typeface
(head or needle) and the paper while printing. It does not have any
mechanism to strike. It uses the chemical, thermal electrostatic, and laser
beam or inkjet technology for printing. These types of printers are faster than
the impact printers.

Names of non impact printers

1. Laser printer 2. Thermal

3. Ink jet printer

Laser Printer
A laser printer uses a beam of light to form images on the paper. Laser
printers are used for printing both text and graphics. This printer uses a laser-
produced light to charge a photo conductive in the latest image of the
characters to be printed. These printers are capable of very high speed. It can
print 15,000 lines per minutes.

A laser printer prints characters completely. It makes no noise. Laser

printer is expensive. The speed is measured in pages. It prints app. 4 to 20
pages in one minute. These printers provide the finest printing quality. Laser
printers are able to print different objects in various shapes and sizes.

2. Thermal
This is a type of the impact dot-matrix printer. In this printer needles are
pressed against heat sensitive paper to form characters. There is very little
noise with thermal printing. The advantage of this printer is that the terminals
unit is much quieter. The disadvantage is that special type of paper is must for
this. It is not possible to produce multiple copies through it.

3. Inkjet Printer
An inkjet printer produced characters by spraying small ink droplets
onto paper. A high frequency electrical generators used to vibrate and throw
off tiny ink droplets, supplied from a reservoir. This type of printer has high
speed. It prints 45,000 lines per minute with software control of styles and size
of characters. It is a costly machines, it is used for large volumes of printed
output. It provides color printing in its some models.

3. Plotter:
This device is similar to a printer. Plotter is used for graphical output
like pie charts, bar charts ands graphs etc. Engineers and architect use this
device. It is used for designing. Plotters produce good quality drawings and
graphs have been designed. Through it we print maps and designs of

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machines. Plotters used a free hand head. This can easily move in any
direction. It is a special purpose device. There are two types of plotters.

 Drum plotter
 Flat bed plotter

 Drum plotter
In drum plotter the printing paper is mounted on a rotating drum. A pen,
which can move linearly, is mounted on a carriage. The drum can rotate in
both directions clockwise or anti-clock wise under the control of plotting
instructions sent by the computer. The pen can move left to right or right to
left. The pen can also move up or down.

 Flat bed plotter

A flat bed plotter has a stationary horizontal plotting surface on which
paper is fixed. The pen is mounted on a carriage, which can move in either
direction. The pen can move up and down. A graph plotting computer
program is used to move the pen to. Trace the desired graph

4. Speaker
This output device provides soft copy result in the form of sound.
Sound card is compulsory to install in a computer to get result in speaker.
Sound card is must to insert the pins of speaker. It consists in CPU. It is fixed
in motherboard Nowadays sound cards are inbuilt in the computer.

UNIT – III

Secondary Memory
This memory is designed for user. We can store information in permanent
form through this. This memory is divided into two important categories.

1. Sequential or serial memory

2. Direct or random memory

1. Sequential or serial memory

In this memory we can store read information’s in a sequential method.
It is a time consuming memory. That’s why nowadays this memory is not in
use audio - cassette.

2. Direct memory
In this memory we can store information and remove also so that why
today all memory devices using this concept .

Types of secondary memory

1. Hard disk
2. Floppy disk
3. Compact disk (CD)
4. Winchester disk

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 5. Magnetic tape
6. Cartridge tape

1. Hard Disk
Hard disk is an expensive storage device. Because this device
contains disc as well as drive. Its storing capacity is highest. This device
worked on a direct storage method. This device is fixed inside of CPU. Two
types of heads are used in hard disk.

