ISSA Youth Fitness Specialist Main Text

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Chapter 1
State of
Current Youth
Health and
Wellness
Overview
• Health Characteristics
• Obesity
• Physical Inactivity
• Physical Education
• Youth Sports Participation
A recent study published in the New England

Journal of Medicine stated that for the first time
in over two centuries children currently living in
America may live shorter life expectancies than
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Certified Youth Fitness
Introduction
their parents (1). The primary culprit according to the The combined effect of poor diet and physical
report, the prevalence and severity of obesity in children inactivity and the resulting escalation of obesity in
and adolescents complicated by associated diseases such American children and youth is an epidemic with
as Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, kidney disease and far reaching consequences and which simply cannot
cancer. Scientific studies have definitively confirmed the be underestimated nor overlooked any longer.
link between childhood obesity and an increased risk for
developing chronic diseases, especially cardiovascular It’s bewildering to think that American children growing
disease. High body fat levels in children and youth, up today in such an affluent and technologically advanced
especially above 20% fat in boys and above 30% fat in country may actually face greater health challenges and live
girls, is strongly associated with elevated cardiovascular shorter life spans than their parents! How can this possibly
risk factors including; higher blood pressure, lipids be? The answer lies partly in the statement itself, affluence
and lipoprotein levels, glucose, insulin, and circulating and technology! Children of this generation live in a more
C-reactive protein levels (2). Many of the nations’ leading affluent and technologically advanced world compared to
medical and health experts have experts have warned that two centuries ago! Living in a time of greater affluence
if obesity, poor diet and physical activity are left unchecked and technology certainly has its advantages, including; an
in this country, the current generation can expect to reduce abundance and variety of food, 3D video games, greater
their life spans by as much as five years! automation, i-(everything), just to name a few. Not to
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State of Current Youth Health and Wellness
say that all technology is bad or that technology can’t to participate in healthy and active lifestyles through
be utilized to help improve our health and well-being! example. Being active and fit should be a positive learning
But unfortunately, no amount of technology replaces experience that encourages good habits, positive attitudes
the benefits of MOVING and eating HEALTHY! and fun. Parents especially can have a significant influence
on children’s health behaviors and attitudes at an early age!
No amount of technology can substitute (3) Establishing healthy habits at home, including; eating
for the benefits of MOVING! more fruits and vegetables, less junk food, eating meals
together, and pursuing greater active vs. inactive activities
Achieving and sustaining health and active lifestyles can should be the goal of every family. This chapter provides
be challenging, but the benefits speak for themselves. fitness instructors and trainers with important information
Research has shown that children and adolescents are on some of the significant health issues facing children
more likely to exercise when adults, teachers and other and adolescent today and ways to help make a difference.
role models (especially parents) encourage children
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Health Characteristics of Children and Youth

So much has been written about the less than favorable health and well-being of American children and
youth. Children today are more likely than ever to be overweight or obese and have evidence of at least one
or more chronic disease risk factors! In addition, the majority of children and adolescents today struggle to
find balance between sedentary activities and those activities that expend energy. The majority of children
and youth do not meet the current national guidelines that recommend at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-
vigorous physical activity every day, and instead are spending greater time in sedentary behaviors, such as
watching TV, playing video games, and other screen time activities, which contributes to the problem.
Technology Screen Usage Actual vs. Recommended for 5-16 year olds
Recommended: 2 hours per day

Actual: 5.9 hours per day (2012)
Sedentary behaviors in children and youth are associated with higher risk for obesity, diabetes, and other chronic
health problems. Research on television viewing habits and their effect on health characteristics and behaviors is
prevalent and quite clear ….. the more time spent in front of a screen the greater the risk for health-related problems.
The amount of time spent in sedentary behaviors has increased dramatically in recent years, and includes not only
TV viewing, but increases in other types of screen time, such as computers and video games. There are numerous
studies linking television viewing with increased risk for overweight and obesity among children and teens (4).
TV Viewing Habits in Children and Risk for Obesity
A comprehensive summary of the current state of children’s health and well-being in America can be found in the report,
America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being, 2015. This report is a comprehensive and ongoing reporting
of the health of American children and youth (http://www.childstats.gov) (5). The report monitors 41 key indicators
on various aspects of children’s lives, including; family and social environment, economic circumstances, health care,
physical environment and safety, behavior, education, and health. Some of the highlights from the 2015 report include:
• There were 73.6 million children in the United States in 2014, which was 1.2 million more than in 2000.
• The number of children is projected to increase to 76.3 million in 2030.
• In 2013, about 11 percent of the population ages 12–17 had a
Major Depressive Episode during the past year.
• The diet quality of children and adolescents fell considerably short of Federal
recommendations in 2009– 2010. The diet quality scores of children and adolescents could
be improved by increasing their intake of dark greens, beans, and whole grains.
• In 2011–2012, about 18 percent of children ages 6–11 and 21
percent of adolescents ages 12–17 were obese.
• In 2013, about 13 percent of children ages 0–17 had been diagnosed with asthma at some
time in their lives and about 8 percent of children were reported to currently have asthma.
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Information from reports such as America’s Children helps health and fitness professionals understand the scope and
significance of some of the most serious health challenges facing our current and future generations. The challenges
facing the health and well-being of this generation are great, but not impossible to overcome! It’s important to remember,
that the majority of the chronic health-related problems facing children, youth and adults today are largely preventable
and treatable. For example, research shows that nearly 60 percent of overweight children age 5 to 17 had at least one risk
factor for cardiovascular disease and 25 percent had two or more. Risk factors lead to chronic disease and chronic disease
is permanent! Today we are facing the fact that the majority of children growing up in America are at risk for developing
permanent life altering chronic diseases such as heart disease! But heart disease, often caused by high blood pressure and/
or high cholesterol, isn’t the only health risk. Childhood obesity may also lead to significant health problems, including:
• Type 2 diabetes
• Asthma
• Sleep apnea
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The current generation of children and teenagers face some startling hurdles when it comes to health and fitness
and long-term well-being. Today, approximately 1/3 of American children and youth are either overweight
or obese (CDC). In just a 40 year period, from 1971 to 2011, the prevalence of obesity in children tripled….
TRIPLED! Childhood obesity is now identified as the #1 health concern among parents in the United States,
topping drug abuse and smoking (www.phitamerica.org) (6). The consequences of widespread, largely
un-controlled and in some cases un-monitored childhood obesity are staggering! The economic impact alone,
which many view as being somewhat impersonal, affects everyone, including how much we pay for healthcare,
virtually all products and services as well a myriad of other factors. If the childhood obesity epidemic continues,
not only will lifespans be shorter but the staggering effects of obesity and its associated chronic diseases.
Current Statistics on Obesity Long-term health effects:
• Childhood obesity has more than • Children and adolescents who are obese are likely to be
doubled in children and quadrupled in obese as adults and are therefore more at risk for adult
adolescents in the past 30 years. health problems such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes,
stroke, several types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.
• The percentage of children aged 6–11 years in
the United States who were obese increased • One study showed that children who became obese as
from 7% in 1980 to nearly 18% in 2012. early as age 2 were more likely to be obese as adults.
• The percentage of adolescents aged • Overweight and obesity are associated with
12–19 years who were obese increased from increased risk for many types of cancer, including
5% to nearly 21% over the same period. cancer of the breast, colon, endometrium,
esophagus, kidney, pancreas, gall bladder, thyroid,
• In 2012, more than one third of children and
ovary, cervix, and prostate, as well as multiple
adolescents were overweight or obese.
mwyeloma and Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
Childhood obesity has both immediate and
long-term effects on health and well-being. Childhood and adolescent obesity is one of the most
serious health problems facing our nation. The economic
impact to treat current and future consequences of obesity

Immediate health effects:
in this population is staggering! In fact obesity is now
regarded a national treat to our nation because the majority
• Obese youth are more likely to have risk of eligible men and women are not fit for service because
factors for cardiovascular disease, such as they are so un-healthy! The causes of childhood obesity are
high cholesterol or high blood pressure. just as varied and numerous as the solutions. Regardless,
one thing experts are in agreement with is that children and
• In a population-based sample of 5- to 17-year-
adolescents are speeding too much time in sedentary activities
olds, 70% of obese youth had at least one
and less time in active pursuits. In addition, the quality
risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
and quantity of food consumed needs better monitored.
• Obese adolescents are more likely to
have prediabetes, a condition in which
blood glucose levels indicate a high
Overweight and Obese Defined
risk for development of diabetes.
• Children and adolescents who are obese are at
greater risk for bone and joint problems, sleep
apnea, and social and psychological problems
such as stigmatization and poor self-esteem.
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The terms overweight and obese are often mistakenly used interchangeably. Although overweight
and obese are similar in meaning (weighing more than we should) the terms define two very different
problems. Both are labels for ranges of weight that are greater than what is generally considered healthy
for a given height. The terms also identify ranges of weight that have been shown to increase the likelihood
of certain diseases and other health problems. Thus, the health consequences of obesity tend to be far
worse than those associated with overweight. For example, the risk for Type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia,
hypertension and cardiovascular disease are much higher when BMI’s are between 25 and 34.9.
Obesity: severely overweight and over-fat; characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat.
Overweight: refers to an individual weighing 10% or more of what is considered his or her
recommended healthy weight (as determined by large-scale population surveys).
Body Composition: the relative percentage of body mass that is fat and fat-
free tissue (bone, water, muscle, connective and organ tissues, teeth).
Body Mass Index
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The international standard for defining overweight and

obesity is body mass index or BMI. Body Mass Index
is a tool used to calculate whether or not an individual’s
body weight is below, within or above acceptable ranges
for health based on their height. Although BMI is not
a measure of body composition, it does provide a general
indicator of overall body fatness. BMI is the international
accepted standard for identifying and tracking overweight Underweight < 18.5
and obesity because it is inexpensive, easy to calculate Healthy BMI = 18.5 – 24.9
and correlates fairly well with results of directly measured Overweight = 25- 29.9
body composition measurement techniques. BMI Obese >30
helps identify possible weight issues that may lead to
health problems. BMI is measured differently in adults For children and teens, BMI is evaluated using age-
than in children, so it is important to use the proper and gender-specific charts that take into account the
calculator to find out yours and your child’s separately. different growth patterns for gender. Weight and the
amount of fat in the body differ for boys and girls
A person with a BMI >25 kg/m2 is considered and those levels change as they grow taller and older.
overweight; a BMI over >30 kg/m2 is considered obese. These charts help health care providers determine
According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), how a child’s particular BMI reading compares to
a person is considered “obese” when he or she weighs the readings of other U.S. children his or her age.
20 percent or more than his or her ideal body weight.
BMI Ranges for Adults
BMI Classification for Children and Adolescents
BMI Recommended
Classification
< 5th Percentile Underweight
5th – 84th Percentile Healthy Weight
85th – 95th Percentile Overweight
>95th – 99th Percentile Obesity
>99th Percentile Severe Obesity
Body mass index (BMI) assesses weight relative to height, that’s it! It provides a useful screening tool
to indirectly estimate individuals at risk for overweight and obesity. Other methods combined with or
in addition to BMI include; waist circumference and skin-fold measurements which help to increase
accuracy of calculating and monitoring body composition vs. weight\height ratio changes over time.
Cause and Prevention of Obesity
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The dramatic rise in childhood and teenage obesity rates in the US (especially in the last decade) is a startling
cause for alarm because obesity can have a dramatic impact on the short and long-term health and well-being
of those suffering from it. Increased sedentary behaviors, cheap calorically dense foods, technology, the list
goes on but one thing is for sure, if we don’t do something soon, something drastic, the consequences are
simply devastating! With over a third of children today overweight and another third are at risk for becoming
overweight combined with sedentary lifestyles reducing both the quality and quantity of life. Furthermore, the
majority of chronic health conditions acquired in youth tend to carry over into adulthood. Childhood obesity
is now the No. 1 health concern among parents in the United States, topping drug abuse and smoking.
Prevention always trumps treatment, especially when it comes to obesity. Children should be carefully
followed and monitored to ensure an appropriate body weight is achieved and maintained. The safest
and healthiest way to lose weight is gradually, through a carefully planned diet and exercise program.
Children and youth need to be encouraged and support to participate in a wide variety of physical
activities. Long-term sustained regular physical activity is the key to losing weight and maintaining a
desired weight. Youth need support from parents, teachers, coaches, family and ideally peers!
Overweight and obesity are almost always the result of a caloric imbalance (calories consumed > calories expended)!
Although there are other associated causes of obesity, including; genetics, behavioral and environmental factors,
the dominating cause is an unrestricted and un-monitored caloric imbalance over time! In addition, weight
fluctuations in children and adolescents are normal, but un-monitored overweight and obesity are not!
Physical Activity\Inactivity Levels
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In July of 2012, a highly regarded medical journal called physical inactivity “a pandemic with far-
reaching health, economic, environmental and social consequences” (7). A pandemic is a widespread
epidemic health problem that has spread through many different populations across a large region, even
worldwide. The link between physical inactivity/sedentary lifestyle and negative health consequences is
overwhelming! The pandemic of physical inactivity is getting worse not better, especially in children! It
is important to remember the difference between the leading causes of death and the leading “preventable”
causes of death! In the top three of preventable causes of death are poor habits and physical inactivity!
Sedentary Death Syndrome (SeDS) - is a major public health burden due to its causing
multiple chronic diseases and millions of premature deaths each year.
Physical inactivity is now recognized as one of the leading causes of childhood obesity, diabetes, and
elevated chronic disease risk in children. Sadly, the majority of children and adolescents are not getting the
recommended of exercise as outlined in the government’s 2008 Exercise Guidelines for Americans.
Exercise Guidelines for Children and Adolescents

Every day children and adolescents should do 1 hour or more of physical activity.
•
• Aerobic activities. Most of the 1 hour a day should be either moderate or vigorous intensity.
Aerobic physical activity, and include and include vigorous-intensity physical activity at least 3 days
a week. As a part of the 1 hour a day of physical activity, the following should be included:
• Muscle-strengthening on at least 3 days a week. These activities make muscles do more work
than usual during daily life. They should involve a moderate to high level of effort and work the
major muscle groups of the body: legs, hips, back, abdomen, chest, shoulders, and arms.
• Bone-strengthening on at least 3 days of the week. These activities produce a force on the
bones that promotes bone growth and strength through impact with the ground. Youth should
be encouraged to engage in physical activities that are appropriate for their age, enjoyable,
and offer variety. No period of activity is too short to count toward the Guidelines.
According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, only one-quarter (24.8%) of youth
engaged in the recommended amount of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, including activities
both in school and outside of school, for at least 60 minutes daily (8). In addition, 7.6% did not engage
in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity for 60 minutes on any day of the week. As far as public
health concerns go, more effort needs to be directed at creating innovative and lasting interventions
to help promote sustained opportunities for physical activity in American children and youth!
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State of Physical Education Youth Physical Activity Statistics

Today the majority of children and adolescents living in
• Only one in three children are
the U.S. now get the majority of their organized physical
physically active every day.
activity outside the school setting. Currently, only 6 states
(Illinois, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York • More than 80% of adolescents do not
and Vermont) require physical education in every grade, do enough aerobic physical activity to
K-12! The majority of states now encourage districts and meet the guidelines for youth.
schools to follow physical education standards based on the
• Children now spend more than seven
National Standards for Physical Education, which include:
and a half hours a day in front of a screen
(e.g., TV, video games, computer).
• Competency in motor skills and movement patterns
• • Only about one in five homes have parks within
• Understanding of movement concepts a half-mile, and about the same number have a
• fitness or recreation center within that distance.
• Achieves and maintains health‐related fitness
• 28.0% of Americans, or 80.2 million people,
•
aged six and older are physically inactive.
• Responsible behavior in physical activity settings
•
The importance of promoting and maintaining
• Values physical activity
physical education within our school system is vitally
important! Regular physical activity in childhood and
According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human
adolescence improves strength and endurance, helps
Services, boys who reported physical activity of any
build healthy bones and muscles, helps control weight,
intensity in the past week, the most common activity was
reduces anxiety and stress, increases self-esteem, and
basketball, with about one-half (48.0%) of all active boys
may improve blood pressure and cholesterol levels.
reporting that they played basketball. The second most
Besides traditional physical education programs, schools
common activity among physically active boys was running
can promote physical activity through comprehensive
(33.5%), followed by football (27.4%) (8). Among girls
school physical activity programs, including recess,
who reported physical activity of any intensity in the past
classroom-based physical activity, intramural physical
week, the most common activity was running, with about
activity clubs, interscholastic sports, and physical
one-third (34.9%) reporting that they ran . The second
education. Schools can also work with community
most common activity reported by girls was walking, with
organizations to provide out-of-school-time physical
27.6% reporting that they walked, and the third most
activity programs and share physical activity (9).
common activity was playing basketball (21.4%) (8).
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Participation in Physical Education Classes

In 2013, less than half (48%) of high school students (64% of 9th-grade students but only 35%
of 12th-grade students) attended physical education classes in an average week.
The percentage of high school students who attended physical education classes daily decreased
from 42% in 1991 to 25% in 1995 and remained stable at that level until 2013 (29%).
In 2013, 42% of 9th-grade students but only 20% of 12th-grade students attended physical education class daily.
State of Youth Sports Participation
Nearly three-quarters of U.S. households with school-age children have at least one child participating in
organized sports. Thus, some 20 million American children ages 6-16 are participating in organized out-
of-school sports, and approximately 25 million youth participating in competitive school sports. While the
popularity of organized sports among youth is encouraging, the increase in number of reported sport-related
injuries in this group is not. The American Academy of Pediatrics has publically stated that most children
lack basic physical conditioning needed to participate in organized sports. Poor fitness and conditioning,
especially in previously sedentary kids, is one of the reasons for the sudden increase in youth sport injuries.
Today in the US, and around the world, statistics show that over 70% of children drop out of
organized sports by the age of 13. At the same time, nearly 1/3 of our US children are classified as
overweight or obese? We all need to work together to create a better more satisfying environment
that serves the needs, values and priorities of the kids, and not just the adults.
The #1 reason kids quit …. it is no longer fun.
Conclusion
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Tremendous opportunities exist today for

personal trainers and fitness professionals to
develop and promote structured physical activity
programs for children and adolescents. Growth
opportunities within the youth fitness segment
of the fitness industry remain strong! The
facts are clear … if we as a country and society
do not start paying more attention to caring
for the health and well-being of our children
and adolescents, the outcomes are devastating.
All of us involved in whatever segment of
the fitness industry are called to make a
contribution to help promote the advancement
of health and wellness, physical fitness and
good nutrition to all children and youth!
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References
1. Olshansky, S.J., Passaro, D.J., Hershow, R.C., Layden, J., Carnes, B.A., Brody, J., Hayflick, L., Butler,
R.N., Allison, D.B., and Ludwig, D.S. (2005). A Potential Decline in Life Expectancy in the United
States in the 21st Century. N Engl J Med, 352,1138-1145.
2. Going, S.B, Lohman, T.G., Cussler, E.C., Williams, D.P., Morrison, J.A., Horn, P.S. (2011). Percent
body fat and chronic disease risk factors in U.S. children and youth. Am J Prev Med. 41(4 Suppl
2):S77-86.
• Natale, R.A., Messiah, S.E., Asfour, L., Uhlhorn, S.B., Delamater, A., Arheart, K.L. (2014). Role

modeling as an early childhood obesity prevention strategy: effect of parents and teachers on pre-
school children’s healthy lifestyle habits. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2014 35(6):378-87.
4. Proctor, M.H., Moore, L. L., Gao, D., Cupples, L.A., Bradlee, M.L., Hood, M.Y., and Ellison, R.C.
(2003). Television viewing and change in body fat from preschool to early adolescence: The Fram-
ingham Children’s Study. International Journal of Obesity. 27, 827–833.
5. America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being,2015 (www.childstats.gov)www.phita-

merica.org
6. Lee, I-M., Shiroma, E.J, Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S.N. & Katzmarzyk, P.T. (2012). Effect of physical
inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life
expectancy. The Lancet. 380(9838), 219–229.
7. Fakhouri, T.H., Hughes, J.P., Burt, V.L., Song, M.K., Fulton, J.E. and Ogden, C.L. (2012). Physical
Activity in U.S. Youth Aged 12–15 Years, 2012. NCHS Data Brief (141).facilities.http://www.cdc.gov/
healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm
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Chapter 2
Overview of
Physiological
and
Anatomical
Characteristics
of Youth
Overview
• Introduction
• Definitions
• Growth and Development
• Defining Physical Activity, Exercise

and Physical Fitness
• Measuring and Tracking Physical

Fitness Levels in Children and
Adolescents
• Strength and Cardiovascular

Development in Children and Youth
Introduction
Cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength and endurance are essential components of sport- and health-related physical
fitness. Both forms of strength are vital to athletic success, prevention of injuries, maintaining a healthy body composition
and developing essential motor skills. A comprehensive conditioning program for children and adolescents should focus
on all 5 components of health-related physical fitness. Training programs that focus on sport-related components of
fitness, like speed, power, balance and reaction time can and should be incorporated into a comprehensive condition
program once a base of conditioning is established.
Health Related Physical Fitness Components
Muscular Strength
Muscular Endurance
Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Body Composition
Flexibility
The extent to which children and adolescents are capable of developing health-related physical fitness is dependent on
numerous factors, including; various biological and environmental factors. Improvements in cardiovascular fitness and
muscular strength and endurance, as well as other forms of fitness are affected by normal growth and development,
genetics, habitual physical activity, strength training activities, diet and nutrition as well as participation in sports and
other leisure activities. The acceptance of cardiovascular and strength training activities for children and adolescents has
grown remarkably in the last decade. The safety and eff icacy of cardiovascular and strength training for children and
adolescents has been clearly demonstrated and widely endorsed. As the benefits and risks of various forms of training
for children and adolescents continue to be studied and circulated, these types of programs will begin to becoming an
integral part of physical education and sports conditioning programs for virtually all children and adolescents. This focus
of this manual and certification is on presenting essential knowledge and skills necessary for developing and administering
health-related fitness strength programs for children and adolescents.
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Overview Of Physiological And Anatomical Characteristics Of Youth
Physical Activity and Sports

Participation Trends
As was mentioned in chapter one, children and adolescents
typically engage in a wide-range of physical activities,
organized sports and recreational activities yearly (1).
Although participation in organized sports and recreational
activities in youth is encouraging, there has been an alarming
rise in the number of reported sport and recreation-related
injuries in children and adolescents in recent years. The rise in
youth sport injuries raises questions about the level of fitness
and conditioning in children and adolescents. Year-round
or pre-participation conditioning is necessary to minimize
the risk of injury from participating in organized sports
or recreational activities, but rarely emphasized in youth
sports today. Year-round conditioning, including sufficient
cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance
training, flexibility along with qualified coaching, quality
equipment and facilities may help reduce the number of annual
youth sport-related injuries by approximately 15% (3) and
quite possibly even higher (3).
Children and adolescents need to be physically active year-

round. Children and adolescents should be given every
opportunity to explore and participate in a wide-range of
activities, sports and games. Unfortunately, the current trend
in America is not encouraging when it comes to health and
fitness in children. Today a third of children are overweight
and another third are at risk for becoming overweight. As
was mentioned in chapter 1, children have acquired the same
risk factors for premature death and disability that most adults
suffer from, including; diabetes, obesity, heart disease and
hypertension. The current and likely future generation of
children and adolescents face significant health challenges in
the future if something isn’t done soon!
Every effort should be made to help kids become more

active. Conditioning activities for children and adolescents
should focus on developing all core-components of health-
related physical fitness, including; muscular strength and local
muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular fitness and a
healthy body composition. Even for those youth who are
active and engage in several sports, year-round conditioning
will help reduce the risk of injuries, improve athletic skills and
overall health. Greater efforts should be made at promoting
year-round, lifestyle fitness for children and adolescents.
One of the leading causes of childhood obesity, diabetes and
elevated chronic disease risk in children is physical inactivity.
Furthermore, physically inactive children whose only regular
physical activity is during seasonal youth sports, may be at
higher risk for musculoskeletal injuries compared to those
children who are physically active year-round.
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Definitions
Physical Growth – simply refers to an increase in body size (length, height and\or weight).
Growth Spurt – A rapid period of a growth during adolescence is common, and is referred to as the “growth
spurt period.” The growth spurt in boys occurs during mid-adolescence between the ages of 12 and 17. Boys
can grow up to 3 to 5 inches (or more) during their year of maximum growth. The growth spurt in girls occurs
in early adolescence between the ages of 9½ years and 14½ years. Girls grow about 3½ inches during their
year of maximum growth. The timing of the growth spurt does not always follow a predictable pattern, in
some cases maturity is delayed and in some cases it is pre-mature (especially in girls). Adolescents whose
growth is delayed or abnormal should be evaluated to rule out diseases and other physical causes and be given
reassurance if the evaluation is negative.
Physical Maturation - the process of becoming physically mature, often indicated by behavioral and
emotional maturity characteristics through growth processes over time.
Height and Weight - Height changes fastest at around 12 years of age for girls and 14 years for boys, wear as
weight changes fastest at around are 12.5 years for girls and 14.5 years for boys.
Sexual Maturation - Sexual maturation begins at different ages depending on genetic and environmental
factors. For boys, sexual maturation begins with enlargement of the scrotum and testes, lengthening of the
penis, pubic hair development and finally appearance of armpit and facial. For girls, sexual maturation begins
with breast development, appearance of pubic and armpit hair and finally menstruation typically begins about 2
years after breast development starts.
Growth, Development, and Maturation

