Introduction to Matrices

1.1 DEFINITION OF MATRICES and VECTORS

Key focus:

• Explain the nature of a matrix

• Show how a matrix is represented
• Define the term matrix (matrices)
• Describe the size (order or
dimension) of a matrix
• Read the position of any element in a
matrix
• Apply concepts to a variety of
applications

BRIEF HISTORY OF MATRICES

Matrices were originally discovered by James Joseph Sylvester (1850).
He was able to identify determinants in matrices by removing rows
and columns from the original matrix. Cullis (1913) formed the
notation 𝑨𝑨 = �𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 � to represent a matrix.
Modern mathematics uses matrices to solve multiple linear equations.

What is a matrix?
Data, like mathematics test scores, can be represented in such a way that
it can be identified easily by means of a matrix. Matrices are used to
solve practical problems in a wide range of applications in engineering,
physics, statistics and mathematics.
For instance, if we chose to write the scores five students obtained in
three mathematics tests. The rows can represent the test scores of each
student (5 rows) and the columns can represent the each of the three
tests (3 columns).
 26 33 45 
 
 30 38 12 
 47 62 26 
 
 73 39 48 
 12
 38 55 

The first student had a score of 26 in test 1, 33 in test 2 and 45 in test 3.

See if you can identify the scores for the fourth student in the array of
numbers given in the form of a matrix.
A matrix is an arrangement of numbers in rows and columns in a
rectangular form usually enclosed in brackets. The plural of matrix is
matrices. If m represents the rows and n represents the columns we
have a matrix of dimension m x n.
Notation: A matrix is defined using capital letters and brackets either
𝐴𝐴 = � � or 𝐵𝐵 = � �.

DEFINITION: MATRIX
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.

1 a α φ ω
 
2 b β η π −1 a β  0 3 
𝐾𝐾 =  3 c χ σ η 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿 = − 2 − b − β Φ − 8 3 d 
 
  
4 d δ τ ϕ  − 3 c λ τ − 2 1 
5
 e ε µ ρ 

𝐾𝐾 is matrix of order (size) (5,5). There are 5 rows and 5 columns. In row
1 the elements are 𝑎𝑎11 = 1, 𝑎𝑎12 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎13 = 𝛼𝛼, 𝑎𝑎14 = 𝜙𝜙 and 𝑎𝑎14 = 𝜔𝜔.
We can do the same for row 2, row 3, row 4 and row 5.
The elements in column 1 are 𝑎𝑎11 = 1, 𝑎𝑎21 = 2, 𝑎𝑎31 = 3, 𝑎𝑎41 = 𝜙𝜙 and
𝑎𝑎51 = 5. Continuing in the same way we can list the elements in column
2, column 3, column 4 and column 5 respectively.

Matrix 𝐿𝐿 is of order (3,6). It has 3 rows and 6 columns. See if you can
identify the elements in each row and each column. Which element is in
𝑎𝑎35 ?
We will now look at the generalised form of a matrix.

GENERALISED FORM OF A MATRIX

If 𝐴𝐴 is an 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 matrix it means 𝐴𝐴 has 𝑚𝑚 rows and 𝑛𝑛 columns.

𝑚𝑚 rows

 a11 a12 a13 a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22 a 23 a2n 
a a32 a33 
 31 
a a 42 a 43 a 44 a 45 
A =  41  𝑛𝑛 columns
 
 
 
 
a
 m1 am2 a mn 

This is the generalised form of matrix 𝐴𝐴.

We write 𝐴𝐴 = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � The subscripts indicate the row number followed by
the column number. 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 represents the element in the 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡ℎ
column.
The dimension or order of the matrix 𝐴𝐴 is (m,n). It can also be written as
𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 (read as 𝑚𝑚 by 𝑛𝑛)
The number of elements in a matrix is the product of the rows and
columns. 𝐴𝐴 has 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 elements.