A. Moveable head
B. Non moveable head

A. Movable head
In this category there is only one head. It is moved at the surface of the disk.

B. Non moveable head

This type of head contains too many heads according to tracks of disk. Head
doesn’t move at the surface of disk.
Storing capacity
1 character takes = 1 byte space
8 byte= 1 bit
1 KB = 1024 byte
1 MB = 1024 kilobyte
1 GB= 1024 megabyte
Computer stores in only bit (0,1)

2. Floppy Disk: -
It is a direct storage device. A small flexible disk used as storage
medium for small computer is known as floppy disk. It is used to store
information. Its storing capacity is very low. Its storing capacity is 1.44 MB.
This device is coated with magnetic particles. It is one of the most common
storage media that is usually used to move data from one location to another.
The disadvantage of a floppy disk is that it is prone to damage by heat and
dust.
Today several sizes of floppies are available
(1) 3.5” inch floppy (2) 5.25 inch floppy (3) 8 inch floppy

1. 3.5 inch floppy

It is a very small size floppy. This disk is covered with hard plastic. It is
dust free. It storing capacity is 1.44 MB. It has write protected notch.

2. 5.25 Inch floppy

Its size is greater than 3.5 floppy. Its body cover is very soft. It is
easily damaged by dust as dust can insert in it. It has write-protected notch. If
button is down. We can read information only. We can’t change information of
it. Can’t write or copy any information, virus also cannot be shifted. If button is
up. We can do all write, copy and virus can be shifted also.

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3. Compact Disk
It is also a direct storage device. This device stores more than floppy
but less than hard disk. It is much reliable comparatively, floppy disk. Its
storing capacity is 650 MB to 750 MB. This disk is coated with magnet
particles. In a CD only one side can be used for reading or writing purpose.

CD is divided into two parts.

1. CD – R (Compact disk receivable)
2. CD-RW (Compact disk readable write able)

1. CD-R:
In this CD only one time information can be write but we can read
information as and when we required. It is very cheap. Its cost is approximate
Rs.10 to 50.

2. CD-RW:
In this disk we can read & write information’s so many times. This disk
is very costly. Its cost is app. 250 to 300. Storing capacity of both types is
same about 650 MB to 750 MB.

4. Magnetic Tape:
It is an old storage device. It is worked on sequential basis. This device
is not currently used because it is a time consuming device. It stores
information in the form of MB. The advantage of this device is that it is most
reliable storage device. Magnetic tape is used where information have to keep
for many years. Some information’s that are kept in it like scientific formulae,
documentary of any operation. A separate device is used to fit magnetic tape.
There are two wheels in this storage device. This device is too big can’t move
easily.

5. Winchester Disk:
This disk is similar to hard disk. But this disk works fast in comparison
of hard disk. It is cheaper than hard disk. If some problem exists in disk, it
can’t be repair because it is packed with a lubricant. It is used in big computes
like mainframe. Its storing capacity is in MB. It is air-free because it is sealed.

6. Cartridge Tape:
Cartridge tape is a storage medium that is used to store large amounts
of data. It has two wheels. Its appearance is similar to a videocassette. It is a
cheap and reliable storage device. This tape is covered with a plastic cover. It
is used in large machines. Retrieving data from a cartridge tape takes time.
This tape is used to make a back up. It is mostly used in banks. This device
takes backup from only hard disk.

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7. Zip Drive:
Zip drive is a storage device similar to floppy. But its size is greater
than floppy. Its body cover is harder than floppy. Its storing capacity is app.
100 Mb. Zip drive can be fixed in CPU and zip floppy can be insert only in it.
Zip drives are gaining popularity in the market. Zip disks are used for lacking
up hard disks and transferring large files. It is used to create zip disks.

Floppy:
 It may cause physical damage and hence loss of data.
 Always keep the floppies inside a paper cover. Don’t expose it to
dust or heat.

Data Storage and Retrieval Method

1. Sequential method
2. Direct method
3. Index Sequential method

1. Sequential Method:
In sequential method information can be stored and retrieve in
sequential concept. This method is implemented only in a sequential method
device like magnetic tape. It is a time consuming method. That’s why today
this method is not used.

