Industrial Electronics Syed Mamnoon Akhter

DELTA CONNECTED SYSTEMS:

 In Delta-connected generator, there is no neutral and the

windings are connected in the shape of Greek letter delta (∆).

 In a circuit that has equal phase voltages (called a balanced

circuit), the voltage between any two phases is equal to that of a
single phase. So, the line voltage and the voltage across any
winding are in phase. The line current, however is 120° out of
phase with the current in any of the phases.

and

POWER FACTOR:

 The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as

the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent

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power, and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1

(frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf).
 Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a
particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and
voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and
returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts
the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power can be greater than the real power.
 In a single-phase power systems, the power produced by a phase
is equal to PP = (VP IP)(Cosθ)
 The power factor (Cosθ) is the cosine of the phase angle between
the phase current and voltage.

 For 3 phase system Ptotal = 3VP IPCosθ= VL ILCosθ.

 Apparent power is PApp = 3VP IP= VL IL.

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UNIVERSAL MOTOR:

 Operates equally well on AC and DC.

 Electrically equivalent to DC series motor.
 If we supply AC then both armature
current and field reverse their direction after every half cycle and
hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant
direction.
 It differs somewhat from DC motors in their physical construction.
 Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them
useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair
dryers where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also
commonly used in portable power tools, such
as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics
work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors
exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other similar miniature
grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
 It is normally designed for capacities less than 1 hp (0.75 kW). It is
usually operated at high speed, 3500 revolutions per minutes
(rpm) loaded and 8000 to 10,000 revolutions per minute
unloaded. For lower speeds, reduction gears are often employed,
as in the case of electric hand drills or food mixers. As in all series

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motors, the rotor speed increases as the load decreases and the
no-load speed is limited only by friction and winding.

ADVANTAGE OF AC MOTORS:

 Availability of AC supply.
 Less expensive and smaller size.
 No use of brush and commutator in Induction motors.
 Well suited in constant speed applications.
 Speed control is easy using variable frequency drive.
 Reliable operation.

DISADVANTAGE:

 Expensive speed control.

 Inability to operate at low speeds.
 Poor positioning control.

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CLASSIFICATION OF AC MOTORS:

 AC motors can be classified in several ways.

 According to power ratting they may be classified as fractional
horsepower(less than 1HP) and integral horsepower motors (1HP
and above).
 These motors may be classified according to number of phases.
AC motors are either single phase or three phase. Single phase
motors are generally used in domestic applications, business farm
and small industrial applications. Three phase motors are used for
heavy industrial tasks
 One more basis to classify these motors is their internal structure.
AC motor can be classified as Universal motor, Induction motor
and synchronous motor.
 Synchronous and induction motors have two basic parts.
 Stator
 Rotor
 Stators for both types of motor are similar in construction.
 Stator is made of many laminated steel discs in order to reduce
eddy current and hysteresis losses.

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 The principle of rotating magnetic fields is the key to the

operation of most ac motors. Both synchronous and induction
types of motors rely on rotating magnetic fields in their stators to
cause their rotors to turn.
 The idea is simple. A magnetic field in a stator can be made to
rotate electrically, around and around.
 Another magnetic field in the rotor can be made to chase it by
being attracted and repelled by the stator field. Because the rotor
is free to turn, it follows the rotating magnetic field in the stator.
 To establish a rotating magnetic field in a motor stator, the
number of pole pairs must be the same as (or a multiple of) the
number of phases in the applied voltage. The poles must then be
displaced from each other by an angle equal to the phase angle
between the individual phases of the applied voltage.

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 The waveforms are of the two input phases, displaced 90°

because of the way they were generated in a two-phase
alternator.

 The waveforms are numbered to match their associated phase.

Although not shown in this figure, the windings for the poles 1-1A
and 2-2A would be as shown in the previous figure.