DEFINITION: DIMENSION OF A MATRIX

A matrix with 𝒎𝒎 rows and 𝒏𝒏 columns then the dimension (size or
order) of the matrix is (𝒎𝒎, 𝒏𝒏) or 𝒎𝒎 × 𝒏𝒏 (read as 𝒎𝒎 by 𝒏𝒏).
Example: 1
Consider the matrices 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶:
1 4 8
1 3
𝐴𝐴 = �5 2 6�, 𝐵𝐵 = � �, 𝐶𝐶 = (1 2 3 4)
2 4
7 9 3
𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are square matrices (they have the same number of rows and
columns). 𝐶𝐶 is a row matrix.
𝐴𝐴 is a 3 × 3 square matrix with diagonal elements 1, 2 and 3.
𝐵𝐵 is a 2 × 2 square matrix with diagonal elements 1 and 4.
𝐶𝐶 is a 1 × 4 row matrix with one row and four columns.

DEFINITION: ELEMENT OF A MATRIX

Each entry in a matrix is known as an element of the matrix.
Example: 2
Matrix 𝐷𝐷 is given by:
 1 2 3 4   a11 a12 a13 a14 
D =   =  
 5 6 7 8   a21 a22 a23 a24 
(i) List the elements in the matrix.

(ii) How many elements are there in the given matrix?

Solution:
(i)
The elements in row 1 are:
 𝑎𝑎11 = 1
𝑎𝑎12 = 2
𝑎𝑎13 = 3
𝑎𝑎14 = 4
The elements in row 2 are:
𝑎𝑎21 = 5
𝑎𝑎22 = 6
𝑎𝑎23 = 7
𝑎𝑎24 = 8

(ii) There are 8 elements (we multiply the rows by the columns)

Example: 3
Matrix 𝐸𝐸 is given by
1 −1 6 2
 
2 3 5 0
𝐸𝐸 =  , state the elements 𝑎𝑎23 , 𝑎𝑎42 and 𝑎𝑎34 .
2 −4 2 1
 
4 5
 0 7 

Solution:
1 −1 6 2
 
2 3 5 0
𝐸𝐸 = 
2 −4 2 1
 
4 5
 0 7 

𝑎𝑎23 = 5 (5 is in row 2 column 3)

𝑎𝑎42 = 5 (5 is in row 4 column 2)
𝑎𝑎34 = 1 (1 is in row 3 column 4)

Example: 4
If a matrix 𝐴𝐴 has 8 elements. What are the possible orders 𝐴𝐴 can have?
Solution:
The number of elements is the product of the rows and columns.
Possible orders: (1,8); (8,1), (2,4), (4,2).

Example: 5
1
Construct a 2 × 3 whose (𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗)𝑡𝑡ℎ element is given by 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = |2𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗|,
2

1 ≤ 𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2 and 1 ≤ 𝑗𝑗 ≤ 3.
Solution:
This means that A has two rows and three columns.
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13
𝐴𝐴 = �𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎23 �
21

So the dimension of 𝐴𝐴 is (2,3).

The elements are:
We calculate the elements in row 1:
1 1 1
𝑎𝑎11 = |2(1) − 1| = |2 − 1| =
2 2 2
1 1
𝑎𝑎12 = |2(1) − 2| = |2 − 2| = 0
2 2
1 1 1
𝑎𝑎13 = |2(1) − 3| = |2 − 3| = −
2 2 2

We calculate the elements in row 2:

1 1 3
𝑎𝑎21 = |2(2) − 1| = |4 − 1| =
2 2 2
1 1
𝑎𝑎22 = |2(2) − 2| = |4 − 2| = 1
2 2
1 1 1
𝑎𝑎23 = |2(2) − 3| = |4 − 3| =
2 2 2

Our 2 × 3 matrix is:

 1 1
0 −
𝐴𝐴 = �23 1
2
�
1
2 2

2 0
Example: 6 If 𝐴𝐴 = � �, find 𝑥𝑥 if (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐼𝐼)(𝐴𝐴 − 2𝐼𝐼) = 0.
−1 𝑥𝑥
Solution:
2 0 1 0
𝐴𝐴 − 𝐼𝐼 = � �−� �
−1 𝑥𝑥 0 1
1 0
=� �
−1 𝑥𝑥 − 1
(𝐴𝐴 − 2𝐼𝐼) = � 2 0� − �2 0�
−1 𝑥𝑥 0 2
0 0
=� �
−1 𝑥𝑥 − 2
(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐼𝐼)(𝐴𝐴 − 2𝐼𝐼) = 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
� �� �=� �
−1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 −1 𝑥𝑥 − 2 0 0
0 0 0 0
� 2 �=� �
−𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 0 0
Equating corresponding elements, we have:
−𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥𝑥 = 1
and
𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0
(𝑥𝑥 − 2)(𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝑥𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥𝑥 = 1

EXERCISE: 1 (Definition of Matrices)

Describe the size (dimension or order) of the following matrices:
 a) 𝐴𝐴 = (5)
b) 𝐵𝐵 = (2 4 −6 8)
 4 5 6 2 
 
− 2 4 3 4 
c) 𝐶𝐶 = 
1 −3 −7 6 
 
 −1 2
 9 − 8 
a λ 
 
d) 𝐸𝐸 =  b β 
c π 
 
−3 6 − 9 12 
e) 𝐹𝐹 =  
 4 − 8 16 32 

1 −1
f) 𝐺𝐺 = �2 −2�
3 −3
g) 𝐻𝐻 = (1 𝛽𝛽 µ)
2
h) 𝐼𝐼 = � �
4
4 2 3
i) 𝐽𝐽 = �1 3 7�
8 6 4
1 0
j) 𝐾𝐾 = � �
0 0

How many elements does each of the following matrices have?

k) a 4 × 5 matrix?
l) a 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matix?
m) a 1 × 1 matrix?
 − 7 15 − 14 10 
 
 11 − 13 25 18 
Matrix 𝑀𝑀 is given by 𝑀𝑀 = 
− 34 20 0 − 22 
 
 23
 24 16 17 
n) State the elements 𝑎𝑎13 , 𝑎𝑎22 , 𝑎𝑎33 and 𝑎𝑎43 .
2 −6 5
Matrix 𝐹𝐹 is given by 𝑁𝑁 = � �
3 −2 1
o) State the elements 𝑎𝑎12 , 𝑎𝑎13 , 𝑎𝑎22 and 𝑎𝑎23 .
p) Construct a 3 × 4 matrix 𝐴𝐴 whose (𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗)𝑡𝑡ℎ element is given by
1
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = |𝑖𝑖 − 2𝑗𝑗|, 1 ≤ 𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2 and 1 ≤ 𝑗𝑗 ≤ 3.
2

q) Construct a 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix 𝐴𝐴 = (𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) whose (𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗)𝑡𝑡ℎ element is given by

1
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = (2𝑖𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗)2 , with 𝑚𝑚 = 2 and 𝑛𝑛 = 3.
2

1.2 TYPES OF MATRICES

Key focus:

• Describe the different types of matrices

• Identify elements in the principal
diagonal of a matrix
• Identify an element in a particular row
and column of a matrix

DEFINITION: Square Matrix

A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is a square
matrix.
1 2
Example: 7 Consider the matrix 𝐺𝐺 = � �. State the type and
3 4
dimension of the matrix 𝐺𝐺.
Solution:
G is a square matrix. Dimension (2,2).

DEFINITION: Rectangular matrix

A rectangular matrix is one in which the number of rows are not equal to
the number of columns.
Example: 8
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Consider 𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑�. State the type and dimension of the matrix 𝐿𝐿.
𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓
Solution:
𝐽𝐽 is called a rectangular matrix. Dimension (3,2).

