Social and individual factors in second language acquisition

R.CLEMENT
University of Ottawa
R. C. GARDNER AND P.C. SMYTHE
University of Western Ontario

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of social factors on motivational aspects of
second language acquistion. Indices of attitude, anxiety, motivation, personal contact with
anglophones, fear of assimilation, intelligence, and achievement were obtained from 223
grade 11 francophone students from Montreal. Results of a factor analysis of the data
suggested that self-confidence with English develops through the individual's opportunity for
contact with members of the second language community. Furthermore, fear of assimilation
was found to be negatively related to the Integrative Motive factor. A possible dynamic
relationship between the integrative motive and self-confidence is suggested, and the implica-
tions of the influence of threat to ethnic identity are discussed.

Considerable research has demonstrated a relationship between motiva-

tion to learn a second language and attitudes toward the second language
community (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner & Santos, Note 1;
Gardner & Smythe, Note 2; Lukmani, 1972; Smythe, Stennett, & Feenstra,
1972). This attitude-motivation cluster, referred to as an "integrative mo-
tive," has been a recurrent dimension in various factor analytic studies
concerned with motivation in second language acquisition. This motive has
been associated with persistence in second language study (e.g., Gardner &
Smythe, Note 2), with reported frequency of use of French in an inter-
ethnic contact situation (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977a; Desrochers
& Gardner, Note 3), with student participation in French classroom ac-
tivities (Gliksman & Gardner, Note 4), and with achievement in the second
language (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972).
Most of the research described above involved anglophones learning
French as a second langauge. Only two studies have examined the factor
structure of indices of attitude, motivation, intelligence, and achievement
in English by francophones. Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) col-
lected data from grade 10 and 11 francophone students from Montreal.
Factor analyses of these data supported the conclusion that achievement
was a function of both aptitude and motivation. Measures of motivation,

This research was supported by a grant from the Language Administration Branch of the
Office of the Secretary of State of Canada under its program to encourage language research in
Canada. The authors are grateful to the school principals and the coordinators of the Montreal
Catholic School Commission for facilitating access to their students.