2. Direct Method:
This method is known as Random method. Because any information
can be stored or retrieve directly in this method. This method is worked only
with optical disk like floppy, CD, hard-disk etc. It is mostly used method in
computer field because it is a time saving method.

3. Index Sequential Method:

This method is similar to direct method. It is used in a direct storage
device like hardisk, floppy, CD etc. But in this method information can be
retrieve through indexing because indexing is much faster.

COMPUTER VIRUS
About virus :
Virus is a destructive program. It is destroyed the information of a
system. This program is automatically executed in a computer and it
increases automatically. If virus is inserted in a computer. Working of system
will be automatically changed. Virus is similar to diseases, which infect the
body the human being.
Two Pakistani brothers develop first virus in 1988. “Virus” name is
“Brain virus”. This virus infected the boot sector of a storage device. Virus can
insert through CD, floppy or hard disk.

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Problems That Can Be Created In Computer, By Virus
1. Computer’s speed becomes slow
2. Files and folders names are automatically changed.
3. Files and folder’s icons are changed.
4. File size is changed. File size is increases.
5. File extension is automatically changed.
6. File information destroys slowly.
7. The process of shut down became automatically slow. It takes two
much time to shut down.
8. System booting process became slow.

Different Types of Virus Creates Different Problems

Basic Types of Virus
1. Boot sector virus
2. File virus
3. Table partition virus.

1. Boot Sector Virus:

This virus is attacked on bootable sector of a storage device. Bootable
virus affected when the computer is booted. This virus first loaded in a
memory then booting process is started. This virus infected the system files of
bootable sector like MSDOS.Sys, Command.com. etc.

2. File virus:
This virus is directly attacked on stored files of a system. Whenever a
file is opened, virus attacked on it automatically. It corrupts the information of
a file. So that file can’t do work properly. It destroys the contents of files which
are opened by censes. This virus is loaded automatically when the booting
process of computer is completed.

3. Table Partition Virus:

This virus is used to destroy the partition table of any storage device. If
a partition of a table is destroyed. System can’t access particular part of hard
disk. The other drives of disk exists but can’t reach at other drive. We can’t
see other drives and can’t get files or stored information of that drive. It is
necessary to destroy virus or format the disk to reach at other drive.

Other virus:
In this case virus can be attacked on any part of our system and the
working will be differed like changing extension, virus of formatting hard disk,
memory virus etc.

Types of Virus:
1. Brain Virus
2. Pentagon
3. Friday -13
4. 1 April
5. Saturday

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6. Isralti Virus
7. Dog virus
8. Night Virus
9. Rabbit virus
10. Desktop
11. Folder

Antivirus :
Antivirus is also a program. Through this we can trap the system virus
and then remove it, Anti virus is similar to medicine. Today several types of
Anti viruses are available like Norton Anti Virus, PC-Cilline, boot-p etc. It is
necessary to update anti virus. Today through Internet we can easily update
anti virus. Anti virus is also available piratedly. Norton is most popular anti
virus. It detects any type of virus. If we installed this anti virus in our
Computer. This anti virus scan disk, when user give any instruction.

Methods To Prevent from Virus

1. Floppy must be scan by anti virus before use.
2. Before to copy or download any file from Internet, It should be scan by
anti virus.
3. Right protected notch should be used in floppy.
4. Games should not be played in computer

Basic sources of virus are

1. Storage device (CD, floppy, hard disk)
2. Through Internet

UNIT IV

SOFTWARE

Software:
Software is a collection or set of commands or set of instruction, which
can be seen only but can’t touch, is known as software. Software is basically
designed to solve any task. Computer system is whole operated and handled
by software, software’s like Word, Excel, Paintbrush, Dos, Window’s etc.

Software is divided into three categories.

