Literary History/Evolution of the Philippines

1. Pre-Colonial Period
• The evolution of Philippine literature depended on the influences of colonization and the spirit of the
age.
• The first Filipino alphabet called ALIBATA was replaced by the Roman alphabet.
• Indigenous Philippine literature was based on traditions and customs of a particular area of the
country.
• Philippines is an archipelago country, consisting several islands, (7,107 islands to be exact), and each
of those islands has its specifications of cultures and traditions, bearing different set of native
literature.
• Ancient literatures were written on the perishable materials like dried leaves, bamboo cylinder, and
bark of the trees.
• Literatures were handed down to us through the word of mouth.
There were two literary forms during the pre-colonial period: 
A. Written literatures
Examples:
a. Riddles or bugtong.
• These are effective ways to inculcate the ability of logical thinking of a child.
b. Epigrams or salawikain. 
• It reflects the hidden meaning through the good lines. It provides good values.
c. Poems or tanaga
• These are common forms of poetry which has a quatrine with 7 syllables each with
the same rhyme at the end of each line. It also expresses insights and lessons in
life. 
B. Oral literatures Examples:
a.  Chant
• It is used in witchcraft and enchantment. While, ambahan is a traditional poetry of
Hanunoo Mangyans of Oriental Mindoro which teaches lesson about life. It is
recited by parents to educate their children by the youth expressing their love, by
the old to impart experiences, or by the community in tribal ceremony.
b.  Balagtasan
• This is a Filipino form of debate done in verse. The term is derived from the surna
me of Francisco Balagtas the author of Filipino epic Florante at Laura.
 
2. The Spanish Colonial Period (1565-1897)
Sixteenth Century was the start of the deprivation of the indigenous Philippine literature. Spanish
colonial government finally got in the scene. They were able to manipulate literature by monopolizing it under
the religious orders. Literature evolves mainly on the themes of Spanish/ European culture and of course, the
Roman Catholic religion.
 
Literary Influences during Spanish colonization
A. Christian Doctrine or Doctrina Christiana was the first book ever printed in the Philippines in 1593
by the Dominican press.
B. Libro de la Lengua Tagala by Fernando Bagongbanta .Tagalog translations to the Spanish lines, still
the superiority of the Spanish language.
C. Pasyon influenced by the Spanish contexts of Christianity, at least they embodied several Filipino
sentiments and values (the feeling of Filipino mother towards a suffering son).
 
Filipino writers in Spanish became conscious for the search for freedom
  Jose Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo made very powerful contributions among the
Filipinos the introduction of rejecting Spanish rule. He also influenced the succeeding writers.

3. The American Colonial Period (1898-1945)

 Philippine literature in Spanish was starting to lose its track on the first decade.
 The poems of Fernando Ma. Guerrero (Crisalidas), Balmori’s Se deshojo la Flor novel, and many
others discussed revolution and sentiments for patriotism and reform proved that Philippine literature
was used to claim freedom from the colonizers.
 Even if Philippine literature was in English, the preservation of the content for Filipino experiences
was achieved.
 Short story writers in English like Manuel Arguilla in his “A Son is Born,” was one of the
foundations of the Philippine literature, not in Tagalog or in Spanish, but during this time, in English.
Poetry in English was also founded.
 Sarzuela was overpowered by English drama.

4. The Contemporary Period (1946 to present)

This period started during the rebirth of freedom in (1946-to present). The Americans returned in
1945. Filipinos rejoiced and guerrillas that fled to the mountain joined the liberating American Army. On July
4, 1946, the Philippines regained its freedom and the Filipino flag waved joyously alone. The chains were
broken.

The State of Literature during this Period

The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind of “struggle of mind and spirit” posed by the
sudden emancipation from the enemy, and the wild desire to see print.
The New Filipino Literature during this Period
Philippine literature in Tagalog was revived during this period. Most themes in the writings dealt with
Japanese brutalities, of the poverty of life under the Japanese government and the brave guerilla exploits.
 
a) Period of Activism (1970-1972)
Many young people became activists to ask for changes in the government. In the expression of this
desire for change, keen were the writings of some youth who were fired with nationalism in order to
emphasize the importance of their petitions.
 
