DETERMINANTS

A determinant represents a real number that is associated with a square ordered array of
elements symbolizing the sum of certain products of their elements. The square array of elements
is enclosed between two vertical lines.

A. Determinant of Order 2

𝑎 𝑏1
det 𝐴 = | 1 | = (𝑎1 )(𝑏2 ) − (𝑎2 )(𝑏1 )
𝑎2 𝑏2

2 −3
Example 1: Find the determinant of A = | |.
1 4
Solution:
2 −3
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = | | = (2)(4) − (1)(−3) = 8 + 3 = 11
1 4
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = 11

1 −4
Example 2: Evaluate the following determinant: | |.
0 3
Solution:
1 −4
| | = (1)(3) − (0)(−4) = 3 + 4 = 7
0 3
𝑑𝑒𝑡 = 7

B. Determinant of Order 3

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12

| 𝑎
det 𝐴 = 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32

= [(𝑎11 )(𝑎22 )(𝑎33) + (𝑎12 )(𝑎23 )(𝑎31 ) + (𝑎13 )(𝑎32 )(𝑎21 )] −

[(𝑎31 )(𝑎22 )(𝑎13 ) + (𝑎32 )(𝑎23 )(𝑎11 ) + (𝑎33 )(𝑎12 )(𝑎21 )]

1 −1 1
Example 1: Find the determinant of A = 2 0 −3|.
|
1 1 2
Solution:
1 −1 1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = 2 0 −3|
|
1 1 2
= 1 0 2 + −1 −3)(1) + (1)(1)(2)]
[( )( )( ) ( )(

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 −[(1)(0)(1) + (1)(−3)(1) + (2)(−1)(2)]
= [0 + 3 + 2] − [0 − 3 − 4]
=5+7
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = 12

5 −2 1
Example 2: Find the determinant of A = |0 3 −1|.
2 0 7
Solution:
5 −2 1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = |0 3 −1|
2 0 7
= [(5)(3)(7) + (−2)(−1)(2) + (1)(0)(0)]
−[(2)(3)(1) + (0)(−1)(5) + (7)(−2)(0)]
= [105 + 4 + 0] − [6 + 0 − 0]
= 109 − 6
𝑑𝑒𝑡 A = 103

C. Minors and Cofactors

Minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of an element in a matrix is defined as the determinant obtained by deleting
the row i and column j in which that element lies. Given this determinant:

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎21 𝑎23
the minor of 𝑎12 is denoted by 𝑀12 = |𝑎 𝑎33 |.
31

Cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is related to its minor as 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 where i and j are
the row and column element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 belongs.

1 −1 1
Example 1: Find the minor and cofactor of 𝑎22 in |2 0 −3|.
1 1 2
Solution:
1 −1 1
1 1
𝑀22 = |2 0 −3| = | | = (1)(2) − (1)(1) = 2 − 1 = 1
1 2
1 1 2
𝑀22 = 1
𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22 = (−1)4 (1) = (1)(1)
𝐶22 = 1

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 1 4 2 3
Example 2: Find the minor and cofactor of 𝑎33 in | 0 1 4 4|.
−1 0 1 0
2 0 4 1
Solution:
1 4 2 3
1 4 3
𝑀33 = | 0 1 4 4 | = |0 1 4 |
−1 0 1 0
2 0 1
2 0 4 1
𝑀33 = [(1)(1)(1) + (4)(4)(2) + (3)(0)(0)]
−[(2)(1)(3) + (0)(4)(1) + (1)(4)(0)]
𝑀33 = [1 + 32 + 0] − [6 + 0 + 0]
𝑀33 = 33 − 6
𝑀33 = 27

𝐶33 = (−1)3+3 𝑀33 = (−1)6 (27)

𝐶33 = 27

D. Determinant of Order 4
Solving the determinants of a 4x4 matrix is done using expansion by minors. We
need to transform a row or a column using its cofactors. The determinant of the matrix is
equal to the sum of the products of each element in the row (or column) and its cofactor.

𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎31 𝑎41

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
det 𝐴 = |𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32 𝑎42 |
13 23 33 43
𝑎14 𝑎24 𝑎34 𝑎44
Suppose we choose to transform the first row, the determinant of the matrix shall
be:
det 𝐴 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13 + 𝑎14 𝐶14 .

Consequently, suppose we choose to transform the second column, the

determinant shall be:
det 𝐴 = 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎22 𝐶22 + 𝑎32 𝐶32 + 𝑎42 𝐶42 .

Take note that in choosing a row or a column to transform, we must consider it

having at least one zero element. By doing so, we are sure of having one term equal to
zero. Hence, making the computation faster.

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 3 1 4 −2
2 −1 2 1
Example 1: Find the determinant of the matrix | |.
−1 0 1 2
0 2 −2 1
Solution 1: Using the first column.
3 1 4 −2
2 −1 2 1
det 𝐴 = | | = 3𝐶11 + 2𝐶12 − 1𝐶13 + 0
−1 0 1 2
0 2 −2 1

−1 2 1
1+1 |
𝐶11 = (−1) 0 1 2| = (1)(1) = 1
2 −2 1

1 4 −2
1+2 |
𝐶12 = (−1) 0 1 2 | = (−1)(25) = −25
2 −2 1

1 4 −2
1+3
𝐶13 = (−1) |−1 2 1 | = (1)(20) = 20
2 −2 1

det 𝐴 = 3(1) + 2(−25) − 1(20)

det 𝐴 = 3 − 50 − 20
det 𝐴 = − 67

Solution 2: Using the third row.