• Growth: increase in body or body part size
• Development: differentiation, functional changes
• Maturation: process of taking adult form
• Chronological age
• Skeletal age
• Stage of sexual maturation
Common Age Categories

• Primary school age (3 - 11 years)
• Elementary school age (5 - 11 years)
• Preadolescence (9 – 11 years)
• Adolescence (12 – 19 years)
• Adulthood (20+ years)
Growth, Development, and Maturation

• Infancy: first year of life
• Childhood: first birthday to puberty
• Puberty: secondary sex characteristics develop
• Adolescence: puberty to growth completion
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Defining Physical Activity, Exercise and Physical Fitness

Physical activity is any bodily movement carried out by the skeletal muscles. Physical activity requires energy to produce
muscular movements. Movement expends energy and promotes well-being. Remember, nothing can replace the benefits
associated with moving! Certain physical activities require minimal energy while other activities, such as running and
participation in sports, require substantial energy expenditure. Exercise is considered a sub category of physical activity
that is structured, planned and involves repetitive movement. Characteristics of physical fitness include stamina, strength
and coordination to perform daily physical activity, including exercise. Health-related physical fitness is categorized by five
core components, muscular strength and local muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular fitness and body composition.
Another category of physical fitness is sport-related physical fitness. Sport-related physical fitness is based more on athletic
components, such as; speed, agility and balance. Thus physical activity, exercise and physical fitness are all inter-related, but
have specific meanings when considering guidelines and training programs that are designed to improve them.
Measuring and Tracking Physical Activity Levels in

Children and Adolescents
Most early youth fitness tests focused more on motor and athletic skills versus measures of health, meaning those with
innate athletic skill and ability did better! A major advancement made in the 1980’s was the progress made toward
assessing measures of health-related physical fitness in children. Current reports about physical fitness levels of children
and adolescents are collected from small sample sizes or the analysis of data collected through population surveys, either
through mail or phone inquiries. Assessing youth fitness is currently directed at efforts which will have an impact on current
and future health and fitness trends, such as childhood and adolescent obesity and engaging children and adolescent in
sustainable life-long physical fitness activities.
The earliest youth fitness tests translated numeric and timed scores into norm-referenced results or standards, for example
“percentile rankings.” Classifying a child as fit or un-fit was based solely on the comparison of their scores achieved during
fitness testing compared to aged-matched norms. Clearly this was not the best way to assess or record fitness levels. Today,
youth fitness testing is based on what is referred to as criterion-referenced standards. Criterion-reference standards use
age and gender specific population norms or means for various health-related fitness measures to help interpret fitness test
results. A criterion-referenced standard suggests a range of health-related fitness necessary for good health and decreased
risk for diseases associated with a sedentary lifestyle.
23
The most widely used youth fitness survey today is the FITNESSGRAM, developed by the Cooper Institute in the 80’s
(4). The ideal goal of the FITNESSGRAM is for children to meet as many healthy zones as possible for their age group,
with 5 out of 5 being the highest score possible. California makes public the results of statewide fitness assessment scores
as part of required testing for students in grades 5, 7, and 9 since 1999. California provides annual figures on the number of
students who achieve acceptable levels of fitness on the FITNESSGRAM. Table 1 shows the sample of children assessed
in California scored reasonably well in muscular strength and local muscular endurance across grades and 50% of the
children achieved at least 5 out of 6 levels of healthy fitness and 70% achieved 4 or more.
Still lots of room for improvement!
Percentage of California Students in the FITNESSGRAM

Healthy Fitness Zones
Physical Fitness Test Grade 5 Grade 7 Grade 9
Aerobic Capacity 58.3% 58.6% 48.6%
Body Composition 67.5% 66.8% 67.4%
Abdominal Strength 80.0% 81.6% 79.5%
Trunk Extension 85.2% 86.9% 80.3%

Strength
Upper Body Strength 62.5% 60.7% 60.5%
Flexibility 64.7% 70.0% 69.8%
24
National Survey Questionnaires
Other types of information about the health and well-being of children is collected through survey questionnaires where
subjects (including parents) are asked to recall their physical activity during the previous day, week, month, or year. Phone
and written surveys are cost effective and allow evaluation of many subjects, but can be misleading because of the subjects’
ability to recall past events, especially children. Designed by the Centers for Disease Control, the Youth Risk Behavior
Survey (YRBS) was to assess selected health risks, including nutrition and physical activity habits. Administered every two
years, the survey represents a national sample of high school students.
Data from 2005 survey shows that only a minority of students nationwide (35.8%) reported engaging in some form of
physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day, 5 days of the week. While most respondents in 2005 (68.7%) engaged in at
least 20 minutes of more vigorous activity on at least 3 days per week. Other surveys have reported the majority of children
did not take part in any organized physical activity during normal school hours and 22.6% said they did not engage in any
free-time physical activity period! Parent’s listed primary barriers to physical activity as; transportation problems, lack of
opportunities in their area, expense, parents’ lack of time, and concerns about safety.
Cardiovascular Development in Children and Adolescents

Significant evidence suggests that children and adolescents can increase their aerobic capacity by following a regular
exercise program. Increased capacity results from enhanced oxygen transport and enhanced metabolic capacities.
Measurement of maximal VO2 max in children is difficult to assess in children but studies have confirmed that children
can improve their VO2 max above and beyond that which is normally associated with growth and development as a result
of aerobic training. Cardiovascular training is beneficial to children and adolescents and recommendations have been
published by government and other fitness organizations.
Cardiovascular Response to Exercise in Children and Adolescents
Resting and submaximal blood pressure

Lower than in adults (related to body size)
Smaller hearts, lower peripheral resistance during exercise
Resting and submaximal stroke volume and heart rate

Lower SV: smaller heart, lower blood volume
Higher HR: compensates for low SV
Slightly lower cardiac output than an adult
Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise

Maximal HR higher than in adults
Maximal SV lower than in adults
Maximal cardiac output lower
Lung volume increases with age
Metabolic function increases with age
Children’s Running Economy

Child’s O2 consumption per kilogram > adult’s
With age, skills improve, stride lengthens
Endurance Running Pace with Age

Purely result of economy of effort
Occurs regardless of VO2max changes, training status
25
Strength Development in Children and Adolescents

The primary mechanism responsible for strength gains following training, especially in pre-pubescent children, are neural
changes or adaptations and better coordination of primary and secondary muscle groups during muscle contractions.
Virtually everyone, young and old, develop strength initially this way! Because children’s muscles and neuromuscular
pathways are immature, they are more susceptible to training adaptations early in life compared to later in life. This is
often the case with un-trained vs. trained subjects of any age. The less fit one is, the more they have to gain from training!
Although strength is influenced by exercise in general, and training specifically, strength is improved in children through
physically activity on a regular basis and participation in organized youth sports.
Mechanisms Responsible for Strength Development in

Children
• Hormonal Influence: Up until the age of puberty in males, the level of testosterone is too low to promote muscular
hypertrophy. The ability to increase muscle size increases rapidly during puberty as testosterone levels increase.
• Increased Motor Unit Activation: Training-induced neural adaptations seem to be the primary means by which
prepubescent children gain strength. Muscles that are overloaded, have to recruit additional motor units (motor nerves
and the muscle cells they attach to) to develop additional force.
• Increase in Lean Body Mass: Both aerobic capacity and strength are highly correlated to lean body mass. Regular
training results in a decrease in body fat and increase in fat-free mass, which will lead to greater strength gains in the
future.
• Muscle Fiber Type: Muscle fiber types can influence skeletal muscle strength. Muscle fibers undergo a tremendous
increase in size during childhood and adolescence. At the present time, there is little available data on the relationship
between muscle fiber type distribution and strength development in children.
Initially, strength gains in children and adolescents are due to increased motor unit activation and improved muscle
recruitment and coordination. Increases in activity from specific muscles utilized in strength training programs, combined
with an increase in muscle strength but not necessarily muscle size, is one way to confirm the role of neural adaptations
following strength training. All the mechanisms responsible for strength gains in children have not yet been determined.
Most likely, gains are due to improved neural activation and motor coordination a well as some muscle hypertrophy. As
children grow and mature and approach adolescence, greater gains in strength are possible.
26
Conclusion
This chapter introduces essential information about training programs for children and
adolescents. Fitness levels in children and adolescents always show room for improvement.
Many health and sport performance benefits are possible through increased levels of physical
activity, including cardiovascular and strength training programs. Cardiovascular and strength
levels improve with normal growth and maturation, and are further enhanced through training.
References
1. National Council of Youth Sports, 2005. NCYS’ Youth Sports Trends Study. http://www.ncys.org.
2. Micheli L. (2006). Preventing injuries in sports: What the team physician needs to know. In: K. Chan, L.
Micheli, A. Smith, C. Rolf, N. Bachl, W. Frontera & T.Alenabi (Eds.), F.I.M.S. Team Physician Manual,
2nd ed. Hong Kong: CD Concept. 555-572
3. American College of Sports Medicine. (1993). Current comment from the American College of Sports
Medicine: The prevention of sports injuries of children and adolescents. Medicine & Science in Sports &
Exercise. 25(8 suppl), 1-7
4. The Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research (1999). FITNESSGRAM test administration manual.
Champagne, IL: Human Kinetics.
27
Chapter 3
Getting
Ready
Overview
• Pre-Participation Screening
• Assessments
• Health and Fitness Testing
• Determining Readiness to Participate
• Forms
Pre-Participation Screening
The physical activity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q) is a self-screening tool to
determine general readiness for exercise participation. Modifications of the form have
been developed for use with children. See Appendix for a printable.
30

Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form
Childs name: Parent/Guardian name:

Address:
Childs Date of Birth: Current Age:
Emergency Contact Details:
Telephone Number:
Health Questions:
Does your child have or has he or she ever experienced any of the following?
Please Circle High or Low Blood Pressure Y / N
Elevated blood cholesterol Y / N
Diabetes Y / N
Chest pains brought on by physical exertion Y / N
Childhood epilepsy Y / N
Dizziness or fainting Y / N
Any bone, joint or muscular problems with arthritis Y / N
Asthma or respiratory Problems Y / N
Any sustained injuries or illness Y / N
Any allergies Y / N
Is your child taking any medication Y / N
Has your doctor ever advised your child to exercise Y / N
Is there any reason not mentioned above why any type or physical activity may not be suitable
for your child Y / N
If you have answered ‘YES’ to any of the above questions please give full details here and seek medical clearance
prior to the session.
In signing this form, I the parent/guardian of the aforementioned child, affirm that I have read this form in its
entirety and I have answered the questions accurately and to the best of my knowledge.I understand that my
child is responsible for monitoring him or herself throughout any activity, and should any unusual symptoms
occur, my child understands the importance of informing the Instructor immediately.
In the event that medical clearance must be obtained before my child’s participation in an exercise session, I
agree to contact a physician and obtain written permission prior to the commencement of the exercise activity,
and that the permission be given to the instructor.
I understand that if my child fails to behave in a manner that is polite and social, he or she could be suspended
from that particular activity.
Parent/guardian’s signature: _____________________________________________________
31
Informed Consent
Obtaining an informed consent before performing any testing or training with children or adolescents is
important for ethical and legal reasons. The informed consent ensures that the participant (including parents
if working with children) knows and understands the purposes and risks associated with the test or exercise
program. The consent form should be clearly written and verbally explained.
Components of Informed Consent

• Purpose and Explanation of Test
• Risks and Discomforts
• Responsibilities of Participant
• Benefits to be Expected
• Inquiries
• Use of Medical Records
• Freedom of Consent
NOTE: See appendix for sample informed consent forms. It is a good idea to custom tailor
informed consents to your specific location and types of tests and services provided.
32

Assessing Fitness
An excellent resource for youth fitness testing administrators is the Presidential Youth Fitness Program (PYFP).
The PYFP is a free program provides a model for fitness education and instruction as well as guidelines on how to
administer a comprehensive fitness assessment for children and youth. Http://www.pyfp.org/assessment/free-
materials.shtml. The PYFP program is based on the FITNESSGRAM which was developed by The Cooper Institute,
and which is designed to assess the fitness levels of children in grades K-12. The FITNESSGRAM assesses the
following general components of health-related physical fitness.
Aerobic Capacity (choose one)

____ PACER test -- a 20 meter progressive, multi-stage shuttle run set to music (the PACER is also available in a 15
meter distance) (this is a version of the beep test)
____ One-Mile Run -- complete one mile in the fastest possible time, either walking or running
____ Walk Test -- for secondary students ages 13 or older
Body Composition (choose one)

____ Percent body fat (calculated from skinfolds of the triceps and calf)
____ Body mass index (calculated from height and weight)
Muscular Strength and Endurance

____ Curl Up -- Abdominal strength and endurance test
____ Trunk Lift -- Trunk extensor strength, flexibility and endurance
____ Push Up -- Upper body strength and endurance (alternates = modified pull-up and flexed arm hang)
Flexibility (choose one)

____ Back-saver sit-and-reach
____ Shoulder stretch
33
Cardiovascular Fitness
Cardiorespiratory endurance is an important component of health-related fitness. Cardiorespiratory endurance is
the ability to perform large-muscle, whole-body exercise at moderate to high intensities for extended periods of
time. Cardiorespiratory fitness allows children and adolescents to perform sustained whole-body activities, such
as walking and running without undue fatigue. Children with high levels of cardiorespiratory endurance typically
have highly functional cardiorespiratory systems (i.e., heart, lungs, blood, blood vessels), and their skeletal
muscles are well adapted to the use of oxygen in aerobic metabolism. The most common cardiovascular fitness
test for children and youth is the PACER test, one-mile run or a walk test. There are also other types of tests
available that may be more suited for facilities with little or no equipment.
Body Composition
The FITNESSGRAM uses the sum of 2 skinfold sites to estimate body composition. Body composition, height,
weight and BMI should be assessed on a regular basis. There are other formulas that use different skinfold sites
but the FITNESSGRAM sites are the most common for children.
Triceps: Vertical fold; on the posterior midline of the upper arm, halfway between the acromion and olecranon processes,
with the arm held freely to the side of the body.
Calf: Vertical fold; at the maximum circumference of the calf on the midline of its medial border.
34

Muscular Strength and Endurance

Strength is measured variosu ways, from simple field tests to more sophisticated laboratory methods. The
most practical methods to use with children and adolescents are field tests, such as push-ups and curl-ups
are acceptable assessments and an adequate way to track progress. Children and adolescents are evaluated
for whole body strength before starting a strength training program so that improvements in strength are
measureable and adjustments to progress are made periodically. It is important to select an appropriate
assessment tool that corresponds to criterion-referenced standards, and not just any standard that may use the
same test item.
Assessing Upper Body and Trunk Strength

Traditional upper body strength assessments for children and adolescents include: push-ups (standard and
modified) and the modified pull-ups. The FITNESSGRAM norms are perhaps the most common in use today (see
appendix for complete description and norms). The preferred mode for assessing trunk and abdominal strength
is the curl-up test. More detailed instructions for administering specific youth fitness tests are detailed in other
books (Fitnessgram/Activitygram Test Administration Manual-4th Edition, Human Kinetics). You can also access
all of the FITNESSGRAM testing and interpretation information at wwww.fitnessgram.net
Assessing Lower Body Strength

No national youth fitness test in use today assesses lower body strength. Simple endurance tests are performed
by having children perform standing squats to fatigue or the number achieved in one minute to establish
baseline data.
35
Description of Various Strength Assessment Protocols
Push-Up Test
1. Have the child lie on his or her stomach on a padded floor. The body should be straight, and the hands
should be about shoulder width apart. For the modified push-up test, the child should pull his or her feet up
off the ground while keeping the knees on the floor.
2. The examiner should be to the side or in front of the child.
3. On the command from the examiner, the child raises up until arms are straight, and then back down to the
starting position. It is important to keep the upper body rigid throughout the complete movement.
4. Subjects are instructed to complete as many push-ups as possible at a specified pace (20 push-ups per
minute).
5. The child’s chest should come within three inches of the floor.
6. Subjects are stopped when the second form correction is made or when they experience extreme discomfort
or pain.
7. Count the total number of push-ups the child performs.
FITNESSGRAM test has the subject lower their body until there is a 90-degree angle at the elbows (upper arms
parallel to the floor). The child performs as many push-ups as possible at a cadence of 20 per minute until
fatigue.
36

37
Curl-Up Test
1. Start by having the subject lying on the floor, arms straight and to the sides. Palms are facing down.
2. Finger tips should touch the end of the first strip on the floor.
3. A partner may want to hold the feet in place.
4. Most curl-up tets have subject perform the curl-ups at a cadence. In the FITNESSGRAM, students are to
complete as many curl-ups as possible, up to 75 at a specified pace (20 per minute or one every three
seconds).
5. Perform the test by sliding (curling-up) your palms up to the next strip.
6. Subjects should try to concentrate on contracting their abdominals before starting, and keeping, their upper
torso straight with eyes looking up at the ceiling.
FITNESSGRAM: The strip should be 30in. x 4.5in. for 10-17 year olds and 30in. x 3in. for 5 to 9 year olds. Other
versions have strips placed three inches apart.
Modified Pull-Up Test
1. Child lies flat on the floor and reaches up and grabs a bar secured several inches above their reach.
2. Keeping their heels on the floor, the child pulls up until they touch their chest to a reference number.
3. Children are instructed to successfully complete as many modified pull-ups as possible.
4. Children are stopped when the second form correction is made.
5. The number of modified pull-ups is recorded.
See appendix for information of ordering or building a modified pull-up testing station.
38

39
Conclusion
Children and adolescents are encouraged to engage in a variety of activities to ensure they get the most benefit from
the training. Dynamic warm-up exercises improve the body’s ability to respond and adapt to training. Once the strength
training program has begun the intensity of the activities and routines are monitored and evaluated on a regular basis.
Progress, or lack of progress, are tracked and evaluated on a regular basis.
40

References
1. Safrit, M. J. (1995). Complete Guide to Youth Fitness Testing. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
2. Cooper Institute (2005). FITNESSGRAM Test Administrator Manual, Champaign: Human Kinetics
41
Chapter 4
Warm-Up and
Stretching
Activities
Introduction
Children and adolescents should be mentally
and physically prepared for the activities they
are about to engage in. Pre-participation
activities include; warming-up and providing
clear instructions about the activities planned for
that day. Five to ten minutes of active warm up
activities are recommended prior to any strength
training activities. Active warm-up activities
might include low-intensity dynamic movements,
games and stretching activities. Instructions are
given in the form of verbal and non-verbal cues,
use of pictures and demonstrations. The better
the preparation, the more likely children and ad-
olescents will benefit from the activities planned.

Active Warm-Up Activities

The warm-up period is not synonymous with stretching or flexibility training. The purpose of the warm-up
period is to increase the temperature and blood flow to the muscles before exercise. If warm-up sessions
are too brief, muscles may not perform as well as they could. Traditional static stretches do little to raise
muscle temperatures, and if performed before an active warm-up period, may do more harm than good.
Dynamic warm-up routines, including dynamic stretching are preferred over static warm-up activities.
Active warm-up activities involve movements that are low intensity, general in nature and use full range of
motion. General warm-up activities include: walking, jogging, jogging in place, calisthenics, skipping rope,
bicycling, or other simple games involving active, rhythmic movements. Depending on the activity selected, the
class level, and any previous activities, some students may be ready to perform strength and resistance training.
Stretching and Flexibility Training

Flexibility training is best performed following an active warm-up period. Stretching can be either dy-
namic (involving motion) or static (involve no motion). Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and
arm movements performed slowly through a full range of motion, gradually increasing the range and speed
of movements. Examples of dynamic stretching would be slow, controlled leg swings, arm swings, or tor-
so twists. Dynamic stretching is performed during the active warm-up or stretching phase or both.
Static stretching gradually lengthens the muscle through a joint’s complete range of motion. Each stretch is held
for a few seconds, and then released to the starting position. Both upper and lower body stretches are performed.
If time is important, concentration on stretching only the joints and muscle groups involved in the activity for that
day may be suitable. Stretches are performed in a slow and controlled manner. It is important to avoid bouncing and
any pain while performing any stretch. All stretches are held for 10 to 30 seconds, followed by a brief rest period.
Guidelines for General Warm-Up Activities

Examples:
Calisthenics
Running or skipping
Jumping rope
Guidelines:
1. Explain and demonstrate the activity.
2. Have the child demonstrate the activity.
3. The activities selected should be performed in a slow, controlled manner.
4. Avoid letting the warm-up activity become competitive.
5. Add variation, some upper and some lower body activities.
6. Make it fun!
Dynamic stretching involves moving parts of your body and gradually increasing reach, speed of move-
ment, or both. Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that slowly take muscles
and joints to the limits of their range of motion. It is important to instruct children to avoid bouncing
or jerking movements during dynamic stretching. Dynamic stretching should be performed slowly, for
example slow controlled leg and arm swings or torso twists. A nice feature with dynamic stretching is
that it improves dynamic flexibility and warms the body up in preparation for physical activity.
See appendix 4 for additional dynamic exercises.

44
Warm-up And Stretching Activities
Dynamic Stretching Hip Twists

Description: Extend arms out to both sides, and
Techniques twist the torso and hips to the left, shifting your
weight on to the left foot. Then twist the torso to
the right while shifting your weight to the right
Joint Rotations
foot. Repeat for 10 to 12 reps on each side.
Description: From a standing position with arms
hanging loosely at the both sides, flex, extend,
Half Squat
and rotate each of the following joints: fingers,
Description: Stand tall using good posture. Hold
wrist, elbows, shoulders, neck, trunk and shoulder
hands out in front for balance and look straight forward.
blades, hips, knees, ankles, feet and toes.
Begin by bending at the knees until both thighs are
parallel with the floor. Make sure and keep the spine
Neck Flexion/Extension
nice and straight throughout the movement.
Description: Instruct child to tuck their chin
As soon as a comfortable position is reached, straight-
into their chest, and then lift their chin upward as
en both legs and return to the starting position.
far as possible. Repeat for 6 to 10 repetitions.
Repeat as often as needed 10 to 12 repetitions.
Lateral Flexion – Instruct youth to lower their left
ear toward their left shoulder and then their right ear
Leg Flexion/Extension
to right shoulder. Repeat for 6 to 10 repetitions.
Description: Stand sideways against a
Rotation – Instruct child to turn their chin laterally
wall or other immovable object.
toward their left shoulder and then rotate it toward
Place all your weight on the left leg with
their right shoulder. Repeat for 6 to 10 repetitions.
the left hand on the wall for balance.
Gently swing your right leg forward and
Shoulder Circles
backward. Face the other way, and repeat
Description: Standing tall, feet slightly wider
for 10 to 12 repetitions on each leg.
than shoulder width apart, knees slightly bent.
Instruct child to raise their right shoulder towards
Leg Cross-Body Flexion/Abduction
their right ear, take it backwards, down and then
Description: Begin by leaning slightly forward with
up again to the ear in a smooth action. Repeat
both hands on a wall or immoveable object and your
with the other shoulder for 6 to 10 repetitions.
weight on the left leg. Gently swing the right leg to the
left in front of the body. Try and point the toes of the
Arm Swings
swinging leg upwards as the foot reaches the highest
Description: Stand tall, feet slightly wid-
point of the motion. Next, swing the same leg back to
er than shoulder width apart, knees slightly
the right as far as comfortable. Face the other direction,
bent. Keep the back straight at all times.
and repeat for 10 to 12 repetitions with each leg.
Overhead/Down - Swing both arms continuously
to an overhead position and then forward, down,
Lunges
and backwards. Repeat for 6 to 10 repetitions.
Description: Begin by standing tall with both feet
Side/Front Crossover - Swing both arms out
together. Keep the back straight and lunge forward with
to the sides and then cross them in front of
the right leg until the right thigh is parallel with the
the chest. Repeat for 6 to 10 repetitions.
ground and the right lower leg is vertical. Come back
to the starting position and repeat with the left leg.
Side Bends
Perform 10 to 12 times with each leg.
Description: Standing tall with good posture, feet
slightly wider than shoulder width apart, knees slightly
Double Leg Ankle Bounce
bent, and hands resting on hips. Instruct child to lift
Description: Begin by leaning forward with both hands
their trunk up and away from their hips and bend
on the wall and weight on the toes. Bounce up and
smoothly first to one side, then the other, avoiding
down on the balls\toes of both. Repeat 10 to 12 times.
the tendency to lean either forwards or backwards.
Single Leg Ankle Bounce
Hip Circles
Description: Start by leaning forward with both
Description: With hands on hips and feet spread
hands on a wall and all your weight on the left foot.
wider than shoulder width apart, make circles with your
Raise the right knee forward while pushing the
hips in a clockwise direction for 10 to 12 repetitions.
left heel towards the ground, then lower the right
Then repeat in a counter clockwise direction.
foot to the floor while raising the left heel one or
two inches. Repeat 10 to 12 times on each leg. 45
Static Stretches for the Lower Body
Standing Quadriceps Stretch

Description: Stand and touch a
wall or stationary object for balance.
Grasp the top part of the ankle from
behind and pull the ankle towards the
buttocks. Hold stretch for 10 to 30
seconds. Repeat with opposite side.
Muscles Targeted: Quadriceps
Standing Hamstring Stretch

Description: Rest one leg on an object 1 to 2 high. Keep the leg
that is resting on the object straight, but with the knee slightly
bent. Slowly reach forward keeping the lower back in neutral
position, until a slight stretch in the hamstring muscles occurs.
Hold stretch for 10 to 30 seconds Repeat with the opposite leg.
Muscles Targeted: Hamstrings and Erector Spinae
46
Supine Single Leg Hamstring Stretch