The Literary Revolution 
The youth became completely rebellious during this period. This was proven not only in the bloody
demonstrations and in the sidewalk expressions but also in literature. Campus newspapers showed rebellious
emotions. The once aristocratic writers developed awareness for society. They held pens and wrote on
placards in red paint the equivalent of the word MAKIBAKA (To dare!). 
Writing During the Period of Activism
The irreverence for the poor reached its peak during this period of the mass revolution. It was also
during this period that Bomba films that discredit our ways as Filipinos started to come out.
 
 
b) Period of the New Society (1972-1980)
The period of the New Society started on September 21, 1972. The Carlos Palanca Awards continued
to give annual awards. Almost all themes in most writings dealt with the development or progress of the
country –like the Green Revolution, family planning, proper nutrition, environment, drug addiction and
pollution. The New Society tried to stop pornography or those writings giving bad influences on the morals of
the people. All school newspapers were temporarily stopped and so with school organizations.
  
Filipino Poetry during the Period of the New Society 
 Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for native culture, customs and the
beauties of nature and surroundings. 
The Play under the New Society
 The government led in reviving old plays and dramas, like the Tagalog Zarzuela,
Cenaculo and the Embayoka of the Muslims which were presented in the rebuilt Metropolitan
Theater, the Folk Arts Theater and the Cultural Center of the Philippines. 
Radio and Television
 Radio continued to be patronized during this period. The play series like Si Matar, Dahlia, Ito
Ang Palad Ko, and Mr. Lonely were the forms of recreation of those without television
Filipino Films
 A yearly Pista ng mga Pelikulang Pilipino (Yearly Filipino Film Festival) was held during this
time. During the festival which lasted usually for a month, only Filipino films were shown in all
theaters in Metro Manila.
Comics, Magazines and other Publications
 In this period of the New Society, newspapers donned new forms. News on economic
progress, discipline, culture, tourism and the like were favored more than the sensationalized
reporting of killings, rape and robberies.
 
c) Period of the Third Republic (1981-1985)
After ten years of military rule and some changes in the life of the Filipino which started under the
New Society, Martial Rule was at last lifted on January 2, 1981.
 
1.      Filipino Poetry • Poems during this period of the Third Republic were romantic and
revolutionary. Writers wrote openly of their criticism against the government. The supplications
of the people were coached in fiery, colorful, violent, profane and insulting language.
 
2.      Filipino Songs • Many Filipino songs dealt with themes that were really true-to-life like those
of grief, poverty, aspirations for freedom, love of God, of country and of fellowmen.
 
Philippine Films during the Period
 The yearly Festival of Filipino Films continued to be held during this period. The people’s love
for sex films also was unabated.
 
d) Rebirth of Freedom (1986-present) 
History took another twist. Once more, the Filipino people regained their independence which they lost
twenty years ago. In the span of four days from February 21-25, 1986, the so-called People Power (Lakas ng
Bayan) prevailed. Together, the people barricaded the streets petitioning the government for changes and
reforms.
Newspapers and other Publications
 Newspapers which were once branded crony newspapers became instant opposition papers
overnight. This was true of BULLETIN TODAY which became the opposition paper.
Books
 The Philippine revolution of 1986 and the fire of its spirit that will carry the Filipinos through
another epoch in Philippine history is still being documented just as they have been in the
countless millions who participated in body and spirit in its realization.
CHAPTER2
LESSON1: ENTREPRENEURIAL CHARACTER TRAITS, SKILLS, AND COMPETENCIES

CHARACTER TRAITS
 Refers to the mark or attribute that distinguishes an entrepreneur from the owner of an ordinary small
business.