 At position 1, the current flow and magnetic field in winding 1-1A

is at maximum (because the phase voltage is maximum). The
current flow and magnetic field in winding 2-2A is zero (because
the phase voltage is zero). The resultant magnetic field is
therefore in the direction of the 1-1A axis

 At the 45odegree point (position 2), the resultant magnetic field

lies midway between windings 1-1A and 2-2A. The coil currents
and magnetic fields are equal in strength. At 90° (position 3), the
magnetic field in winding 1-1A is zero. The magnetic field in
winding 2-2A is at maximum.

 Now the resultant magnetic field lies along the axis of the 2-2A
winding as shown. The resultant magnetic field has rotated
clockwise through 90° to get from position 1 to position 3. When
the two-phase voltages have completed one full cycle (position 9),
the resultant magnetic field has rotated through 360°. Thus, by
placing two windings at right angles to each other and exciting
these windings with voltages 90° out of phase, a rotating
magnetic field results.

 Magnitude of this field remains constant but it changes its

direction continuously.

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 Speed of this field depends upon only one thing. i.e the frequency
of input wave. This speed is sometime referred as stator speed or
synchronous speed.

Where

f= frequency of applied voltage to stator windings.

P = number of poles / phase.

And nst=stator speed in rpm.

 Speed of stator is called synchronous speed because field is

synchronized to the frequency of supply voltage all the
times.

 Above equation shows that value of synchronous speed can

be controlled by

1. Frequency of input signal.

2. Number of pole.

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INDUCTION MOTOR:

 In all motors conversion of electrical power into mechanical

power takes place in the rotor.
 In DC motors, the electric power is directly conducted to the
armature (rotor) through brushes and commutator. Hence DC
motor may be referred as Conduction motor.
 In an induction motor rotor receives power not by conduction but
induction like a transformer. That’s why it is known as induction
motor.
 An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer
because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side
of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary
side.

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 The primary side's current evokes a magnetic field which interacts

with the secondary side’s emf to produce a resultant torque,
henceforth serving the purpose of producing mechanical energy.
Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction
motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives.
 Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial
motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes
(which are required in most DC motors) and thanks to modern
power electronics the ability to control the speed of the motor.

WHY DOES ROTOR ROTATES:

 When three phase supply is provided to 3 phase stator then a

rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude and rotational
speed equals to synchronous speed is setup.
 This flux cuts the rotor which is stationary. Due to relative motion
between stationary rotor and rotating field an emf is induced in
rotor according to Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction.
 Current in rotor produces a magnetic field in rotor. According to
Lenz’s law this field will tend to oppose Cause (relative motion
between rotor and stator field) and rotor tends to move in
rotating field’s direction.
 Rotor of induction motor cannot run at the same speed as stator.
 If it could turn at stator speed then no induction takes place in
rotor.

SLIP:

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 The difference between stator speed and synchronous speed.

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SLIP RING ROTOR:

 A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with
windings that are connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are
shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can
also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor
circuit, which can be beneficial in starting.

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Relative Motion – Slip:

• At standstill the relative speed of the rotating mmf is at a
maximum, therefore the frequency of the induced emfs is at a
maximum.
• Once the rotor is turning the relative speed, and hence frequency,
of the induced emf decreases.
• If the rotor is turning at synchronous speed, there is no relative
speed and therefore no induced rotor emf or rotor current flow.
Therefore there is no torque produced
• This is an impossible situation that cannot be achieved by normal
motor action.

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RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND ROTOR POWER

FACTOR:

 We know that in a DC motor armature torque is proportional to

the product of armature current and flux/pole.

 In case of AC motor torque is proportional to flux per pole , rotor

current and another factor i.e rotor power factor.

Or

 Where is rotor current at standstill and is rotor power

factor.

Or
 Since angle between E2 and I2 is 2.therefore torque will be
maximum at 2 is 45o lagging.
 This time rotor reactance will be equal to rotor resistance and
power factor is cos 45o=.7071.
 Beyond this point, if load on the motor is increased, the motor
can produce is called breakdown torque or stall torque.
 Full load torque is defined as the turning force generated by the
rotor when motor develops full rated load at rated speed.
 Maximum torque than an SCIM can produce is given by

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Where Trated is rated torque. nBR is speed at which breakdown occurs

and nrated is rated speed.