Description: Lay on your back, grasp the posterior part of
the thigh and pull up to a stretched position until the leg is
vertical. The leg should remain as straight as possible. The
opposite leg is bent with the heel on the floor. Hold the
stretch for 10 to 30 seconds. Repeat with opposite leg.
Muscles Targeted: Hamstrings
Supine Single Leg Hamstring Stretch

Description: Lay on your back, grasp the posterior part of the thigh and
pull up to a stretched position until the leg is vertical. The leg should
remain as straight as possible. The opposite leg is bent with the heel on the
floor. Hold the stretch for 10 to 30 seconds. Repeat with opposite leg.
Muscles Targeted: Hamstrings
Standing Calf Stretch

Description: Place both hands on a wall or stationary object with
arms fully extended. Lean against the wall with one leg bent forward
and the other leg extended back with knee straight and foot positioned
directly forward. Push rear heal to floor and move hips slightly for-
ward. Hold stretch for 10 to 30 seconds. Repeat with opposite leg.
Muscles Targeted: Gastrocnemius
Alternate Method: Place one set of

toes on some object (a curb, box or wall)
and heel on the ground. As pressure
develops against the toes, tension
develops in the back of the calf muscle.
Alternate Method: To stretch the front

of your calf, sit on the ground and point
the toes of both feet straight out, tension
occurs in the front of the calf muscle.
47
Standing Lunge Stretch

Description: Stand straight, hands on hips or on forward leg, feet slightly apart, with toes pointing forward.
Place your right foot about 12 to 18 inches in front of your left foot. Tuck your buttocks tightly under your
hips while contracting your abdominal muscles. During the stretch, tension develops in the front of the
hip, buttocks and lower rear leg. Hold stretch for 10 to 30 seconds. Repeat with the opposite leg.
Muscles Targeted: Gluteus Maximus (rear), Quadriceps (front thigh), Hamstrings
(rear upper thigh), Gastrocnemius (upper calf), Soleus (lower calf)
Low Back Stretch

Description: Lay on your back and
pull both knees into the torso.
48
Stretches for the Upper Body

Triceps Stretch
Description: Take one elbow and pull the arm behind the
head and down until tension develops in the back of the arm.
Hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Repeat with the opposite arm.
Muscles Targeted: Tricpes (posterior part of upper arm).
Shoulder and Chest Stretch

Description: Place one arm parallel to the floor and back behind the
torso. You can also hold on to a wall, a partner, or other stable object. You
can increase the range of motion of this stretch by turning away from
the primary side being stretched until the stretch is felt in the shoulder
and lateral chest region. Hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Alternate sides.
Muscles Targeted: Deltoid (upper shoulder) and Pectoralis Major (chest)
Exercise: Rotator Cuff Stretch

Description: Grasp the elbow of the opposite arm (keeping it
bent at a 90 degree angle) and pull it across the chest until tension
develops. Hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Alternate arms.
Muscles Targeted: Rotator Cuff Muscles and Deltoid (shoulder)
49
General Guidelines for Strength Training

Any form of strength training should be just one part of a total conditioning program. Children and adolescents
should have time to participate in aerobic conditioning activities as well as sport, recreational, and skill development
activities. Above all else, teach children and adolescents that exercise is fun and that it is a lifetime endeavor.
General Strength Training Principles
1. Warm up.
2. Work larger muscles first.
3. Work slowly, steadily, and comfortably.
4. Breathe evenly.
5. Use a full range of motion.
6. Rest between sets.
7. Cool down.
8. Keep track of the progress made.
9. Instruct children to use enough resistance that they are capable of tolerating.
10. Encourage children to take training seriously.
11. Tell children to compete with themselves, not others.
Strength Training Techniques and Equipment Selection

Developing strength does not require the use of weights, or expensive equipment. Superior levels of strength are achieved
through the use of various methods of resistance, including; body weight, isometric contractions, rubber tubing as well
as small dumbbells. One of the features about the exercises described in this course is that are adaptable for use with
various equipment and techniques. For example, lateral raises are performed by using isometric contractions, calisthenics,
manual resistance, tubing, and dumbbells or with the use of standard weight training equipment. The equipment
50
and activities selected depend on available space, affordability and program goals and objectives. If a large group of
children are going to be training at the same time and cost is a factor, isometric, calisthenics, and manual resistance
exercises might be the most suitable. Exercise tubing and small hand weights allow for greater variety with workouts.
51
52
Chapter 5
Youth Fitness
Guidelines &
Recommendations
Introduction
The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for
Americans recommendation of at least 60
minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical
activity per day. Today less than 25% of youth
12-15 years of age report getting 60 minutes of
moderate-to-vigorous physical activity every day.
Getting regular daily sustained physical activity
is essential to improving and maintaining health
and well-being. The amount of exercise required
for optimal functional capacity and health at
various ages varies, depending on health, age and
other factors, but clearly children are falling short
of even the minimum amount recommended.
Summary of Facts from the Current Physical

Inactivity Pandemic
• 82.7 million Americans are totally sedentary, up from 70 million in 2007.

• There are 10 million totally sedentary children in America and 33
million children who are not active to healthy standards.
• United States has the highest rate of obese children and adolescents.
• Physically inactive children do not perform as well academically compared to more active children.
• The inactivity pandemic is projected to get worse.
• Inactivity is responsible for twice as many early deaths as obesity.
• Inactive adults pay $1500 more per year in healthcare costs than active adults.
• This figure will continue to rise as more and more un-healthy adolescents become adults.
• Inactive Americans take 1 week of extra sick days per year vs. an active person
• The top 10 killers In the 50 highest income countries are all connected to physical inactivity.
• “Sitting is the New Smoking” - More people die from inactivity (5.3
million) each year in America than from smoking (5.0 million)
The bottom line is we simply have to get children moving on a more consistent, and sustained
level. Every effort needs to be made at the local, state and national levels to help promote and
instill regular physical activity for children and adolescents. There really is no magical formula; if
you provide opportunities … most children will naturally find pleasure in physical activity.
54
Youth Fitness Guidelines & Recommendations
The current “minimum” recommendations are

that children and adolescents:
• Participate in 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of physical activity 3–4 days per week
or daily. The majority of the 60 minutes should comprise of moderate- to vigorous-
intensity (or 30 minutes of each) to total an accumulation of 60 minutes.
• Moderate-intensity refers to activity that “noticeably” increases
breathing, sweating, and heart rate while vigorous-intensity is that which
“substantially” increases breathing, sweating, and heart rate.
• Children and adolescents who are obese may not be able to achieve
these recommendations. Therefore, gradually progress the frequency
and duration in order to address each individual’s fitness level.
• Muscle-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity,
youth should include muscle-strengthening physical activity at least 3 days a week.
• Bone-strengthening: As part of their 60 or more minutes of daily physical activity,
youth should include bone-strengthening physical activity at least 3 days a week.
• Children should be encouraged to participate in sustained activities that use large muscle groups
(i.e., swimming, jogging, aerobic dance, etc.) and that are age-appropriate. Emphasize active
play and intermittent bouts of activity rather than sustained exercise for younger children.
• Other activities, such as recreational sports and fun activities that develop
components of health and performance (speed, power, flexibility, muscular
endurance, agility and coordination), should also be incorporated.
• Heart rate monitoring may be optional due to low cardiac risk in non-obese children
and adolescents; RPE is preferable and helps children to monitor themselves.
55
Chapter 6
Introduction:
Youth Strength
Training
Overview
• What The Research Says
• Determining Readiness to Train
• Program Prescription
• Exercise Technique and Training Procedures
What the Research Says
All children and adolescents should engage in activities, including but not limited to strength training, that develops
and improves all components of health-related physical fitness, including muscular strength and local muscular
endurance. Muscular strength and local muscular endurance are both components of health-related physical
fitness. Strength training is the practice of using resistance to build muscles. The resistance can be in the form of
weights, weight machines, rubber tubing or an individual’s own body weight. It is important to make the point
that strength is developed by using various training techniques, not just by lifting weights. Because there are several
different ways of training to develop strength, it is important clarify some of the common terms and definitions.
Strength training is perhaps the broadest of all the terms to describe those activities which build muscle size and
strength, and is thus the preferred term when referring to developing strength in children and adolescents.
Strength Training: Activities specifically designed to build muscle and increase strength.
Weightlifting: refers to the Olympic sport of weightlifting. Weightlifting involves lifting a barbell
overhead in the performance of movements called the snatch and the clean and jerk.
Weight Training: Weight training refers to any activity which involves the use of weights.
Resistance Training: Resistance training is an even broader term than weight training because resistance can be
supplied by weights, machines, exercise bands and any number of other devices that offer resistance during movement.
Bodybuilding: Bodybuilding is a sport in which the primary objective is to develop the size
muscles. Bodybuilders focus on other areas as well, such as developing all of the muscles
proportionally (symmetrically), minimizing body fat and increasing their strength.
Powerlifting: Powerlifting is a sport involving the test of pure strength. The

sport consists of three events: squat, bench press and deadlift.
The acceptance of strength training for children and adolescents has gained considerable support in recent years.
A significant amount of research published within the last two decades has inspired numerous books, trade and
scientific articles, position statements as well as other media materials. The National Strength and Conditioning
Association, the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Academy of Pediatrics have all published
encouraging position papers on the safety and efficacy of strength training for children and adolescents.
For the most part there is a general consensus regarding guidelines for strength and weight training for
adolescents, but still some disparity in agreement for children. For example, questions such as; starting age,
identification of enduring benefits, and selection of ideal training intensities and volumes, are still unknown.
However, most professional exercise, medical and sports medicine organizations unanimously agree on
on at least one point. That all children benefit from exercise, including various types of strength training
(with or without weights or machines), and that such training likely helps improve health-related fitness
and motor skill development. Further research needs to validate the benefits of specific exercise programs
and identify additional risks and benefits of strength training for young children and adolescents.
58
Introduction: Youth Strength Training
for assessing 1 RM’s can be found elsewhere. It should

Use of One-Repetition also be noted that there are established procedures for
Maximum (1-RM) With Children estimating 1 RM’s from sub-maximal lifts as well.
and Adolescents To-date, there have been well over 50 well-designed
strength, resistance and weight training studies
The term “1-RM” stands for one-repetition maximum.
involving children and adolescents, using various
A one-repetition maximum in weight training is the
training methods. The overwhelming evidence from
maximum amount of weight one can lift in a single
these studies is that children and adolescents can,
repetition for a given exercise. A one rep maximum is
and usually do, gain significant levels of strength
used to establish starting weights, track progress, make
following even short training periods (6 to 8 weeks).
adjustments in load, determine an individual’s maximum
Strength gains occur in as little as 2 sessions per
strength, and to determine the winner in events such as
week provided the training intensity and volume is
powerlifting and weightlifting competitions. A one rep
sufficient enough to cause overload and adaptation.
maximum can be determined for each exercise in a given
workout. For example, if an individual has a 1-RM of 100
Many causes come into play when evaluating whether
lbs for the bench press, training loads for their workout
a child is able to gain strength beyond that normally
using percentages of their 1-RM might be set as follows:
attributable to normal growth and development and daily
physical activity. Children’s current physical condition and
• 1 set of 15 reps at 65% 1 RM (65 lbs)
health, motivation, biological and maturation state, type
• 1 set of 10 to 12 reps at 75% 1 RM (75 lbs)
of training program, expertise of the coach or instructor,
• 1 set of 5 to 10 reps at 85% of 1 RM (85 lbs)
the training program, outside influences (nutrition, sports,
daily physical activities), can all account for variation in
Although most weight training programs involve using
training responses to strength and resistance training.
some percentage of measured or predicted 1-RM, care
must be used in deciding when, if and with whom
Within the last decade, a significant amount of scientific
1-RM testing is performed. There is a higher risk of
literature has confirmed that children and adolescents
potential injury when attempting a 1-RM versus multiple
are able to make significant strength gains following
repetitions with a lower amount of weight, especially
supervised strength training programs. Further, these
when max lifts are attempted by unsupervised novices.
studies have proven that strength training in this
population is safe. At least one study has shown that
Scientific research along with other supporting evidence
strength gains are possible in children as young as 6
has recently confirmed that 1-RM lifts are both safe and
years of age. Average strength gains are typically in
effective to use with children and adolescents, provided
the range of 30 to 40 percent in previously untrained
the assessments are conducted by trained and experienced
children following strength training programs
instructors. 1-RM lifts may not be recommended for use
lasting between 8 and 20 weeks. Strength gains as
with all children or adolescents. The decision as to whether
high as 70% have been reported on occasion.
or not 1-RM lifts or any maximal lifting is attempted
with children is largely dependent on the: (1) experience
Additional research needs to examine the long-term
and qualifications of the instructors and staff, (2) program
effects of strength training in children, especially
goals and (3) appropriate facilities and equipment.
those who begin training at early ages. Another area
where more research is needed is regarding the impact
If a qualified coach or trainer has experience in
strength training might have on preventing injuries
administering 1-RM tests, it is safe and effective to use
and on improving athletic performance. The bulk of
with children and adolescents. In fact, maximal muscular
the evidence to date indicates that strength training is a
loads are attempted by children all the time, for example
safe and effective way to develop muscular strength and
during pull-ups, squat jumps or box jumps. Because lifting
local muscular endurance in children and adolescents.
maximal amount of weights has certain prerequisites, it is
There is also growing body of literature reporting that
not a necessary procedure to establish starting weights or to
strength training provides numerous health-related
training-induced strength gains in children or adolescents.
benefits, which alone justifies promoting it more.
Subsequent chapters discuss other techniques for finding
out starting weights and tracking progress. Procedures
59
Many health-related benefits have been cited in the

literature resulting from strength training in both children
and adolescents. Of particular interest recently, are the
possible benefits of strength training for obese children
and adolescents. Strength training can reduce skinfold
Health Benefits Associated With Training
thickness, which results in a lower percent body fat level.
Strength training also reduces the risk factors associated
• Reduced risk for developing cardiovascular disease with other chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease.
Strength training programs can reduce hypertension and
improve cardiorespiratory in children and adolescents.
• Reduction in risk for diabetes and better
Further, strength training, combined with stretching
glucose and insulin regulation
before training, improves flexibility in children. Regular
physical activity, proper nutrition, and a sensible strength
• Reduction and control of blood pressure training program, could have a favorable influence on
the normal growth and development of children.
• Prevention and treatment of childhood obesity
A properly designed resistance training program
develops and prepares the musculoskeletal system
• Possible prevention of sport and athletic injuries for sports and competition. Virtually all sports place
demands on the musculoskeletal system, and thus
potentially place the child at risk for injury. There
• Improved self-confidence and self-image
does appear to be general agreement among medical
and sports medicine organizations that strength
• Possible improvement in academic performance training improves both performance and reduces the
likelihood of potential injuries in adults, it should also
benefit children to some degree as well. Limited data
• Improved sport performance
does suggest that a resistance training program may
reduce the likelihood of injuries in young children.
• Early development of good posture
Strength training is an integral part of year-round
conditioning for adult athletes. Most seasoned athletes
• Greater ease and efficiency in performing basic
follow some form of a periodization philosophy
and advanced motor skills and sport skills.
breaking down their conditioning program into the
pre-season, season and post-season. Typically the
• Better performance on nationwide fitness tests. greatest volume of resistance training is done in the
off-season, and as the season approaches, the volume
decreases while the intensity of workouts increase as
• Early development of coordination and balance
the season gets near. The benefits of a strength training
program in reducing potential injuries is likely related
• Development of interest of fitness to increased strength of muscles and tendons, stronger
as a lifetime interest joints and the ability of muscles and their surrounding
tissues and structures to tolerate greater forces.
• Improved flexibility
The American College of Sports Medicine states that
most overuse injuries in children are preventable with
• Increased lean body mass better conditioning. The National Athletic Trainers
Association states that most children are not adequately
conditioned prior to participating in sports. So
• Increased bone mineral content
even with the limited scientific data so far, it makes
practical sense to recommend that children should
“get in-shape” before participating in organized sports
and that developing muscular strength and endurance
would likely reduce the risk for soft tissue injuries.
60
Professional Guidelines and Recommendations

Several organizations have published guidelines and recommendations on strength and weight
training for children and adolescents. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), the National
Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), the American Orthopadic Society for Sports
Medicine (AOSSM) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM).
National Strength and Conditioning American Academy of Pediatrics

Association
• In 1983, the American Academy of Pediatrics
(AAP) published a guide for pediatricians on weight
• Each child should be physiologically
training and weightlifting. The most noteworthy
and psychologically ready to participate
statements made in AAP’s first position paper are:
in a resistance training program.
• Minimal benefits can be expected from
• The exercise equipment should be in good
weight training in preadolescents.
repair and properly sized to fit each child.
• Weightlifting as a competitive sport has a high injury
• All training sessions must be closely supervised
rate, and thus should be avoided by preadolescents.
by experienced fitness professionals.
• Weight training is a reasonably safe technique
• Careful and competent instruction regarding
that, when supervised, can provide numerous
exercise technique, training guidelines and spotting
benefits with little potential risk for injury.
procedures should be presented to all children.
• Strength training for preadolescents and
• Strength training workouts should start with
adolescents is beneficial as long as proper training
one set on several upper and lower body exercises
techniques and safety precautions are followed.
which focus on the major muscle groups.
• Begin with light loads (e.g. 12 -15 RM).
• The resistance should be gradually increased
as strength improves. A 5 to 10% increase in American College of Sports Medicine
overall load is appropriate for most children.
The American College of Sports Medicine endorses
• Repetitions can be slowly increased
strength training for children and adolescents as part of
until 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions
general condition program, as long as they are mature
for each exercise can be completed.
enough to receive and follow directions. ACSM states
• Children can participate in strength that, “strength training can be a safe and effective
training activities one to three days per activity for this age group, provided that the program is
week, as long as they have sufficient properly designed and competently supervised.” ACSM’s
rest between each training session. opinion statement also opposes children and adolescents
from participating in competitive aspects of weight
• Specific multi-joint exercises (bench
training, including weightlifting and powerlifting.
press, squats, leg press) may be introduced
into the training program based on
individual needs and competencies. National Athletic Trainers Association
• Advanced multi-joint exercises (Olympic
Although the National Athletic Trainers’ Association
lifts and modified cleans, pulls and presses)
(NATA) does not have a specific position stand on
may be introduced into the training program
strength training for children and adolescents, they do
provided that appropriate loads are used
endorse year-round physical conditioning for children
and the focus remains on proper form
as a way to reduce the risk of injuries in youth sports.

61
Talking to Parents about Strength Training

Following are examples of a few typical questions and suggested responses regarding
the subject of strength training for children and adolescents.
When is the earliest my son or daughter can start a strength training program?
There is no definitive answer to this question, however, there is research to shown that children can safely start
strength training as young 6 to 7 years old. Children should begin training at a level that is consummate with
their maturity level, physical abilities, and individual goals. Children must be mentally and emotionally mature
enough to follow directions, and this typically occurs when a child is ready to participate in organized sports.
Isn’t it dangerous for young children to lift weights?

Researchers investigating this questions, using in some cases, very sophisticated muscle and skeletal imaging
equipment, have failed to identify any detrimental effects associated with supervised strength and conditioning
programs for children or adolescents involving weights or other forms of resistance. The main caveat seems
to be the degree of supervision children have during strength training activities. Most serious, even fatal,
injuries to children as a result of weight training are due to random accidents, lack of supervision and
improper technique and program design. In addition, it is important for children to start slowly and progress
conservatively through the fundamentals of a strength training program. If these basic rules are followed, they
are less likely to be injured while lifting weights than any other form of recreational activity they might do.
I’ve heard that strength training programs for kids are not that effective!
At least 50 or more published research studies have clearly demonstrated that children can and do increase
muscular strength and local muscular endurance levels above the levels normally associated with growth
and development. The degree of improvement is affected by training intensity and volume. Children
as young as age 6 have gained muscular strength from strength training, with average gains around
30% to 40% in untrained, preadolescent children common after 8 to 20 weeks of training.
62
What kinds of weight training programs are recommended?

First of all, it is important to remember that strength training can be performed with or without the use
weights. Exercises that use body weight (push-ups and sit-ups) for the resistance is a good way to start out
for most children under the age of 7, or children of any age who just starting out. Total body strength can be
improved by participating in a variety of activities; physical educations classes, strength training using tubing
or manual resistance, by simply playing and participating in organized sports, all help develop strength in
children. After a foundation of strength and conditioning is established, light weight training can be introduced
using 10-15 repetitions and 1-3 sets per exercise. The weight should be light enough so 10-15 repetitions
can be completed without severe fatigue. Strength training programs for children should include:
• Continuous supervision by trained personnel.

• An adequate warm-up and cool-down period.
• Workouts that emphasize high repetitions and low weight.
• Adequate recovery periods between workouts (train no more than 2-3 days per week).
• An emphasis on proper form and technique.
• Inclusion of flexibility exercises (especially during adolescent growth spurts).
Can my child workout with me at our health club?

Most health clubs have age restrictions for being in weight training areas. Some clubs won’t let youth lift
weights until they are 14 to 16 years old. Ask your club owner or manager what the age restrictions are for
the club. Some clubs have special areas and equipment designed just for youth. It’s important to note that
most strength training machines are not appropriate for children, and thus are inappropriate for them to
use. The majority of weight machines also tend to have large increments in weight (10-15 lbs.) which most
kids have trouble adjusting to. Check with your club to see if they have any special programs for youth,
or if they have any trainers that are qualified and experienced in working with youth and weights.
Should my daughter lift weights?

There are little if any differences in strength between boys and young women prior the age of 12 to 14 years
of age. Some of the research studies on the effects of strength training in children have involved young
women as subjects, and it appears that they tend to gain significant levels of strength just as boys do. Strength
training is particularly important for young women because of the risk for osteoporosis and the fact that they
may be less conditioned than boys prior to participating in organized sports. Young women of any age should
be encouraged to participate in sports and conditioning programs, including strength training. Research
has shown that young women can gain strength equally as well as boys, at least prior to puberty.
Conclusion
Given the evidence presented in this chapter, including the status of health and physical fitness of American
children and the safety and effectiveness of strength and conditioning for children and adolescents, it seems
quite reasonable and prudent to encourage all children to participate in some form of resistance or strength
development activities. Children should be encouraged to participate in a variety of life-time physical activities
that they enjoy and can perform safely. In addition to resistance training, children should participate in activities
designed to improve flexibility, cardiorespiratory endurance, speed and power, and agility and coordination.
63
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69
Chapter 7
Program Design
Considerations
with Minimal or
No Equipment
Overview
• Body Weight
• Elastic Bands and Tubing
Strength Training Techniques and Equipment Selection
Developing strength does not require the use of weights, or expensive equipment. Superior levels of
strength are achieved through the use of various methods of resistance, including; body weight, isometric
contractions, rubber tubing as well as small dumbbells. One of the features about the exercises described
in this manual is that are adaptable for use with various equipment and techniques. For example, lateral
raises are performed by using isometric contractions, calisthenics, manual resistance, tubing, and dumbbells
or with the use of standard weight training equipment. The equipment and activities selected depend on
available space, affordability and program goals and objectives. If a large group of children are going to be
training at the same time and cost is a factor, isometric, calisthenics, and manual resistance exercises might
be the most suitable. Exercise tubing and small hand weights allow for greater variety with workouts.
Description of Age Specific Workouts
There are no absolute age-specific guidelines and recommendations for strength training programs
for children. Some younger children may be biologically mature to perform more advanced programs
typically designed for adolescents, while some older children may need to start with the beginning
workouts. The workouts described in this manual are adaptable to adjust for individual differences in
children. Trainers should experiment with different activities and workouts to find which ones chil-
dren enjoy the most and are most capable of performing. As mentioned earlier, establishing starting
weights or resistance levels with children often requires the TRIAL AND ERROR method!
Activities and programs described throughout this manual are according to the lev-
els described below. This system makes it easy to identify developmentally appropri-
ate activities and resistance levels for different age groups and skill levels.
72
Program Design Considerations With Minimal Or No Equipment
Level 1: Activities Appropriate for Children ages 7 and Older.

Level 1: activities are developmentally appropriate for early childhood. In this group, strength and endur-
ance are steadily improving. This is a period when various motor skills develop and are practiced. Resistance
training activities are incorporated into motor development activities. Children this young often don’t have
a big attention span, so variety is essential. Should see little difference in skill level between sexes
Level 2: Activities Appropriate for Children ages 10 and Older.

Level 2 activities are developmentally appropriate for late childhood. Strength and endurance ac-
tivities are endured for longer periods of time. The intensity and variety of the workouts are in-
creased. Children should be introduced to the weight room if available at this time.
Level 3: Activities Appropriate for adolescents aged 12 to 13 and Older.

Level 3 activities are designed based on more advanced exercises, appropriate for more mature chil-
dren. This group is ready to participate in just about any form of resistance training.
73
This chapter describes how to design and implement strength training activities using little or no equip-
ment. Strength training involves muscles working against resistance. As muscles adapt to overcome the
resistance to a movement, they adapt by becoming stronger. The resistance used in strength training can
include; ones own body weight, elastic bands or tubes, weights, water or other immovable objects. The
next few chapters describe strength training activities that need minimal or no equipment.
Using one’s own body weight for resistance is perhaps one of the oldest forms of exercise known. For example, sit-ups,
push-ups and jumping-jacks are exercises that everyone can do, and has done at some point in their lives. These exercis-
es develop local muscular endurance, and are more commonly known as calisthenics. Calisthenics use the weight and
movement of the body for resistance. The resistance is increased or decreased by changing body positions or by perform-
ing more or less repetitions. Calisthenics nearly everyone is familiar with include push-ups, sit-ups or crunches, jump-
ing jacks, squats and lunges. Calisthenics are practical and convenient and require little or no equipment. Calisthenics
are performed as part of warm-up activities or as specific strength development exercises. Calisthenics can be used to
develop most major muscle groups and can also help develop coordination, flexibility, and to some degree, cardiorespira-
tory fitness. Another benefit of calisthenics is that the intensity of the workouts are easily modified by increasing or de-
creasing the number of sets and reps, range of motion or by adding brief static contractions during exercise movements.
General Guidelines for Calisthenics
1. Always warm-up and stretch before performing calisthenics.