DEFINITION: Identity matrix

A scalar matrix with elements in the main diagonal all ones is called a
unit matrix or identity matrix.

Example: 9
1 0 0
Consider 𝐼𝐼 = �0 1 0�. State the type and dimension of the matrix 𝐼𝐼.
0 0 1
Solution:
𝐼𝐼 is called a unit matrix. Dimension (3,3).
2 0 0
Example: 10 Consider matrix 𝐽𝐽 = �0 2 0�. State the type and
0 0 2
dimension of the matrix 𝐽𝐽.
Solution:
𝐽𝐽 is a diagonal matrix. Dimension (3,3).

Can we have a matrix of one row or one column? Yes, we can. These are
called vectors. We can have a row vector with a single row and multiple
columns.

DEFINITION: Row vector

A matrix with one row and multiple columns is a row vector.

Example: 11 Consider the matrix 𝐼𝐼 = (𝛽𝛽 𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘). State the type and
dimension of the matrix 𝐼𝐼.
Solution:
This matrix has 1 row and 3 columns. It is called a row vector. Dimension
(1,3).

DEFINITION: Column vector

A matrix with one column and multiple rows is a column vector.
𝑎𝑎
Example: 12 Consider the matrix 𝐽𝐽 = �𝑏𝑏 �. State the type and
𝑐𝑐
dimension of the matrix 𝐽𝐽.
Solution:
This matrix has 3 rows and 1 column. It is called a column vector.
Dimension (3,1).

DEFINITION: Triangular matrices.

A matrix can be upper triangular if the elements below the principal
diagonal are zero and is lower triangular if the elements above the
principal diagonal are zero.

Example: 13 Consider the following triangular matrices

−1 0 −2 −1 0 0
𝐾𝐾 = � 0 3 2� 𝐿𝐿 = � 5 8 0�
0 0 4 4 2 6
State the type and dimension of the matrix 𝐾𝐾 and 𝐿𝐿.
Solution:
Notice the elements below the principal diagonal are zero in K and the
elements above the principal diagonal are zero in L.
K is called an upper triangular matrix. Dimension (3,3).
L is called a lower triangular matrix. Dimension (3,3).

DEFINITION: Main or Principal (Leading) Diagonal

The principal diagonal of a square matrix is the element 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 where 𝒊𝒊 =
𝒋𝒋 from 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 to 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 .
EXAMPLE: 14
List the elements of the principal diagonal in matrix
1 0 −3 4 6 
 
−1 2 4 2 0 
A =  2 −7 3 −3 6 
 
3 2 −1 4 − 4
 8 −5 0
 1 5 

Solution:
𝑎𝑎11 = 1
𝑎𝑎22 = 2
𝑎𝑎33 = 3
𝑎𝑎44 = 4
𝑎𝑎55 = 5

DEFINITION: Diagonal Matrix

A matrix with at least one element of the principal diagonal is non-zero
and all the other elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
This means that 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 for 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗 and 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0 for at least one 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗.
A diagonal matrix is both upper triangular and lower triangular.
1 0 0
Example: 15 Consider matrix 𝐻𝐻 = �0 2 0�. State the type and
0 0 3
dimension of the matrix 𝐻𝐻.

Solution:
𝐻𝐻 is a diagonal matrix. Dimension (3,3).

−1 0 0
Example: 16 Consider matrix 𝐾𝐾 = � 0 1 0�. State the type and
0 0 0
dimension of the matrix 𝐾𝐾.
Solution:
𝐾𝐾 is a diagonal matrix. Dimension (3,3).

DEFINITION: Scalar matrix

A matrix with the diagonal elements equal is called a scalar matrix.
 5 0 0
Example: 17 Consider matrix 𝑀𝑀 = �0 5 0� . State the type and
0 0 5
dimension of the matrix 𝑀𝑀.