How to find rated torque?????

 Since power of any motor is given by

Where n is speed in r.p.m, T is torque in pound feet and P is

power in Watt

In our case it becomes

Solving for Trated

ROTOR emf and reactance in running comdition:

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Operating characteristics:
 SCIM is very similar to a transformer with rotating secondary.
 In a no load condition rotor cuts the turns of stator winding and a
cemf is generated in stator which limits stator current to a small value.
 As load is placed on the rotor shaft, speed of rotor slightly decreases
hence rotor current increases and motor torque also increases.
Increased rotor flux opposes the stator flux and lowers it slightly.
Stator cemf slightly decreases and stator current increases.
 A small reduction in speed may produce large increase in motor
torque hence it has variable torque constant speed motor.
 If motor is stalled then there will be large rotor current. This causes
very large stator current. When the motor is operated in this condition

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its operating voltage should be equal or less than half of the rated
voltage.

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s
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SPEED REGULATION:
 SCIM has excellent speed regulation. Only few percent change in
speed over the range from no load to full load.
 Suppose there is a motor with no load. As we load down the motor
slip increases and frequency of rotor current increases. The current in
the rotor also increases.
 This current produces stronger field and hence an increased torque
which is necessary to handle extra load. The speed stays
approximately the same.
 At starting, the slip in an SCIM is maximum and large current is
induced in rotor which produces torque needed to start the motor.
 As motor picks the speed, rotor frequency and rotor current
decreases. The torque continues to increase to its maximum value.
 It happens until a point is reached where enough current flows to
produce torque needed to handle load at constant speed.
 Speed regulation is given in %ge and calculated as

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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

 It runs either at constant speed or not all.

 While running it maintains a constant speed i.e. synchronous
speed. The only way to change it is to vary its supply frequency
(because NS=120f/p). In other words there is no slip.
 It is not self starting. It has to be run up to synchronous speed (or
near synchronous speed) by some means before it can be
synchronized to the supply.
 It is capable of being operated over a wide range of power factors.
Hence it can be used for power factor correction. Hence it can
reduce the cost of electricity.

Construction:

 The stator is similar in construction that of an induction motor.

 Integral horse power motors are salient poles.
 Salient poles are actually electromagnets with the pole pieces
projecting outward.
 Pole pieces are laminated. Coils of wire are wound around and are
connected to slip rings.
 In addition to the coil windings on the rotor it has many squirrel
cage bars. These bars play a role to start it. These bars are shorted
by end rings. These bars are sometimes called damper or

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amortisseur windings. Another function of these bars is to damp

the fluctuations in speed.
 There are 2 basic differences between SCIM rotor and damper in
SM. first, in the induction motor rotor bars are not evenly spaced
and located all around the rotor. In the SM, the damper windings
are located only on the pole faces.

 Second is that since there is no relative motion between stator

RMF and rotor hence no current flows through damper except
any speed variation in rotor.
 Motor pole pieces are laminated. These laminations are punched
together and wound with wire. These pole pieces are placed in
spider.

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 Squirrel cage bars are nonmagnetic material such as brass or

copper. Starting torque depends upon the resistance of these
bars.

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ROTOR EXCITATION:
 Rotor excitation means to provide magnetic field to rotor.
 There are many ways to excite the rotor.
1. DC generator: a DC generator is mounted on rotor shaft. As
rotor rotates generator also rotates and produces DC voltage.
This DC voltage is fed to rotor via slip rings. In case of large
current requirement a pilot DC generator is used to control main
DC generator. Problems with DC generators are maintenance
cost and down time for replacing brushes. Conductive dust due
to brush wear also creates some problem.

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2. To avoid above problems a brushless arrangement is used i.e. AC

generators are used. Since rotor needs DC current therefore 3
phase rectifiers are used to convert AC into DC. In case of higher
currents two alternators (pilot and main) should be used.