MAJOR GROUPINGS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL CHARACTERISTICS

I. ACHIEVEMENTCLUSTER
 It consists of entrepreneurial character traits that are related to the entrepreneurs’ desire to be an
achieverin the field of entrepreneurship.
 An entrepreneur:
 Ordinarily does not settle for mediocrity but instead aspires for quality.
 Are achievers by nature and they strive to achieve.
 Successful entrepreneurs constantly set the things to be achieved and repeatedly find ways to
achieve them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR WHO ASPIRES TO ACHIEVE
A. Opportunity seeker
 A person who dreams of becoming a successful entrepreneur must be a seeker of
business opportunities.
 Must possess the ability to identify with great ease the most appropriate entrepreneurial
opportunities.
 Entrepreneur usually identifies a business opportunity and then thoroughly evaluates its
viability.
A BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY SEEKER IS AN ENTREPRENEUR WHO:
1. Sees and acts on new business opportunities; and
2. Seizes unusual opportunities to obtain financing, equipment, land, work, space, or
assistance.
BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES MAY ARISE FROM:
1. Changes in the environment
2. Advancement and discoveries in technology
3. Government programs and policies
4. People’s interests and hobbies
5. Past experiences.
 Successful entrepreneurs do not just watch business opportunities pass by but readily
seize them.
 They do not let entrepreneurial opportunities go to waste but immediately act upon them.

B. Committed
 A highly committed entrepreneur displays full commitment to the work or endeavour that
he/she is undertaking.
 He/She:
1. Accepts full responsibility for what has been promised to the customers
2. Establishes proper coordination with and among workers, so that goods and services
are delivered as promised, and
3. Seeks to prioritize the satisfaction and interest of customers.
 Commitment is directly related to interest
 A person who is not interested in a particular endeavour normally does not actively
participate in it nor show any enthusiasm about it.
  The owner of an ordinary small business is already contented with the routine flow of
his/her business and considers it a burden to go an extra mile.

C. Persistent
 Trials, sacrifices, and failures challenge the entrepreneur to be persistent.
 He/She learns to:
1. Take repeated or different actions in order to overcome the obstacles;
2. Make personal sacrifices or exert extraordinary effort to complete the required
task and
3. Stick to his/her own judgement in times of opposition and failure.
 Entrepreneur exhausts all possible means to keep their businesses afloat in the market.
 Persistence is the foundation of commitment.
 As persistence advances in the life of an entrepreneur, commitment increases its
strength.

D. Risk taker
 Successful entrepreneurs are business risk takers.
 Risk is inseparable from entrepreneurship.
3 TYPES OF RISK-TAKERS
AGGRESSIVE RISK TAKER  Is not scared to take any risksin business.
 Is more calculative in taking risks.
MODERATE RISK TAKER
 He/Sheanalyses situation before taking the leap.
 Is not very eager to take any kind of risk.
CONSERATIVE RISK TAKER  He/Shesatisfied with managing a small business and a
regular clientele
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENTREPRENEUR AND OWNER OF AN ORDINARY SMALL BUSINESS IN
HANDLING BUSINESS RISK
ENTREPRENEUR OWNER OF AN ORDINARY SMALL BUSINESS
Weighs the pros and cons of a particular business Takes the risk in all instances without considering
opportunitybefore taking the risk. the consequences.
He/Shetakes all the precautionary measure before
engaging in a particular business endeavour
Evaluates thoroughly all the available courses of
actionbefore making the final decision.
E. Efficient and quality-oriented
 A successful entrepreneur highly values efficiency and the concept of quality in all
business undertakings.
 He/She:
1. Always performs the required tasks in accordance with existing standards of
excellence or continuously improves on his/her past performance.
2. Strives to do things better and faster with minimal cost.
 The concept of efficiency in an entrepreneurial endeavour is related to the cost
involved in the production of goods and services.
 The basic rule is that you should incur the lowest minimal cost in the production of goods
and services without sacrificing quality to make them competitive in the market.
 An efficient entrepreneur produces more output using less input.
  Successful entrepreneurs are productive, they find ways to reduce, if not totally
eliminate, wastes while at the same time maintaining the good quality of their goods and
services.
 The concept of quality deals with defect.
 Successful entrepreneurs generally work for zero defects in their products and services.
 The quality of products and services is measured by the response of customers to them.
 Entrepreneurs eliminate the production of defective goods, or reduce to a
considerable the adverse reactions of customers to the services rendered.
 Successful entrepreneurs are efficient, productive, and quality-oriented.