2. Remember to breathe evenly during the exercises.
3. Perform slowly, using controlled movements.
4. The lower back should always be supported.
5. Each exercise movements are performed through a full range of motion.
6. Larger muscle groups are exercised first.
7. Children and adolescents can both benefit from calisthenics.
Most muscular contractions are dynamic, meaning the muscle shortens (concentric) and lengthens (eccentric)
while developing force. A static contraction occurs when the muscle contracts and causes force but with little or
no muscle shortening taking place. Trying to lift or push an immovable object (a car with its brakes on) or holding
your arms out to the side for as long as possible are examples of isometric contractions. Static contractions can and
do produce strength gains, but the gains are specific to the angle at which the isometric contraction occurs.
An example of an isometric exercise would be standing in a doorway with hands at thigh level and pressing the backs
of the hands against the door jambs. This exercise works the deltoids and supraspinatus muscles. To develop strength
using just isometric contractions, contractions are held at different angles throughout the full range of motion. Almost
any human movement or exercise can have an isometric contraction or phase include in it by simply holding a contraction
in one position for a brief period. Brief static contractions can also be incorporated into callisthenic exercises as a way
supplement strength gains. For example, during squats, wall squats, lunges or push-ups, children can be instructed
to hold their final position for a brief period (5 to 10 seconds) and then finish the movement. Static contractions can
be added into workouts randomly, during the final repetition of each set, or any combination that is appropriate.
74
Static muscular contractions or are generally not recommended as a primary strength training activity or program for
children or adolescents, primarily because they are less enjoyable and it is hard to regulate the intensity of contractions.
Although static exercises pose little risk to healthy children and adolescents, it is well established that they tend to evoke
higher heart rate and blood pressure responses compared to dynamic contractions. The purpose of introducing static
exercise training in this book is to make educators and students aware of their benefits and limitations and to show
how they can be incorporated into traditional strength training workouts. Most of the exercises in this chapter can be
performed as dynamic calisthenics or held in a static position for an isometric contraction. The exercises in this chapter are
identified according to whether or not they can be performed with a static contraction (I), calisthenics (C) or both (I or C).
Appropriate Workout Levels

The majority of these exercises are appropriate for all age levels, due to the tremendous potential for
variation. Trainers may find them more useful with younger children, especially if little if any other
equipment is available. The number of repetitions should be appropriate for the age of the child. (For ex-
ample, 8-year-olds can do 5-8 repetitions to start, and 10-year-olds can do 10-12 repetitions to start.)
Examples of Level Appropriate Activities

Straight Leg Push-Up: level 2 and 3
Bent Knee Push Up: Levels 1-3
Incline Push Up: Level 3
75
Upper Body Exercises Straight Leg Push-up
Type: I or C
Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major (upper chest)
Assisting Muscle Groups: Anterior deltoid, triceps brachii, biceps brachii, rectus abdominis, obliques and quadriceps.
Starting Position: Lie face down with the body completely straight, abdominal muscles slightly contracted,
legs close together, hands facing forward and shoulder width apart, head in a relaxed forward position.
Exercise Technique: Inhale and bend the elbows with a controlled motion, gradually lowering the
body until the chest touches the floor. Exhale and push away from the floor until the body is re-
turned to the starting position without locking out the elbows. The torso and legs remain straight
throughout the motion. The chest and upper body should come within 3 inches of the floor.
Alternate Isometric Exercise: Children can hold various positions ei-

ther during the downward or upward movement for isometric variation.
76
Bent Knee Push-Up
Type: I or C
Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major.
Assisting Muscle Groups: Anterior deltoid, triceps brachii, biceps brachii, rectus abdominis, obliques and quadriceps.
Starting Position: Torso is completely straight with the arms placed at shoulder width apart.
Knees are bent and in contact with the mat while the feet are close together and pulled back to-
wards the body. Body weight is distributed between the hands and the knees.
Exercise Technique: Inhale, bend the elbows, and lowers the body in a controlled manner until the chest touch-
es the floor. Exhale and push away from the floor until the starting position is regained. (If this is too difficult,
the student can lower the shoulders, head, and neck toward the floor until greater strength is gained.)
Alternate Isometric Exercise: Children can hold various positions either during
the downward or upward movement for isometric variation.
Incline Push-Up
Type: I or C
Assisting Muscle Groups: Anterior deltoid, triceps brachii, biceps brachii, rectus abdominis, obliques and
quadriceps. This exercise emphasizes the anterior deltoid and the sternal portion of the pectoralis major.
Starting Position: Knees are slightly bent, legs close together, hands facing forward and shoul-
der width apart on a crate or platform, head in a neutral forward position.
Exercise Technique: Inhale while bending the elbows and lower the body in a controlled manner until the chest
is within 3 inches of the platform, or the participant feels that he or she has reached the limits of the range of
motion. Then exhales and pushes away from the bottom position until the starting position is regained.
Alternate Isometric Exercise: Children can hold various positions either during
the downward or upward movement for isometric variation.
Safety Technique: Care must be used in estimating the width of the crate or platform. A wider spac-
ing will focus more on the chest muscles, while narrower spacing will focus more on the arm mus-
cles. Be certain that the student can handle the stresses associated with the carried placements.
77
Decline Push Up Pull-Up

Type: I or C
Type: I or C
Primary Muscle Groups: Latissimus dorsi.
Assisting Muscle Groups: Brachialis, Brachioradialis,
Assisting Muscle Groups: Anterior deltoid, triceps
Biceps Brachii, Teres Major, Rhomboids, Levator
brachii, biceps brachii, rectus abdominis, obliques and
Scapulae, Pectoralis Minor and Pectoralis Major, Sternal
quadriceps. The exercise emphasizes the anterior deltoid
and the proximal portion of the pectoralis major.
Starting Position: Arms are completely ex-
tended upward over the head, torso straight,
Starting Position: Body completely straight,
legs may be straight or bent, palms facing away
legs close together and elevated on a box or
from the body, head in a neutral position.
platform (height 6-24 inches, depending on the
individual), hands facing forward and shoulder
Exercise Technique: Child grasps the bar, exhales
width apart, head in a neutral forward position.
and pulls upward with the arm and back until the chin
clears the bar, then inhales and lowers in a controlled
Exercise Technique: Inhale and bend the elbows and
fashion until the starting position is regained. For
lower the body in a controlled manner until the chest
variation the student may use a chinning grip (with palms
touches the floor. Then exhale while pushing away
facing the body) to involve the biceps brachii muscle.
from the floor until the starting position is regained.
Alternate Isometric Exercise: The variation of the pull-
Alternate Isometric Exercise: Children can
up called the flexed-arm hang is a great example of how a
hold various positions either during the downward
callisthenic exercise can be modified to become an isomet-
or upward movement for isometric variation.
ric exercise, or in this case, an isometric fitness test. Using
either an overhand grasp (palms facing away from body)
Safety Technique: It is important that the student
or underhand grip (palms facing toward body), the student
does not exceed his or her limits. The height of the
assumes flexed-arm hang position with chin clearing the
box or platform will be determined by the student’s
bar. Students may be lifted to this position if necessary.
fitness (more advanced exercisers will require a
higher box). It also is important that the platform
Safety Techniques: It is important that children do not
is sturdy and placed on a non-slip surface.
cheat by kicking or jerking the body upward to perform
this exercise. If the student needs assistance the teacher
can place his or her hands on the waist of the student
(and lift up), or place the hands under the feet (allowing
the student to push off from the teacher’s hands).
Alternate Exercise: If a complete pull-up can’t be

achieved, being assisted up to the flexed position
can develop strength (or use assisted tubing). Once
this position is achieved, the assisting partner can
step back, and the subject can then lower his or
her self-back down to the starting position.
78
Arm and Shoulder Exercises

Exercise: Lateral Raises
Exercise: Arm Press
Type: I
Type: I
Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoids
Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoids, pecto-
rals, latissimus dorsi and rhomboids.
Starting Position: Stand next to a wall, side-
ways, with one foot slightly in front of the other
Starting Position: Stand in a doorway facing the thresh-
for stability, several inches from the wall.
old with one foot slightly in front of the other for stability.
Place one hand on the wooden frame, the student should
Exercise Technique: With the back of the hand
now be positioned so their elbow is bent at a 90 degree
against the wall, push hard with against the wall
angle. The height of the hand on the door jam should
for 5 to 10 seconds, followed by a brief rest period.
be equal to the shoulder height. Keep the elbow bent
Repeated 5 to 10 times, alternating arms. Instruct
and below the shoulder to protect the shoulder joint.
children to breathe in just before each contraction
and breathe out during the contraction phase.
Exercise Technique: Children should be instructed
to contract their abdominal muscles to help control
Alternate Exercise: Stand in between a door
their body position during this exercise. Push hard
frame with one foot slightly in front of the
with the hand against the door frame for 5 to 10
other for stability. Using both hands, push
seconds, followed by a brief rest period. Children
hard against both sides of the door frame.
should feel the chest and front shoulder muscles
contracting, as well as the abdominal muscles for
support. Repeated 5 to 10 times, alternating arms.
Alternate Exercise: Move out slightly away from the

door frame, so that supporting elbow drops down to about Exercise: Arm Pull
140 degrees. Keep the hand on the door at shoulder height.
Type: I
Alternate Exercise: Stand facing the corner of a wall
with one foot slightly in front of the other for stability. Primary Muscle Groups: Latissimus
Put one hand on each or the two adjoining walls. Lean dorsi, rhomboids and deltoids.
forward and press into the walls with both hands.
Starting Position: Stand facing a door threshold,
pole or other secure fixture. Put one foot slightly
in front of the other for stability. Place one hand
on the wall to the side of the door or other stable
fixture to stabilize the body. Extend the opposite
arm through the door to grip the frame on the other
side of the threshold or around a pole just below the
shoulder height with the elbow at about 160 degrees.
Exercise Technique: Pull the hand gripping

the doorway or pole hard back towards the body
for 5 to 10 seconds, followed by a brief rest period.
Repeated 5 to 10 times, alternating arms. Students
should feel the rear shoulder and latissimus
muscles contracting. Breathe in just before each
contraction and breathe out during the push.
79
Exercise: Bench Dip 2

Exercise: Pull-Down
Type: I or C Alternate Exercise: An isometric contraction
can be held at any point during this exercise.
Primary Muscle Groups: Latissimus
dorsi, rhomboids and deltoids. Type: I or C
Starting Position: Arms are elevated above the Primary Muscle Groups: Biceps brachii.
head, holding a towel or rubber tubing between each
hand. This exercise can be done standing or sitting. Starting Position: Child and spotter face one another.
Exercising partner holds the center of a towel or strong
Exercise Technique: Child slowly lowers arms rubber tubing, palms up, arms straight. The spotter
down behind head, until the towel touches the holds the ends of the towel in the forward position.
buttocks, and then returns to the starting position.
Gradually pressure should be applied to the towel Exercise Technique: Exercising partner pulls the towel
at all times during the exercise movement. up, bending the elbows and moving the towel toward
the chest, while the helper applies gradual resistance.
Isometric Variation: Children can hold the movement
at any point and perform an isometric contraction. Alternate Exercise: To add variety, isometric con-
tractions should be held at various points during the
bicep curl. In addition, different immovable object can
serve as the resistance instead of having a partner.
Exercise: Bench Dip

Type: I or C Exercise: Bench Dip 3
Type: I
Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis
major, deltoid, and triceps brachii.
Primary Muscle Groups: triceps brachii.
Starting Position: Children begin with heels
Starting Position: One arm is positioned behind the
on the floor and hands on the edge of a bench
back from below and the opposite one arm positioned
or platform. Hands are spaced slightly wider
up, over and behind the back. The student grabs
than shoulder width, with the fingers pointing
both ends of a towel or strong rubber tubing.
toward the body. Legs are straight and hips are
below the bench, supporting the arms. Elbows
Exercise Technique: While applying resistance with
are flexed at an angle approximating 90 degrees
the lower arm, the student pulls the towel up with the
when supporting the upper body in this position.
other arm for 5 to 10 seconds, followed by a brief rest
period. Repeated 5 to 10 times, alternating arms.
Exercise Technique: Heels stay stationary and
legs remain straight as the student straightens
the elbows, bringing their body upward until
the arms are fully extended, but not locked.
80
Lower Body Exercises
Exercise: Wall Squats

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps group, erector spinae and gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: Stand facing away from a wall, feet should be up to 12 inch-
es away from the wall, shoulder width stance, toes pointing forward.
Exercise Technique: Leaning against the wall, students lower their body until their knees
are flexed at a 90 degree angle. Hold the position for 5 to 10 seconds. Weight should be on
the heels, not toes, and knees should not cross the plane of the toes. Extend the legs to elevate
the body back to the starting position. Perform as many sets of repetitions as desired.
Alternate Exercise: Move feet in closer to the wall to make the exercise easier.
Callisthenics: Move away from the wall, same starting position, lower the body until knees
are flexed at a 90 degree angle. To help with balance, extend the arms out forward while
bending and back in while extending the legs and returning to the starting position.
Exercise: Forward Lunges

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps group and hamstring group.
Starting Position: Stand with your feet about 6 inches apart from each other toes pointed forward. Step
forward with one leg and lower body to 90 degrees at both knees. Be careful not to step out too far.
There should be 1 to 2 feet between both feet, depending on the size of the student. Keep the weight
on heels and don’t allow the knees to cross the plane of the toes. Hold the position for 5 to 10 seconds.
Exhale and push up and back to the starting position to complete one rep. Repeat alternating legs.
Safety Technique: Instruct children to keep backs upright. The further they step, the more
work the glutes (buttocks) and hamstrings do. The closer they step, the more they work the
quadriceps muscles. Place a hand on a chair, wall or partner for balance if necessary.
Callisthenics: Perform the same way as described above, but don’t hold the move-
ment, rather continue performing lunges for a set number or repetitions.
Exercise: Lateral Lunges

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, lateral and medial aspects of quadriceps and hamstring groups.
Starting Position: Begin standing straight, with feet together.
Exercise Technique: Student should step out to the right and shift their body weight over their right leg,
squatting to a 90 degree angle at the right knee. Next, they should try to sit down on their butt, keeping
their back as upright as possible. Hold the position for 5 to 10 seconds. Push off and bring the right leg back
to center to complete one rep. Finish all reps on one side, and repeat on left side to complete one set.
Note: Keep the weight on the heels and make sure the knees don’t go over the
plane of the toes. Hold arms out in front to help with balance.
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Exercise: Standing Calf Raises

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: Stand with feet shoulder width apart, with or without dumbbells.
Exercise Technique: Child rise up on the balls of their feet, and hold for 5
to 10 seconds, then return to starting position and repeat.
Alternate Exercise: Try performing this exercise with one foot at a time.
Callisthenics: Perform the same way as described above, but don’t hold the move-
ment, rather continue performing the calf raises for a set number or repetitions.
Exercise: Quadriceps Step-Up

Type: C
Muscle Groups: Quadriceps group: vastus lateralis, vastus intermedi-

us, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, illiacus and psoas major.
Starting Position: Select a proper starting height to step up on. Adjustable aerobic dance steps are
great for these types of exercises. Step up onto the platform or bleacher one leg at a time.
Exercise Technique: Take care to choose the right height step or crate. There should be
no less than a 90-degree angle at the knee joint when foot is on the platform.
Exercise: Gluteal and Hamstring Lift

Type: C
Muscle Group: Gluteus maximus; hamstring group (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus).
Starting Position: Kneel on the floor with abdominals contracted and is supported by all four limbs.
Exercise Techniques: With one knee bent, raise one leg until the thigh is paral-
lel to the floor. Next straighten the leg backward, then lowers the leg. Return the
knee to the starting position. Complete equal repetitions with both legs.
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Exercise: Standing Abduction

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: gluteus medius and outer thigh muscles.
Starting Position: Stand with feet slightly apart, knees slightly bent, hands on hips or one
hand on a chair or wall for balance. Shift weight to right let keeping it slightly bent.
Exercise Technique: Keeping toes pointed forward, foot flexed, and leg straight, lift the left foot off the ground and
out to the side as high as you can. Hold here for 2 to 10 seconds. Lower slowly with control without letting left foot or
leg rest to complete one rep. Complete all reps and switch sides.
Safety Technique: Do not let momentum swing the leg. The movement should be slowed
and controlled. Try to keep upper body straight without leaning forward or backward. In ad-
dition, try to keep both legs in line with the body, not forward or behind.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise can also be performed while lying down. Lie on one side of the body, with
the inner leg bent slightly at the knee and the outside leg straight. Rest the upper body weight on the elbow and
forearm of the lower arm. The upper arm can be kept down to the side or positioned out in front of the body for
balance. The body should be kept in a straight line during the exercise. Lift the outside leg up and hold for 5 to
10 seconds, and return to starting position. Perform the desired number of repetitions, and then alternate legs.
Isometric Variation: Either variation, standing or lying, can be altered to make

it an isometric exercise by holding the leg at the end motion.
Exercise: Standing Adduction

Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Inner thigh hip adductors (adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis).
Starting Position: Stand with feet slightly apart, knees slightly bent, hands on hips or one hand
on a chair or wall for balance. Shift weight to right leg keeping it slightly bent. Lift left leg slight-
ly forward in front of right leg, keeping foot flexed and toes pointing forward.
Exercise Technique: Slowly swing left leg across center line of body, in front of the right leg lifting it as high as possible.
Hold for 2 to 10 seconds. Lower the leg slowly with control to the starting position (without letting foot rest on ground)
to complete one rep. Complete all reps and switch sides.
Safety Technique: Do not let momentum swing the leg. The movement should be slowed
and controlled. Try to keep upper body straight without leaning forward or backward. In ad-
dition, try to keep both legs in line with the body, not forward or behind.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise can also be performed while lying down. Lie on one side of the body, with the
inner leg kept straight and upper leg positioned with the knee bent behind the straight leg. Rest the upper body weight
on the elbow and forearm of the lower arm. The upper body man need to be rotated backwards to make the exercise
comfortable. The upper arm can be kept down to the side or positioned out in front or behind the body for balance.
The body should be kept in a straight line during the exercise. Lift the inside leg up as far as possible and hold for 5
to 10 seconds, and return to starting position. Perform the desired number of repetitions, and then alternate legs.
Isometric Variation: Either variation, standing or lying, can be altered to make

it an isometric exercise by holding the leg at the end motion.
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Abdominal Exercises
Exercise: Suspended Knee Raise
Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Rectus abdominis, iliacus and psoas major.
Starting Position: Hang from a pull-up/ chin bar with a shoulder width grip facing away
from the apparatus. Torso and legs are straight, and the head is facing forward.
Exercise Technique: Begin the movement by bending the knees and bringing them in toward
the torso. Hold or a few seconds, then lower the legs by straightening the knees in a controlled
fashion to the starting position. Back and arms should remain relatively motionless through-
out the exercise. This exercise should not perform any swinging or jerking motions.
Isometric Variation: This exercise can be altered to make it an isomet-

ric exercise by holding the legs up at the end motion.
Exercise: Curl-Ups
Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Rectus abdominis.
Starting Position: Start by having the child lie on the floor, arms straight and to the sides. Palms are facing down.
Exercise Technique: Curl-up by sliding the palms along the mat until the shoulders are 6 to
10 inches off the mat. Subjects should try and concentrate on contracting their abdominals be-
fore starting and keeping their upper torso straight with eyes looking up at the ceiling.
NOTE: This exercise can be performed according to the FITNESSGRAM di-
rections to help students prepare for the test.
Isometric Variation: This exercise can be altered to make it an isometric exercise by hold-
ing the contraction of the abdominal muscles at the end upward motion.
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Back Exercises
Exercise: Trunk Lift

Type: I or C
Muscle Group: gluteus maximus, hamstring group and and erector spinae group.
Starting Position: The child lies on the mat face down, toes are pointed and hands are placed under the thighs.
Exercise Technique: The child lifts the upper body off the floor in a slow and controlled man-
ner, to a maximum height of 12 inches, and then returns to the starting position.
Isometric Variation: Children can practice for the FITNESSGRAM, by hold-

ing their position in the extended position for a few seconds, and then release.
Exercise: Standing Trunk Twists

Type: C
Muscle Groups: Abdominals and oblique muscles, and erector spinae muscles.
Starting Position: Standing with feet shoulder width apart. Hold arms straight
out in front of the body, at chest level. Knees slightly bent.
Exercise Technique: Swing arms from side-to-side bending down each time as the arms reach the
farthest point to one side, and then back up as the upper torso rotates back around toward the starting
point. For added resistance, hold a weight out in front of the body with both hands and then swing.

Exercise: Ball Trunk Twists
Type: I or C
Muscle Groups: Abdominals and oblique muscles, and erector spinae muscles.
Starting Position: Stand back-to-back with a partner with feet spread slightly wider than shoul-
der width and knees slightly bent. One child is holding a medicine ball next to their body.
Exercise Technique: Begin by twisting the torso in the opposite direction of the ball. The
ball should rotate around to the side between hip and shoulder level. The other partner
should be twisting in the opposite direction of the partner with the ball. The partner re-
leases the ball, and rotates to the other side to receive the ball from the opposite side.
Isometric Variation: This exercise can be modified by performing the exercise with
just one student and holding the movement at the end of each sideward rotation.
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Exercise to Strengthen the Low Back
Arm Lifts
Starting Position: Begin by having students lie on their stomach on a mat. Arms
are stretched over head and slightly out to the side (in a V position).
Exercise Technique: When instructed, lift one arm up as far as possible while keeping
the thighs and opposite arm relaxed. Slowly lower the arm, and then raise the other
arm in the same manner. Repeat for 10 to 15 repetitions for each arm.
Hip Extension
Starting Position: Begin by having students lie on stomach on a mat. Bend one
knee to a 90 degree angle so the sole of toot faces the ceiling.
Exercise Technique: Lift the thigh off the mat approximately 3 to 5 inches by raising the
foot toward the ceiling. Hip bones do not leave the mat when the leg is lifted. Slowly lower
the thigh back to the starting position. Repeat for 10 to 15 repetitions for each leg.
Low Back Extension

Starting Position: Begin by having students lie on their stomach on a mat.
Arms are placed at the sides so that hands are by the hips.
Exercise Technique: Raise the head and shoulders off the mat as high as comfortably possible.
Hold for 5 to 10 seconds and then lower the head and shoulders back down to the mat. Try not
to tense the shoulder muscles during this exercise. Repeat for 5 to 10 repetitions.
Wall Slides
Starting Position: Stand with your back against a wall and feet shoulder-width apart.
Exercise Technique: Slide down into a crouch with knees bent to about 90 degrees.
Count to five and slide back up the wall. Repeat 5 to 10 times.

Leg Raises
Starting Position: Children are lying on their stomachs on a mat.
Exercise Technique: Tighten the muscles in one leg and raise it from the floor. Hold the exercising leg up for a count
of 5 to 10 seconds and return it to the floor. Do the same with the other leg. Repeat 5 to 10 times with each leg.
Back Leg Swing

Starting Position: Stand behind a chair with both hands on the back of the chair.
Exercise Technique: Lift one leg back and up while keeping the knee straight. Return
slowly. Raise other leg and return. Repeat 5 to 10 times with each leg.