1. System Software or operating software

2. Application software
3. Utility software

1. System software:
That software’s which are used to operate whole computer system is
known as system software. System software is a collection of programs,
which are designed to operate control and extend the processing capability of
the computer system. System software comes along with computer system.
These programs are used for starting the computer, controlling and managing

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its resources, converting high level language program to machine language or
for some specific purposes.
System software is known as operating system. In a computer as
operating system. In a computer at least one system software is essential.
Because system software is operating each and everything of our computer,
like memory management, user instructions hard work components, files and
application software etc.

Today several types of system software’s are available like DOS, Windows,
Unix, and Linux etc.

Types of operating system

1. Single user operating system.
2. Multi user operating system.
3. Time sharing operating system.
4. Batch processing operating system.
5. Multi processing operating system.
6. Multi tasking operating system.
7. Multi programming operating system.

2 . Application software
This software is basically designed to solve any task. Application
software worked over system software. In other words we say application
software depends on system software like word, excel.
Application software is basically designed according to need for
requirement. Application software can be developed using a computer
language. These are developed in high- level languages such as COBOL, C,
Visual tools etc.

3. Utility software
Utilities are programs, which performs a specific function. Utilities are
part of system programs. Utility programs are generally supplied by the
computer manufacturer and also available for the call up by the operating
system. This software is designed to perform any task with operating system.
Most utility software are inbuilt like scandisk, compiler, interpreter etc. We can
increase the speed of computer and take maintenance care through utility
softwares. Utility program related to software maintenance, unnecessary files
are created by system and they are deleted by utility program. Example: -.
Antivirus.

Translator
Translator is software. Through this we can convert any language
source code into other language. It is a mediator. It works between user
source code and machine.
A digital computer accepts digits and alphabets as input. All inputs are
translated into machine language by translator, which is understandable by
computer.

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Translator can be classified into the following categories.

1. Compiler
2. Interpreter
3. Assembler

1. Compiler
A compiler is program’s that reads a program and translate it into
machine code. Through this software, we convert a high level language into
machine language. Today most programming languages used compiler.
Compiler reads a whole program at a time. It occupies less space of memory
and debugging process is also very fast (check and analysis).

2. Assembler
Through this software we convert the source code of assembly
language into machine language. But today this software is not in use.

3. Interpreter
An interpreter functions like a compiler. It takes one statement of
program at a time and translates into machine code. Through this software we
convert high level language to machine language. This software occupies
more space of memory and debugging process is also very slow. Interpreter
is oldest translator. Advance form of translator is compiler.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

Compiler
1 It compiles a whole program at a
time.
2 Its debugging process is fast
3 It shows all errors at a time.
4 It occupies less space of memory
5 Compiler reads source code every
time before execution.
6 If any change is made in program
it will not read the program.
Interpreter
Interpreter read a single line at a time.
Its debugging process is slow
It shows errors one by one
It occupies more space of memory
Interpreter reads source code only
one time at the beginning.
If we change anything in your
program then it will read the program.

Language
Language is a system for communicating. A language consists of all
the verbal and written symbols and expressions that are used to exchange
ideas and information. In computer science, human languages are known as
natural languages. Computer cannot understand natural languages. We must
communicate with computer using special computer languages.
A computer language is the set of keywords, statements, commands
and data addresses that a computer can execute and give required results.

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In computer there are two types of languages.

1. High level language

2. Low level language

1. High level language

It is a famous language. It is known as user-friendly language. Because
general English words are used. This language can be run on any type of
machine. It’s a modification of low- level language. We can understand
program, which are written in this language. But the execution of program is
slow. Because high- level language first convert into machine language. In
this language no security is for source code. Because anyone can understand
the source code easily.
High level Compiler Machine
Language Interpreter Code
Advantages of High Level Language
1. They are easier to learn than assembly languages.
2. They require less time to write.
3. They provide better documentation.
4. They are easier to maintain.
5. A programmer skilled in writing programs in such language is not
restricted to using a single type of machine.

2. Low Level Language:

It is an oldest language. Everyone cannot understand this language
because low-level language is a machine language.

