INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

 The systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and

instructions into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and
evaluation (Smith and Ragan, 2005)
 The systematic creation of an educational experience that will help the students
achieve a specified set of learning outcomes.

INSTRUCTION
Set of events that facilitates learning
DESIGN
Creative pattern or logical, sequential process intended to solve problems

WHAT IS DESIGN?
 Implies a systematic planning process prior to the development of something.
 Distinguished from other planning by: level of precision, care, and expertise employed.

ID FOCUS
 another way of defining ID is to describe the process involved in the systematic planning
of instruction
 at basic level, instructional designer’s job is to answer these questions:
Where are we going? (OBJECTIVES)
How will we get there? (APPROACHES)
How will we know when we have arrived? (ASSESSMENT)

ID CONCERNS
Two major concerns from which all teaching begins:
 What am I going to TEACH?
ID must select content that is appropriate for the age of intended learner
 How am I going to TEACH?
What methods and techniques will I use to deliver the content?

TEACHING APPROACH
 refers to the teacher’s viewpoint toward the process of teaching., what one believes in,
regarding teaching, upon which teaching behaviors are based.
 a set of assumptions or viewpoints dealing with nature of teaching and learning
 one’s viewpoint toward teaching
 procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess better understanding and
effective learning

TEACHING STRATEGY

 refers to the general design of how the teacher will attack her lesson; the plan
that a teacher decides to use to achieve certain lesson objectives.
 a set of decisions on what learning activities to achieve an objective.

TEACHING METHOD
 refers to the regular ways or orderly/well-planned step-by-step procedures
employed by the teachers and the principles needed to accomplish the aims of
the learning situations.
  A series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils to
achieve the desired objectives of the lesson

TEACHING TECHNIQUE
 refers to the act, style or manner of performance of the teacher in carrying out
the procedures or act of teaching.

 a combination of personality plus the amount of expertise one has in teaching

technology(method), subject matter, and pedagogical theory.

 The teacher’s style in executing a method

Purposes of Teaching Methods

 Make learning more efficient
 Enable the learner to think logically
 Facilitate smooth transition from an activity to another
 Serve as a guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and equipment
 Approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste of time and lapses
 Make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and time waste
 Help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson
 Add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and students

Principles for Selecting Methods

 Must be based on principles, laws and theories of learning.
 Must assist learners to define their purposes and motive
 Must originate from the learners’ past experiences
 Must suit individual differences, needs, interests and developmental maturity
 Must bring learners to the world of diverse learning experiences
 Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically and creatively
 Must be challenging

Principles for Selecting Methods

 Must be flexible
 Must be consistent with the requirements of the objectives
 Must be appropriate with the content
 Must give way to varied students’ participation
 Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful learning

Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method 

 Objectives - the aims or expected outcomes of the lesson.
 Subject Matter - refers to the substance of teaching.
 Learners - considers (nature, problems, needs and interests) as the center of the
educational process.

 Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method 

 Materials & Technology - tools and devices for the lesson. 
 Time Allotment - refers to the amount of time available for the lesson.
 Teacher - The skills and preferences influence the appropriateness of teaching methods
to be used. S/He must have a clear understanding of the principles and techniques
 involved. S/He should be familiar with the lesson. Effective teacher adapts his/her
teaching methods to his/her students.

Characteristics of a Good Teaching Method

1. Makes use of the principles of learning
2. Utilizes the principle of learning by doing
3. Provides for individual differences
4. Stimulates thinking and reasoning
5. Provides for growth and development
6. Liberates the learner

Two Major Approaches in Teaching

Direct Approach Indirect Approach

•  Makes use of expository strategies • Makes use of exploratory strategies

•  Aimed at generating knowledge for
•  Aimed at mastery of knowledge and skills experience

•  Teacher-oriented •  Learner-centered
•  Direct transmission of information from the •  Students search for information with
teacher teacher’s supervision