86
Calisthenics and static muscular or isometric exercises are versatile, and easy to perform forms of resistance
training. All of the exercises described in this chapter can be modified to include some variation of each type
of exercise. Children are encouraged to warm up and stretch before performing any exercises. Remember to
breathe evenly during the exercise is important, especially with any isometric component. All of the exercises
described in this chapter should be performed in a slow controlled manner, through a full range of motion.
Resistance Tubing and Bands
Resistance bands, tubing and exercise balls are inexpensive and versatile forms of equipment that provide a safe and
effective alternative to using weights for strength training. Much of this equipment has its origin in therapy and rehabil-
itation settings which suggests that it safe. Exercise tubing and bands may be awkward to use at first, but with practice,
are a challenging form of strength training by themselves or in combination with weights. The equipment described in
this chapter is readily available, inexpensive and can easily accommodate all the age groups covered in this manual.
Tubing and Bands
Exercise bands and tubing come in different lengths and tensions allowing just about anyone, including children, to use
them. All major muscle groups are trainable with tubes, bands and balls. Like any other form of strength training, proper
instruction and supervision assures correct exercise technique and safety are followed. The use of tubing and bands should
be attractive to trainers that are looking for activities that allow simultaneous strength training with many students.
Tubing
Tubing is purchased in 25 to 100 ft. rolls for as little as $0.25 to $0.75 per foot, depending on the thick-
ness or resistance or pre-assembled in kits (www.simplefitnesssolutions.com). Buying tubing in bulk is
less expensive, and with the variety of attachments available, makes it even more of a versatile choice.
Exercise tubing comes in a variety of colors, which identify their resistance levels from very light to very
heavy. Most companies use the color coding system below, but it is wise to verify resistance identifica-
tion system for each company, since variations could lead to the improper use of a given resistance.
Yellow: Very light

Green: Light
Red: Medium
Blue: Heavy
Purple: Very heavy
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Examples of Various Exercise Tubing Products
NOTE: Children who are allergic to latex products should avoid using tubing or bands that contain it (Spri
Products). Many companies now make exercise products without latex (Simple Fitness Solutions).
Exercise Bands
Exercise bands are less expensive than tubing, but perhaps not as durable (especially with kids). The two
most common trade names for exercise bands are Thera-Band and DYNA-BAND. Exercise bands offer
effective and economical resistance training for schools. Use of the bands for resistance training provides
both positive and negative force on the muscles, helps improving strength, range of motion and coopera-
tion of muscle groups. The bands thickness as well as color determines their resistance level. Exercise bands
are typically sold in pre-cut lengths, but are also available in rolls and then cut to individual lengths.
DYNA-BAND Color Coding

Pink (least resistance)
Green (medium resistance)
Purple (greatest resistance)

Thera-Band Color Coding
Yellow (light)
Red (medium)
Green (heavy)
Blue (extra heavy)
Black (special heavy)
Tubing and Band Exercises

Upper Body
Seated Row
Chest Press
Seated Shoulder Press
Upright Row
Press-Out
Lat Pull-Down
Side Bend
Push-Up
Arm Exercises
Triceps Extension
Biceps Curl

Leg Press
Squat
Hip Flexion
Leg Curl
Ankle Plantar and Dorsiflexion
Calf Raise
Knee Extension
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General Guidelines for Using Exercise Bands and Tubing
1. Check for tears, buts, or abnormal wear and tear before using tubing or bands.
2. Perform each exercise as illustrated. Perform the extensions on a slow count of one-two, and return on three-four.
3. Don’t allow the tubing or bands to go completely slack. Always maintain slight tension.
4. When the tubing or band tension is appropriate, children should be able to complete a minimum of 10 repetitions.
5. If a child is unable to complete an exercise for at least 10 repetitions using the cor-
rect technique, lighter resistance tubing should be used.
6. Increase repetitions to 20 before considering an increase in resistance.
7. Increase the resistance by doubling the tubing for certain large muscle group exercises.
8. Always make sure the tubing or band is centered under the shoe or feet.
9. Most resistance training with tubing or bands is designed for high repetition and mod-
erate resistance exercises. This minimizes chances of muscle strain.
10. Ensure that children understand that exercise tubing and bands are not toys!
11. Have children try and keep their faces turned away from the direction of the exercise movement.
12. Children should always control the tubing or bands during the return phase of the exercise movement.
13. Always follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.
14. Keep the wrists straight and don’t hyperextend the joints.
Tubing and Band Exercises
Most of these exercises are possible with either bands or tubing. If the tubing handles are spaced too
far apart to perform the exercise, children can grip the tubing closer to them by wrapping it around
their wrists several times. The exercise bands are more flexible to make the necessary individual ad-
justments for many different sizes of children, since they can the tied and un-tied or easily gripped at
different lengths. Each exercise is performed for a minimum of 10 repetitions for each side.
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Upper Body Exercises
Exercise: Seated Row

Primary Muscle Groups: Trapezius, latissimus dorsi and biceps brachii.
Starting Position: Child is seated with their legs straight and feet together. Wrap the
middle of the tubing or band around the toes and feet to form a secure loop.
Exercise Technique: Keeping their back straight, the student exhales and bends their elbows and
brings their thumbs toward their shoulders, contracting the upper back muscles. Pause, inhale and
return slowly to the starting position. Inflexible students may need to bend their knees.
Exercise: Chest Press

Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major, anterior deltoid and biceps brachii.
Starting Position: Subject stands with their feet shoulder-width apart, with the tubing or band center
around their upper back and under the arms. Grasp both ends at chest level removing all slack. Grasp the
tubing and handle or band ends together to remove any slack. Keep wrists straight with thumbs on top.
Exercise Technique: Subject exhales, straighten the elbows out to a horizontal
plane. Pause, inhale and slowly return to the starting position.
Exercise: Seated Shoulder Press

Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoid, triceps, and anconeus.
Starting Position: Begin seated with the tubing or band under the buttocks. Elbows are at a
90-degree angle, the palms facing away from the body while holding the handles or ends.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, and push up on the ends until the arms are completely extended without
the elbows locking. Avoid arching the back. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Exercise: Upright Rows

Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoid, biceps brachii and trapezius.
Starting Position: Subject stands with the tubing or band securely under the mid-shoe area, with
the feet flat, and the toes pointing straight ahead. Arms are at the sides with the palms holding
the handles or ends and tubing or band wrapped around the palms so there is no slack.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, pull the ends upward until the hands are under the
chin. Elbows are to the side and rise with the hands, finishing in a slightly higher position
than the wrists. Pause, inhale, and release the arms back to starting position.
Exercise: Press-Out
Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major, deltoid, tricep and anconeus.
Starting Position: Subject stands with feet shoulder width apart while holding the tubing or band
in front of their shoulders. Tubing or band may be doubled if necessary to shorten the length.
Exercise Technique: Subject exhales and pushes one arm sideways, away from the body with wrists straight and
palm toward the floor. Pause, inhale and return to starting position. Resistance for this exercise is created by
holding the other end of the tubing or band in place at shoulder level. Complete equal repetitions with both arms.
Alternate Exercise: Standing, feet shoulder width apart. Subject grabs the tubing or band
at shoulder-width position. Exhale and raise the tubing or band out in front of the body at
chest level. Keep the wrists rigid and elbows slightly bent. Pull both arms towards the side
of the body on a horizontal plane. Pause and slowly return to the starting position.
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Exercise: Lat Pull-Down

Primary Muscle Groups: Triceps brachii, trapezius and latissimus dorsi.
Starting Position: Subject stands with feet shoulder width apart while holding the tubing or band
overhead with both arms straight up. Arms are open about six inches wider than the shoulders.
Grip both ends or the tubing or band at a point that will allow sufficient resistance.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, pull arms down, behind the back until the arms are parallel to the floor. Focus on pulling
the shoulder blades together and keeping the arms behind the body. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise can be performed by pulling just one are down at a time. In addition, some
feel that it is more effective and safer to pull the tubing or bands down in front, instead of behind the head.
Exercise: Side Bend

Primary Muscle Groups: Obliquus externus abdominus and obliquus internus abdominus.
Starting Position: Subject stands in the middle of a length of tubing or band with both handles
or ends in one hand and the body leaning to one side at approximately a 20 degree angle. The
opposite hand is placed behind the hip. The abdominals are contracted, and the hips are level.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, pull the torso back to an upright position. Pause, inhale
and return to starting position. Complete equal repetitions on both sides.
Exercise: Push-Up
Primary Groups Worked: Pectoralis major, deltoid, triceps brachii and anconeus.
Starting Position: Subject lies on the floor with hands under their shoulders with knees
bent. Head is in a neutral position. Tubing or band is placed around the back, under the
arms, and held in each palm. Hands are shoulder width apart and firmly on the floor.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, push away from the floor with the tubing resisting
the upward push. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Arm Exercises
Exercise: Triceps Extensions

Primary Muscle Groups: Triceps brachii.
Starting Position: Subject is sitting with the tubing or band firmly underneath the
buttocks. One end is in each hand, palms face the ceiling, hands are behind the head
with the elbows bent at a 90-degree angle, touching the back of the neck.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, and extend the arms upward while keeping the elbows
near the head. The tubing or band should be tight at the beginning of this exercise to
ensure sufficient resistance. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Alternate Exercise: Stand on the center of tubing or band with one foot slightly ahead of the
other. Grasp the ends. Lean forward and raise the upper arm so the tubing or band is tight. Exhale
and slowly straighten the elbow to almost full extension. Avoid locking the elbow joint.
Exercise: Biceps Curls

Primary Muscle Groups: Biceps brachii and brachioradialis.
Starting Position: Subject is standing on the tubing or band with feet together,
facing forward. Arms are extended and holding both ends.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, and bring the ends toward the shoulders while keeping
the elbows at the waist. Pull with a fluid, controlled motion and avoid jerking or
arching of the back. Pause, inhale and return to the starting position.
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Exercise: Leg Press

Primary Muscle Groups: quardriceps.
Starting Position: Subject sits upright on a step, bench, or chair and places the appropriate color of tub-
ing or band under the bottom shoe of their leg to be exercised. The tubing or band should be wrapped
around the shoe once, and centered so that ends of the tubing are equal with each hand.
Exercise Technique: The subject exhales and slowly straightens their leg being careful
not lock their knee. Pause, inhale, and slowly return to starting position.
Note: If the tubing is too long, it can be grasped further down and wrapped around each hand to take up any slack.
Exercise: Squat
Primary Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: Subject stands with appropriate color tubing or band under the mid-shoe
area, and their feet shoulder width apart. To determine the tension or length of the tubing or
band needed to perform this exercise, student bends down and slides the ends of each end through
the other hand taking up all of the slack in the tubing. An alternate way to perform this exercise
is to bend down and grab both ends and wrap them around the palms of each hand.
Exercise Technique: The subject exhales and bends (squats) down until their knees are at a
90-degree angle. After a brief pause, inhale and push away from the floor with their legs until
reaching the upright position. Hands remain motionless throughout the exercise. Focus is on
keeping the back straight, abdominals contracted, eyes forward, and shoulders relaxed.
Safety Note: Subjects should be instructed and observed to make sure
their knees do not cross over the plane of their ankles.
Exercise: Hip Flexion

Primary Muscle Groups: Psoas major and illiacus.
Starting Position: Subject lays on the floor with both arms alongside their body and legs straight
out. The leg to be exercised has the appropriate color tubing or band wrapped around the upper
part of the ball of their foot. The tubing or band is held by a partner or anchored under or around
a heavy immovable object or held under the other foot if using closed-end tubing.
Exercise Technique: Subject exhales and brings the knee of the exercising leg toward the torso,
while the back stays in contact with the floor. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Complete equal repetitions on both legs. Keep foot flexed to prevent tube from slipping.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise can also be performed while standing up.
Exercise: Leg Curl

Primary Muscle Groups: Hamstrings.
Starting Position: Subject lies on the floor, face down, and legs straight. The tubing or band is
securely wrapped around one ankle, and the other end is held in place under the other foot.
Exercise Technique: Exhale and pull the heel toward the buttocks, while keeping the thigh in contact
with the floor. Pause, inhale and return to starting position. Complete equal repetitions on both legs.
NOTE: A variety of tubing options and attachments make this exercise easier to perform,
such as using figure 8 tubing or tubing attachments for leg and ankle exercises.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise can also be performed while standing upright. Loop one end of the
tubing around the center of one foot. If using tubing with handles, thread the tubing through one handle
to make a loop. Step on the tubing with the opposite foot at a place that is approximately 6 inches from
the loop. This should allow for at least 90 degrees of knee flexion. Slowly curl the right lower leg to at
least 90 degrees or parallel to the floor. Pause, inhale and slowly return to the starting position
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Exercise: Ankle Plantarflexion and Dorsiflexion

Primary Muscle Groups: Dorsiflexion-Tibialis anterior.
Plantarflexion-Gastrocnemius and soleus (calf muscles).
Starting Position: Dorsiflexion – Subject is seated with the tubing or band wrapped around the ball of
their foot. The other end is either anchored around an immovable object or held by a partner.
Plantarflexion – Subject is seated with the tubing or band wrapped under the arch of the
foot and holding both ends while the foot is bent at a 90-degree angle.
Exercise Technique: Dorsiflexion – Subject brings the foot toward to shin
while keeping the rest of the leg firmly planted on the floor.
Plantarflexion – Subject points the toe and pushes the foot away from the
shin area while keeping the rest of the leg on the floor.
Exercise: Calf Raises

Primary Muscle Groups: gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: Subject stands with both feet on the middle of the tubing or band. The tubing
or band is wrapped under the balls of their feet, and ends are held at the waist or shoulders.
Exercise Technique: Exhale, and lifts up off the heels while keeping legs
straight. Pause, inhale and return to starting position.
Exercise: Knee Extension

Primary Muscle Groups: quadriceps.
Starting Position: Subject sits with one foot in each of the tubing loops. The remaining tubing is held in the hands.
Exercise Technique: Exhale and raise and straighten one leg at a time. Pause, and
return to starting position. Complete equal repetitions with both legs.
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Chapter 8
Program Design
Considerations for
Free Weights &
Machines
Introduction
The most common form of strength training involves
the use of free weights or weight machines. Although
training with weights may be the most common form of
training, it is not without its limitations and risks. Issues
such as cost, accessibility, design features and safety
all limit the practicality of using weights and weight
machines in many, if not most, schools. Strength training
with weights becomes safer and more effective as children
mature both physically and psychologically as they age.
Weight training can significantly improve children and
adolescent’s athletic and motor skills, lean body mass and
potential to succeed in different sports.
Starting Age
A frequent question about weight training and children and adolescents is the issue of starting age. Early guidelines
cautioned against children under the age of 12 to 14 lifting weights, especially maximal weights. Most health clubs
today continue to randomly choose 16 years of age as a minimal age to be able to lift weights. The American Academy
of Pediatrics recommends that strength training programs can be safe and effective for preadolescents and adolescents if
designed and supervised properly (1). Determining starting ages for strength training involves the consideration of several
factors, besides just age. Factors such as; physical and emotional maturity, health of the child and goals for weight training,
are better indicators of readiness to start a weight training program than simply age alone. Until more research looks into
the long-term safety and effectiveness of weight training for children of differing ages, disagreement over minimum starting
ages will likely continue. Until then, trainers should follow conservative guidelines and use good judgment when deciding
starting ages, selection of exercises and the weight lifted for each individual children.
Safety of Weight Training
The risk of injuries to children and adolescents participating in weight training programs is low, however, injuries
can and do occur in sports and physical activities, including weight training. Proper supervision and screening
reduces the risks associated with weight training but can never be completely eliminated. The most common
cause of weight training injuries in children and adolescents is due to unsafe behavior, equipment malfunction,
lack of supervision, and inattention. Although 70% of weight training injuries in children and adolescents involve
free-weight equipment, lack of supervision was largely to blame and the selection of equipment alone.
The consensus between leading medical and sport experts is that weight training is safe for any age group when
done correctly and under proper supervision. Most serious weight training-related injuries occur in home, using
weight training equipment in an inappropriate or unsafe manner. Parents should use caution when buying weight
training equipment for home use, and never allow its use without their direct supervision. Determining the
need for and appropriate age when a formal weight lifting program is started is best determined by those with
significant knowledge and experience related to strength training for children and adolescents.
To minimize the risk of injury during weight training, it is important for children and adolescents to follow these
guidelines.
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Program Design Considerations For Free Weights & Machines
Safety Guidelines for Weight Training

Children should be taught to focus on technique, not the weight lifted. If a child can’t perform at least 10
repetitions using proper technique, the weight is reduced by 5 to 10%.
1. Proper instruction and supervision. Proper instruction and supervision is perhaps the most important
variable in reducing potential injuries. The instructor must be responsible for the overall safety of the
weight training area and have enough knowledge to explain proper exercises and good technique.
2. Safe training facility. Children are not allowed to exercise unless the weight training facility is a well
maintained, clean, and safe environment. Often, adult facilities may not be suitable. Parents should
critically evaluate selecting a training facility, and look for “kid friendly” programs, knowledgeable staff
who know how to work with kids, and “kid friendly” equipment.
3. Lift within your means. Always reinforce proper form and technique and ensure that all lifting
motions are slow and controlled. Children should avoid fast or jerking motions.
4. Always use good body mechanics. When lifting, keep weights as close to the body as possible. Bend
the knees, and keep the back straight when picking up a weight from the ground. All weight training
exercises are performed through the full range of motion.
5. Train the whole body. Weight training programs should involve working all the major muscle groups,
working large muscles first, followed by smaller muscle groups.
6. Start light. Children are encouraged to start with light weights. A basic training program should
begin with at least 1 set of 6 to 15 repetitions, with up to 8 different exercises.
7. Proper breathing techniques. When lifting weights, it is important to exhale when exerting the
greatest force, and inhale during release. One exception to the rule is during the shoulder press or
overhead lift, where it is recommended to inhale on the lifting phase because it matches expansion of
the chest when the arms are raised.
8. Use partners and spotters. Children should never train alone. It is essential that a partner or spotter
be present during any activities in which one could lose control of the weight.
9. Always use collars. Always use collars on barbells and dumbbells.
10. Always warm up. Always take time to warm up before starting to lift.
11. Always be aware of what is going on around you. Always be aware of what is going on around the
weight room. Accidents happen when people are careless.
12. Always be mentally ready. Students should be mentally ready for weight training. They must desire
this mode of training and they must be willing to train appropriately.
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Weight Training Equipment and Youth

Free weights and weight training machines can be used by children and adolescents if proper supervision and
instruction is adhered to. Children should never be allowed to use any weight training equipment without direct
supervision.
Barbells
Standard barbells are 1 inch thick and usually 5-6 feet long. These barbells are preferred over
Olympic barbells when working with children and adolescents. Even without any weight,
Olympic barbells may be difficult for some youth to lift and\or balance and should only be
introduced following a foundational training period and when the youth is physically mature
enough use them.
Dumbbells
Most dumbbells usually range in weight from 5 to 100 lbs., in increments of 1 to 5 lbs. When
working with children and adolescents, it is important to have a variety of weights available,
especially in the low range, and that progress in relatively small increments.
Benches
Most benches are designed for use with adults and thus may not be appropriate for use with
children or adolescents. Smaller more age appropriate benches are available, but with a little
creativity it is easy to improvise; such as making smaller benches out of adjustable aerobic step
platforms.
Weight Training Machines

Most weight training machines are designed for average sized adults. Several manufactures do
market equipment specifically designed for children, but are fairly specialized. Most weight
machines use stacks of weights, usually in 10-pound increments. Some manufactures have
devised ways to adjust the weight in smaller increments which is beneficial for children. Before
using a weight machine, check to see what the minimum height requirements are for each piece
of equipment. For example the minimum height requirement for Cybex circuit machines is 4’
10”. If children do not meet the minimum height requirements, or the weights are too heavy to
lift, alternative forms of training are recommended. When in doubt, check the manufacturer’s
weight and height minimums for weight training and aerobic exercise equipment. Never allow
children or adolescents to use equipment that is not appropriately designed for them.
98
on the individual schedules of the teacher and the students.

Choosing the Correct Starting
Subjects are encouraged to participate in strength training
Weight activities 2 to 3 times per week, with 1 full day of rest
between training days.
One of the easiest and safest ways to establish a starting
weight is to have a client perform an exercise for using good
technique and count the number of repetitions completed. Intensity: Overload (resistance) selected is based on the
If they can lift a weight using good technique for 10 subject’s current fitness level and goals. Typically most
repetitions, they should be able to complete 2 to 3 sets
strength training programs use some variation of the
of 10 to 15 repetitions. Chapter 2 discussed the pros and
cons of using the 1-RM test with children and adolescents. following:
Evaluating initial strength levels using the 1-RM method
with children and adolescents has been shown to be both To build strength: Lift heavy weights and a low number
safe and effective, but requires expertise and experience to
of repetitions
do so. The 10 Repetition Maximum (10 RM) test, if done
correctly, equals approximately 75% of what a 1 RM weight
normally is. Lower the starting weight if chronic fatigue or To build endurance: Lift lighter weights and a high
muscle soreness develops following any workouts. Once a number of repetitions
starting weight is determined for a group of exercises, record
the weight, repetitions and sets for each exercise, having the
students note hard their effort was and if they experienced For a general fitness program: Lift moderate weights,
any noticeable pain or fatigue. with a moderate number of repetitions (2-3 sets of 10-15
repetitions per exercises), working the upper and lower
Progression body, and balancing agonist and antagonist muscles.
A rule of thumb in weight training is to increase the For children and adolescents: the resistance is minimal
number of repetitions and sets first, before increasing to start with, and the focus being on proper technique and
weight. Once a change in weight occurs, the repetitions
and sets are reduced until the student can perform 10 to 15 instruction on the various exercises that develop upper
repetitions using good technique for the desired number of and lower body strength. Increases in resistance should be
sets. Small 5 to 10% increase in weight are made each time made gradually so that subjects can still perform 2 to 3 sets
overload increases. Slight increases in weight might only be of 10 to 15 repetitions.
0.5 lbs to 1 lb increment increases at a time in children.
Time: Once again, this is going to depend on the schedule

Examples of a Basic Weight Training of the teacher and the students. Anywhere from 10 to 45
Program minutes might be appropriate, depending on the fitness
levels of the children, equipment and time allowed for
Weight training programs should be designed using the strength training activities. Training time also needs to
FITT principle: consider the warm-up and cool-down time as well.
Frequency = days per week Type: Beginning and younger children should start with
Intensity = amount of resistance exercises that use their own body weight for resistance.
Time = number of repetitions and sets Once children are comfortable with weights, and have
Type = strength training exercises for all major muscle received instruction on proper safety and technique,
groups strength training activities using weights are introduced.
Exercise selection depends on body areas being trained and
Frequency: The frequency of strength training will depend the equipment available.
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General Weight Training Program for Children
Body Part Exercises Set 1/Reps Set 2/Reps
Chest Bench Press 8-10 8-10
Push-Ups 10-12 10-12
DB Flys 8-10 8-10
Back DB Overhead Press 8-10 8-10
Shoulder Shrug
10-12 10-12
DB Rows
8-10 8-10
Shoulder
DB Shoulder Press 8-10 8-10
DB Raises 8-10 8-10
Arms
Biceps Curls 8-10 8-10
Triceps Curls 8-10 8-10
Forearm curls 10-12 10-12
Lower Body
DB Squats 10-12 12-12
DB Lunges 10-12 10-12
Abdominals
Curl-Ups 15-20 15-20
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Incline Bench Press 8-10 8-10
Push-Ups 15-20 15-20
Decline push-Ups 10-15 10-15
DB Flys 10-12 10-12

General Weight Training Program for Adolescents
Shoulder Shrug 15-20 15-20
DB Rows 10-12 10-12
Back Extensions 10-15 10-15
Shoulder DB Shoulder Press 10-12 10-12
DB Lateral Raises 10-12 10-12
DB Anterior Raises 10-12 10-12
Arms Biceps Curls 12-15 12-15
French Curls 10-12 10-12
Lower Body DB Squats 10-15 10-15
como
DB Lunges 10-15 10-15
Calf Raises 15-20 15-20
Abdominals Curl-Ups 15-20 15-20
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Applying the FITT Principle
General rules for selecting a starting weight for a particular exercise include:
Frequency: Studies have shown that strength is acquired in as little as 2 to 3 days of strength training. A goal would be
to work up to 2 to 3 days of training, with 1-day of rest between.
Intensity: The ability of a student to perform a minimum of 1 set of 10 to 15 repetitions for each exercise, using
correct technique and with minimal discomfort or fatigue, helps to establish starting weights.
Once one set of 10 to 15 repetitions are performed with relative ease and proper technique, increase the
number of sets of repetitions up to a maximum of 3 sets per exercise.
After a subject is able to complete 2 to 3 sets of 10 to 15 repetitions, the weight is gradual increased be 5 to
10%. Following an increase in weight, it is important to reduce the number of sets and repetitions until the
student acclimates to the new weight.
Time: Anywhere from 10 to 60 minutes, depending on age and skill.
Type: Various upper and lower body exercises, using different modes, always focusing on muscle balance.
Age Group Categories
This manual separates children and adolescents into 3 age group categories, beginning at age 7:
Level 1: Activities for children ages 7 and up.

Level 2: Activities for children ages 10 and up.
Level 3: Activities for adolescents ages 12 to 13 and up.
For children younger than 7, teachers should use their best judgment to decide what exercises would be the most
appropriate. Once children reach the age of 15 to 16, they are likely entering the later stages of adolescence and beginning
young adulthood, in which case, adult strength training guidelines and recommendations apply to them at this point.

