MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology

Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Epidemiology/Epidemiological Measurements Materials:

Activity Sheet, Calculator
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this session, I will be able to: References:
1. Calculate and Illustrate the epidemiological measurements J. Susan Milton and Jessie C. Arnold,
Introduction to Probability and Statistics:
2. Define mortality and morbidity rates Principles and Applications for Engineering
and the Computing Sciences, 4th Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 2004
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/types-
of-variables/

Productivity Tip:
Track your time to identify patterns.
Tracking your time, even if no one is asking you for it can help you understand your work habits and
the time of day when you finish work most successfully. Tracking your time efficiently, knowing what
your tech habits are, from when you check your email to how often you check your favorite websites or
social media can affect your workday in a big way.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

INTRODUCTION
Vital Statistics is an aspect of Biostatistics which is concerned with measurements and
comparison of data pertaining to human life. Public health workers are usually interested in
measuring frequency of birth s, illnesses, deaths and some other health related activities by using
a variety of indictors as tools for measurement. The different levels of health indicators are
frequently used as a basis for hypothesis testing, policy, formulation, planning, implementation and
evaluation of intervention program and strategies. Frequencies or counts of events like births,
marriages, outbreak of diseases are meaningless by themselves unless they are related to a base
population. In comparing the number of events occurring in two groups we often convert the
counts into proportion or percentage or ratios.

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON
Activity 1: Content Notes

Epidemiology & Epidemiological Measurements

Epidemiology comes from the Greek in which “epi” means upon, and “demos” denotes
the population and “logy” means study. Thus, epidemiology is the study of something that
afflicts(affects) a population. It is also defined as the study of factors that determine the
occurrence and distribution of disease in a population.

Incidence and Prevalence

Morbidity data are those, which pertain to disease statistics which are gathered primarily to
provide information on the prevalence of disease. Compared to mortality data, morbidity data are
more difficult to collect or gather due to inadequate reporting system in the local or national level.
Thus, because of these inadequacies, epidemiologists and health researchers rely on the data
generated from the records of hospitals, provincial health offices and even on insurance companies.

➢ The incidence rate. It is defined as the number of new reported cases of a given
disease in a calendar year divided by the population at risk of developing the disease
during that year multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = x 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Example: Suppose that in 2018, Cebu City had a population of 3,500,000 and the new HIV
cases was 2000.
2,000
The incidence rate = x 10,000 = 5.71 new HIV cases per 10,000 population per
3,500,000
year

➢ The prevalence proportion is defined as the number of existing cases of a given

disease at a given time divided by the population at that time, with the quotient
multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = x 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Example: In 2018, the total population of Cebu City was 3,500,000 and the number of
individuals alive and inflicted with HIV was 6,800.
6800
Prevalence proportion = x 10,000 = 19.43 HIV cases per 10,000 population
3,500,000

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Mortality vs. Morbidity

• Morbidity is the condition of being ill, diseased, or unhealthy. ... One morbidity may lead to
another morbidity.
• Mortality, on the other hand, is the condition of being dead. You usually hear of mortality in
terms of the number of deaths in a population over time, either in general or due to a specific
cause.

Measures of mortality and morbidity

• Mortality statistics
Mortality data from death certificates and from census and population registers are
routinely collected; from these the death rate in a population can be calculated. To calculate a
death rate the number of deaths recorded is divided by the number of people in the population,
and then multiplied by 100, 1,000 or another convenient figure.
• Relative Measures of Disease Frequency
Methods for comparing the relative amount of disease occurring in different population have
been developed.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
• Relative Risk (RR) =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

𝑂𝑑𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

• Odds Ratio (OR) =
𝑂𝑑𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

• Attributable Risk (AR)

= incidence of disease in exposed group - Incidence of disease in unexposed group

Measures of Mortality Rate

1. The annual crude death rate. It is defined as the number of deaths in a calendar year
divided by the midyear population of that year multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000. This
is affected by the (1) age and sex composition of the population, (2) adverse environmental
and occupational conditions, and the (3) peace and order conditions of a place.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
Crude Death Rate (CDR) = x 1000
𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example: Suppose that in 1998, Metro Manila has a population of 12,000,000 and number
of deaths recorded at 24,240.
24,240
The crude death rate = x 1000 = 2.02 deaths per 1000 population per year
12,000,000