II. Planning Cluster

 It is a set of characteristics of successful entrepreneurs that basically supports the character traits in
the achievement cluster.
 The concept of planning is inherent in the entrepreneur, being both the owner and manager of the
business.
 He/ She often begin the day with a specific plan and ends it with a review of the progress or status
of the plan.
 The plan serves as the blueprint of the actions to be undertaken by the entrepreneur.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLANNER
A. Goal-setter
 The basic concept of planning is setting goals and objectives.
 Goals and objectives are the guiding points that direct all actions, efforts, and struggles
of the entrepreneur.
 Being a goal-successful entrepreneur sets clear, specific, and well-defined short-and-
long term goals and objectives.
 Goals are long-term while objectives are short-term.
 In setting the goals and objectives of the business venture, the entrepreneur is usually
guided by the SMART (Specific, Measureable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-
bound.
 Successful entrepreneurs sail through their journey with specific and concrete goals and
objectives.

B. Information-seeker
 Entrepreneurs constantly make decisions that will affect the operations of their business
ventures.
These must be based on specific and relevant economic, financial, and industry
data.
Successful entrepreneurs, primarily seek a strong basis to make sound decisions.
 The usual constraints or limitations encountered in the gathering of information are data
banks that
1. are incomplete, dated, and irrelevant;
2. are costly in maintenance; and
3. Lack personnel to maintain them.
A SUCCESSFUL INFORMATION-SEEKER:
1. Seeks relevant information on target customers, suppliers of raw materials, and
competitors.
2. Verifies available information from various sources, both private and printed
materials and agencies;
 3. Seeks opinions and advice from experts in the business field;
4. Finds other possible ways to make sure that the desired information is complete.

C. Systematic in planning and monitoring.

 A successful and dynamic entrepreneur follows a systematic pattern of planning
processes and monitoring approaches.
 The term systematic implies that there is a rational and logical approach in performing
activities.
 There are step-by-step procedures that are scientifically designed to be followed in the
preparation of plans and monitoring of activities.
 Planning simply refers to the setting of goals and objectives.
 Monitoring refers to the evaluation of the activities and adopted courses of actions
whether they are carried in accordance with the plans.
 Planning and monitoring are inseparable entrepreneurial activities.
 Planning serves as the preventive course of action, while Monitoring acts as the corrective
course of action.
 The planning and monitoring activities should, therefore, follow a systematic pattern, so
that all the activities will not be in vain.
A SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEUR ADOPTS A SYSTEMATIC AND COORDINATED
PLANNING AND MONITORING ACTIVITIES WHERE HE/SHE:
1. Gathers all the qualitative and quantitative information before formulating the plans,
2. Develops a logical step-by-step approach in the formulation of plans,
3. Monitors the progress of activities and switches to alternative strategies when deemed
necessary, and
4. 4. Evaluates constantly the alternatives in achieving the goals.
 A successful entrepreneur does not attempt to engage in any entrepreneurial venture
unless the details of the activities have been clearly identified and the monitoring
mechanisms are in place.
III. Power Cluster
 It includes a set of character traits that reflect the degree of the interpersonal relations maintained
by successful entrepreneurs in the community.
 It establishes the relationships of the entrepreneurs with the suppliers of raw materials, financial
institutions, customers, competitors, the government, employees, and all other stakeholders.
 It also defines how the entrepreneurs project themselves in the business community.
 The term power simply refers to the ability of the entrepreneur to maintain the highest degree of
interrelationship in the business community and influence others over to his/her line of reasoning
 The power cluster refers to the relationship and image of the entrepreneur in the community.