102
Review of Basic Weight Training Principles
1. Strength training exercises are categorized as either multi-joint (e.g., bench press,
shoulder press, leg press), or single-joint (e.g., bicep curls, triceps extensions, leg
extensions).
2. Children and adolescents should initially focus primarily on large muscle group,
multi-joint exercises. Isolated small muscle and single-joint exercises should be
performed following large muscle, multi-joint exercises. An example is the bench
press which works shoulder and elbow joints before single joint movements such as
bicep curls.
3. Exercise large muscle groups first (chest, back, hips/thighs and shoulders), then move
on to smaller muscles such as triceps, biceps and calves.
4. Alternate pushing and pulling exercises. If an exercise requires the student to push
and extend a joint, the next exercise should be one which the student has to pull and
flex the same joint. An example is a leg extension (push) followed with a leg curl
(pull).
5. Complete the entire exercises for one body segment at a time before moving on to
another body segment. Chest and shoulders followed by triceps and biceps. Leg
extensions and curls followed by calf raises.
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Weight Training Exercises
Chest
1. Bench Press
2. Dumbbell Flys
Shoulders
1. Dumbbell Shoulder Press
2. Dumbbell Lateral Raise
3. Dumbbell Front Raise
4. Upright Rows
Arms
1. One Arm French Curl
2. Kickbacks
3. Close grip bench press
4. Seated Dumbbell Curl
5. Concentration Curl
6. Wrist Curl
Upper and Lower Back

1. Shoulder Shrug
2. Dumbbell Row
3. Shoulder Press
Exercises to Develop the Lower Body

1. Squat
2. Lunge
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Exercise: Barbell Bench Press
Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major, deltoids, and triceps.
Starting Position: Lie on a weight bench with the upper body

positioned so the barbell is eye level, with both shoulder blades touching
the bench. Feet are firmly planted on the floor close to the bench. Grip
the barbells approximately shoulder width apart, and keep the wrists
straight during the lift.
Exercise Technique: On command from the lifter, the spotter lifts

the bar off the rack. Once the lifter has determined that he or she can
handle the weight, the lifter inhales and lowers the bar to within a few
inches of the chest, then breathes out and returns it to the starting
position.
NOTE: Spotters are a necessity in this lift. The most effective way to
spot is with an alternate grip. The strong hand should be facing palm
down and the weaker hand should face palm up. The spotter should not
be spotting unless they can easily and safely lift the weigh in questions.
Spotters always need to pay close attention and communicate with
the lifter frequently (Lifter: ready to lift, Spotter, lift on 1, 2, 3). An
alternative to a single individual spotting is for two individuals to be on
each end of the bar.
Alternate Exercise: The bench press is also performed using
dumbbells instead of a barbell.
Exercise: Dumbbell Flys trci

Primary Muscle Groups: Pectoralis major, deltoid, and serratus
anterior.
Starting Position: Subject grasps two dumbbells and lies supine on
bench (same position as the bench press). Support the dumbbells above
the chest with the arms fixed in a slightly bent position. Shoulders are
rotated internally so the elbows are side by side.
Exercise Technique: Subject brings both dumbbells together above the
chest, with both arms fully extended. Subject inhales, and lowers the
dumbbells to the sides until the chest muscles stretch out with elbows
fixed. Breathe out, and push arms back up to starting position.
Safety Technique: For this exercise, the Spotter positions himself
behind the bench in a kneeling position. The Spotter places their hands
on the lifter’s wrists and goes with each movement. Lift upward as
needed. As the lifter brings the weights down toward the chest, the
Spotter positions their hands on the Lifter’s elbows.
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Exercises to Develop the Shoulders

Exercise: Barbell Shoulder Press
Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoid, and triceps.
Starting Position: Subject begins by grasping barbell with slightly wider than shoulder width overhand grip and
positioning it near the upper chest. A spotter can hand the weight the lifter, or if available, the weight is lifted off a lifting
rack.
Exercise Technique: The lifter inhales, and pushes the bar until the arms are fully Pause, breathe out and return to upper
chest and repeat. It is important to keep the back straight and lead with the elbows.
Safety and Spotting Techniques: Avoid arching the back when pushing the weight up. The Spotter stands behind the
lifter and assists, holding their hands behind the lifters elbows.
Alternate Exercise: This exercise is done seated or standing, using either a barbell or dumbbells.
Exercise: Dumbbell Lateral Raise
Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoids.
Starting Position: Choose the correct dumbbells and hold them at the sides.
Exercise Technique: Breathe out; lift the dumbbells until the arms are parallel to the floor. Don’t lock the elbows. Pause,
inhale and release to the start.
Safety Technique: A spotter assists with this exercise. Spotter stands behind the lifter with hands under the elbows of the
lifter. The spotter follows the path of the arms throughout the movement, providing assistance if necessary.
Exercise: Dumbbell Front Raises

Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoids (primarily the anterior head).
Starting Position: Hold the dumbbells in front of the body, with arms to the side and palms facing the body.
Exercise Technique: Breathe out, and lift dumbbells up and away from the body, one at a time, until the arms are parallel
to the floor. Pause, inhale and release the arms back to starting position. Alternate arms.
Exercise: Upright Rows

Primary Muscle Groups: Trapezius, deltoid and biceps
Staring Position: Lifter stands and grips the barbell approximately 6 to 12 inches a part. The palms are facing the body
and the feet are shoulder width apart.
Exercise Technique: Begin by picking the barbell up and holding it just above the knees with the arms extended. Inhale,
and pull the barbell up to the chin. Keep the back straight. Pause, inhale and release the weight back down to the starting
position. This exercise is also performed with a dumbbell in each hand.
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Exercises to Develop the Arms
Exercise: One-Arm French Curl Exercise: Dumbbell Curls

Primary Muscle Groups: Triceps and anconeus. Primary Muscle Groups: Biceps brachii and
Starting Position: This exercise is performed standing or brachioradialis.
seated. Grasp the dumbbell in one hand (palm facing the Starting Position: This exercise is performed seated or
head). Raise the arm with the elbow bent next to the head standing. Hold the dumbbells with the palms facing away
and the weight held behind the shoulder. Lifter may place from the body and arms extended.
the non-exercising hand at the elbow of the exercising arm Exercise Technique: From the starting position, breathe
for support. out, and bend the elbows and bring the dumbbells toward
Exercise Technique: Breathe out and extend the arm until the shoulders either one at a time or together. Keep the
it straightens out toward the ceiling. Keep the elbow close elbows alongside the torso and avoids jerking the weights
to the ears to isolate the triceps muscle. The upper arm or using momentum. Pause, inhale and return to starting
remains motionless throughout the movement. Pause, inhale position.
and return to starting position.
Exercise: Concentration Curls
Exercise: Dumbbell Kickbacks Primary Muscle Groups: Biceps and brachioradialis.
Primary Muscle Groups: Triceps and anconeus. Starting Position: Sit with the feet spread apart, holding
Starting Position: Begin with the elbows of the exercising a dumbbell with the palms up. Rest the arm on the inner
arm held at 90 degrees. The upper arm is parallel to the thigh and extends the dumbbell toward the floor (extend
torso, the elbow remains motionless during the exercise. the arm out).
This exercise is done standing while leaning forward and Exercise Technique: Breathe out and flex the elbow,
bracing on a knee, or kneeling on a bench. bringing the dumbbell toward the shoulder, maintain elbow
Exercise Technique: Breathe out, flex and extend the arm contact with the inner thigh. Pause, inhale and return to
at the elbow until straight. Extend the arm while the elbow the starting position. Alternate arms.
remains motionless and close to the body. Pause, inhale and
return to the starting position. Exercise: Wrist Curls
Primary Muscle Groups: Flexor carpi radialis and flexor
Exercise: Close-Grip Bench Press carpi ulnaris.
Primary Muscle Groups: Triceps, anconeus, anterior Starting Position: Sit with the forearms resting on the top
deltoid, pectoralis major. of the thighs and the hands hanging over the knees. Palms
Starting Position: The lifter begins in the same position are facing upward and holding the barbell.
used in the bench press, but with hands closer together (6 to Exercise Technique: Curl the wrists toward the forearm
12 inches between hands). until fully contracted. The forearms remain in contact with
Exercise Technique: Same as the bench press. the thighs.
107
Exercises to Develop Back Muscles
Exercise: Shoulder Shrugs

Primary Muscle Groups: Trapezius.
Starting Position: Stand with the arms straight (palm toward the torso), holding the barbell with
arms downward extended.
Exercise Technique: Keeping the arms straight while elevating or “shrugging” the shoulders and
keeping the rest of the body motionless.
Exercise: Dumbbell Rows

Primary Muscle Groups: Latissimus dorsi and rear deltoids.
Starting Position: To work the right side, place the left hand on the bench for support.
Contracted the abdominals, and keep the back is straight. The right arm is straight and holding the
dumbbell. The head is in a neutral position.
Exercise Technique: Breathe out, and begin by bending the elbow as the dumbbell lifts alongside
the rib cage. Keep the weight close to the body with the elbow up and back. Pause, inhale and
return to the starting position.
Exercise: Seated Shoulder Press

Primary Muscle Groups: Deltoid, triceps and pectoralis major.
Starting Position:
This exercise begins with the lifter in a seated position, with a spotter standing behind. The exercise
is performed with a barbell or dumbbells. Spotter lifts the barbell or dumbbell and gives it to the
lifter.
Exercise Technique:
Breathe out, press the barbell or dumbbell overhead while the spotter assists. Pause, inhale and
return to the starting position.
108
Exercises to Develop the Lower Body

Exercise: Dumbbell Squats
Primary Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps group, hamstring group, erector spinae, gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: Stand while holding one dumbbell in each hand, feet shoulder width apart.
Exercise Technique: Subject inhales while bending knees (not greater than a 90-degree angle) and slowly lowers the body
until thighs are parallel to the floor. The knees should not cross over the line of the toes. Breathe out while returning slowly
to the starting position. Keep abdominals contracted and spine in a neutral position throughout the exercise.
Safety and Spotting Techniques: A spotter stands behind the exerciser and lifts on the waist as needed.
Exercise: Barbell Squats

Primary Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps group, hamstring group, erector spinae, gastrocnemius and soleus.
Starting Position: This exercise is only performed with two spotters and a sturdy squat rack. Face the bar on the rack.
Squat under the bar until the bar rests comfortably on the upper back. Grasp the bar with a shoulder width grip. Feet are
shoulder width apart.
Exercise Technique: Look straight ahead and squat down slowly and with control until knees are at 90 degrees. Knees
should go past the feet. Inhale while bending knees (not greater than a 90-degree angle) and slowly lower the body until
thighs are parallel to the floor. Breathe out while returning slowly to the starting position. Keep abdominals contracted and
spine in a neutral position throughout the exercise.
Safety and Spotting Techniques: One spotter stands on each end of the barbell and assists the student as needed.
Exercise: Lunges
Primary Muscle Groups: Gluteus maximus, quadriceps, and hamstrings.
Starting Position: This exercise is performed with either a barbell or dumbbells. If done with a barbell, the lifter has the
barbell behind the neck and across the shoulders with the arms holding it. Hold the dumbbells at the side of the body,
palms facing inward. Stand with the feet shoulder width apart.
Exercise Technique: Begin by stepping forward with one leg (legs alternated between sets) and lowers to a 90-degree
knee angle. Make sure the knees do not cross over the toes. Keep back neutral and face forward, with knee directly over
the ankle. Straighten the knee when returning to the starting position.
Exercise: Standing Calf Raise

Primary Muscle Groups: Medial and lateral gastrocnemius, soleus, and peroneus longus.
Starting Position: This exercise is performed using a machine, or with a barbell or dumbbells. Hold dumbbells at each
side, or barbell across the upper back.
Exercise Technique: Raise up onto the balls of your feet until you can go no higher. Return to starting position.
109
Exercise To Develop the Lower Back
Exercise: Stiff-Legged Deadlifts

Starting Position: Client begins by standing holding onto a barbell (no weight) using a grip that is slightly wider than hip
width apart.
Exercise Technique: Keeping a straight back and the knees flexed to 10-30 degrees, lean forward allowing the weight to
be lowered to knee level. The position is held and then the body position is returned to the start.
Exercise: Single-Leg Deadlifts

Starting Position: This exercise is similar to the stiff-legged deadlift.
Exercise Technique: Instead of the weight being transferred to both legs, in this exercise, the weight is transferred to
only one leg. The benefit is that the adductors and abductors are then required to stabilize the pelvis and stance leg whilst
performing the movement.
Alternate Technique: This exercise can be performed using dumbbells as well. If done one-handed on the right leg,
holding the weight in the right hand will focus on more adductor recruitment, and if held in the left hand it will focus on
more abductor recruitment.
Powerlifting Deadlifts
Starting Position:
Feet are flat and beneath bar. The students should squat down and grasp the bar with a shoulder width or slightly wider.
Exercise Technique:
Lift the bar by extending hips and knees to full extension. Pull shoulders back at top of lift if rounded. Return and repeat.
Back Extension Exercises

Starting Position:
This exercise can be done on the floor (with partner sitting on legs) or on a weights bench.
Exercise Technique:
Lie face down, and place both hands in a locking grip behind the head. Lift the neck up as far as what is comfortable, while
trying to look forward at all times. It can be performed as a repetitive movement or as a sustained hold in extension.
Single-Leg Bridging
Starting Position:
This exercise is performed with the student lying on their back, and one foot up on a chair or Swiss ball.
Exercise Technique:
The body is raised off the floor so that weight is taken only on the heel of the foot and on the shoulders. Youth should
attempt to align the heel, knee, hip, trunk and shoulders. Client should work toward being able to do this comfortably with
one leg.
110
Conclusion
This chapter covers basic weight training principles and guidelines for a general conditioning program. Programs include
selecting exercises and the weight, sets and repetitions for each exercise will depend on specific individuals of class goals,
experience of the children and the equipment available. Various exercises for specific age groups are presented. The
exercises in this chapter are compatible with other modes of resistance training, or performed as a single training method.
Regardless, the goal of exposing, especially younger children, to weights is to teach them about SAFETY, about how to
perform exercises using good TECHNIQUE and to help them develop an interest and appreciation for strength and
resistance training for life.
References
1. American Academy of Pediatrics. Strength Training by Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics 107(6), 2001.
2. Fields, R. and Roberts, S. O. (1998). Weight Training. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Physical Activity Series.
3. Roberts, S. O. & Weider, B. (1994). Strength and Weight Training For Young Athletes. Chicago, IL: Contemporary
Books
111
Chapter 9
Advanced
Strength for
Young Athletes
Introduction
Designing strength training programs for young
athletes requires an understanding of normal
patterns of growth and maturation, emotional
maturity, experience in working with children
and youth and PATIENCE. Always remember
children and youth are NOT adults and as
such should never be treated as such. It is also
important to have a good rapport with parents,
coaches and other involved parties. Good lines
of communication are extremely important to
establish early on, including with your clients.
Review of Terminology
Muscular strength is defined as the greatest amount of force a muscle or group of muscles can produce
during one maximal contraction. Local muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles
to contract repeatedly against a sub-maximal force or resistance. Muscular strength and local muscular
endurance are inter-related. Certain strength training activities develop both strength and endurance
somewhat equally, such as circuit training, while other exercises develop muscular strength (high weight,
low-reps) vs. muscular endurance (low weight, high reps). Muscular strength and endurance are important
components of health-related physical fitness, as well as development of motor skills and athletic skills.
Muscle Contractions
There are two primary types of muscle contractions, isotonic and isometric. Isotonic contractions have
two phases, muscle shortening (concentric) and muscle lengthening (eccentric). An isotonic muscular
contraction is when the muscle remains under relatively constant tension while its length changes. The term
concentric is used to describe when a muscle shortens versus eccentric to describe muscle lengthening.
Isotonic (constant muscle tension)

Isometric (constant muscle length)
Isokinetic (constant velocity of motion)
The term isometric means same or equal length during a muscle contraction.
But technically the only time this occurs is when a muscle is at rest or relaxed. When muscle contracts
during an isometric or static contraction, there is some internal movement of the muscle fibers taking place.
So an isometric contraction refers to a constant joint angle that remains constant, not muscle length. So
the term static has become a more appropriate and acceptable term to use rather than isometric.
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Advanced Strength For Young Athletes
Common Anatomical and Movement Definitions
Abduction A movement away from the axis or midline of the body

when the body is in anatomical position
Adduction The exact opposite of adduction, or a movement to-

ward the axis or midline of the body.
Agonist The primary contracting muscle or prime mover.
Anatomical All terms in the study of anatomy refer to when the body is in this position.
Position When in anatomical position, the person is: standing erect, eyes and head
facing forward, feet forward and perpendicular to the body and arms close
to the sides and palms of the hands facing forward with fingers extended.
Antagonist A muscle that has the opposite action of the agonist. When an agonist
muscle contracts, its opposing muscle, the antagonist, relaxes.
Anterior Forward or in reference to the front of the body.
Circumduction Movement involving adduction, flexion, extension and abduction re-
sulting in movement that creates a circular path of movement. The only
joint in the human body capable of circumduction is the shoulder.
Depression An inferior movement, opposite of elevation.
Distal Describes a feature anatomically located farther away from, or in the direction
away from, the central part of the body or point of attachment or origin.
Dorsal Describes a feature anatomically located on, clos-
er to, or in the direction of the back.
Elevation A superior movement, such as in shrugging shoulders is elevation.
Extension The opposite of flexion, where there is an increase in joint angle.
Flexion A movement that causes a reduction in the an-
gle between bones or parts of the body.
Lateral A movement in the direction away from, or farther from the midline.
Medial A movement in the direction of, or closer to, the midline.
Posterior Behind or closer to or in the direction of the rear or back.
Pronation A rotation of the hand so that the palm faces posterior.
Proximal Describes a feature anatomically located closer to, or in the di-
rection of, the central part of the body or point of attachment or
origin. For example, the knee is proximal of the ankle
Rotation A movement of an entire limb clockwise (laterally) or anticlockwise (medially).
Supination The rotation of the hand so that the palm faces anteriorly.
Ventral Describes a feature anatomically located on, clos-
er to, or in the direction of the front.
115
Muscle Actions
There are two primary types of muscle contractions, those that involve movement and those that don’t. Muscle
actions that involve movement through a given range of motion consist of two phases, dynamic concentric (muscle
shortening) and eccentric (muscle lengthening). Typically, muscle can only lift a certain amount of weight or
resistance that is less than the maximum strength of the muscle(s) throughout the range of motion the weight
is traveling. For example, when performing a bicep curl with a 10 pound dumbbell, the tension or force the
muscles must generate to overcome inertia at the start, throughout the movement and up to the end of the of the
movement (0º and 180º) varies due to inherent anatomical limitations and biomechanical laws of movement. The
change in force versus movement angle is expressed as a force curve. The greatest amount of force is generated
at 90º, when the forearm is parallel with the floor. The maximum amount of weight lifted during bicep curls
is set by how much weight can be moved through 90º, which is often referred to as the sticking point.
A drawback to dynamic strength training is that muscles tend to develop maximal overload mostly at the
point of the movement where the greatest amount of force is produced, for example 90º for bicep curls. The
velocity of movement during dynamic contractions also varies, and tends to be slowest at the start of an exercise
movement due to greater inertia required to start the movement. Weight training machines, like Nautilus
and Cybex, are designed to minimize the limitations of dynamic muscle actions by altering the inherent force
curves in dynamic isotonic movements. By their design, weight training machines vary the resistance, and thus
the force produced, throughout the range of motion of different exercise movements. This type of equipment,
first made popular by the Nautilus Corporation, is referred to as variable resistance training equipment.
A static contraction occurs when muscle(s) generate force at a specific angle with little or no muscle shortening taking
place. Attempting to lift or push an immovable object (a car with its brakes on) is an example of a static contraction.
Static contractions develop strength specific to the angle of the joint where the contraction is being held, whereas
dynamic contractions develop tension, and thus strength throughout a full range of motion. Static forms of strength
training do produce strength gains, but are a less popular form of training due to their inherent principles.
Another type of muscle action is when muscle tension develops as the length of the muscle changes, but the movement is
performed at a constant velocity. Isokinetic muscle actions produce maximal tension throughout the full range of motion
because the velocity is held constant. No matter how much force is produced during an isokinetic contraction, the speed
of the movement is always the same. Isokinetic strength training is very effective, but requires specialized equipment
that is more expensive than traditional isotonic strength training equipment (Cybex, Biodex, Lido and KinCom).
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Designing a General Program

The goal of strength training is to progressively overload or force the body, including; muscles, bones,
tendons, etc., to respond and adapt and produce greater forces over time. In the contexts of his manual and
certification, strength training is one method that can be used to improve performance, strength, motor
control and potentially prevent injuries. Resistance training helps to improve motor control and strength
by “teaching” muscles how to work together in a coordinated manner. Regardless of absolute strength or
size is achieved, strength training helps to synchronize the contraction of individual fibers which leads to
improvements in strength without gaining any additional muscle mass. Size and strength come with time.
Getting Started
It is important to remember that children can grow and mature (including reaching puberty) at similar or very
different rates. Refer to chapter 2 for a review of growth and development terminology and characteristics to be
aware of. Always keep in mind the difference between biological age and actual emotional and physical maturity.
Some things to consider before getting started;
• Obtain necessary forms, including informed consent, waivers, etc.

• Review goals and expectations with parent (or coach) and athlete together.
• Ensure health history is obtained and reviewed with parent (or coach) and athlete together.
• And review with all parties what your expectations and rules are.
• Remember to stress that all forms of training (including strength and resistance training carry
certain risks, but with competent instruction and supervision risks are minimized.
According to the National Strength and Conditioning Association and the American
Academy of Pediatrics, safety in youth strength training is enhanced when;
• A competent coach who is skilled in program design supervises every strength training session.
• Proper technique is taught and required.
• Athletes should not lift weight over their heads or perform maximum effort
lifts until they have reached physical and emotional maturity.
• Athletes should be taught proper technique for each exercise that is performed.
• ALL training sessions need to be supervised.
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Designing a Strength Training Program

Probably the best way to introduce athletes to the wonderful world of strength training is to
have them perform ‘body-weight’ exercises. These exercises are central to any strength and
conditioning program, regardless of other forms of resistance training being added.
Push ups
Pull ups
Sit ups (crunches, bicycles, etc)
Back extensions
Body weight lunges or squats
Step-ups
Dips
The benefits of these exercises are that they are inexpensive and easy to implement. They also
strengthen the core muscles of the body that help to stabilize the body. It is important to develop
a solid strength base in these muscles before progressing onto more advanced exercises.
Single Joint vs. Multi-Joint Exercices

Single-joint exercises work the muscles surrounding just one joint, such as during a bicep curl. Multi-joint exercises
work the muscles surrounding more than one joint, such as during the bench press or when performing push-ups
or pull-ups. Both types of exercises are appropriate for children and adolescents and there use depends mainly on
equipment availability, experience of the subjects as well as other program design considerations. The argument against
single-joint exercises is that aren’t very functional or specific to athletic activities or other real life movements, such as
throwing and jumping. Athletes typically emphasis multi-joint exercises, such as; squats, dead lifts, lunge, and Olympic-
style lifts, because of the carryover benefits to improved athletic performance. For most beginners, and especially
younger children, a balance of different exercises is preferred to performing just multi- or just single-joint exercises.
Closed Chain vs. Open Chain Exercises

A closed chain exercise is defined as a movement in which the end of the limb being exercised is in
contact with the floor or an immoveable object. When one or both feet are fixed and/or planted on the
floor, it is further categorized as being a weight bearing exercise. For example, squats or lunges with free
weights or standing leg presses on a weight machine (although not-weight bearing) would all be examples
of closed chain exercises. Closed chain exercises are usually multi-joint movements, and tend to be
used by athletes as a way to develop strength and sport specific muscle and neural adaptation.
An open chain exercise is defined as a movement in which the end of the limb being exercised is able to
move freely around the primary joint is in a fixed position. Open chain exercises are usually non-weight
bearing, involve only one joint and are usually performed on weight machines. Good examples of open
chain exercises are knee extensions and leg curls on weight machines. Open chain exercises may have
fewer benefits compared to closed chain exercises, but both forms are effective at developing strength.
Muscle Balance
All forms of strength training should focus on developing muscle balance. Most major muscles work in pairs and those
pairs need to be balanced in terms of strength and flexibility. Since muscles only contract, two muscles are needed
to complete an action, such as flexion and extension of the arm at the elbow. During flexion of the upper arm, the
agonist muscle contracts and shortens (biceps), while the antagonist, or opposite muscle(s) (triceps) is relaxed. In this
example, the triceps must be able to stretch and relax somewhat to allow the biceps muscles to contract and bend at
the elbow. Thus muscle groups need to be strengthened and stretched in sequence, or in pairs. If an exercise is being
performed to develop the arms, for example bicep curls; the next exercise should work the opposing muscles, such as
triceps extensions. Muscle balance is also identified with the concept of muscle symmetry. What would happen if
someone worked just their upper-body during strength training, and neglected their lower body? Their body would
look out of balance, big chest and arms and skinny little legs. Working muscles and their opposing muscle groups
throughout the body, upper and lower, will help keep muscles in balance and provide good muscle symmetry over time.
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Core Training
Core stabilization is a general term used to describe the muscles of the trunk and pelvis that help keep the spine and body
erect and in a stable position during different types of movements. The “core” muscles of the human body include the
transverses abdominis, lumbar multifidus, erector spinae, abdominals, diaphragm, and the pelvic floor muscles. Core
stabilization training was introduced in the early 60’s as a medical treatment for neurological disorders and spinal injuries
in physical therapy clinics. Today, it has become a popular general conditioning activity used by personal trainers and
fitness instructors to develop the core muscles that support body in almost all movements performed on a daily basis.
Sit-ups and even improperly performed crunches have not only ineffective and potentially dangerous to
the low-back, but they tend to focus primarily on large “primary” outer layer muscle abdominal muscles.
Core stabilization exercises performed to develop the abdominal muscles also work the inner layer or
“stabilizing” muscles as well. An example is using the Swiss ball to perform abdominal exercises. The
most common core stabilization exercises are performed using exercise balls, or Swiss balls. Even without
any special equipment, common exercises can be performed using core stabilization principles.
Protecting the Spine