• Teacher-controlled •  Learner-controlled

•  Highly structured •  Flexibly organized

•  Content-centered •  Experience-centered

•  Learner is passive •  Learner is active in search for information

Two Major Approaches in Teaching

DIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH

1. Deductive Method Rule - Example 1. Inductive Method
2. Showing Method 2. Inquiry/Problem Solving Method
3. Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method 3. Laboratory/Investigative Method
4. Demonstration Method 4. Discovery Teaching Method
5. Concept Teaching Method

Instructional Strategies
1. BRAINSTORMING – a learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously
contribute ideas.
2. DEMONSTRATION – A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do
something.
3. DISCOVERY LEARNING – An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner
discovers.
4. DEBATE/DISCUSSION – Oral, or sometimes written, exchange of opinions usually to
analyze, clarify, or reach conclusions about issues, questions, or problems.
5. DRILL & PRACTICE – A learning event in which a learner repeats a particular skill in
order to fix in his hand or her hand.
 6. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING – Learning by doing- includes knowledge and skills
acquired outside a book/lecture learning situations.
7. GAME – typically a competition or contest that involves a demonstration of an
understanding of content or skill
8. HANDS-ON– a learning event that engages learners in a practical application of content
and skill
9. INQUIRY– Also referred to as scientific inquiry; refers to activities in which learners
develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists study the natural world.
10. INTERVIEW/SURVEY – a learning event in which learners interview/survey others about
a particular topic.
11. LABORATORY– a learning event that involves practicing science skills and using
scientific equipment.
12. LECTURE– A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest of the
group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
13. Instructional Strategies
14. TEAM TEACHING– an arrangement whereby a group of teachers cooperate so that
their classes have contact with more than one of those teachers during a given learning
session or period.
15. THEMATIC APPROACH– teaching approach that organizes subject matter around
unifying themes
16. SOCIODRAMA– is a specialized use of techniques like pantomime, improvised skits, or
dramatization in a situation characterized by a human relations dilemmas.
17. SINGLE-ROUND ROBIN – brainstorming session. A technique where students are given
the chance to answer the question using a ballpen and a piece of paper
18. AUTHOR’S CHAIR/HOT SEAT– A student is asked to sit at the center. The rest of the
class asks questions.
19. PHILLIPS 555– Students are grouped into 5 members. They are given 5 questions to be
answered in 5 minutes.
20. Role Playing – learners spontaneously portray a role in a situation
21. Simulation – learners replicate an episode
22. Panel Discussion – a group of 4-6 learners with a chairman sit together to discuss a
topic among themselves
23. Forum – similar to a panel discussion but the audience takes part at certain points of the
discussion
24. Jury Trial – combination of group work, research study and panel discussion presented
in a simulated trial court
25. Case Study – a class is presented with a situation, and is asked to give their viewpoint
on the matter
26. Problem Solving Discussion – a class thinking together to solve a problem at hand
27. Field Trip – learners visit real settings to witness and experience first hand the
actualities
28. Resource Person – an expert speaks before a group of spectators, ably discusses a
topic of interest, and may be asked to answer certain issues relevant to the topic
29. Using Media – audio-visual equipment and canned materials are used to present
concepts complete with animation

Direct / Expository Strategies

Reflective Teaching – the ability of the teacher to guide the students to reflect on their own
experiences.
1. Journal Writing – it involves the description of the event or learning
experiences, value and outcomes, and insight gained.
 2. Portfolio – a personal document which involves a detailed and complete account
of experiences including instant thoughts.
3. Self-analysis – records of incidents, problems, and issues.

Journal Entries:
I believe: Write about what you believe in
Abundance: things that are missing in your life
Happy list: What makes you happy?
Thank you: Write about what you are thankful for

Direct / Expository Strategies

Direct Instruction – teaching the basic skills and knowledge through step-by-step method. It
employs demonstration of the procedural knowledge on how to perform single and complex
skills.
Concept Teaching - concepts can be presented through:
 Expository or Rule-to-Example Method – deductive way of presenting a
lesson. The teacher defines the concept and then provides examples.
 Interrogatory or Example-to-Rule Method – inductive way of presenting the
lesson. Examples are given first and then the students discover the concepts
through logical reasoning.