This language is divided into two categories:

(i) Machine Language

(ii) Assembly Language

(i) Machine Language:

This language is not easy to understand. Because in this language 0,1
code is used. This code is also known as binary code. This language can’t be
run on any machine (computer). It’s not a user-friendly language. This
language provides the security because it is not easy to understand (0,1)
code. In this language execution of program is also fast. Computer
understands it without translation.

(ii) Assembly Language:

This language is developed in low -level language. In this language
mnemonic code is used. This code is in the form of general English. These
codes are basically designed for mathematical calculation like add, subtract
Div. etc. This language is not used today. Assembly language allows symbolic
addressing.

ASCII
(American standard code information interchange)

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 Today most computers are used ASCII number code system. ASCII
code is 7-bit number system. In this number system first four bits are for
number and next three numbers are for zone part. ASCII code has 0 to 255
characters. In this code a to z. alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers and many special
characters are used.
ASCII code is used for small computers like micro & mini.

2. EBCDIC Code:
(Extended binary coded decimal information code).
In this code there are 256 characters are used. This number is of 8
bits. First four bit for numbers and next four (bit) numbers are for zone part.
This number system is used in big computers like Macintosh, apple, super
computer etc.

3. BCD :
(Binary Coded Decimal)
It is an oldest number system but today this number system is not
used. This number system is basically designed for decimal number. It is 4-bit
number system. In this number system each decimal digit represents four bits.

UNIT V

SIGNAL

1. Analog Signal:
Analog signal’s frequency level always fluctuates so the information and data
which are received through it are not accurate. These signals are used in
telephones, radio, weather forecasting etc. These signals are in the form of
wave. Its frequency is never stable. They are fluctuated. That’s why it gives
probable result not accurate.

Wave Signal
Fluctuate frequency

1. Analog Signal
Analog signal is divided into two parts.
i. Periodic ii. Aperiodic

i. Periodic:
In periodic signals , the distance of one signal to other is same.

ii. Aperiodic:
Its distance is not same. The distance of one signal to another is
changed.
Changed Frequency
Aperiodic Signal

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2. Digital Signals
These signals worked on fixed or constant frequency. Data received
from these signals are right and accurate. These signals use in calculators,
watches, computer etc. It frequency is not in the form of wave so they give
right result.

Digital Signals
Digital signal is divided into two parts.

i. Periodic ii. Aperiodic

i. Periodic:
In periodic the distance of one signal to other is same.

Constant Frequency
Periodic Signal

ii. Aperiodic:

Its distance is not same. The distance of one signal to another is

changed.

Changed Frequency
Periodic Signal

MODULATION
1. Amplitude Modulation:
It is used in analog signal. Through this we can get (calculate)
amplitude value between points of two signals. We can count distance
between two points like A to B, C to D or any two, points of signal.

2. Frequency Modulation:
Through this we can calculate how many analog waves are formed in a
second. We can calculate how many Analog waves are created in one
second. The method is used on analog signal. It is used to find out that
frequency is not going low. If data can’t reach properly, we can control and
increase frequency.

3. Phase Modulation:
It is also worked on analog signal. Through this we calculate degree
and radian of analog signal.

Direction Of Transmission Flow

1. Simplex:
It is a communication channel. Information can be send in one
direction. But we can’t receive data from it. So it is called one-way channel
also.

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For example keyboard. It is a cheapest channel.

2. Half Duplex:
This communication channel is called two-way line also. In this we can
send information as well as received information. But can be done one work
at a time.
Example - Hard disk/Floppy disk

3. Full Duplex:
Full duplex is also a communication channel it is a costly
communication channel. It is also called two-way line channel. Data can be
sending and receive at a time in this channel.
Like telephone
Sender
Receiver

COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE
Communication software:
That software which is used in a network is known as communication
software, like oracle, FoxPro, MS Office etc. All these software’s are installed
in a server. That can be access in other system. These software’s give the
facility of communication.
Example. Yahoo.com. It is not software but website. It can be access in
every computer that has Internet connection.