A neutral spine position is when posture when the pelvis and spine are not bent, but maintaining their normal
curves, and the spine is aligned and not twisted. Because low back pain is such a problem, people are being
taught to perform exercises and other types of movements while in a neutral posture. Maintaining a neutral
spine reduces the stress on the back and prevents low back pain and possible injury. The neutral spine position
should be maintained when standing or seated, and when walking or exercising, except when an exercise is
specifically designed to flex (abdominal crunches) or extend (back extension) the spine. Maintaining a neutral
spine requires the core muscles mentioned above be strong and activated when performing movements.
Functional or Applied Resistance Training
Functional strength training refers to specific exercises that most closely replicate and enhance the activities children and
adolescents do in the real world. Instead of just lifting weights randomly, functional training principles base selection
of exercises that are effective at achieving functional as well as general fitness and can be performed in the most time
efficient manner. Instead of just doing 5 sets of the bench press, bicep curls, triceps extensions and lat-pulls, more
“functional benefit” might be achieved by performing push-ups using a Swiss ball. One of the goals of functional training
is to incorporate exercises that use whole body control and balance while performing exercises, instead of letting the
machines do all the work for you. Functional training is a great addition to a well-designed strength training program.
So the initial goal of any program for children or adolescents should be to build some muscular endurance.
Young athletes should be encouraged to train slowly following the guidelines listed below. As the athletes
develop, strength, power and confidence, more advanced forms of training can be introduced. Young athletes
are encouraged to complete three sets of each exercise, each containing 6-15 repetitions, three times a week as
part of the regular program. As an athlete matures physically and emotionally you can begin to introduce more
complex exercises (multi-joint lifts, free weights, low intensity plyometric as examples) into the program.
A solid strength base is vital to help minimize the risk of injury.
Make sure the training area is appropriate for working with young athletes. Remember equipment in gyms is sized to meet
the needs of an adult not a young athlete. Make sure equipment can be adjusted to the size of the child, if not it should not
be used. A comprehensive strength training program should be carefully tailored to the needs of the athlete and the sport.
A wide variety of resources are available to help you more advanced training programs for young athletes including;
Strength Training for Young Athletes 2nd Edition (William Kraemer & Steve Fleck)
Youth Strength Training: Programs for Health, Fitness and Sport (Strength &
Power for Young Athlete) (Avery Faigenbaum and Wayne Westcott)
Total Training for Young Champions (Tudor Bompa).
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is during the shoulder press or overhead lift, where it is

Guidelines for Training recommended to inhale on the lifting phase because it
matches expansion of the chest when the arms are raised.
Young Athletes Use partners and spotters. Children should
never train alone. It is essential that a partner
Young athletes should be taught to focus on technique, or spotter be present during any activities in
not the weight lifted. If a child can’t perform at least 10 which one could lose control of the weight.
repetitions using proper technique, the weight is reduced by Always use collars. Always use collars
5 to 10%. on barbells and dumbbells.
Always warm up. Always take time to
Proper Instruction and Supervision. warm up before starting to lift.
Proper instruction and supervision is perhaps the most Always be aware of what is going on around you.
important variable in reducing potential injuries. The Always be aware of what is going on around the weight
instructor must be responsible for the overall safety of room. Accidents happen when people are careless.
the weight training area and have enough knowledge Always be mentally ready. Students should be mentally
to explain proper exercises and good technique. ready for weight training. They must desire this mode of
Safe training facility. Children are not allowed to training and they must be willing to train appropriately.
exercise unless the weight training facility is a well
maintained, clean, and safe environment. Often, adult Advanced Lifting
facilities may not be suitable. Parents should critically The basic skills and techniques of the movements involved
evaluate selecting a training facility, and look for “kid in powerlifting are essential and vital to virtually all
friendly” programs, knowledgeable staff who know how strength and conditioning programs. Thus, the basic
to work with kids, and “kid friendly” equipment. techniques of the squat, bench press and dead lift
Lift within your means. Always reinforce proper form and can be taught to children and adolescents as part of a
technique and ensure that all lifting motions are slow and comprehensive strength training program. By teaching
controlled. Children should avoid fast or jerking motions. children and adolescents how to safely perform these
Always use good body mechanics. When lifting, keep exercises, even using sticks or PVC pipe without any
weights as close to the body as possible. Bend the weight, does not imply the instructors are encouraging
knees, and keep the back straight when picking up a or supporting them to attempt to lift maximal amounts
weight from the ground. All weight training exercises of weights! In fact through proper instruction and
are performed through the full range of motion. education maximal attempts can be discouraged until
Train the whole body. Weight training programs should such time youth are conditioned and supervised to do
involve working all the major muscle groups, working so. Powerlifting in a competitive setting to determine
large muscles first, followed by smaller muscle groups. the maximum amount of weight that can be lifted should
Start light. Children are encouraged to start only be attempted by well-trained youth under the direct
with light weights. A basic training program supervision of a qualified coach. Initially, the primary
should begin with at least 1 set of 6 to 15 focus of all strength training programs should be on
repetitions, with to 8 different exercises. developing proper technique, learning how to perform
Proper breathing techniques. When lifting weights, it a variety of exercises, and developing and interest in
is important to exhale when exerting the greatest force, strength training, and not on attempting maximal lifts.
and inhale during release. One exception to the rule
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Olympic Lifting
Olympic lifting is a form of weight lifting centered around 2 fundamental lifts, the clean and jerk and the snatch. These
are the lifts performed in Olympic competition, but are also fundamental exercises for nearly all athletes. The clean is
performed by standing with feet shoulder width apart, gripping a barbell with the palms facing down. In one movement,
the barbell is raised from the floor to the top of the chest. After the clean, the weight is jerked overhead by using any
means of boosting from the legs and back as well as the pushing power from the arms and shoulders, thus the name clean
and jerk. The snatch is the fastest of the three lifts. It demands accurate timing in all sequences that govern the lift. Keep
in mind that the weight must be lifted from the floor to overhead in one nonstop movement. With one terrific effort of
your arms, back, and shoulders, pull the weight off the floor, keeping it close to your body, and with full coordination
of your leg drive onto your toes with the final arm pull. This unusual lift demands explosive power and speed, with
good balance in either the split or squat style. As with the movements involved in powerlifting, the basic skills and
techniques of the movements involved in Olympic lifting are essential and vital to virtually all sports and strength and
conditioning programs. Thus, the basic techniques of the Olympic lifts can be taught to children and adolescents as part
of a comprehensive strength training program, provided qualified instructors and equipment are available to do so.
Examples of a Basic Weight Training Program
Weight training programs should be designed using the FITT principle:
Frequency = days per week

Intensity = amount of resistance
Time = number of repetitions and sets
Type = strength training exercises for all major muscle groups
Frequency: The frequency of strength training will depend on the individual schedules of
the teacher and the students. Students are encouraged to participate in strength training
activities 2 to 3 times per week, with 1 full day of rest between training days.
Intensity: Overload (resistance) selected is based on the student’s current fitness level and
goals. Typically most strength training programs use some variation of the following:
To build strength: Lift heavy weights and a low number of repetitions
To build endurance: Lift lighter weights and a high number of repetitions
For a general fitness program: Lift moderate weights, with a moderate number of repetitions (2-3 sets of 10-15
repetitions per exercises), working the upper and lower body, and balancing agonist and antagonist muscles.
For children and adolescents, the resistance is minimal to start with, and the focus being on proper technique
and instruction on the various exercises that develop upper and lower body strength. Increases in resistance
should be made gradually so that students can still perform 2 to 3 sets of 10 to 15 repetitions.
Time: Once again, this is going to depend on the schedule of the teacher and the students. Anywhere from 10 to
45 minutes might be appropriate, depending on the fitness levels of the children, equipment and time allowed for
strength training activities. Training time also needs to consider the warm-up and cool-down time as well.
Type: Beginning and younger children should start with exercises that use their own body weight
for resistance. Once children are comfortable with weights, and have received instruction on
proper safety and technique, strength training activities using weights are introduced. Exercise
selection depends on body areas being trained and the equipment available.
General Weight Training Program for Children
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Push-Ups 10-12 10-12
DB Flys 8-10 8-10
DB Rows 8-10 8-10
DB Raises 8-10 8-10
DB Lunges 10-12 10-12
General Weight Training Program for
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Adolescents

Incline Bench Press 8-10 8-10
Push-Ups 15-20 15-20
Decline push-Ups 10-15 10-15
DB Flys 10-12 10-12
DB Rows 10-12 10-12
Back Extensions 10-15 10-15
DB Lateral Raises 10-12 10-12
DB Anterior Raises 10-12 10-12
French Curls 10-12 10-12
DB Lunges 10-15 10-15
Calf Raises 15-20 15-20
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Basic Guidelines for Resistance Exercise Progression in

Young Athletes
Age 7 or Younger: Introduce the child to basic exercises with little or no weight; develop
the concept of a training session; teach exercise techniques; progress from body weight
calisthenics, partner exercises, to lightly resisted exercises; keep the volume low.
Ages 8-10: Gradually increase the number of exercises; practice exercise technique
in all lifts; start gradual progressive loading of exercises; keep exercises simple; gradually
increase training volume; carefully monitor toleration to exercise stress.
Ages 11-13: Teach all basic exercise techniques; continue progressive loading of each exercise;
emphasize exercise techniques; introduce more advanced exercises with little or no resistance.
Ages 14-15: Progress to more advanced youth programs in resistance exercise; add
sport-specific components; emphasize exercise techniques; increase volume.
Ages 16 or older: Move child to entry-level adult programs after all background knowledge
has been mastered and a basic level of training experience has been gained.
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Conclusion
The primary focus of strength training should, at least initially, be developing proper technique, learning basic
exercises, and developing an interest in strength training. Muscular strength and endurance are integral components
of health-related physical fitness. In the early stages of training, one set of each exercise should be performed until the
child has demonstrated proper form and technique. Remember to establish realistic expectations/goals with parents,
coaches and athletes. Strength training should be stopped at any sign of injury and the child should be and children
should never be forced into participating in a resistance-training program. Most of all …. keep the program fun.
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Chapter 10
Endurance
Training
Guidelines
Overview
• What the Research Says
• FITT
• Basic
• Intermediate
• Advanced
• Introduction
Children naturally love to exercise, often time I think we make it more difficult than it needs be. Most healthy children
when given the opportunity, enjoy running, hiking, swimming and cycling. Children’s anatomical and physiological
systems are uniquely designed to respond to endurance exercise. Research has shown that children and adolescents
can increase their aerobic capacity by following a regular exercise program, as long as it is done safely. Even young
children have been shown to improve their aerobic capacities through enhanced oxygen transport and enhanced
metabolic capacities. Regular cardiovascular exercise is extremely beneficial to children and helps promote healthy
lifestyles, prevent disease and perform better in sports. Although the amount of exercise required for optimal functional
capacity and health at various ages has not been precisely defined, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
have established youth fitness guidelines that are useful in guiding endurance training programs for children.
Cardiorespiratory endurance is defined as “The functional capacity of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lungs,
and relevant muscles to meet the demands of sustained submaximal physical effort.” Another way to view
cardiovascular fitness is the ability of the cardiovascular system to take in and deliver sufficient oxygen and
nutrients to meet the body’s demand during sustained, moderate to high intensity physical activity.
Components of endurance training include:
• Warm-up
• Stretching
• Conditioning or sports-related exercise
• Cool-down
Warm-Up: Promotes vasodilation (increased blood flow) to heart and working skeletal muscles, circulates catecholamines
and energy nutrients, and increases body temperature (skeletal muscle and connective tissue and increases fluid
distribution in joints. The warm-up period provides a gradual physiological adjustment from rest to exercise.
Example: Whole-body low intensity exercise. For example, 5 minutes of slower walking,
running, or cycling and 5 minutes of stretching exercises. Stretching (flexibility) exercises
may be added during the warm-up and cool-down phase as needed.
Cool-Down: Attenuates the exercise-induced circulation responses and returns heart rate and blood pressure
to near resting values. The cool-down period also helps maintain adequate venous return, facilitate the
dissipation of body heat and promote more rapid removal of waste products than stationary recovery.
Example: Light exercise, low intensities. For example, 5 minutes of slower walking, running, or cycling and
5 minutes of stretching exercises. Stretching (flexibility) exercises may provide a long-term benefit.
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Endurance Training Guidelines
VO2 Max is defined as the maximal volume of oxygen utilized during maximal physical effort. It is also referred to
as maximal aerobic capacity, functional capacity and physical work capacity (PWC). It is commonly expressed as
“absolute” VO2 in liters per minute, or “relative” VO2 in ml per kilogram per minute (ml.kg.min). Children are able
to develop their cardiovascular endurance above that which is normally associated with growth and development.
Types of cardiorespiratory endurance activities vary, depending of a variety of factors.

Endurance activities are designed to use large muscle groups in a continuous, rhythmical manner. Endurance
activities can be individual activities or group and some involve skill (sports related) while others don’t. Endurance
activities requiring minimal skill or physical fitness to perform are recommended initially. Examples include
walking, leisurely cycling, aqua-aerobics, dancing, etc. More vigorous-intensity endurance activities requiring
minimal skill include jogging, running, rowing, aerobics, spinning, elliptical exercise, stepping, etc.
Before setting up an endurance training program, it is important to

review some of the following with parents and children.
• Interest level and experience.

• Access to training facilities and equipment.
• Are there any medical/orthopedic considerations?
• What activities are most enjoyable and convenient?
• Is cost or availability a concern?
Ultimately, the selection of mode should be based on desired outcomes,

focusing on those most likely to sustain participation.
The current recommendations are that children and adolescents include;
• Participate in 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of physical activity 3–4 days per week
or daily. The majority of the 60 minutes should comprise of moderate- to vigorous-
intensity (or 30 minutes of each) to total an accumulation of 60 minutes.
• Moderate-intensity refers to activity that “noticeably” increases breathing, sweating, and heart rate while
vigorous-intensity is that which “substantially” increases breathing, sweating, and heart rate.
• Children and adolescents who are obese may not be able to achieve these recommendations. Therefore,
gradually progress the frequency and duration in order to address each individual’s fitness level.
• Children should be encouraged to participate in sustained activities that use large muscle groups
(i.e., swimming, jogging, aerobic dance, etc.) and that are age-appropriate. Emphasize active play
and intermittent bouts of activity rather than sustained exercise for younger children.
• Other activities, such as recreational sports and fun activities that develop components of health and performance
(speed, power, flexibility, muscular endurance, agility and coordination), should also be incorporated.
• Heart rate monitoring may be optional due to low cardiac risk in non-obese children and
adolescents; RPE is preferable and helps children to monitor themselves.
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Training Intensity
Training heart rate is typically the most universal method to establish and monitor training intensity. Training heart
rate assumes that heart rate increases in a linear way as intensity increases. There are two basic methods. A straight
percentage of maximal heart rate and what is commonly referred to as the heart rate reserve method (Karvonen Method).
Straight Percent Method

Subtract resting heart rate from age-adjusted maximal heart rate (220-age)
Multiply HRmax by:
40-60% for low intensity
50-70% for moderate intensity
70-85% for high intensity
Training at low to moderate intensity levels is enough to improve endurance. In general, this lev-
el of intensity is more enjoyable and less likely to lead to injuries than high-intensity training.
Other methods of monitoring exercise training intensity include;
The “talk test.” During a workout, athletes should be able to say a few words comfortably, catch their breath,
and resume talking. If it is difficult to say a few words, then athletes should probably slow down. If ath-
letes can talk easily without getting out of breath, then they are probably not training hard enough.
BORG Scale. Athletes can determine how hard the exercise feels on a scale of 1 to 10 using the
Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion. The ideal range for aerobic training is between 2 to 7.
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Endurance Training Guidelines
Frequency and Duration

For endurance training, children and adolescents should
exercise 3 to 5 times per week for at least 20 to 60
minutes. Fitness levels can improve dramatically with as
little as 10 minutes of exercise if done 2 to 3 times per
day. Young athletes who are not fit will need to start
with lesser amounts of exercise. They can slowly add more
time as their endurance improves. Increasing the level of
exercise at about 10% per week is a good goal to prevent
overuse injury. To avoid putting too much stress on the
body and help prevent injuries, it is wise to alternate
high-impact activities, like running, with low-impact
exercises, like walking, cycling, and swimming.
Other Factors
The lower the initial level of fitness, the
greater the training response.
Genetics always plays a large role in an athlete’s
natural fitness level as well as how much he/
she will improve as a result of training.
As children grow and develop they are able
to respond more to aerobic training.
Conclusion
Children, although physiologically more fit than the
average adult, still must begin their training programs
gradually, working up to longer durations and higher
intensities. Children will respond naturally to greater
intensities and durations when provided the right
motivation, encouragement and training periods. Allow
children to have time to explore a variety of endurance
training activities. Placing too much demand and
focus on one particular sport or activity can lead to
overuse injury and burnout. Children are really good
at letting you know when activities are no longer fun.
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Chapter 11
Nutritional
Considerations
Overview
• Unique Nutritional Considerations
• Nutrition Guidelines for Young Athletes
• Fluids for Young Athletes
• Gaining and Losing Weight
Introduction
Children and adolescents have unique nutritional needs, especially when they are active and participating in
sports. Children have special nutritional considerations which are uniquely related to supporting their growth
and development. In addition to obtaining all of the necessary nutritional requirements to support normal
growth and development, including cognitive functioning, more active children and those participating in sports
also have special nutritional demands placed on them that need to be met. First and foremost, children and
adolescents are encouraged to develop healthy eating habits from an early age! Healthy eating habits are vital for
improving and maintaining good health, preventing disease and supplying the necessary energy during sports.
NOTE: The most current dietary guidelines for Americans (including children and youth)
have recently been published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/
Unique Nutritional Considerations

As with adults, children tend to develop preferences for the foods they enjoy the most. So the key to any
good nutrition game plan is to encourage healthy choices for the food preferences of each individual. Adults
should encourage substitution or addition of healthier food choices in daily meal planning. If children
are used to eating only one particular way, for example fast food high in fat and sugar, it may take some
encouragement and trial and error to get them on the right track. A really good point to remember is that
children and youth tend to imitate those around them, so remember to always act as a good role model!
If you are a trainer working with children and youth on a regular basis, it may be a good idea to develop a handout
that you can give to parents and coaches that outlines your nutritional philosophy. Parents and coaches are
always looking for suggestions when it comes to getting kids to eat healthy! Here are some general considerations
to consider when talking with parents, coaches and clients about making good nutritional choices.
• Read and get familiar with the most current nutritional guidelines for Americans, the 2015-
2020 Nutritional Guidelines for Americans. http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015
• Encourage children to eat wholesome meals that are based on minimally processed nutritious food.
• Eat a breakfast high in quality protein (enriched cereal, yoghurt, milk, cheese, eggs and meat),
complex carbohydrates and low in simple sugars. A healthy breakfast consists of plenty of complex
carbohydrates (fruit, whole grain toast or cereal, for example) as well as high-quality protein.
• Eating home cooked meals vs. restaurant or takeout meals tend to be heathier and contain less fat, sugar and calories.
• If you educate children about the nutritional values of different foods and how to read
food labels they are more apt to make better food choices in the future.
• Always make available a variety of healthy snacks. Keep plenty of fruit,
vegetables, whole grain snacks, and healthy beverages for children.
• Monitor portion sizes.
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Nutritional Considerations
Nutrition Guidelines for Young Athletes

All children, regardless if they are participating in sports, are encouraged to eat a balanced, health supporting
diet. Children that are more active need to consume a balance of foods that help support higher levels
of activity and are normally dietary habits. Eating for sports should be an extension of healthy eating for
life. Generally speaking, children who are already eating healthy, well-balanced meals and snacks should
get the majority of their nutrients needed to participate in sports. Although athletes generally have higher
energy and fluid requirements, meeting the basic nutritional needs on a daily basis are fundamental.
NOTE: Dietary supplements are not encouraged nor recommend for children and as such should never be promoted.
Children should consume more calories as needed to keep up with increased energy demands, as long as they are
eating a healthy well-balanced diet. The best advice is follow the recommendation outlined in the 2015-2020
Nutrition Guidelines for Americans. In addition, children should be educated regarding the Choose MyPlate
program developed through the U.S. Department of Agriculture to help children learn eat healthy (http://
www.choosemyplate.gov/). In addition the Choose MyPlate web-site also has easy to use nutritional planning
and tracking software to help plan, manage and track calories. Diets for young athletes should never be highly
specialized or restricted in any way. The majority of healthy active children will meet their basic nutritional needs
without a specialized, expensive or supplement enhanced diet. Children should be taught at a young age the best
diet for success in athletics is not significantly different from a normal year-round health-supporting diet.
In general, the majority of healthy active children should be encouraged to eat a balanced diet consisting of:
50-55% of calories from carbohydrates (mostly complex), such as bread, cereal, rice and pasta; 10-15% from
protein food like meat, poultry, fish, dry beans and nuts; and 25-30% from fats such as oils and sweets.
135
Additional tips include:
• Eating or drinking a high protein snack 30 minutes after exercise to help with recovery. Interestingly,
low-fat chocolate milk is a very popular, healthy and effective post exercise recovery drink.
• Additional post-exercise diets should include a complex carbohydrate, moderate
protein meal 1-2 hours later to continue with muscle recovery.
• Athletes should be encouraged to eat a good breakfast and a pre-exercise meal. Pre-
exercise meals should be low in simple sugars and easy to digest.
• The night before competition and 2 hours before exercise: focus on carbs, moderate protein, low-fat
foods and fluids (pasta with veggies and chicken, fruit, milk, cereal, yogurt, toast, juice).
• Carbohydrates are the main energy source for exercise and the major fuel for the brain. Best choices for
complex carbohydrates include; pasta, rice, breads, milk, yogurt, cereals, fruits and vegetables.
• Always have plenty fresh fruits and vegetables around.
• A diet high in good high quality protein is important for normal growth and development and
repair. However a high-protein diet is not recommended for young athletes. Good sources
of protein include; poultry, meat, fish, cheese, yogurt, milk and beans or legumes.
• A high fat diet is obviously not healthy, but some fat in the diet especially for young athletic growing
children is fine. Encourage low to moderate fat foods and avoid eating fast food. Avoid greasy,
fried foods and fatty desserts and avoid foods like french fries or pizza before competition.
• Encourage healthy meals, provide healthy snacks before and after exercise.
• Traveling or school meals should include foods that contain high-complex carbohydrates, moderate protein, low-fat
snacks such as granola bars, energy bars, pretzels, trail mix, fruit, peanut butter and crackers, bagels, and fluids.
• When packing lunches remember to include a water bottle or sports drink.
• Don’t skip lunch, and don’t eat a high-fat, high calorie lunch either.
• Feeding children healthy meals and snacks consistently, even during the off-
season provides the best foundation during times of competition.
• Calcium rich foods are important for young athletes to help build strong bones. Calcium-rich foods include
low-fat dairy products like milk, yogurt, and cheese, as well as leafy green vegetables such as broccoli.
• Also, iron-rich foods support oxygen carry capacity of blood and include foods such as lean meat,
chicken, tuna, salmon, eggs, dried fruits, leafy green vegetables, and fortified whole grains.
• Protein is important to help develop muscle and repair tissues. The majority of children
get plenty of protein if they are eating a balanced diet. Protein-rich foods include fish,
lean meat and poultry, dairy products, beans, nuts, and soy products.
NOTE: The general recommendation for protein intake for athletes is roughly .8 to 1g/
kg body weight. Too much protein can lead to dehydration and calcium loss.
The best balance for active kids: 50-55% of calories from carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, rice and pasta; 10-15%
from protein food like meat, poultry, fish, dry beans and nuts; and 25-30% from fats such as oils and sweets.
136
Fluids for Young Athletes

A very important fact to remember about exercising children and youth is that they have immature thermoregulatory
systems and they are more at risk dehydration and heat-related illnesses compared to adults. Children do not
dissipate heat as fast nor as efficiently as adults do. In addition, children also have a tendency to get in trouble
staying ahead of their hydration needs and often become dehydrated quickly. Bottom line is that it is important
to make sure children drink plenty fluids on a regular basis, including during normal and physical activities.
Because children have special fluid needs, it is important to develop good hydration habits early on. Develop a regular
pattern of fluid replacement according to a schedule. Give kids a water bottle and have them drink 5 to 9 ounces every 20
minutes to keep hydrated. Water is always the preferred fluid replacement before sport drinks and fruit juices. Children’s
fluid replacement habits should be monitored and tracked if there is concern with higher than average risk or health-
related illness, including weigh kids before and after exercise to determine how much fluids they are losing during activity.
Here are some general fluid replacement guidelines and considerations for children and youth:
• Children and youth are encouraged to drink copious amount of water

daily, especially before, during and after physical activity.
• Because children are more likely to suffer a heat illness when exercising in the heat than adults,
young children especially should avoid exercising during the hottest part of the day.
• Most commercial sport drinks are only lightly sweetened (6 to 8% sugar) which
promotes hydration and provides some additional energy.
When Children <90lbs. Children >90lbs.

1 hour before activity 3-6 oz of fluid. 6-12 oz of fluid.
During activity, 3-5 oz of fluid. 6-9 oz of fluid.

every 20 minutes
After activity, to replace Up to 8 oz of fluid Up to 12 oz of fluid
fluids lost through sweat per 1/2 lb. lost per 1/2 lbs. lost
• Children should drink small amounts of fluid on a regular basis.

• Fluids should NEVER be restricted for any reasons!
• Coaches and trainers need to plan ahead so that plenty of water is always available and that supplies do not run out.
• Fluids need to be palatable and familiar. Never introduce a fluid replacement
to an athlete without first trial testing it before competition.
137
Advantages Disadvantages
Water Water
Noncaloric Provides no carbohydrates.
Refreshing taste Electrolyte content of unbottled water
Widely available( bottled,drinking not known are variable.
fountains)
Depending on hardness or softness,
may provide someelectrolytes.
Sports beverages Sports beverages

Provide Carbohydrates. Could provide unwanted calories if
Sweet taste. overconsumed.
Contain electrolytes in known quantities.
Rapid rate of absorption due to sugar
and sodium content.
Convenient Fruit Juices
Fruit Juices High concentration of carbohydrates
May cause gastrointestinal distress.
Provides Carbohydrates
Couls provide unwanted calories if
Sweet taste
overconsumed
High in patassium.
In children, may displace milk intake.
May contain vitamins, minerals and
phyfochemicals.
Soft Drinks
Soft Drinks
High concentration of carbohydrates
Provides carbohydrates. Carbonation may contribute to
Sweet taste gastrointestinal distress.
Widely available Low nutrient density.
Provide stimulatory effect if caffeinated In children, may displace milk intake.
• Even mild dehydration can affect athletic performance.