Indirect / Discovery Strategies

 Inquiry Teaching – students seek answers to their own questions through self-
directed learning activities by following the scientific method.
 Synectics - students formulate analogies in analyzing learning situations for new
ideas and solutions.
 Constructing Projects – a “self-directed study” which requires the students to
present in concrete form the result of a research done.
 Collections – uses the skill in sorting and classifying according to a criterion.
 Consequence Mapping – involves the visual organization of the consequences
of an event given by the teacher.
 Concept Mapping – involves the visual organization of concepts or summary of
a lesson into hierarchical arrangement.
 Role-play Debate – the students present contradicting ideas which are assigned
and planned ahead of the discussion.
 Poster Making – the students present their learning through posters which can
be in words or in pictures/drawings.

Cooperative learning
 It is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different
levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a
subject.

Grouping Patterns for Cooperative Learning:

 Ability grouping – students with the same level of abilities are grouped together.
 Skills and Needs grouping – the difficulty of the task or problem is considered so that those
students who possess the skills will be equally distributed to all the groups.
 Friendship grouping – students who easily get along well with each other are grouped
together for strengthening motivation.
 Interest grouping – students are grouped according to their interests.
Instructional Strategies
1. PREDICTION CHART
2. PICK YOUR SPOT
3. AGREE-DISAGREE CHART
4. CYCLIC QUESTIONS
5. T-CHART
6. VENN DIAGRAM
7. 3D
8. PYRAMID
9. K-W-L Technique – is the basic way to: (1) initiate the study of a unit by motivating
the students and activating their prior knowledge; and (2) assess what the students
have learned after the unit is concluded.

Instructional design blends what we know about the LEARNERS, the SUBJECT MATTER,
and how PEOPLE LEARN to produce instruction that will facilitate the learning.

FOUNDATIONS/LEARNING THEORIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

1. BEHAVIORISM
Studies individual’s behaviors that are repeated until they become automatic to:
1. create measurable learning outcomes
2. use tangible rewards and informative feedback
3. guide students in measuring a set of predictable skills or behaviors
• The behaviorist perspective of learning focuses on rewarding or reinforcing, desired
responses, in the learning environment.
• BF Skinner was one of the psychologists whose work contributed to this school of
thought.

APPLICATION
Behaviorist Learning Theory and ID
• Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral
pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. In class-learning, behaviorism is like
delivering lectures from instructors and students memorizing the content delivery in the
 presentation. Teachers use positive and negative reinforcement to change the behavior of
learner. Pavlov and Skinner have done a lot of work on behaviorist theory and explains that
reinforcement drives behavioral responses.

Characteristics
 Lecture-based, highly structured
 Create measurable learning outcomes
 Use tangible rewards and informative feedback
 Guide students in mastering a set of predictable skills or behavior
 Teacher-centric environment
 Passive learning
 One size fits all
 Multiple choices and true-false questions
 Use positive and negative reinforcement to change the behavior of the learner

• Behaviorists try to assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction.

• When designing from a behaviorist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a
goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed.
• In this approach, the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and
attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner.

2. COGNITIVISM
Observes new behavioral patterns and focuses on how to learn and to:
1. Factor in learner characteristics that promote the cognitive process of information
2. Analyze which tasks are appropriate for effectively and efficiently processing of
information
3. Apply a variety of learning strategies

 Cognitivism focuses on the cognitive processes that occur in the brain as learning occurs.
 Mental processing is how learners assimilate new knowledge, and accommodate it into her
memory.