Communication Protocols:
We need protocol for any communication in a network. Without
protocol we can’t do work in a network. There are different types of protocols
are available for each of them are working in a network. This protocol is
basically program or a set of rules. Protocols like FTP, TCP/IP, HTTP and
POP etc.

FTP: (File Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used for transferring of files.

TCP/IP: (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

This protocol (TCP) is used with FTP & IP protocol. It contains the address of
working.

POP: (Post office Protocol)

This protocol is used with the electronic mail (e-mail) to upload & download
E-Mails from server.

HTTP: (hypertext Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used to transfer hypertext (website) from server to client.

Communication Channels
1. Twisted cable
2. Fiber Optic cable

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3. Coaxial cable
4. Serial and parallel communication

1. Twisted Cable:
It is a very cheapest medium of communication. In this wires are
twisted in each other. This cable is mostly used in cable lines. But in this
cable, so many times information can be destroyed because signals are
collapsed (destroyed)/ mixed in each other. Because body cover of cable is
very thin. This cable doesn’t provide security as the signals collapsed. This
cable is used in local telephone lines.

2. Fiber Optic Cable:

It is a very costly cable. This cable is used in big networks line (convert
to another). In this cable there is no possibility of loosing of information
because inside of this cable there are glass particles is used. These glass
particles help to prevent in collapsing signal. A kind of cutter is used to cut
this type of cable. This cable contains poison. That’s why it is cut by Cutter
and can’t be cut easily without cutter. For the connection of two cables special
boxes are available. Through the boxes we can easily connect the cable.
There is a circuit inside it box and cable is connected in this box for sharp
signals.

3. Coaxial Cable:
This cable is widely used in the network because this cable is cheaper
than fiber optic cable but it is costlier than twisted cable. In this cable rate of
collapsing the signal is very low because this cable used a twice packing. One
is inner packing of cable and other is outer packing of cable.

4. Serial and Parallel Communication:

This cable is fixed inside of CPU. In a serial communication we can do
only one work at a time. If we serial a data we can’t receive. If we receive the
data we can’t send.
It is costly cable. We can do both work at a time. We can send as well
as receive the information. Because this cable contains two data bus. One for
receiving & ones for sending. Its speed is slow comparatively serial. Because
a cable is used for both work.

Data bus is cable.

MODEM
Modem is a hardware component. It is called hybrid also. It is used to
connect phone lines to computer. This device coverts analog signal to digital
signals and digital signal to analog signals. When any data comes through
phone line, Modem is used to convert signals. When any signal sends from
computer to phone lines, Modem converts these signals.

Modem is divided into two parts.

i. External Modem
ii. Internal Modem

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i. External Modem:
This modem is not fixed inside of CPU. It is connected outside of CPU.
This modem is costly because can easily shift this modem from one location
to another location and also easy to install in any computer. Two category of
modem is fax, voice.

ii. Internal Modem:

This modem is fixed inside of CPU. It is fixed on motherboard. It is not
a costly modem it can’t be taken from one location to another easily. Its speed
is less than external modem.

Types Of Connection

1. Dial up 2. Leased Line 3. ISDN

1. Dial up:
It is a program through which we can connect with Internet. In this
program telephone number is must for connection. This program is inbuilt with
windows operating system. First you have to dial telephone no. Which has
connected to our local telephone exchange. Then it switch to n/w. without
phone no. It can’t connect with n/w.

2. Leased Lines:
It is also known as dedicated line because we can only work with
Internet. We can’t do other work. In this type of connection there is no need to
dial phone no. Because this line is always connected with Internet but speed
of this line is very slow.

3. ISDN: (Integrated Services Digital network).

Through this line we can send the text, voice and graphical images in
form of digital signals. It is similar to phone line. It working fast because it
uses fiber optic wire. In this wire we also dial tel.no. Which is connected with
local telephone exchange. It is used in large network like one country to
another country. Information reach very fast.