AN ENTREPRENEUR IN THE POWER CLUSTER IS:

1. A Persuasive and Positive Networker
A successful entrepreneur:
 Are persuasive and can easily influence and win over to their side the other stakeholders
in business such as customers, suppliers, and prospective creditors.
 Are able to establish good and positive networking with almost all of the players in the
business community.
 Completely discard the concept of bribery in dealing with people.
 They employ or adopt a positive way of influencing others with their brilliant ideas and
entrepreneurial aspirations.
  Are good communicators and they find it easy to sell their ideas.
AS A PERSUASIVE AND POSITIVE NETWORKER, THE SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEUR
USUALLY:
1. Adopts specific strategies that will influence and convince others while
maintaining the highest degree of respect, and
2. Makes use of positive contacts in the business community in order to meet the
goals and objectives of the business endeavour.

2. Self-confident.
 Successful entrepreneurs are known to have a high level of self-confidence.
 They project favourable image of themselves which is founded on respect and good
deeds in the business community.
 Entrepreneurial self-confidence is actually a manifestation of the entrepreneur's strong
trust or belief in himself/ herself.
 Building self-confidence is a gradual process where the past correct experiences have
significant contributions to the present.

2 Timothy 1:7
“For the Spirit God gave us does not make us timid, but gives us power, love and self-
discipline.”
HOW HEREDITY HAPPENS?
Genes – dictates the information/ hereditary unit
DNA – molecules of hereditary; every detail
Heredity is the passing on of characteristics from one generation to the next.
But children are not usually exact copies of their parents nor are brothers and sisters exactly alike.
The difference between children and their parents and between siblings is known as variation. The study of
heredity and variation is known as the science of genetics.
 Through heredity, living things inherit traits from their parents. Traits are physical characteristics.
 You resemble your parents because you inherited your hair and skin color, nose shape, height, and
other traits from them.
Phenotype- observable characteristics or traits of organism
Genotype – complete set of genetic material; individual’s collection of genes.
Dominant – uppercase Recessive - lowercase
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
 Millions of different kinds of organisms abound our Earth and they reproduces only its own kind. It did
not ever happen that a cat can produce puppies as well as dogs can’t produce kittens. Cabbage seeds
will not ever produce pepper. For a long time no one understood how traits were inherited, until an
Austrian monk tinkered in his garden and observe his peas.
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL
o 1822-1884
o Austrian monk
o Experienced with pea plants, by crossing various strains and observing the characteristics of their
offspring.
o He is the father of modern genetics.
Gregor Mendel, as a monk, also spent this time in the garden.
 He studied the different structural characteristics and growing habits of plants.
 He conducted his experiments with garden peas in a small garden plot in a monastery.
 Gregor Mendel studied inheritance of seven traits in pea plants and first used the term dominance and
recessiveness.
REASONS FOR CHOOSING GARDEN PEAS
1. The plants are easy to cultivate and cross.
2. Garden peas reproduce at a fast rate and reproduce several generations in a short time.
3. They are hardy plants. They do not need much caring.
4. The pea flower is generally self-pollinating and not easily bothered by insects.