APPLICATION
 Cognitivism focuses entirely on processes occurring inside the mind of the
learner and observes new behavior patterns.
 Metacognition strategies are used in this approach. The learner is actively
thinking about the concepts taught by the teacher and try to relate with real-life
implication.
 Cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or
reorganization of the cognitive structures through which individuals process
and store information.

Characteristics
• Meaningful and memorable learning
• Curiosity encouraged
• Staged scaffolding
• Metacognition strategies in lesson planning
• Instant feedback
• Demonstration with real-life examples
• Active learning
 • Group discussion

Instructional Design

• Cognitivists, look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning. Analyze

which tasks are appropriate for effectively and efficiently processing information. Apply a
variety of learning strategies. The designer should provide activities that learner
compared existing cognitive structure with new information. Provide feedback about the
correctness of responses from learners to motivate them to think what is relevant and
how much important for them about a particular concept.

3. CONSTRUCTIVISM
The learner is in control of his/her own learning
To practice:
1. posing problems
2. creating group learning activities
3. guiding the process of knowledge construction

• Constructivism is a learning theory made popular by Jean Piaget that puts the learner at
the center of the knowledge process.
• Learners construct information, from their own experiences
• Relies on learners to contribute to knowledge
• An interactive experience, with the instructor acting more as a guide and less as a lecturer.

APPLICATION
 The learner is in control of his or her own learning. The learner is participative in
communities of practices. The learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is
better able to deal with real-life situations. If a learner can be a problem solver, they may
better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.
 Provide multiple representations of reality – avoid oversimplification of instruction by
representing the natural complexity of the world
 Present authentic tasks
 Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined
instructional sequences
 Foster reflective practice
 Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition
among learners for recognition

Characteristics
• Pose good problems
• Group learning activities
• Guided Process of knowledge construction
• Teacher role as facilitator
• Peer learning
• Active and long-term engagement with tasks
• Self-assessment of learning
• Collaborative & cooperative learning
Instructional Design
• To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that
is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive.
• The content is not pre-specified, the direction is determined by the learner and assessment
does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation
of the learner.
• Provide group activities for students to learn with other group members. Motivate learners
to learn their own self. Give them feedback on the end of the designed activity.

ADVANTAGES OF ID
 Encourages advocacy of the learner.
 Supports effective, efficient and appealing instruction
 Supports coordination, among designers, developers and those who will implement the
instruction.
 Provides a systematic framework for dealing with learning problems
 Learner, not content, is the focus of instruction.

BASIC PRINCIPLES in MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT (Tomlison, 1998)

o Materials should achieve impact.
o Materials should help learners to feel at ease.
o Materials should help learners to develop confidence.
o What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful.
o Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.
o •Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually
delayed.
o Materials should take into account that the learners differ in learning styles.
o Materials should take into account that the learners differ in affective attitudes.
o Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction.
o Learners must be ready to acquire and points being taught.
o Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use.
o The learners' attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.
o Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to
achieve communicative competence.
o Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and
emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities. 
o Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice. 
o Material should provide opportunities for outcome feedback.

Benefits of Instructional Materials

For Teachers
o Provide materials for presentation of new items for reinforcement, consolidation, and
practice.
o Provide materials for teaching particular skills, particular areas of languages, and other
special difficulties.
o Guide teacher on the methods and techniques in introducing the lessons and the series of
exercises for teaching the concepts. 
o Give them more opportunities make the best use of their time and skills to do more real
teaching.
Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and Tools

Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials

o Meaningfulness
o Appropriateness
o Breadth
o Usefulness
o Communication Effectiveness
o Authenticity
o Responsiveness
o Interest
o Cost-effectiveness

What instructional materials are for?

o To enrich instruction through added/unique dimensions
o To make instruction more accessible to a greater number of students
o To make instruction more effective at less cost
o To accommodate various student learning styles for improved learning
o To increase student interest and enthusiasm for learning
o To present abstract ideas in more concrete and contextualized terms.