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

2. The age-specific death rate. The number of deaths in a specific or particular age group in a
calendar year divided by the population of the same age group of that year, with the quotient
multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000.
Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
= x 1000
𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: In 2014, the population of Metro Manila whose age are 11 to 20 years old was
placed at 5,400,000 with deaths at 7,480.
7,480
Age specific death rate = x 1000 = 1.385 deaths per 1000 population per year
5,400,000

3. The cause-specific death rate or the Case Fatality rate (CFR). It is defined as the number of
deaths that occurred in a specific cause in a calendar year divided by the population of that
year with the quotient multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000.
Cause Specific Death Rate (CSDR
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
= x 1000
𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: In 2018, the population of a certain locality who met car accidents was
12,000 with deaths at 600.
600
Cause-specific death rate = x 1000 = 50 deaths per 1000 car accidents per year
12,000

4. The infant mortality rate (IMR) is defined as the number of deaths among infants under one
year of age in a calendar year per one thousand live births in the same period. This is a
sensitive index of the level of health in a community. A high IMR means low level of health
standards. The IMR can be subdivided into Neonatal mortality rate (NMR) and Post-neonatal
Mortality rate (PMR). These two rates add up to the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR).
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑒
= x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
Neonatal Mortality Rate (NMR)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 28 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑒
= x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
Postneonatal Mortality Rate (PNMR)
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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 28 𝑡𝑜 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑒

= x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 − 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
Approximate Postneonatal Mortality Rate (APMR)
= Infant Mortality Rate – Neonatal Mortality Rate
Perinatal Mortality Rate (PMR)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 + 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 7 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑒
= x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 + 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠

5. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) measures the number of deaths due to diseases directly
related to pregnancy, delivery and puerperium per 1000 live births. This rate is affected by
maternal health practices.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) = x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠

6. The proportional mortality ratio (PMR). It is defined as the number of deaths that occurred
to a specific cause in a calendar year divided by the total number of deaths in that year, with
the quotient multiplied by 100.

Example: In 2018,the total deaths from all causes was reported to be 560,000 of which
6,700 deaths were attributed to illegal drugs.
6700
Proportional mortality ratio = = x 100 = 1.20 % of total deaths per year
560,000

7. The Swaroop’s Index is a special kind of proportionate mortality ratio, computed as the
number of deaths among those 50 years and over in a calendar year divided by the total
number of deaths multiplied by 100. This index is a sensitive indicator of the standards of
health care.

SWAROOF INDEX (SI)

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑔 50 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
= x 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

8. The case-fatality proportion is defined as the number of deaths which occurred at a given
cause in a certain period divided by the number of cases of the disease reported using the
same period, with the quotient multiplied by 100.

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

The case-fatality proportion serves as a quick indicator for the seriousness of the disease. It may also
be used as an evidence as to the effectiveness of a particular method of treatment in a particular
disease.
Case Fatality Rate (MMR)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
= x 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝
Example: In 2018, the reported dengue cases in Cebu City was 4,500 and the number of
individuals who died of dengue was 380.
380
Case-fatality proportion = x 100 = 8.44 % mortality among reported cases of
4500
Dengue

Growth Fertility Rate

The measures of fertility are useful tools in problems and concerns which pertain to population
control. Specifically, they are useful in planning and designing maternal and child health services.

9. The crude birth rate. It is defined as the number of live births in a calendar year divided by
the population of that year multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000. The crude birth rate is
the most common measure of mortality, but it is not a sensitive measure since it takes into
account the whole population which includes both men and women. It will not give a true
picture of the population growth or rate because only the women are capable of bearing
children.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = x 1000
𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: Suppose that in 1998, Metro Manila had live birth of 200,000 and the
population that year was 12,000,000.
200,000
The crude birth rate = x 1000 = 16.67 live births per 1000 population per
12,000,000
year.