CANAD. J. BEHAV. SCI./REV. CANAD. SCI. COMP. 12(4), 1980

294 CLEMHNT, GARDNKR, & SMYTHK
however, contributed to two factors: one identified as an Integrative Mo-
tive, and the other as a Self-Confidence with English factor. This latter
dimension involved a lack of anxiety when speaking English and high
self-ratings of proficiency, and was more strongly associated with indices of
competence in the second language than the Integrative Motive. Similar
results were obtained by Clement, Major, Gardner, and Smythe (1977),
who identified a Self-confidence factor among grade 7 and 8 franco-
Ontarian students. These results suggest that a motivational component
not found for anglophones learning French (Gardner & Lambert, 1972;
Gardner & Smythe, Note 2) might be involved in the acquisition of English
by francophones. That is, for francophones, the motivation to learn a
second language seems also to involve feelings of self-confidence which are
themselves influenced by the opportunities to speak English.
Individual characteristics such as an integrative motive or self-
confidence with English have not been the only aspects hypothesized to
affect language competence. Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor (1977) argued that
the "ethnolinguistic vitality" of a language within a community influences
the individual's level of competence. They defined ethnolinguistic vitality
in terms of such factors as the social status of the language, the demo-
graphic distribution of its speakers, and its institutional support (i.e.,
whether it is used in school, etc.). To the extent that the social status of a
language is low, its members are scattered, and institutional support is
lacking, Giles et al. (1977) argued that speakers of the language would
become assimilated into the language group that has more vitality. This,
potentially, can lead to what Lambert (1974, 1978) referred to as "subtrac-
tive bilingualism" wherein, in some contexts, the acquisition of a second
language can lead to the loss of the first cultural heritage.
Giles et al. (1977) described the influence of structural variables on the
characteristics of a linguistic group. It is possible, however, that such
structural factors might influence the individual characteristics of the
members of that group. Results obtained by Berry, Kalin,and Taylor (1977)
suggest that, to the extent that they feel secure with their own language
and culture, individuals will develop positive attitudes toward outgroups
and, more generally, multi-culturalism. Taken together, the concept of
"ethnolinguistic vitality" and the results obtained by Berry et al. (1977)
suggest that social factors that are adverse to "linguistic vitality," and by
the same token, present a threat to one's cultural identity, may influence
the extent to which some individuals will strive to learn a second language.
Lambert (1974, 1978) and Taylor and Simard (1975) suggested that
Quebec francophones might be subject to losing their own language and
culture as a result of learning English. Although a majority in their own
province, the Quebecois are a minority in North America. Quebec fran-
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1 295
cophones might, therefore, perceive learning English as a step toward
assimilation into the English culture, and this could be a potent motiva-
tional aspect lowering their interest in learning English. Supporting this
hypothesis, Taylor, Meynard, and Rheault (1977), in a study involving
Montreal francophone university students, report a negative relationship
between self-ratings of proficiency and the extent lo which learning English
is perceived as leading to assimilation. Furthermore, they report that threat
to ethnic identity tends to decrease with added personal contact with
anglophones.
The Taylor et al. (1977) study sought to relate demographic characteris-
tics of a community (i.e., the availability of the other group), perceived
consequences of learning English (i.e., assimilation), and self-ratings of
English proficiency. No attempt was made to relate these social factors to
the individual's effort to learn the language or actual competence in it, or to
partial out the effect of language aptitude. The bulk of the research and
theorizing in the area of second language acquisition is integrated, how-
ever, within an individual processes model (see Gardner, 1979) which
includes linguistic competence and language aptitude. If, indeed, the social
factors studied by Taylor et al. (1977) do have an impact on second lan-
guage competence, it should be important to trace their relationship to the
individual processes postulated in the past. Specifically, the Self-
confidence factor obtained by Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) was
related to self-ratings offluencyin English. In the Taylor et al. (1977) study,
self-ratings were related to threat to ethnic identity. It is possible, there-
fore, that fear of losing one's ethnic identity might constitute a source of
anxiety or lack of self-confidence when using a second language.
The present study was designed to assess, through factor analysis, the
relationship between attitudes, motivation, the social factors isolated by
Taylor et al. (1977), language aptitude, and fluency in a second langauge.

METHOD
Subjects
Subjects in this study were 223 grade 11 students attending two schools of the Montreal
Catholic School Commission. The two schools were chosen to ensure the selection of
students who differed considerably in economic status. One school, drawn from a lower
socio-economic class area of Montreal, provided 78 students (35 males, 43 females), while the
second, representative of a middle socio-economic class area, yielded 145 students (58 males,
87 females).

Materials
Twenty-eight variables were investigated in this study (see Table 1). Variable 1 (Sex) was
coded 1 for boys and 2 for girls. Variables 2 to 16 are described in Clement, Smythe, and
Gardner (1976) and Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b). The measures for variables 17 to
296 CLEMENT, GARDNER, & SMYTHE
24 were designed or modified specifically for this study. A description of each of these,
including their respective Cronbach Alpha coefficients computed on this sample, follows.
(17) Generalized Inter-personal Anxiety. This scale is derived from the Audience Sensitivity
Index (Paivio & Lambert, 1959) and assesses the feeling of discomfort experienced by the
student whenever he or she is in the presence of other people. Three positive and three
negative items constituted this scale. A high score (maximum = 42) reflects a high degree of
reported anxiety when in the presence of other people (a " .57).
(18) French Classroom Anxiety .This scale is adapted from the Gardner and Smythe (Note 2)
General Classroom Anxiety Scale and assesses the anxiety felt by students whenever they
have to speak in the French class. Three items were worded positively and three negatively. A
high score (maximum = 42) reflects a high degree of anxiety in the French classroom (a = .80).
(19) English Test Anxiety. This scale is based on the Mandler and Sarason (1952) Test Anxiety
Questionnaire, and assesses feelings of anxiety before and during a written English examina-
tion. Six items (three positive and three negative) constituted this scale. A high score
(maximum ™ 42) indicates a high degree of anxiety when writing English exams (a = .76).
(20) Threat to Ethnic Identity. This scale, comprising 6 items (3 positive, 3 negative), assesses
fears of assimilation experienced by the students whenever they speak English. Typical items
are: "When I speak English I have the impression of losing my cultural identitiy" and "1 feel
sure of myself as a francophone when I speak English." A high score (maximum = 42)
suggests that each time the individual speaks English he or she feels that their ethnic identity is
threatened. This scale was designed to assess the subjective feelings related to the perceived
consequences of learning English as given by Taylor et al. (1977) (a = .69).
(21) Behavioural Intention of Re-enrolling in English. Students rate the probability that, given
the choice, they would re-enroll in English the following year. Ratings were made on a
seven-point scale defined at one end by "definitivement oui" (definitely yes) and at the other
end by "definilivement non" (definitely not).