Solution:
𝑀𝑀 is a scalar matrix. The diagonal elements are all the same.

DEFINITION: Zero matrix

A matrix with all elements zero is called a zero matrix or a null matrix.
Example: 18

0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0
Consider 𝑂𝑂 =  0 0 0 0 0  State the type and dimension of the matrix 𝑂𝑂.

0 0 0 0 0
0
 0 0 0 0 

Solution:
𝑂𝑂 is a zero matrix. Dimension (5,5).
The zero or null matrix is the additive identity for matrices.

DEFINITION: Negative matrix

Matrix 𝐴𝐴 is a negative matrix when each element in 𝐴𝐴 is replaced by its
additive inverse.
The negative of the matrix 𝐴𝐴 is (−1)(𝐴𝐴) and is written as – 𝐴𝐴. This means
that the sum of a matrix and its negative matrix is zero.
The matrix – 𝐴𝐴 is called the additive inverse of the matrix 𝐴𝐴.
 1 2 − 3 4 
 
0 −1 2 3 
EXAMPLE: 19 If 𝐴𝐴 =  , determine – 𝐴𝐴.
6 −3 2 3
 
 1 − 8 − 3 0. 
 

Solution:
 −1 − 2 3 − 4
 
 0 1 − 2 − 3
−𝐴𝐴 = 
− 6 3 − 2 − 3
 
 −1 8 3 0 . 
 

DEFINITION: Nilpotent matrix

Matrix 𝐴𝐴 to a power 𝑚𝑚 is said to be a nilpotent matrix if 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 = 0.
The resulting matrix is called a null matrix with the same order as 𝐴𝐴.
(This will be discussed under multiplication)

DEFINITION: Idempotent matrix

Matrix 𝐴𝐴 to a power 2 is said to be a idempotent if matrix if 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐴𝐴.
The resulting matrix is the same order as 𝐴𝐴. (This will be discussed
under multiplication see EXAMPLE: 34)

DEFINITION: INVOLUNTARY MATRIX

A matrix is known involuntary if 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = 𝑰𝑰.
(This will be discussed under multiplication see EXAMPLE: 40)

DEFINITION: HERMITIAN MATRIX

A matrix A is Hermitian if it equals to its conjugate transposed matrix.
𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨∗
(This will be discussed under conjugate transposed matrices see
EXAMPLE: )

EXERCISE: 2 (Types of Matrices)

Give the dimension and type of each of the following matrices:
2 4 7 1 0 0
a) 𝐴𝐴 = �0 −1 10� b) 𝐵𝐵 = �2 4 0�
0 2 12 3 5 6

−1 0 0 a
c) C = � 0 −2 0� d) 𝐷𝐷 = �e�
0 0 −3 i
o

−8 −2 −3
e) 𝐸𝐸 = � 0 −4 −5� f) 𝐹𝐹 = (𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽 φ)
0 0 −2
1 0 0 0 0
 
−8 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
𝑔𝑔) 𝐺𝐺 = � 0 −8 0 � h) 𝐻𝐻 =  0 0 3 0 0

0 0 −8 0 0 0 4 0
0 0 0 0 5 

0 0 0
i) 𝑂𝑂 = � � j) 𝑃𝑃 = (1)
0 0 0

Answer the following questions:

k) Write down the 5 × 5 identity matrix.
l) What is meant by a square matrix?
m) Describe the position of element 𝑎𝑎52 in a matrix.
n) Given the matrices:
 1 0 0 −3 2 1
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 −1 0
𝐴𝐴 = � � , 𝐵𝐵 = �−1 2 0�, 𝐶𝐶 = � �, 𝐷𝐷 = � 0 1 2 �, 𝐸𝐸 =
0 𝑐𝑐 0 2
−3 4 1 0 0 −2
1 0 0 1
1 0
�0 1 0 �, 𝐹𝐹 = (2), 𝐺𝐺 = (3 −3 3), 𝐻𝐻 = �0�, 𝐼𝐼 = � �
2 1
0 0 −6 1
Answer the following questions:
(i) Which are column matrices?
(ii) Which are row matrices?
(iii) Which of the given matrices are diagonal?
(iv) Which of the above are upper triangular matrices?
(v) Which of the above are lower triangular matrices?

