CHAPTER II

REVIEW AND RELATED LITERATURE

The writing on the wall for a legendary blackboard chalk-maker.

LOCAL OYSTERS, OCEAN ACIDIFICATION, AND SPAT.

Five species of oysters are cultivated for food in the Puget Sound region: The Kumamoto
(Crassostrea sikamea), the Pacific (Crassostrea gigas), the Eastern (Crassostrea virginica),
the European (Ostrea edulis), and—the only native species—the Olympia (Ostrea lurida).

Nowadays, for some people, oyster shells are like trash. After eating the shell will be thrown into
the garbage bag. Oysters are a kind of crustacean animal that can be only seen in the sea. Oysters
have shells like turtles, which serve as protection from other harmful creatures. Some scientists
believe that many crustacean shells like mussels can give more strength. Oyster shells have 97%
calcium carbonate (CaC03). Some of the oyster shells are abundant like in the coastal area of the
Ilocos region. Oyster shells have the color of black and white. Some people make it a business.
Sometimes they sell it to the market. Oysters have many sizes some are big, small, and very big.
Oyster shells have many uses. Some businessmen make it as a necklace, bracelets, and some
accessories. it can also use as decoration for some people. Some are recycling it making new
useful things. Many people use also oysters and make the oyster sauce. Calcium carbonate is a
material used in agricultural lime and especially results in hard water. Calcium carbonate is also
used medicinally like in calcium supplements. Calcium carbonate

1:1Chemical composition and antioxidant properties of Philippine oyster (Crassostrea

iredalei) residue
This study evaluated the oyster residue, a by-product of oyster extract processing in terms of
chemical components (proximate, total amino acid, chemical score), physical properties and its
antioxidant activities (free radical scavenging activity, reducing power, and Gallic acid
equivalents).The extraction process involves homogenization with water, mild heat treatment and
filtration steps. The resulting residue was dried and pulverized. Analyses revealed that the
product contain 73.89 + 0.40% protein, 8.92 + 0.12 % lipid, 8.65 + 0.02% ash, and 3.98 + 0.05
% moisture with an Aw of 0.24. Amino acid profile (g/100g crude protein) shows that the
product contains the nine essential amino acids, having lysine (6.26g) and leucine (6.15g) as the
major components. Evaluation of the chemical score (CS) of the residue showed that tryptophan
(59.6) was the limiting amino acid. Essential amino acid index (EAAI) of 94.9 indicates that the
EAA balance of the residue is well balanced despite being deficient in tryptophan (Trp).
Antioxidant activities significantly increased with increasing sample concentration, suggesting
the potency of bioactive compounds responsible for its antioxidant capabilities. Results of the
study shows that oyster residue can be a good source of dietary protein and bioactive
compounds.

1:2 Use of extracts from oyster shell and soil for cultivation of Spirulina maxima.

Science.gov (United States)

Jung, Joo-Young; Kim, Sunmin; Lee, Hansol; Kim, Kyochan; Kim, Woong; Park, Min S; Kwon, Jong-Hee;
Yang, Ji-Won
2014-12-01
Calcium ion and trace metals play important roles in various metabolisms of photosynthetic organisms. In this
study, simple methods were developed to extract calcium ion and micronutrients from oyster shell and
common soil, and the prepared extracts were tested as a replacement of the corresponding chemicals that are
essential for growth of microalgae. The oyster shell and soil were treated with 0.1Â M sodium hydroxide or
with 10Â % hydrogen peroxide, respectively. The potential application of these natural sources to cultivation
was investigated with Spirulina maxima. When compared to standard Zarrouk medium, the Spirulina maxima
cultivated in a modified Zarrouk media with elements from oyster shell and soil extract exhibited increases in
biomass, chlorophyll, and phycocyanin by 17, 16, and 64Â %, respectively. These results indicate that the
extracts of oyster shell and soil provide sufficient amounts of calcium and trace metals for successful
cultivation of Spirulina maxima.

1:3 Oyster Shell Recycling and Bone Waste Treatment Using Plasma Pyrolysis

Science.gov (United States)

Jae, Ou Chae; Knak, S. P.; Knak, A. N.; Koo, H. J.; Ravi, V.
2006-11-01
Investigations on the recycling of oyster shells and bone waste treatment using the plasma pyrolysis technique
are presented in this paper. A arc based plasma torch operated at 25 kW was employed for the experiments.
Fresh oyster shells were recycled using the plasma torch to convert them to a useful product such as CaO.
Bone waste was treated to remove the infectious organic part and to vitrify the inorganic part. The time
required for treatment in both cases was significantly short. Significant reduction in the weight of the samples
was observed in both cases

RELATED STUDIES
Fossilized oyster shells, coral, fish bones, shark teeth, and other marine organisms can be found
in the ‘Chalk Pyramids’ or Monument Rocks that rise up from the flat plains of western Kansas.
These ancient chalky spires and buttes, 70 feet (21.34 meters) tall, are the remains of a massive,
warm and tropical, inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. From Wikipedia:

The Niobrara Formation, also called the Niobrara Chalk, is a geologic formation in
North America that was deposited between 87 and 82 million years ago during the
Coniacian, Santonian, and Campanian stages of the Late Cretaceous… The chalk
formed from the accumulation ofcoccoliths from microorganisms living in what was
once the Western Interior Seaway, an inland sea that divided the continent of North
America during much of the Cretaceous. It underlies much of the Great Plains of the
US and Canada. Evidence of vertebrate life is common throughout the formation and
includes specimens of plesiosaurs, mosasaurs, and pterosaurs as well as several
primitive aquatic birds.
Director of Smithsonian‍‍’‍s National Museum of Natural History Kirk Johnson visits Monument
Rocks in this clip from ONOVA’s Making North America. There are related teaching resources
here.