Network:
Network is a collection of computers connected with each other to
transfer the data from one location to another.

There are 3 types of networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

2. WAN (Wide Area Network)
3. MAN (Metro Area Network)

1. LAN:
This network is worked on small area like connection between
computers in a single room. In a building or building to building.

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Topology of LAN:
(i) Star topology
(ii) Bus topology
(iii) Ring topology
(iv) Tree topology
(v) Mixed or mesh topology

(i) Star topology:

In this topology all computers are connected with single computer. In
this topology one computer is called host and remaining are nodes. All nodes
are directed connection with the server. If host computer doesn’t work then, all
nodes doesn’t work. It is an expensive topology because each node required
separate line.

(ii). Bus topology:

In this topology all the computers are connected with one computer.

(iii). Ring topology:

In this topology all the computers are connected in the form of ring and
data transmission can be possible in one direction. It is connected by single
cable.

(iv). Tree topology:

In this topology a single computer can provide more than one
connection and only single cable is used for making a connection. This
topology works like a braches of tree.

(v). Mixed or Mesh topology:

In this type of topology a single computer can connect with so many
computers. This topology is used to run, typical network. This topology is used
in WAN man also. It is very cheapest topology.

2. WAN
This network works between the cities or countries. WAN is possible with
two methods.
(i) Through satellite
(ii) Through telephone line.

3. MAN
This network is worked between metro cities.

COMPONENTS OF LAN
1. Media:
Through this we can work different types of activities like to watch
movies, songs, access the Internet and print any documents.

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2. NIC (Network interface card)
This card is fixed inside of CPU without this card no computer can be
connected with other. It is also called Ethernet card. It is necessary to install in
computer then we can connect systems. This card is fixed inside of CPU in all
computers of networks.

3. NOS: (Network operating system)

That operating system through which we can connect more than one
system and can make a network is called as network operating system, like
windows NT, Unix, Linux, novel NetWare (use to join).

4. HUB:
It is a hardware network component. This component is used in start
topology. It is also called workstation with the help of hub we can connect
node and services connections. Today different sizes of hubs are available
like a pin slot, 16-pin slot, 24-pin slot etc. In normal hub a pin slot for the
server and remaining for the node.

Through hub we also can identify which node is not working because
each slot provide the lighting facility. If light is not working is means particulars
node is not working. A rectangular & which has hole, called Dumbal,
Intelligent, and Smart port.

5. Repeater:
It is a network. This component is worked on single network. It is used
to increase the frequency of signals. It increases those frequencies which are
low there are two types of repeater.

1. Amplifier 2. Retransmit signal device

6. Bridge:

It is a network component. Bridge is used to connect two different types

of network but it is compulsory that network operating system must be same
type and software should be same of both network. This device is helpful to
transfer data from one network to other. If one network is Unix than other
network is also be Unix operating system. Protocols are different for different
operating system. But in bridge protocols must be same.

7. Router:
Router is also a network component. Through it two different networks are
connected to each other but in the network operating system must be same
but it is not compulsory that software should be same. In other words we say
that router works with two different protocols.
8. Gateway:
It is a network component. It is most powerful component is used to connect
two different type of networks & Both networks with different operating system
and software likes windows NT, Unix, Transfer information from one to
another.