1.3 TRACE OF A MATRIX

Key focus:

• Describe the trace of matrix

• Calculate the trace of a matrix
• Prove the properties of the trace
operator

DEFINITION: Trace of a matrix

The trace of a square matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements.
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33 + ⋯
Example: 20
−3 −2 −1
If 𝐴𝐴 = � 1 2 3 �, calculate 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).
−4 5 6
Solution:
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33
= −3 + 2 + 6
=5
Example: 21

1 2 3 4 5
 
6 7 8 9 10 
If 𝐴𝐴 =  11 12 13 14 15  , calculate 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).

16 17 18 19 20 
 21 22 23 24
 25 

Solution:
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33 + 𝑎𝑎44 + 𝑎𝑎55
= 1 + 7 + 13 + 19 + 25
= 65

PROPERTIES OF THE TRACE OPERATOR

• Trace of a sum
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)
• Trace of a scalar multiple
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴)
• Trace of a linear combination
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)
• Trace of a transpose
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴)
• Trace of a product
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)
Example: 22
1 2 4 3
If 𝐴𝐴 = � � and 𝐵𝐵 = � �, show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)
3 4 2 1
Solution:
1 2 4 3
𝐴𝐴 = � � 𝐵𝐵 = � �
3 4 2 1
5 5
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = � �
5 5
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22
=5+5
= 10
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22
=1+4
=5
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22
=4+1
=5
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵) = 5 + 5
= 10
∴ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)
Example: 23
−1 4
If 𝐴𝐴 = � �, show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴) = 2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴)
0 3
Solution:
−1 4
𝐴𝐴 = � �
0 3
 −2 8
2𝐴𝐴 = � �
0 6
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22
= −2 + 6
=4
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22
= −1 + 3
=2
2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 2(2)
=4
∴ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴) = 2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴)

Example: 24
1 2 −1 −2
If 𝐴𝐴 = � � and 𝐵𝐵 = � �, show that
3 6 4 3
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴 + 3𝐵𝐵) = 2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)
Solution:
2 4 −3 −6
2𝐴𝐴 + 3𝐵𝐵 = � �+� �
6 12 12 9
−1 −2
=� �
18 21

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴 + 3𝐵𝐵) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22

= −1 + 21
= 20
2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 2(7)
= 14
3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵) = 3(2)
=6
2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵) = 14 + 6
= 20
∴ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(2𝐴𝐴 + 3𝐵𝐵) = 2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵)

Example: 25
1 3 5 7
 
2 1 3 6
If 𝐴𝐴 =   , show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).
4 2 2 0
 
1
 2 1 3 

Solution:
1 3 5 7
 
2 1 3 6
𝐴𝐴 = 
4 2 2 0
 
1
 2 1 3 

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33 + 𝑎𝑎44

=1+1+2+3
=7
1 2 4 1
 
T 3 1 2 2
A =
5 3 2 1
 
7
 6 0 3 

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33 + 𝑎𝑎44

=1+1+2+3
=7
∴ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).
Example: 26
−1 2 4 2 0 1
If 𝐴𝐴 = � 5 6 2� and 𝐵𝐵 = �3 1 4�, show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)
3 1 5 2 6 3
Solution:
−1 2 4 2 0 1
𝐴𝐴 = � 5 6 2�, 𝐵𝐵 = �3 1 4�
3 1 5 2 6 3
−1 2 4 2 0 1
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 5 6 2� �3 1 4�
3 1 5 2 6 3
12 26 19
= �32 18 35�
19 31 22
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33
= 12 + 18 + 22
= 52
2 0 1 −1 2 4
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = �3 1 4� � 5 6 2�
2 6 3 3 1 5
1 5 13
= �14 16 34�
37 43 35
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) = 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎33
= 1 + 16 + 35
= 52