3. Another method called “static excitation” is used now a days

and becomes more popular. In this method AC from main power
line is rectified and controlled my SCRs.

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STARTING OF MOTOR:
 When 3 phase supply is fed to stator, then a rotating magnetic field is
produced. We can think stator as a two-pole rotating object rotating
with synchronous frequency in clockwise direction having poles Ns and
Ss. Now suppose rotor and stator are in the position shown below.

 In this case north poles repel each other hence rotor will move in
counter clockwise direction. But half a period later stator poles
interchange their positions i.e. Ns is at point B and Ss is at point A.
under these conditions Ns attracts S and Ss attracts N. hence rotor
tends to move clockwise. Hence total net torque of rotor is zero.
 SM needs a special system to start the motor. this system can be
internal or external.
 Internal systems use damper windings and SM starts as an induction
motor. DC excitation is not applied till the motor has accelerated to
almost synchronous speed.
 When DC excitation is applied rotor becomes magnetized. It’s one of
the salient pole becomes north and other becomes south. North and
south poles alternate around the salient pole rotor.

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 When a north pole on the stator passes over a particular pole, DC

power is applied. The south pole of rotor is attracted to the north pole
of the stator. The rotor then locks with the stator field. now speed of
rotor is exactly equal to synchronous speed that’s why it is known as
synchronous motor.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION:

 SMs are frequently used for power factor correction.
 3 basic problems arise due to low power factor.
1. Low supply voltage
2. High KVA ratting for the same load
3. More cost.
 SM is capable to produce both leading and lagging power factors from
0 to unity.
 Power factor is adjusted by adjusting exciting current.

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FRACTIONAL HORSEPOWER SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:

 They are synchronous motors have power ratting less than 1 HP.
 Most of them are non excited rotor motors.
 There are two major types.
1. Reluctance motor.
2. Hysteresis motor.

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NEED OF STARTING CIRCUITRY FOR MOTOR:

 The starting current of any heavy electric motor can be more than 4
times the normal load current it draws when it has gained speed and
has reached its normal running output power and temperature. 
 If it were started simply when connected in DELTA, the starting
current would be huge and - just to be able to start the motor, not to
run it normally - would require: 
 Large circuit breakers, big enough to allow the start-up surge current
to pass without immediately shutting it off.(But the breakers would
then be much too big to be able to protect the motor from over-current
faults whilst it is running normally.) 
 Very thick 3-phase power service cables. (But the cable would then be
much bigger than is necessary whilst the motor is running normally.) 
 Very large coils and contacts on the relays or contactors used to
control the motor. (But they would then be much bigger than is
necessary whilst the motor is running normally.)
 One solution to this problem is to start the motor in STAR and then,
when the motor has gained sufficient speed, change its connections to
DELTA to allow the motor to run at its full speed and torque from then
on. It's a bit like using the gears of an automobile. 
Technical explanation 
 When the windings of a 3-phase motor are connected in STAR the
voltage applied to each winding is reduced to only ( )of the
voltage applied to the winding when it is connected directly across
two incoming power service line phases in DELTA. 

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 The current per winding is reduced to only ( )of the normal

running current taken when it is connected in DELTA. 
 So, because of the Power Law V [in volts] x I [in amps] = P [in watts], 
the total output power when the motor is connected in STAR is: 
PS = [VL x ( )] x [ID x ( )] = PD x (1/3) [one third of the power in
DELTA] 
Where: 
VL is the line-to-line voltage of the incoming 3-phase power service 
ID is the line current drawn in DELTA 
PS is the total power the motor can produce when running in STAR 
PD is the total power it can produce when running in DELTA. 
 A further disadvantage when the motor is connected in STAR is that
the total output torque is only 1/3 of the total torque it can produce
when running in DELTA.
 The Star/Delta starter requires a six terminal motor that is delta
connected at the supply voltage. The Star Delta starter employs three
contactors to initially start the motor in a star connection, then after a
period of time, to reconnect the motor to the supply in a delta
connection. 

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