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LASER PRINTER
Hardware Components
1. Drum
2. Toner - It contains ink.
3. Mirror - (laser beams reflect)
4. Laser beam
Laser beam points to mirror and mirror reflect those beams on drum
and drum reflects on tones and toner print reflects on page.
Inkjet Printer :
It has small bottles of ink. Each has small hole (nogle) through which ink supplied for
printing. The bottle is known as cartridge.
Laser Inkjet
1. Cost Less costly than laser
2. Quality sharp Quality is good but poor than laser
3. Black & white Colour & B/W print
(Latest an print)
4. Page prints Line prints
5. It prints character It Print in the form of dots.
6. Speed fast slow.
Impact Printer Non Impact Printer
1. Impact printers head strikes Non-impact printers head doesn’t strike.
while printing
2. Impact printers produced It doesn’t produce sound.
sound while printing
3. Its printing speed is slow. Its printing speed is fast.
4. Impact printers quality is not Its printing quality is good.
good
5. It prints a line at a time. It prints line wise and page wise also.
Inkjet -line laser- page.
6. It prints black & white. It can print both colour & b/w
7. Exa. Drum printer Daisy Exa. Inkjet, Laser Printer.
wheel, Dot matrix
8. Its maintenance cost is less. Its maintenance cost is more.
9. Impact printer can print Non-impact printer can print graphically
graphically but quality isn’t with good quality.
good.
10. It used ribbon for printing. It has cartridge or toner for printing
purpose.

Super Computer & Structure

1. Hard disk
2. RAM
3. Wide network – can connect 500 to 1000 computers. However
normally 250 computers.
4. Super computer’s memory is too large comparatively to normal.
5. Super computer’s size is very big. It has no portability. Normal
companies are portable.
6. Super computer can work on both Analog and Digital signal.

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 Normal computer works on either analog or digital signal.
7. Super computers microprocessor is very powerful than other computer.
8. Super computer is not a general-purpose computer. However all other

High Level Language Low Level Language

1 High-level language work on Low-level language. /machine
. English. language
2 High-level language isn’t machine Low-level language is machine
. dependent. dependent language. It can’t be run on
other machine.
3 High level is an understandable Low-level language is not
. language. understandable.
4 High-level languages execution is Its execution is fast. Because it isn’t
. slow because it has to convert to in translated.
machine language.
5 High-level language doesn’t Low level provides source security.
. provide security.
6 Error can be detected easily. In low-level language errors can’t
. detect easily.
7 In High-level language compiler & In assembly language assembler is
. interpreter are used. used.

Application software System software

1. Application software doesn’t use for System software is designed for system
system operating. operating
2. It is essential for user not for system. System software is essential for computer.
3. Application software can’t work without System software is do work without
system software. application software.
4. Application software is Word, Excel etc. System softwares are DOS, Windows,
Unix, and Linux.
5. Application software’s working is limited. System software’s working is unlimited.
6. Many people can use it. It has single user & multi user facility.
7. Application software can’t create System software is used/or can create
networking. networking.
8. It doesn’t provide tool for system System software provides system tools for
maintenance. system maintenance.

Batch Processing Time Sharing

1 Batch processing depends on time- Time-sharing doesn’t depend.
. sharing.
2 One process executed in one time. Time-sharing processes many
. process at a time.
3 Batch processing arranges a work in In time sharing work, doesn’t
. the form of a batch. arrange.
4 Batch processing work on FIFO. It doesn’t work on FIFO.
.
5 Batch processing works for a part if Time-sharing works for whole

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. system such as printing. system.

Multi Programming Multi Processing

1. Multi programming allows working Multi processing allows working on
on only program. any process or program like
calculations.
2. Multi programming is performed Multi processing is performed on one
on many computers. computer and many computers.
3. Programs can be made in multi Programs can’t create in multi
programming. processing.
4. Multi programming is stored in an Multi processing is stored in server.
individual system .
5. Multi programming depends on Multi processing depends on time-
multi processing. sharing.

Sequential Method Direct Storage Method

1. Sequential tool take too much time to Direct storage takes less time
retrieve data. in retrieving.
2. Ex. sequential magnetic tap Ex. Hard disk, Floppy, disk
CD.
3. Sequential storage stores the information In direct storage information
in sequence step by step. stores anywhere.
4. Data can’t be retrieved sequentially. Data can be retrieve from
anywhere directly.
5. Sequential method is used on sequential Direct storage is used on
storage device. optical disk type device.
6. Sequential doesn’t use fat. Direct storage used fat for
storing & retrieving.

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