Example: 27
If 𝐴𝐴 = (1) and 𝐵𝐵 = (2), show that 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)
Solution:
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = (1)(2)
= (2)
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 2
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = (2)(1)
= (2)
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) = 2
∴ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)

EXERCISE: 3 (Trace of Matrices)

 1 2 3 4 
 
 5 6 7 8 
a) If A = − , determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).
−1 − 2 − 3 − 4
 
− 5 − 6 − 7 − 8
 
1 2 3 3 −1 4
b) If 𝐴𝐴 = �−1 2 4� and 𝐵𝐵 = �1 0 −1�, show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) =
5 −1 2 2 1 −2
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵).
1 − 3 4 1 6
 
4 − 2 3 2 7
c) If 𝐴𝐴 =  5 1 7 6 − 1 show that 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(3𝐴𝐴) = 3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴).
7 0 8 − 3 2 
9 2 9 2
 3 
3 2 1 4  1 3 2 1 
   
3 1 1 3   4 1 −1 2 
d) If 𝐴𝐴 =  and 𝐵𝐵 =  , show that
6 0 −1 − 2 1 6 0 3
   
6 0 2 1   2 3 1 − 1
   
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(3𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐵𝐵) = 3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴) + 2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐵𝐵).
  1 3 −1 2
 
2 −3 1 4
e) If A =   , determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ).
−3 0 4 1
 
− 2 1
 3 1 
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 −𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
f) If 𝐴𝐴 = �𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓 � and 𝐵𝐵 = �−𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓 �, determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵).
𝑔𝑔 ℎ 𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔 ℎ −𝑖𝑖
1 4 5 2 −2 3
g) If 𝐴𝐴 = �6 2 −1� and 𝐵𝐵 = �−4 1 0 �, determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)𝑇𝑇 .
0 2 3 −2 1 −3
𝑎𝑎 −𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
h) If 𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑎𝑎 0 −𝑎𝑎�, determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴2 ).
−𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
i) If 𝐴𝐴 = � �, determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴2 ).
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 1
j) If 𝐴𝐴 = �0 0 1 �, determine 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴2 ).
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 −1

Chapter: 1 Test Yourself

a) When writing the dimension of a matrix, which comes first – the

number of columns or the number of rows?
b) Give an example of a 3 × 3 square matrix (use the letters 𝑎𝑎 to 𝑖𝑖to
show the elements).
c) Give an example of a 2 × 2 diagonal matrix.
d) Write a 3 × 3 identity matrix.
e) Describe the position of element 𝑎𝑎33 in a matrix.
f) Name one condition necessary to add or subtract a matrix.
g) Is it possible to add a 3 × 2 and a 2 × 3 matrix? Explain.
h) When doing scalar multiplication, what is the effect of the scalar on
the matrix?
i) What is the necessary condition to do matrix multiplication?
j) If 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are two matrices and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 exist. Why is this so?
1
k) If 𝐴𝐴 = �1�, is it possible to calculate 𝐴𝐴2 ? Why?
1
OBJECTIVE TEST 1
Choose the correct answer from the four possible answers given. Only
one option is correct.
𝑎𝑎
1. The order of the matrix 𝐴𝐴 = �𝑏𝑏 � is:
𝑐𝑐
A) 3 × 1 C) 1 × 3
B) 2 × 1 D) 1 × 2
2. The order of the matrix 𝐵𝐵 = (α β ε δ φ ) is:
A) 5 × 1 C) 1 × 5