7 TRAITS STUDIED BY MENDEL:

TRAIT OBSERVED CHARACTERS
Seed shape Round or wrinkled seed
Seed color Yellow or green seed
Seed coat color Colored or white coat
Pod shape Inflated or constricted pod
Pod color Green or yellow pod
Flower position Axial or terminal flower
Stem length Long or short stem
Results of the Experiment
Traits – is the general characteristics of the peas (or any other organism).
Characters – is the specific characteristics of the peas (or any other organism).
 After the research with plants, the basic underlying principles of heredity that he discovered also apply to
people and other animals because the mechanisms of heredity are essentially the same for all complex life
forms.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Genes – section of a chromosome; control what traits any living thing will have and controls what traits a
living thing can pass to its young.
Dominant Trait – trait that hides another trait ; if phenotype is fully exposed when two alleles are present.
Recessive Trait – trait that is hidden; remain unexpressed wherein pair with dominant allele.
Pure breeding or True breeding – when the traits of the offspring are the same as the parent plant for
several generations.
P Generation – parent generation.
Allele - is one of two or more forms of a gene; groups of genes.
F1 Generation – first filial generation, or the offspring's of P generation.
F2 Generation – second filial generation, or the offsprings of F1 generation.
Genotype – genetic makeup of the cell.
Phenotype – organism's observable characteristics or traits; external appearance of an individual.
Homozygous – has 2 of the identical (same) alleles of a gene
Heterozygous – has 2 different alleles of a gene.
Punnett Square – is a diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding
experiment.
Heredity – passing of traits to offspring.
Punnett Square

Reginald C. Punnett – established the

Punnett Square

Mendelian Laws of Heredity

1. Law of Dominance
 It states that: “when pure breeding plants having contrasting characters are crossed, all the
offsprings will show only one of the characters. The character that appears is dominant and the
one that does not is recessive.”
 Some alleles are dominant or always expressed
1. Law of Segregation
 It states that: “two genes of a pair separate or segregate during gamete formation. Therefore, the
traits are distributed.”
 Gene randomly separate so that each sex cell carry one allele
2. Law of independent Assortment
 It states that: “the expression of one particular trait does not affect the expression of another trait.”
 Each allele of any 1 pair is free to combine with any allele from each of the remaining pairs during
the formation for the gametes.
 States that during production of gametes is entirely independent
Monohybrid Cross
 Mendel called the cross which involves only one pair of trait a monohybrid cross.
 F1 generation peas are called hybrids because they are the results of a cross between pure-
breeding plants.
Dihybrid Cross
  Dihybrid is an organism which is heterozygous for two pairs of alleles.
 Contrasting forms of two different pairs

2nd topic

CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

• This theory was proposed by Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri (1902).
• Gametes serve as the bridge between two successive generations.
• Male and Female gametes play an equal role in contributing hereditary components of future
generation.

SEX CHROMOSOME
 Homogametic sex -- that sex containing two like sex chromosomes. In most animals species these
are females (XX). Each egg only contains one X chromosome.
 Heterogametic sex --- that sex containing two different sex chromosomes. In most animal species
these are XY males. Each sperm will contain either an X or Y.

SEX DETERMINATION
• The sex of an individual is determined by the sex chromosomes contributed to the zygote by the sperm
and the egg
• An egg can donate an X
• A sperm can donate an X or Y
• Therefore the sperm determines the sex of a child

SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
• Some traits are located on the sex chromosomes, so the inheritance of these traits depends on the sex
of the parent carrying the trait.
• Most known sex-linked traits are X-linked (carried on the X chromosome). This is probably
because the X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome.

SEX-LINKED DISORDERS
• Some sex-linked traits are associated with disorders.
• Most are found on the X chromosome, Y-linked disorders are rare.
• Recessive lethal X-linked traits result in death.

X-LINKED INHERITANCE
 Dominant gene is carried on the X-gene
 Males – get their X-Chromosome from their mother
 Females – get their X-Chromosome from both of their parents
 If the mother is a carrier of the mutated gene
 50% of the son or/and daughter will be affected
 50% of the son or/and daughter will be normal
 If the father is a carrier of the mutated gene
 100% of his daughter will have the disorder
 0% of his son will have the disorder
 If both parents are a carrier of the mutated gene
 100% of their daughter will have the disorder
  50% of their son will have the disorder
 50% of their son will be unaffected or normal

X-Linked Recessive Inheritance

• A mode of inheritance on the X Chromosome that causes the phenotype to be expressed
• Female carriers have only copy of the gene and usually don’t express the phenotype