The following three variables were assessed by means of tests designed by the Montreal
Catholic School Commission and modified slightly for this study.
(22) Aural Comprehension. This subtest includes 20 items and assesses the ability of the
student to understand spoken English. The students listened to a tape recording and indicated
on their answer sheets the meaning of the speaker's utterance by choosing among five
alternatives. The maximum score was 20 (a - .80).
(23) Reading Comprehension. In this subtest the students read a short passage and answered
12 questions assessing their comprehension of the passage. A maximum score of 12 was
possible (a = .65).
(24) Grammatical Knowledge. This test included 15 items (maximum score = 15) assessing
the student's knowledge of English syntactic constructions (a = .86).

The final four measures were obtained from the records of the Montreal Catholic School
Commission. Variable 23 is an index of the students' intelligence, used here as reflecting
language aptitude, based on tests administered at the end of grade 8. Variables 26, 27, and 28
are measures of proficiency in French, Mathematics, and Knglish, respectively, based on
standardized tests administered at the end of grade 9.

Procedure
Testing was conducted during two one-hour class periods scheduled one month apart. In the
first session, the experimenter read instructions informing the students of the general purpose
of the study and stressing the confidentiality of their answers. The students then proceeded to
answer the attitude/motivation battery. In the second session, a different experimenter
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION- 297

TABLE I
Varimax rotated factor matrix
I II III

1 Sex .07 -.10 .22

.67 -.16 -.02
2 Degree of Instrumentality .78 .04
3 Degree of Integrativeness -.10
.06 -.76 .01
4 English Classroom Anxiety -.10 -.74 .04
5 English Use Anxiety .01
6 Attitude toward English Canadians „ .78 -.22
.79 .25 .07
7 Attitude toward Learning English .50
8 Attitude toward Americans -.09 -.02
9 Frequency of English Use .66 .37 -.04
10 Motivational Intensity .63 .32 .08
11 No. of Years Studying English -.10 .35 -.04
.20 .57 -.03
12 No. of Languages Spoken at Home
13 Self-rating — Writing .18 .75 .18
14 Self-rating - Understanding .08 .74 .29
15 Self-rating - Reading .11 .80 .16
16 Self-rating — Speaking .12 .86 .07
17 Generalized Interpersonal Anxiety .10 -.41 .00
.26 -.16 -.02
18 French Classroom Anxiety
19 English Test Anxiety -.06 -.62 -.23
20 Threat to Ethnic Identity -.40 -.21 -.22
21 Behavioural Intention to Re-enrol in English .55 .00 -.02
22 Aural Comprehension -.04 .39 .55
23 Reading Comprehension .03 .18 .66
24 Grammatical Knowledge .03 .33 .75
25 IQ -.17 .02 .68
26 Standardized Test Score of French -.14 -.03 .82
27 Standardized Test Score of Mathematics -.08 -.09 .78
28 Standardized Test Score of English .02 .18 .76

administered the test of proficiency in English. Students were assured that their performance
on the proficiency test would not affect their academic record and were urged to do their best.

RESULTS
The data were first standardized within each school in order to eliminate
differences between the two schools. The correlation maxtrix was factor
analysed by means of the principal axes procedure using communalities
estimated after iteration (see Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent,
1975, p. 480). Upon application of the scree test (Cattell, 1966), three
factors were judged "non-trivial" and rotated by means of the varimax
rotation procedure. The resulting factor matrix is presented in Table 1.
Factor I receives appreciable loadings (greater than ±.3) from nine
variables. The pattern of the loadings suggests that the individual who has a
positive attitude toward learning English (Variable 7) also has a positive
attitude toward English Canadians (Variable 6) and is both "integratively"
and "instrumentally" oriented (Variables 3 and 2, respectively). Such an
individual also tends to frequently speak English with anglophones (Vari-
298 CLEMENT, GARDNER, & SMYTHE