B) C) 4 × 1 D) 4 × 4

3. The dimension of a column vector can be written as:

A) 𝑛𝑛 × 1 C) 1 × 𝑛𝑛
B) 𝑛𝑛 − 1 D) 𝑛𝑛 + 1

4. If a matrix 𝐴𝐴 has 6 elements. What are the possible orders 𝐴𝐴 can

have?
A) Possible orders: (1,6); (6,1), (3,6), (3,6)
B) Possible orders: (6,1); (1,6), (6,3), (3,6)
C) Possible orders: (1,6); (6,1), (3,2), (2,3)
D) Possible orders: (1,6); (2,6), (6,1), (6,2)

5. The identity matrix written in the format of a square matrix is also

called:
A) Direction matrix C) Unit matrix
B) Bull matrix D) Idempotent matrix

1 0 0
6. 𝐵𝐵 = �0 −1 0� is a:
0 0 1
A) identity matrix C) null matrix
B) diagonal matrix D) none of the above
0 0 0
7. 𝐴𝐴 = �0 1 0� is a:
0 0 1
A) identity matrix C) null matrix
B) diagonal matrix D) idempotent matrix
0 0 0
8. 𝐴𝐴 = �0 −2 0� is a:
0 0 2
A) scalar matrix C) null matrix
B) diagonal matrix D) idempotent matrix
9. State the type and dimension of the given matrix:
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
𝐴𝐴 = 
0 0 0 0
 
0
 0 0 0 

A) identity matrix (4,4) C) null matrix (4,4)

B) diagonal matrix (4,4) D) scalar matrix (4,4)
10. State the type and dimension of the given matrix:
2 𝛽𝛽
𝐵𝐵 = �𝜋𝜋 −1�
3 0
A) rectangular matrix (2,3) C) rectangular matrix (3,2)

B) scalar matrix (3,2) D) square matrix (2,3)

𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 −1 −𝑞𝑞
11. If 𝐴𝐴 = � � and 𝐵𝐵 = � �, then 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 is:
𝑟𝑟 −𝑠𝑠 2𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠
𝑝𝑝 + 1 2𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 − 1 0
A) � � C) � �
𝑟𝑟 0 2𝑟𝑟 2𝑠𝑠
 𝑝𝑝 − 1 0 𝑝𝑝 − 1 0
B) � � D) � �
0 2𝑠𝑠 3𝑟𝑟 0
2𝑎𝑎 −𝑏𝑏 −3𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
12. If 𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑑𝑑 � and 𝐵𝐵 = � �, determine 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵.
−3𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
2

−𝑎𝑎 −2𝑏𝑏 −2𝑎𝑎 2𝑏𝑏

A) � 𝑑𝑑 � C) � �
−2𝑐𝑐 2𝑐𝑐 −𝑑𝑑
2
5𝑎𝑎 −2𝑏𝑏 −5𝑎𝑎 2𝑏𝑏
B) � 3𝑑𝑑 � D) � �
−4𝑐𝑐 − 4𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
2

√3 1 √3 1
− −
2 2 2 2
13. If 𝐴𝐴 = � � and 𝐵𝐵 = � �, calculate 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵.
√3 √3
1 − −1
2 2

2 3 −1
A) � √ � C) �√3 −1�
−1 −2√3 0 0
3 −1 2 3 −1
B) � √ � D) � √ �
−1 √3 0 −√3
1 0 2 −1 2 1
14. If 𝐴𝐴 = � 1 2 1� and 𝐵𝐵 = � 3 4 −2�, calculate 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴).
−1 0 3 1 2 −3
A) 1 C) 2

B) 3 D) 0
15. If 𝐴𝐴 = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � , find the value of 𝑎𝑎31 + 𝑎𝑎23
3𝑥𝑥3

3𝑖𝑖 − 𝑖𝑖 + 1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 > 𝑗𝑗

where 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = �
−2𝑖𝑖 + 3𝑗𝑗 − 2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑗𝑗
A) 12 C) 10

B) 13 D) 20