Examples of X-Linked Recessive Inheritance:

• Color Blindness - is not a form of blindness at all, but a deficiency in the way you see color. With this
vision problem, you have difficulty distinguishing certain colors, such as blue and yellow or red and
green.
• Hemophilia - is a mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to make blood clots, a
process needed to stop bleeding. This results in people bleeding longer after an injury, easy bruising,
and an increased risk of bleeding inside joints or the brain.
• Becker’s Muscular Dystrophy - is an X-linked recessive inherited disorder characterized by slowly
progressive muscle weakness of the legs and pelvis.
• Hunter’s Syndrome - Hunter syndrome is a very rare, inherited genetic disorder caused by a missing
or malfunctioning enzyme. Because the body doesn't have enough of the enzyme to break down
certain complex molecules, the molecules build up in harmful amounts.

Y-Linked Inheritance
• Holandric Inheritance
• Y-Chromosome is small and doesn’t contain numerous genes
• Y-linked diseases or disorder are very rare
• It occurs between fathers and his son/s

Examples of -Linked Recessive Inheritance:

 Male Infertility - A man’s fertility generally relies on the quantity and quality of his sperm. If the number
of sperm a man ejaculates is low or if the sperm are of a poor quality, it will be difficult, and sometimes
impossible, for him to cause a pregnancy.
 Retinitis pigmentosa - is a genetic disorder of the eyes that causes loss of vision. Symptoms
include trouble seeing at night and decreased peripheral vision (side vision).
 XYY syndrome is a genetic condition in which a male has an extra Y chromosome. Symptoms are
usually few. They may include being taller than average, acne, and an increased risk of learning
problems.
DIELECTRIC IN CAPACITORS

Using dielectrics in capacitors

 Insulators differ from conductors in that there are no charges that move freely around the bulk of the
material. However, charges within the molecules of an insulator are also affected by an external electric
field.
 The downward electric field between the plates causes the atoms or molecules in the insulator to be
polarized. The polarized atoms point their positive ends toward the negative plate and their negative
plate to the positive plate. This gives rise to an electric field within the dielectric, which we shall call the
INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD, Eind.
 The induced electric field points opposite to the external electric field. The two electric fields ass up,
resulting in a net electric field within the capacitor that is smaller than what it was before we inserted the
insulator.
E=Ebefore −Eind
 Any dielectric is characterized by its dielectric constant, K which relates the electric fields;
E before
E=
K
 The dielectric constant is a pure number. It tells how much of the insulator reduces the electric field or
how good the material is at becoming polarized and creating induced electric fields.
Material K Material K
Vacuum 1 Polyvinyl Chloride 3.18
Air (1atm) 1.00059 Glass 5-10
Air (100atm) 1.0548 Neoprene 6.70
Teflon 2.1 Germanium 16
Polyethylene 2.25 Glycerin 42.5
Benzene 2.28 Water 80.4
Mica 3-6 Strontium Titanate 310
Mylar 3.1 Plexiglass 3.40
Dielectric constants K at 20 degrees (from University physics by Young and Freedman).
 When a dielectric is inserted in a parallel plate capacitor, without changing anything else about the
capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor is reduced by a factor of k as well.
V orig
V=
K
 The result is to increase the capacitance by the same factor is:
K= K C 0
 Where C0 is the capacitance with air in between the plate and C is the capacitance when a dielectric in
inserted. We can also calculate the capacitance as;
ε0 A
C=K
d