3 1 4 −2
2 −1 2 1
Det 𝐴 = | | = −1𝐶13 + 0 + 1𝐶33 + 2𝐶43
−1 0 1 2
0 2 −2 1

1 4 −2
𝐶13 = (−1)1+3 |−1 2 1 | = (1)(20) = 20
2 −2 1

3 1 −2
𝐶33 = (−1)3+3 |2 −1 1 | = (1)(−19) = −19
0 2 1

3 1 4
𝐶43 = (−1)4+3 |2 −1 2 | = (−1)(14) = −14
0 2 −2

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 det 𝐴 = −1(20) + 0 + 1(−19) + 2(−14)
det 𝐴 = − 20 − 19 − 28
det 𝐴 = − 67

SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATION USING CRAMER’S RULE

Cramer's Rule is a method that uses determinants to solve systems of equations that have
the same number of equations as variables.

A. Two Equations, Two unknowns

Suppose we have two equations 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2 with two
unknowns x and y, we can solve for the value of each as:

𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦
𝑥= and 𝑦 =
𝐷 𝐷

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐 𝑏1 𝑎1 𝑐1
where 𝐷 = | | , 𝐷𝑥 = | 1 | and 𝐷𝑦 = |𝑎 𝑐2 |.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑏2 2
Note that:
a. If 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐷𝑥 (𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑦) ≠ 0, then the equations are inconsistent.
b. If 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐷𝑥 (𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑦) = 0, then the equations are dependent.

Example 1: Solve the system using Cramer’s rule.

4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 16
Solution:
Solving for D, Dx and Dy:
4 3
𝐷= | | = (4)(−5) − (2)(3) = −20 − 6 = −26
2 −5
6 3
𝐷𝑥 = | | = (6)(−5) − (16)(3) = −30 − 48 = −78
16 −5
4 6
𝐷𝑦 = | | = (4)(16) − (2)(6) = 64 − 12 = 52
2 16

Solving for x and y:

−78 52
𝑥= 𝑦=
−26 −26
𝑥=3 𝑦 = −2

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 Example 2: Solve the system using Cramer’s rule.
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −3
−𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −15
Solution:
3 4
𝐷= | | = (3)(4) − (−1)(4) = 12 + 4 = 16
−1 4
−3 4
𝐷𝑥 = | | = (−3)(4) − (−15)(4) = −12 + 60 = 48
−15 4
3 −3
𝐷𝑦 = | | = (3)(−15) − (−1)(−3) = −45 − 3 = −48
−1 −15

48 −48
𝑥= 𝑦=
16 −16
𝑥=3 𝑦 = −3

B. Three Equations, Three unknowns

Suppose we have two equations 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑘1 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 =
𝑘2 with unknowns x, y and z, we can solve for the value of each as:

𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦 𝐷𝑧
𝑥= ,𝑦= and 𝑧 =
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑘1 𝑐1
where 𝐷 = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | , 𝐷𝑥 = |𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | , 𝐷𝑦 = |𝑎2 𝑘2 𝑐2 | and
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑘3 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑘1
𝐷𝑧 = 2 𝑏2 𝑘2 |
| 𝑎
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑘3

Example 1: Solve the system using Cramer’s rule.

4𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −2
5𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
Solution:
4 3 1
𝐷 = |3 −2 −1| = [(4)(−2)(2) + (3)(−1)(5) + (1)(4)(3)]
5 4 2
−[(5)(−2)(1) + (4)(−1)(4) + (2)(3)(3)]
= [−16 − 15 + 12] − [−10 − 16 + 18]
= −19 + 8
= −11

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 1 3 1
𝐷𝑥 = |−2 −2 −1| = [(1)(−2)(2) + (3)(−1)(3) + (1)(4)(−2)]
3 4 2
−[(3)(−2)(1) + (4)(−1)(1) + (2)(3)(−2)]
= [−4 − 9 − 8] − [−6 − 4 − 12]
= −21 + 22
=1

4 1 1
𝐷𝑦 = |3 −2 −1| = [(4)(−2)(2) + (1)(−1)(5) + (1)(3)(3)]
5 3 2
−[(5)(−2)(1) + (3)(−1)(4) + (2)(1)(3)]
= [−16 − 5 + 9] − [−10 − 12 + 6]
= −12 + 16
=4

4 3 1
𝐷𝑧 = |3 −2 −2| = [(4)(−2)(3) + (3)(−2)(5) + (1)(4)(3)]
5 4 3
−[(5)(−2)(1) + (4)(−2)(4) + (3)(3)(3)]
= [−24 − 30 + 12] − [−10 − 32 + 27]
= −42 + 15
= −27
1 4 27
𝑥 = − 11 𝑦= 𝑧=
11 11

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