able 9), is motivated to learn English (Variable 10), intends to continue

studying English (Variable 21), and tends to have a positive attitude toward
Americans (Variable 8). Finally, these individuals report an absence of
threat of assimilation when speaking English (Variable 20). The composi-
tion of this factor is comparable to that obtained in previous research
(Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Smythe, Note 2; Smythe et
al., 1972) and, in keeping with much of this research, it seems best to
identify this as an Integrative Motive factor. 11 should be noted here that the
Integrative Motive is associated negatively with feelings of threat to ethnic
identity.
Factor II receives appreciable loadings from 14 variables. These load-
ings suggest that individuals who rate themselves as relatively competent in
their ability to speak, read, write, and understand spoken English (Vari-
ables 13, 14, 15 and 16) report little anxiety when speaking in an English
class (Variable 4), speaking in public (Variable 5), writing an English exam
(Variable 19), or simply when in the presence of others (Variable 17). Such
individuals also report frequently speaking English with anglophones
(Variable 9), studying English for many years (Variable 11), and speaking
many languages at home (Variable 12). Finally, these individuals are moti-
vated to learn English (Variable 10) and evidence a relatively good knowl-
edge of English on tests of aural comprehension (Variable 22) and gram-
matical knowledge (Variable 24). This factor describes an individual who is
not anxious when using English, has prior experience in doing so, and is
self-assured with respect to his or her own English proficiency. The com-
position and interpretation of this factor are highly similar to those reported
by Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) and Clement, Major, Gardner,
and Smythe (1977) and, consistent with that research, the factor seems best
labelled as Self-confidence with English.
Factor III receives appreciable loadings from seven variables. The
configuration of loadings suggests that the individual who has a relatively
high level of English proficiency (Variables 22, 23, 24, and 28) is also
intelligent (Variable 24) and competent in French (Variable 25) and
Mathematics (Variable 27). Because this factor receives its major loadings
from variables assessing various aspects of academic achievement it is best
labelled as an Academic Achievement factor.