SAMPLE PROBLEM
 You have two parallel plates, each with area 1m2 that is used to construct a parallel-plate capacitor.
1. If the capacitance of the devices is 0.1F,
FORMULAS for capacitance:
What is the distance d between the plates? Without dielectrics
Given: Q
C=
C= 0.1F = 1.0 x 10-7 F V
ε 0=8.85 x 10
−12
F /m ε0 A
C=
d
With dielectrics
C=K C0
ε A
C=K 0
 ε A ( )
−12
10 F ( 2)
8.85 x 1m
0 m −5
d= = −7
=8.85 x 10 m
C 1 x 10 F
2. If a dielectric of constant K=300 is inserted between plates, ε0 A
Distance=d=
What is its new capacitance? C
Given: Cd
Area=A=
C= 0.1F = 1.0 x 10-7 F K ε0
ε 0=8.85 x 10−12 F /m 1 2
U= C V
K = 300 2
C=K C0 =( 300 ) ( 1 x 10−7 F ) =3 x 10−5 F

C=K
ε0 A
=
( F
( 300 ) 8.85 x 10−12 ( 1 m2 )
m )
d −5
8.85 x 10 m

C =3 x 10−5 F
 A parallel plate capacitor is filled with an insulating material with a dielectric constant of 2.5. the
distance between the plates of the capacitor is 0.0002 m. Find the plate area of the new capacitance
(after the insertion of the dielectric) is 3.4 F.
Given:
K = 2.6
d = 0.0002 m
Cnew = 3.4 F= 3.4 x 10-6 F
Cd ( 3.4 x 10 ) ( 0.002 m )
−6
A= =
K ε0
(
( 2.6 ) 8.85 x 10−12
F
m )
A = 29.55 m or 29.6 m
2 2

 An air filled capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a 12-volt battery. After the capacitor is drained, a
dielectric is inserted between its plates. The capacitor is then charged to 12V. How much more energy
will it store if the dielectric constant is 6?

C= KC0

= 6(12)

½ CV2

5184

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES CIRCUIT

 When capacitors are connected in series, the charge in one capacitor is the same for all capacitors in
that series connection regardless of how many capacitors are in series together.

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 =………..

 Voltage across the capacitors connected in series, drops with the increase of capacitors in the circuit.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 =……; Vtotal = Q/Ceq

  Capacitance of the capacitors connected in series increases as the voltage decreases.

CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 When devices are connected in parallel, they share a common point, called a junction at which the
potential is the same for all conductors.

V= V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = ……

 When capacitors are connected in parallel, the charges accumulating in each plate depends on the
voltage and the capacitance of each capacitor.

Qtotal = CeqVAB ; Q1 = C1V1 ; Q2 = C2V2

 Capacitance of the whole circuit can be obtained by adding the capacitance of all the capacitors
connected in parallel circuit.

Ceq= C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 +……

CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Formulas∈SERIES Formulas∈¿ Qtotal = Ceq Vtotal

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 =……….. Q= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 +……
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 =……; V= V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = ……
Vtotal = Q/Ceq Ceq= C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 +……
1 1 1 1 1 V= Q/C
= + + + +…
Ceq C 1 C2 C 3 C 4 Q=CV
IF THERE ARE TWO CAPACITORS ONLY,
C=Q/V
C1C2
C eq=
C1C2
SAMPLE PROBLEM

CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES

1. Find the equivalent capacitance of a group of three capacitors in series given their capacitance as
C1= 6.6nF , C2 = 5.2nF and C3 = 5.8nF
Ceq = ?
1 1 1 1
= + +
Ceq C 1 C2 C 3
1 1
C eq= =
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
C1 C 2 C3 6.6 nF 5.2 nF 5.8 nF

−9
C eq=1.94 nF∨1.9 x 10 F
2. Calculate the charge stored by the combination.
Qtotal = Ceq Vtotal = (1.94x10^-9) (12V)
Qtotal = 2.328 x 10-8 C
3. If the group of capacitors is charged by a 12-volt battery, calculate the voltage across C1.
Given: C1= 6.6nF, C2=5.2nF, and C3=5.8nF
−8 −8 −8
Q 2.328 x 10 C Q 2.328 x 10 C Q 2.328 x 10 C
V 1= = =3.53 V V 2= = =4.48 V V 3= = =4.01 V
C1 −9
6.6 x 10 F C2 −9
5.2 x 10 F C2 5.8 x 10−9 F