Types of Instructional Materials/Tools

1. Visuals – representations of objects, persons, events in realistic or precise expression on
canvas, paper or other surfaces
1. Still pictures/photographic prints – include textbook, periodicals and similar printed
materials
2. Graphics – make use of symbols representing the phenomena they portray. They come
in many forms like maps, diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, posters
3. Realia – refers to all objects as they exist in natural context
4. Models – refer to objects that are constructed when realia are unavailable
5. Drawings – maybe the likeness of the real things or symbolic representations
6. Projection devices – may be slide and film strips projector or opaque /overhead
projectors which provide colorful and realistic production of original subjects

Types of Instructional Materials/Tools

1. Sound recordings (audio media) – include phonograph records, audio tapes, compact
discs, radio, recorder and players that have playback capability
2. Film, Television, Computer-mediated programs – are mostly audio-visual media that
magnify visual images
3. Computers and Internet – can be used even in the absence of teacher; allow one to learn
at his/her own pace; provide wide range of online information

Technology Integration
o It is the process of determining where and how technology fits into teaching and
learning. Roblyer (1997) cited in Williams, Michael D. (2000). Integrating Technology into
Teaching and Learning.
Benefits from Using Educational Technology
• Increase the quality of learning and the degree of its mastery through the use of special
effects of unique programming that are considered individualized, valid, and accessible.
• Decrease the time spent in instruction for learners to achieve desired learning objectives
• Increase efficiency of teachers
• Reduce educational cost without affecting quality of instruction

Guidelines in Using Educational Technology

o Determine the purpose for which the instructional materials are to be used.
o Define the objectives to determine the appropriateness of the material
o Know the content of the material
o Exercise flexibility so that the materials satisfy different purposes
o Consider diversity/variety of materials
o Relate materials to age, ability, maturity, and interest of students
o Arrange the conditions so that the materials do not interrupt the lesson
o Prepare the students for what they will see, hear, and do as lessons unfold
o Operate equipment needed for efficient use
o Summarize experiences gained
o Evaluate the results of the use materials together with the instructional process, to
determine effectiveness

1. Role of Computer as a Teacher

• Computer is used to present instructions directly to students. Such use is usually termed
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI). Computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-assisted
learning (CBL). CAI is also termed as instructional software.

Categories of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and their Advantages

Categories Use/Purpose Features
Drill and Practice • Memorize and recall information • Interactivity
• Increase proficiency in a newly • Immediate feedback
learned skill or refresh an existing • Infinite practice
one. • Variable level of difficulty
• Motivation
Tutorial • Assume the primary instructional role • Embedded question
of teacher or tutor. • Branching
• Dynamic presentation
• Recordkeeping
Simulation • Represent or model a real system, • Control of multiple variables
situation, or phenomenon. • Dynamic presentation
• Time control
• Effects of chance
Instructional Game • Add an element of fun in CAI. • Motivation.
• Game structure
• Sensory appeal
Problem Solving • Promote students’ higher-order • Focus on specific problems types
thinking skills, such as logic, • Quantity
 reasoning, pattern recognition, and • Variety
strategies.

2. Roles of Computer as a Tool

2.1. Informative Tools are applications which provide vast amounts of information in various
formats (e.g., text, sound graphics or video, Multimedia encyclopedias).
2.2. Communicative Tools are systems which enable easy communication between the
teacher and the students or among students beyond physical barrier of the classroom. (eg.,
email, electronic bulletin boards , chat, teleconferencing and electronic whiteboards.)

Two categories of Communicative Tools

2.2.1. Synchronous (e.g., chat or videoconferencing) enables real time (that is, simultaneous)
communication.
2.2.2. Asynchronous ( e.g., email and electronic bulletin boards), on the other hand, are
messaging systems in which the exchange of information between people is not ‘live’, but is
somehow delayed.

Thinking It Through…
o Lesson Content
o Learning Level
o Instructional Methods, Materials, Activities
o Student Activities
o Evaluation Tools, Strategies, Activities