10. The general fertility rate or growth fertility rate. It is defined as the number of live births
in a calendar year divided by the number of women of child-bearing age (usually 15 – 45) with
the quotient multiplied by 100, 1000, 10,000 or 100,000.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
Growth Fertility Rate (GFR) = x 1000
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑−𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑔𝑒

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Example: In 2018, the total live births was 200,000 and the number of women of child-
bearing age was 2,500,000.
200,000
General fertility rate = x 1000 = 80 live births per 1000 women of child-
2,500,000
bearing age.

Example #1, The midyear population of Davao City for the year 2019 was 5,000,000 while that of
Zamboanga City was 3,500,000. If the number of registered live births in Davao City was
120,000 and that of Zamboanga City was 105,000 for the year 2019, which City has a
higher crude birth rate?
120,000
CBR (Davao) = x 1000 = 24
5,000,000
105,000
CBR (Zamboanga) = x 1000 = 30
3,500,000
Thus, Zamboanga City has a higher CBR for 2019 which is 30 live births per 1,000 individuals. ■

Example #2, The midyear population of a certain barangay in Manila is distributed as follows:
Age Males Females Total
Under 1-4 years 12 10 22
5-9 38 42 80
10-14 53 48 101
15-19 156 160 316
20-24 152 151 303
25-29 43 45 88
30-34 37 34 71
35-39 30 34 64
40-44 28 30 58
45-49 20 25 45
50 years and over 12 10 22
TOTAL 581 589 1,170

If the registered live births in the barangay for 2019 were 5, solve for the general fertility rate using:
a) 15-44 age bracket
GFR (15-44) = 5 x 1,000 = 9.03
554 (number of female at age 15-44)
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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

b) 15-49 age bracket

GFR (15-49) = 5 x 1,000 = 8.64
579 (number of female at age 15-49)

Example #3, Each line in the diagram represents one case of schistosomiasis starting from month of
onset and month of termination.

July August September October November December

a) How many cases were recorded for the six-month period? 13 (13 horizontal lines)
b) During what month was recorded incidence highest? September ( 4 new cases/1,000)
c) During what month was the prevalence highest? September (8 existing and new cases)

Activity 2: Skill-building Activities

Exercise No. 1. It was found out that in a recent survey that the incidence of lung cancer
among smokers is 50 per 1,000,000 population per year and for non-smokers is 10 per
1,000,000 per year. Computer the following:
1. RR 2. OR 3. AR

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise No. 2: For the past month, sixty new cases of a disease were added to an existing 440
cases. If 2,000 people are at risk of contracting the disease for that month, what is the
prevalence rate and the incidence rate?

Exercise No. 3: Among the many figures submitted by the Municipal Health officer of a certain
town in Region X for the previous year are the following:

Total Midyear Population 86, 495

Males 40,363
Females 46,132
No. of Females(15-44 years old) 30,285
No. of Registered Live Births 5,486
No. of Registered Deaths 4,379
No. of Registered Deaths( 50 years old and over) 1,486
No. of Deaths due to Pneumonia 805
No. of Deaths(under 1 year of age) 420

Compute the following:

1. Female to Male Ratio
2. Crude Birth Rate
3. General Fertility Rate
4. Crude Date Rate
5. Cause of Death Rate due to Pneumonia
6. Infant Mortality Rate
7. Swaroop’s Index

Activity 3: Check for Understanding

(Use the back portion of the paper or you may opt to use extra sheet of paper)

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

1. The United States in 2010 had a crude death rate of 12 per thousand population while the
Philippines for the same year had 8 per thousand. Does this mean that the Philippines had better
health status and/or health care delivery system? Explain your answer.