DISCUSSION

The present results parellel closely those obtained by Clement, Gardner,

and Smythe (1977b) and Clement, Major, Gardner, and Smythe (1977), and
support previous research indicating that achievement in the second lan-
guage is related to both motivation (Variable 10) and ability (Gardner, 1979;
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 299
Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Santos, Note 1; Smythe et al.,
1972). The index of motivation, Motivational Intensity, as well as the
frequency of use of English outside the classroom were related to two
factors, the Integrative Motive and Self-confidence with English. Further-
more, Threat to Ethic Identity loaded negatively on the Integrative Motive
dimension.
Consistent with previous studies (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977b;
Clement, Major, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977), these results suggest that two
motivational components are involved in the acquisition of English by
francophone students. One, the integrative motive, seems affectively
based, owing to its relationship to variables assessing attitudes toward
communities which speak the second language. The second one, self-
confidence with English, appears to stem from the individual's actual use of
the language outside the school setting and at home. The individual who
has contact with anglophones will develop self-confidence with his or her
English skills, will be motivated to learn English, and will be relatively
proficient. Personal contact, therefore, seems to be an important factor in
the development of the self-confidence with English motive.
The self-report of frequency of use of English outside the school setting
loads appreciably on both the Self-confidence and the Integrative Motive
factors, suggesting a possible link between the two processes represented
by these factors. Previous research (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977a;
Desrochers & Gardner, Note 3) suggests that an integrative motive encour-
ages frequent contact with members of the other ethnic group, and facili-
tates an individual's use of the language. If the other group is available for
contact in the immediate environment and if such experiences are pleasant,
it is likely that the individual will develop feelings of self-confidence with
the language. According to this interpretation, whether the individual will
actually interact with members of the second language-speaking group
when given the opportunity, and thus become more self-confident, is
dependent upon an integrative motive. As suggested by the negative load-
ing of the Threat to Ethnic Identity variable on the Integrative Motive
factor, this latter tendency might not be operative if learning a second
language implies, for the individual, the loss of the first language and
culture.
The correlational nature of this study makes of the causal mechanism
presented above an hypothesis, at best. It has implications, however, for
our understanding of the findings obtained in this and other relevant
studies. According to this model, the integrative motive fulfils a basic
function in the second language acquisition process. Its role has been well
documented in the research involving English Canadians learning French.
The present results and those already obtained in other studies of French
300 CLKMENT, GARDNER, & SMYTHE
Canadians (i.e., Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977b; Clement, Major,
Gardner, & Smythe, 1977) detract from previous results in that they as-
sociate second language achievement most strongly with self-confidence
with English as opposed to the integrative motive. Although the dynamics
might be the same for both cultural groups, socio-cultural factors present in
the two milieux might influence the relative importance of both motiva-
tional factors.
Within the North American context, the Quebecois are a linguistic
minority while anglophones constitute the majority. According to the
framework elaborated by Giles et al. (1977), continued contact between
linguistic minority and majority groups could eventually bring about the
assimilation of the minority group. As a consequence, fear of losing one's
ethnic identity might influence francophones and not anglophones. It ap-
pears possible, therefore, that within the socio-historical context of Cana-
dian francophones, the integrative motive might not be related to achieve-
ment in the second language if learning English implies losing one's first
language and culture. As past research has demonstrated this would not be
the case for English Canadians.
The preceding socio-cultural perspective also has implications for the
interpretation of the self-confidence evidenced by francophones who are
relatively fluent in English. If, indeed, frequent contact between members
of minority and majority groups eventually causes the assimilation of the
members of the minority group into the more potent group, the self-
confidence evidenced by high-contact francophones might be due to the
fact that they have relinquished membership in the French group. As a
result, they would no longer feel any discomfort in using English. If this
were the case, the negative relationship between amount of contact and
threat to ethic identity reported by Taylor et al. (1977) should be interpreted
as caused by the fact that, as assimilation progresses with increased con-
tact, fear of losing one's cultural identity is no longer an issue. Assimilated
individuals who are comfortable in their new role as members of the second
language group would not fear assimilation. In the context of a minority
learning a majority's language, self-confidence with the second language
would then be a symptom of assimilation into the second language-speak-
ing group.
Alternatively, self-confidence could be a sign of additive bilingualism or
integration, viz., the sharing of two cultures. Self-confidence would then
be characteristic of individuals who, assured of their first language and
culture, gain competence in a second language and culture. This might, in
fact, be the case for anglophones learning French in a bi-cultural setting
(see Gardner, 1979) or any majority learning the language of a minority. In
Canada, whether self-confidence reflects integration or assimilation could
SHCOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 301
be a function of the relative "ethnolinguistic vitality" of French and Eng-
lish in a specific community.

RESUME

Htude des effets produits par des factcurs sociaux sur les aspects motivationncls dans
I'apprentissage d'une langue seconde, chez 223 etudiants francophones de Montreal, dont on
mesure I'attitude, l'anxiete, la motivation, ('intelligence et le progres realise. Les resultats
d'une analyse factoriellc des donnees suggerent que I'assurance qu'on a vis-a-vis de 1'anglais
se developpe par les occasions de contact avee des membres dc la colleclivite parlant cette
langue seconde. De plus, la crainte dc l'assimilation est negativement liee au facteur de
"motivation inlegrative." La discussion suggere la possibility d'une relation dynamique entre
motivation integrative et confiancc en soi el releve I'importance qu'il faut accorder aux
facteurs qui menacent l'identite ethniquc.

REFERF.NCE NOTES

1. Gardner. R C & S a n t o s , E.H. Motivational variables in second language acquisition:

A Philippine investigation. Research Bulletin No. 149, Department of Psychology,
University of Western Ontario, 1970.
2. Gardner, R.C., & Smythe, P.C. Second language acquisition: A social psychological
approach. Research Bulletin No. 332, Department of Psychology, University of Western
Ontario, 1975.
3. Desrochers, A., & Gardner, R.C. Cross-cultural contact: Correlates and
consequences. Research Bulletin No. 455, Department of Psychology, University of
Western Ontario, 1978.
4. Gliksman, I.., & Gardner, R.C. Some relationships between students' attitudes and
their behaviour in the French classroom. Research Bulletin No. 5, Language Research
Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1976.

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First received 26 January 1979