2. The following data are taken from the 2015 Health Report:
Particulars Numbers
Total Males 38,548,357
Total females 37,322,195
Females aged 15 – 44 years 23,024,147
Total deaths 423,772
Maternal deaths 2,597
Deaths under one year 53,984
Deaths under 28 days 32,118
Deaths due to tuberculosis 42,566
Total live births 1,548,263
Tuberculosis cases 264,394
Using the information given, compute and interpret the following health indicators:

a. Crude birth rate

b. Crude death rate
c. General fertility rate
d. Infant mortality rate
e. Neonatal mortality rate
f. Post neonatal mortality rate
g. Maternal mortality rate
h. Mortality rate from tuberculosis
i. Morbidity rate from tuberculosis (Is this rate an incidence or prevalence? Why?
j. Case fatality rate from tuberculosis
3. Is it possible to reduce the infant mortality rate (IMR) of a place without instituting any maternal
and child health program? Explain your answer.

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

4. Give the possible explanations for the variation to crude birth rates and crude death rates in the
following tables:
Table 4.1 Crude Birth Rates of Selected Provinces and Cities, Philippines, 1985

Province/City Rate/1000 Population

Manila 49.6

Baguio City 41.6

Cebu City 38.5

Davao City 29.7

Lanao del Sur 2.5

Naga City 54.9

Negros Occidental 15.7

Source: 1985 Philippine Health Statistics, DOH

Table 4.2 Crude Death Rates of Selected Countries, 1988

Province/City Rate/1000 Population

China 8

India 11
Indonesia 11

Japan 7

Malaysia 6

Philippines 8

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Thailand 7

United States 9
Federal Republic of Germany 12
Source: 1988 UN World Population Chart

Activity 4: Check for Understanding

1. In the definition of epidemiology, “distribution” refers to:

A. Who
B. When
C. Where
D. Why
2. In the definition of epidemiology, “determinants” generally includes:
A. Agents
B. Causes
C. Control measures
D. Risk factors
E. Sources
3. Public health surveillance includes which of the following activities:
A. Diagnosing whether a case of encephalitis is actually due to West Nile virus infection
B. Soliciting case reports of persons with symptoms compatible with SARs from local hospitals
C. Creating graphs of the number of dog bites by week and neighborhood
D. Writing a report on trends in seat belt use to share with the state legislature
4. A propagated epidemic is usually the result of what type of exposure?
A. Point source
B. Continuous common source
C. Intermittent common source
D. Person-to-person

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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

5. When analyzing surveillance data by age, which of the following age groups is preferred?
(Choose one best answer)
A. 1-year age groups
B. 5-year age groups
C. 10-year age groups
D. Depends on the disease

FAQs

1. What do we mean by frequency and pattern in epidemiology?

• Frequency refers not only to the number of health events such as the number of cases of
meningitis or diabetes in a population, but also to the relationship of that number to the size
of the population while Pattern refers to the occurrence of health-related events by time,
place, and person. Time patterns may be annual, seasonal, weekly, daily, hourly, weekday
versus weekend, or any other breakdown of time that may influence disease or injury
occurrence.
2. What is the difference between the incidence and prevalence?
• Prevalence refers to proportion of persons who have a condition at or during a particular
time period, whereas incidence refers to the proportion or rate of persons who develop a
condition during a particular time period.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers to Skill-Building Exercises

Exercise No. 1:
1. RR = 50/10 = 5 per 1,000,000 per year
2. OR = (50/999,950) / (10/999,990) = 5.0002 or 5 per 1,000,000 per year
3. AR = 50 – 10 = 40 per 1,000,000 per year

Exercise No. 2:
1. IR = 60/2000 * 1000 = 30 per 1000 population
2. PR = 500/2000 * 1000 = 250 per 1000 population
Exercise No. 3:
1. Female to Male = 46,132: 40,363 = 1.143
2. CBR = 5486/86,495 * 1000 = 63.43 per 1000 population
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 MLS 054: Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Student Activity Sheet #8

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

3. GFR = 5486/30,285 * 1000 = 181.15 per 1000 population

4. CDR= 4379/86,495 *1000 =50.63 per 1000 population
5. CDR(pneumonia) = 805/86,495 * 1000 = 9.31 per 1000 population
6. IFR = 420/5,486 * 1000 = 76.56 per 1000 population
7. Swaroop’s = 1,486/4,379 * 1000 = 339.35 per 1000 population
.
Answers to Checking for Understanding:
Activity 4
1. C
2. B
3. B
4. B
5. D

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