• Thirst is not a reliable sign of hydration status, so experts recommend that kids drink
water or other fluids before and every 15 to 20 minutes during physical activity.
• Although many sports drinks are available, plain water is usually enough to keep kids hydrated.
• Sports drinks are designed to provide energy and replace electrolytes — such
as sodium and potassium — that athletes lose in sweat.
• Diluted juices are another healthy option, but avoid sugary drinks and
carbonated beverages that can upset the stomach.
• The bottom line is that for most young athletes, water is the best choice for hydration.
After the activity, carbohydrates and electrolytes can be replenished.
138
Gaining and Losing Weight

Children should never feel pressured to lose weight or look a certain way. Before any child goes on
any kind of a restrictive diet parents should consult their pediatrician or a licensed dietician. Any
type of crash dieting, or quick rapid weight loss scheme can be dangerous even deadly.
In addition, the stress of trying to gain weight too quickly through unregulated overeating typically re-
sults in diminished performance as the weight typically gets stored as fat. If a child, coach or parent
expresses concern regarding losing or gaining weight, or if there is any concern about a child’s eating
habits, consult the child’s pediatrician or a licensed dietician. Both experts can work with you and the
child to help develop a plan that allows your child to work on the weight in a safe and healthy way.
Some Basic Considerations Regarding Gaining Lean Weight
• Athletes that are trying to gain weight need to slowly take in more calories a day (200 to 500) from
healthy foods that are packed with carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals and calories.
• The goal is gain weight through muscle mass not fat.
• To gain weight, athletes need to consume more calories than they expend.
• Each pound of muscle gained a week typically equals an extra 500 calories each day.
• Foods that are healthy to eat are fruits, vegetables, grains, meat, and milk (i.e. peanut butter sandwich, dried
fruit, milk shakes, cottage cheese, pasta with sauce.) Gaining weight requires a consistent eating routine.
• Athletes should start slowly; increasing portion sizes of food and drinks gradually.
• To gain lean muscle mass, athletes should eat at least three meals a day with snacks in between.
• Exercise/weight training is another essential part to weight gain. Strength training will
help increase appetite, but also stimulate muscular development to bulk up.
• An athlete trying to gain weight should and may need to train more than 2-3 times a week.
Losing Weight for Competition

Consult with a physician before taking any steps to get in shape fast for a competition. Follow all of the national
guidelines for weight for making weight (https://www.acsm.org/docs/current-comments/weightlossinwrestlers.pdf).
Stay well hydrated.
Cut out foods and beverages high in sodium
Increase the amount and intensity of exercise
Eat more dietary fiber and more fiber rich foods such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
139
Conclusion
Children and adolescents have unique nutritional needs, especially when they are active and participating
in sports. Children have special nutritional considerations which are uniquely related to supporting their
growth and development. In addition to obtaining all of the necessary nutritional requirements to sup-
port normal growth and development, including cognitive functioning, more active children and those
participating in sports also have special nutritional demands placed on them that need to be met.
References
1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of

Agriculture. 2015 – 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 8th Edition. December
2015. Available at http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/.
2. Casa, D. J., PhD, Armstrong, L. E., Hillman, S. K., Montain, S. J., Reiff, R. V., Rich, B.
S., Roberts, W. O. & Stone, J. A. (2000). National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position
Statement: Fluid Replacement for Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training. 35(2):212–224
140
Authors note
It has been a pleasure writing this manual and certification on
youth fitness and I’m excited for those of you that have decided
to get certified in this area. I have spent much of my career as a
professor in higher education for the past 20 years researching and
writing on childhood and youth health and fitness. Despite the vast
amount of research, recommendations and guidelines that have been
published, children and youth today are more overweight and obese,
out of shape and at risk for numerous chronic health conditions
than any other time in history. Something has to be done soon, we
can’t wait any longer. The good news is that YOU can help make
a difference! I recommend you to read the material in the manual
carefully and then review the videos for more detailed information.
I encourage you to continue to read books, articles and research
journals on youth health and fitness and keep searching for creative
and engaging ways to help children and youth get fit and stay fit!
I wish each and every one of you the very best!
Scott
141
Appendix
Overview
• Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form
• Example of Informed Consent for

Children
• Modified Pull-Up Apparatus
• Additional Dynamic Flexibility Move-

ments
Childs name: Parent/Guardian name:
Address:
Childs Date of Birth: Current Age:

Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form
Emergency Contact Details:

Telephone Number:
Health Questions:
1. Does your child have or has he or she ever experienced any of the following?
2. Please Circle High or Low Blood Pressure Y / N
3. Elevated blood cholesterol Y / N Diabetes Y / N
4. Chest pains brought on by physical exertion Y / N
5. Childhood epilepsy Y / N 
6. Dizziness or fainting Y / N 
7. Any bone, joint or muscular problems with arthritis Y / N
8. Asthma or respiratory Problems Y / N
9. Any sustained injuries or illness Y / N 

Appendix I
10. Any allergies Y / N 
11. Is your child taking any medication Y / N 
12. Has your doctor ever advised your child to exercise Y / N 
13. Is there any reason not mentioned above why any type or physical activity may not be suitable
for your child Y / N 
If you have answered ‘YES’ to any of the above questions please give full details here and seek medical
clearance prior to the session.
In signing this form, I, the parent/guardian of the aforementioned child, affirm that I have read this
form in its entirety and I have answered the questions accurately and to the best of my knowledge. I
understand that my child is responsible for monitoring him or herself throughout any activity, and
should any unusual symptoms occur, my child understands the importance of informing the Instructor
immediately.
In the event that medical clearance must be obtained before my child’s participation in an exercise
session, I agree to contact a physician and obtain written permission prior to the commencement of the
exercise activity, and that the permission be given to the instructor. I understand that if my child fails to
behave in a manner that is polite and social, he or she could be suspended from that particular activity.
Parent/guardian’s
signature: _________________________________________________________
Please print name: _________________________________________________
Date:  _________________________________________
Email: __________________________________________
144
Please complete all the details below. This information is required entirely for laboratory records. All
information obtained will be treated as confidential. All forms must be completed prior to commencing any
exercise testing\training session.
Appendix II
Name: ....................................................................... D.O.B: ............…………….
Permanent Address: ....................................................................................................
Example of Informed Consent for Children

Parent/Guardian Contact Telephone No: ...................................................................
Please read the following statements carefully. Please sign only when you have agreed
with the statements
I understand that my child will observe and participant (if desired) in the following practical activities (all
indoors):
Before starting this program we will get information about each child’s habits and health. Your child will be
asked to do each of the following:
● Answer questions about what they eat and how they exercise.
● Have his or her blood pressure and heart rate taken.
● Measure their height and how much they weight
● The thickness of skin in the upper arm and lower leg is measured.
Your child will be asked to perform easy exercises like walking or running, partial curl ups, and sitting and
reaching. These exercises are described in the attachment.
• I am aware that the possibility exists of certain discomforts and risks occurring during exercise these
include: light headedness, fainting, irregular heart rhythm, and in rare instances, heart attack, stroke, or
death. I realise that every effort will be made to conduct the exercise tests in such a way to minimise any
discomfort or risks, and that all tests will be conducted by trained personnel.
• I understand that every effort will be made to minimise risks by evaluation of preliminary information
relating to my child’s health and fitness and by constant observation during testing.
• I understand I am responsible for providing information regarding my child’s health status or previous
experiences of unusual feelings with physical effort.
• Both my child and I understand that he/she is not obliged to complete the tests. However, he/she is
obliged to stop the test at any point and for any reason without question.
• My child has no injury or illness that will affect his/her ability to successfully complete the tests.
I hereby declare that I have read in full the above statements and understand all exercise test\
training procedures relevant to this visit.
Signature of Parent/Guardian: …………………………………….. Title:…………
Date: …………………………
Signature of Staff: …………………………………….
Modified Pull-Up Appratus

Modified Pull-Up Apparatus
Modified Pull-up Bar Model 2, Clovis Manufacturing Company LLC, dimensions:

Appendix III
44”W X 48”H X 24”D. A specially constructed horizontal bar can be positioned at a

height that allows the participant to clasp the bar with an overhand grasp when lying on
his or her back on a flat surface.
• Strap hanging 8 inches down from horizontal bar

• Tape measure attached to pull-up bar side bar
• Ribbon to secure hand bar locking pin
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nnyfs/Modified_Pullup.pdf
146
Appendix
Joint Rotations
From a standing position with your arms hanging loosely at your sides, flex, extend, and rotate each of the
following joints:
• Fingers
Appendix IV
• Wrist
• Elbows
• Shoulders
Additional Dynamic Flexibility Movements

• Neck
• Trunk and shoulder blades
• Hips
• Knees
• Ankles
• Feet and toes
Neck Mobility
• Flexion/Extension - Tuck your chin into your chest, and then lift your chin upward as far as possible. 6 to
10 repetitions
• Lateral Flexion - lower your left ear toward your left shoulder and then your right ear to your right
shoulder. 6 to 10 repetitions
• Rotation - Turn your chin laterally toward your left shoulder and then rotate it toward your right shoulder
• 6 to 10 repetitions
Shoulder Circles
• Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent
• Raise your right shoulder towards your right ear, take it backwards, down and then up again to the ear in a
smooth action
• Repeat with the other shoulder
Arm Swings
• Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent
• Keep the back straight at all times
• Overhead/Down and back - Swing both arms continuously to an overhead position and then forward,
down, and backwards. 6 to 10 repetitions
• Side/Front Crossover - Swing both arms out to your sides and then cross them in front of your chest
147
Side Bends
• Stand tall with good posture, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, hands resting on hips
• Lift your trunk up and away from your hips and bend smoothly first to one side, then the other, avoiding the
tendency to lean either forwards or backwards
• Repeat the whole sequence 6 to 10 times with a slow rhythm, breathing out as you bend to the side, and in as you
return to the center.
Hip circles and twists
• Circles - With your hands on your hips and feet spread wider than your shoulders, make circles with your hips in a
clockwise direction for 6 to 10 repetitions. Then repeat in a counter clockwise direction
• Twists - Extend your arms out to your sides, and twist your torso and hips to the left, shifting your weight on to the
left foot. Then twist your torso to the right while shifting your weight to the right foot
• 6 to 10 reps on each side

•
Half Squat
• Stand tall with good posture holding your hands out in front of you for balance
• Now bend at the knees until your thighs are at 45° with the floor
• Keep your back long throughout the movement, and look straight ahead
• Make sure that your knees always point in the same direction as your toes
• Once at your lowest point, fully straighten your legs to return to your starting position
• Repeat the exercise sixteen times with a smooth, controlled rhythm
• Breath in as you descend, and out as you rise
Leg Swings
Flexion/Extension- Stand sideways onto the wall
• Weight on your left leg and your right hand on the wall for balance
• Swing your right leg forward and backward
• 6 to 10 repetitions on each leg
148
Cross-Body Fslexion/Abduction
• Leaning slightly forward with both hands on a wall and your weight on your left leg, swing your right leg to the
left in front of your body, pointing your toes upwards as your foot reaches its furthest point of motion
• Then swing the right leg back to the right as far as comfortable, again pointing your toes up as your foot reaches its
final point of movement
Lunges
• Standing tall both feet together (starting position)
• Keeping the back straight lunge forward with the right leg approx 1 to 1½ meters.
• The right thigh should be parallel with the ground and the right lower leg vertical
• Spring back to the starting position
• Repeat with the left leg
Ankle Bounce
Double leg bounce - Leaning forward with your hands on the wall and your weight on your toes, raise and lower both heels
rapidly (bounce)
• Each time, lift your heels one to two inches from the ground while maintaining ground contact with the ball of
your feet
Single leg bounce
• leaning forward with your hands on a wall and all your weight on your left foot, raise the right knee forward while
pushing the left heel towards the ground
• Then lower the right foot to the floor while raising the left heel one or two inches
• Repeat in a rapid, bouncy fashion
149
Exercise Decision Tree for Children and Youth (<18 years old)
Example of Screening Recommended Review

activity Action Level
exercise Decision Tree for Children and Youth (<18 years old)
L E
O Aerobic: e.g., Clearance to participate in X
W 3 min step test, school physical education or Medical P
1-mile walk, sport2 clearance E
or jogging, and not necessary D
conditioning All “No” answers on I
M limited to verification questions3 T
O moderate level. E
D D
Resistance:
I Assessment or
N conditioning No clearance to participate F
T sets with ≥6 in school physical education Medical U
E reps used to or sport2 clearance L
N determine or recommended L
S strength One or more “Yes” answers
I (≥6RM) on verification questions3 B
T O
Y1 A
R
D
B
E
o
X
a
V Aerobic: e.g., 1- Pr
I mile run, Clearance to participate in
E
d
G PACER, sport or school physical education or
D
O interval training. sport2 Medical
I
R and clearance not
T
O Resistance: Max All “No” answers on necessary E
U testing, with <6 verification questions3
D
S reps used to
determine
F
I strength
U
N (<6RM). No clearance to participate in L
T school physical education or Medical
Appendix V
L
E Power: sport2 clearance
N Includes max. or recommended B
S jump and max One or more “Yes” answers O
I speed resistance on verification questions3. A
T movements.
R
Y1
D
September 2013 B
o
a
r
d
150
Notes
151
Certified Youth Fitness Specialist
I
Certified Youth Fitness Specialist

Manual
By Scott Roberts
No material within this book may be All Rights Reserved. Except for use 3481 Old Conejo Road, #102
copied for public or commercial use. in a review, the reproduction or Newbury Park, CA 91320
utilization of this work in any form of
© Copyright 2016 NCCPT electronic, mechanical or other means, Telephone: 800-778-6060
now known or hereafter invented,
v161007 including xerography, Fax: 805-498-9728
photocopying and
recording and, or any E-mail: PersonalTrainer@NCCPT.com
informationretrieval Website: NCCPT.com
system, is forbidden without
the written permission by the NCCPT.
II
NCCPT Code of Ethics
When you order any NCCPT (or NCCPT affiliate) educational or business program, you accept and
agree to adhere to the NCCPT Code of Ethics. You hereby certify that the information given to NCCPT
is true, complete and correct. You acknowledge if any of this information is later determined to be false,
NCCPT reserves the right to revoke any certification or certificate that has been granted by the NCCPT
or any of its affiliates. You further acknowledge that NCCPT certification or certificate does not certify
or in any way guarantee the quality of your work as an NCCPT-certified professional. You therefore
agree to indemnify and hold harmless NCCPT, its officers, directors and staff from any claims due to
negligent acts, omissions, or faulty advice that you may give to clients as a NCCPT certified professional.
You further recognize that NCCPT is not responsible for any actions or damages incurred or taken
by any person arising out of your work, intentions or actions as a NCCPT certified professional.
As an NCCPT Certified Fitness Professional you must recognize the importance of a set standard
and scope of professional and ethical conduct in providing training services to clientele and the
general public. Professional and ethical concerns or issues arise when professionalism and ethics are
either not known or not fully understood. The NCCPT Code of Ethics represents a professional
standard that must be upheld at all times when performing the duties of a fitness professional.
Certified Fitness Professionals:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1) Act with integrity in any

relationship with their clients by providing the highest level of professional fitness training services based on
objective and unbiased research and scientific information in accordance with local, state and federal laws.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2) Act with
integrity in relationship with colleagues, fellow employees and other health care professionals. They
should respect the rights, opinions and decisions of other certified fitness professionals
and never solicit business from another professionals’ clients or students.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3) Ensure a safe and
enjoyable training environment through significant and suitably challenging programming.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4) Distinguish
between personal convictions or opinions and professional duties and responsibilities and not allow
personal beliefs and biases to interfere with the greater goals of the clients’ health, fitness and
performance. A fitness professional must not sexually, psychologically or economically exploit
their relationship with a client, supervisor, student, employee or colleague.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5) Fitness
professionals should always keep the client’s or students’ best interests first, not those which merely
advance a fitness professional’s private and personal interest or gain.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refer clients or students to appropriately
qualified professionals when the client or student’s need is greater than the trainer’s knowledge or abilities.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7) Keep
abreast of the new developments, concepts and practices by actively researching
and learning on a daily basis in order to promote professional excellence.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8) Respect a client
or student’s right to privacy. Maintain the confidentiality of personal client or student information
and written records. Conversations, behavior, personal life and in some cases personal identity
should be kept confidential. The focus should be on the business relationship and not a client
or student’s personal life, except as it affects a person health and fitness goals.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9) Avoid sexually
oriented comments or banter and inappropriate physical conduct should be avoided.
.10)Provide a non-biased, fair and equal treatment to all individuals and groups both personally and professionally.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11)Use advertisements which promote the primary
III
intent of helping clients or students make informed judgments, choices or decisions regarding their fitness goals.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12)Maintain
an appearance which is clean in a manner consistent with good hygiene, safety and commonly accepted good taste.
.13)Remain focused when training and be distracted by other people, televisions, computer monitors or cell phones.
Reporting of Conduct Violations
In order to ensure the validity and professional significance of the NCCPT Certification and processes, certified
and non-related or non-certified individuals are asked to report concerns regarding ethical or professional
misconduct by NCCPT Certified Fitness Professionals to the Certification Board’s Ethics and Appeals
Committee, for consideration. This will help to ensure the professional fitness practice of NCCPT Certified
Fitness Professionals and fair treatment of public members, employers and clientele. The identity of all involved
parties whether reporting ethical or professional misconduct or accused of such misconduct will remain private
and undisclosed to any other individual or entity unless legal procedures require such disclosure. Factual evidence
must be collected and submitted in order for any disciplinary action to be mandated by the Certification Board.
All responses to the Ethics and Appeals Committee regarding professional and ethical misconduct must
be in writing. Correspondences from the Certification Board will also be provided in writing. In the event
a disciplinary action is deemed necessary, the accused party or parties will have 30 days to file an appeal to
the Ethics and Appeals Committee for consideration. The goal of the Ethics and Appeals Committee is to
ensure ethical and professional practice and conduct by setting forth fair and reasonable expectations for
NCCPT Certified Fitness Professional and creating an avenue for enforcement of these expectations.
It is the policy of the NCCPT Certification Board that no exam candidate for any certification or certificate
be discriminated against based upon race, religion, creed, gender, age, national origin or ethnicity.
IV
Table of Contents
State of Current Youth Health and Wellness �� 3
Introduction��4
Health Characteristics of Children and Youth��6
TV Viewing Habits in Children and Risk for Obesity��6
Current Statistics on Obesity��8
Immediate health effects:��8
Long-term health effects:��8
Overweight and Obese Defined��9
Body Mass Index�� 10
Cause and Prevention of Obesity�� 12
Physical Activity\Inactivity Levels�� 13
Exercise Guidelines for Children and Adolescents�� 13
State of Physical Education�� 14
Youth Physical Activity Statistics�� 14
Participation in Physical Education Classes�� 15
State of Youth Sports Participation�� 15
Overview of Physiological Anatomical Characteristics of Youth�� 19
Overview�� 19
Introduction�� 20
Physical Activity and Sports Participation Trends�� 21
Definitions�� 22
Defining Physical Activity, Exercise and Physical Fitness�� 23
Measuring and Tracking Physical Activity Levels in Children and Adolescents�� 23
Strength Development in Children and Adolescents�� 26
Mechanisms Responsible for Strength Development in Children�� 26
Getting Ready�� 29
Overview�� 29
Pre-Participation Screening�� 30
Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form�� 31
Informed Consent�� 32
Assessing Fitness�� 33
Cardiovascular Fitness�� 34
Body Composition�� 34
Muscular Strength and Endurance�� 35
Assessing Upper Body and Trunk Strength�� 35
Assessing Lower Body Strength�� 35
Description of Various Strength Assessment Protocols�� 36
Push-Up Test�� 36
V
Curl-Up Test�� 38
Modified Pull-Up Test�� 38
Warm-Up and Stretching Activities�� 43
Active Warm-Up Activities�� 44
Stretching and Flexibility Training �� 44
Guidelines for General Warm-Up Activities�� 44
Dynamic Stretching Techniques�� 45
Static Stretches for the Lower Body�� 46
Stretches for the Upper Body�� 49
General Guidelines for Strength Training�� 50
Examples of Different Strength Training Techniques and Equipment�� 51
Youth Fitness Guidelines & Recommendations�� 53
Summary of Facts from the Current Physical Inactivity Pandemic�� 54
The current “minimum” recommendations are that children and adolescents:�� 55
Introduction: Youth Strength Training�� 57
Overview�� 57
What the Research Says�� 58
Use of One-Repetition Maximum (1-RM) With Children and Adolescents�� 59
Health Benefits Associated With Training�� 60
Professional Guidelines and Recommendations�� 61
American Academy of Pediatrics�� 61
National Strength and Conditioning Association�� 61
American College of Sports Medicine�� 61
National Athletic Trainers Association�� 61
Talking to Parents about Strength Training�� 62
Children and Youth Strenght Training References�� 64
Program Design Considerations with Minimal or No Equipment�� 71
Strength Training Techniques and Equipment Selection�� 71

Overview�� 71
Description of Age Specific Workouts�� 72
Examples of Level Appropriate Activities�� 75
Straight Leg Push-Up: level 2 and 3�� 75
Bent Knee Push Up: Levels 1-3�� 75
Incline Push Up: Level 3 �� 75
VI
Appropriate Workout Levels�� 75
Resistance Tubing and Bands�� 87
Examples of Various Exercise Tubing Products�� 88
General Guidelines for Using Exercise Bands and Tubing�� 89
Tubing and Band Exercises�� 89
Program Design Considerations for Free Weights & Machines�� 95
Starting Age�� 96
Safety of Weight Training�� 96
Safety Guidelines for Weight Training�� 97
Weight Training Equipment and Youth�� 98
Choosing the Correct Starting Weight�� 99
Progression�� 99
Examples of a Basic Weight Training Program�� 99
General Weight Training Program for Children�� 100
General Weight Training Program for Adolescents�� 101
Applying the FITT Principle�� 102
Age Group Categories�� 102
Review of Basic Weight Training Principles �� 103
Weight Training Exercises�� 104
Upper Body Exercises�� 105
Exercises to Develop the Shoulders�� 106
Exercises to Develop the Arms�� 107
Exercises to Develop Back Muscles�� 108
Exercises to Develop the Lower Body�� 109
Exercise To Develop the Lower Back�� 110
Powerlifting Deadlifts�� 110
Back Extension Exercises�� 110
Single-Leg Bridging�� 110
Advanced Strength for Young Athletes�� 113
Review of Terminology�� 114
Muscle Contractions�� 114
Common Anatomical and Movement Definitions�� 115
Muscle Actions�� 116
Designing a General Program�� 117
Designing a Strength Training Program�� 118
Guidelines for Training Young Athletes�� 120
General Weight Training Program for Children�� 121
General Weight Training Program for Adolescents�� 122
Basic Guidelines for Resistance Exercise Progression in Young Athletes�� 124
VII
Endurance Training Guidelines�� 127
Training Intensity�� 130

Frequency and Duration�� 131
Nutritional Considerations�� 133
Overview�� 133
Unique Nutritional Considerations�� 134
Nutrition Guidelines for Young Athletes�� 135
Additional tips include:�� 136
Fluids for Young Athletes�� 137
Here are some general fluid replacement guidelines and considerations for children and youth:�� 137
Gaining and Losing Weight�� 139
Some Basic Considerations Regarding Gaining Lean Weight�� 139
Losing Weight for Competition �� 139
Authors note�� 141
Appendix�� 143
Overview�� 143
Appendix I Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form�� 144
Appendix II Example of Informed Consent for Children�� 145
Appendix III Modified Pull-Up Appratus�� 146
Modified Pull-Up Appratus�� 146
Appendix IV Additional Dynamic Flexibility Movements�� 147
Appendix V exercise Decision Tree for Children and Youth (<18 years old)�� 150
VIII
Scott O. Roberts, Ph.D., FACSM
Professor Department of Kinesiology
William Jessup University
Scott Roberts was born and raised in Northern California. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in Exercise Physiology from
California State University, Chico his Master of Science degree in Exercise Physiology from California State University, Sacramento
and his Doctor of Philosophy in Exercise Physiology from the University of New Mexico. Scott has taught at Texas Tech University
in Lubbock, Texas and at Central Washington University in Ellensburg, Washington. His primary area of interest is in Clinical
and Pediatric Exercise Physiology. Prior to coming to William Jessup University,s he served as the Program Coordinator for the
Exercise Physiology Program and Chair of the Department of Kinesiology at California State University, Chico. He is a fellow in
both the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation.
He is currently the Chair of the Department of Kinesiology at William Jessup University in Rocklin, CA. His current areas of
interests include Faith-Based Fitness and Wellness and Youth Fitness. Scott has written numerous books, chapters, and articles
on topics ranging from strength training for children and adolescents to exercise guidelines for pacemakers and AICDs

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2

A recent study published in the New England

Health Characteristics of Children and Youth

Recommended: 2 hours per day

TV Viewing Habits in Children and Risk for Obesity

Current Statistics on Obesity Long-term health effects:

impact to treat current and future consequences of obesity

Body Mass Index

The international standard for defining overweight and

BMI Ranges for Adults

BMI Classification for Children and Adolescents

Cause and Prevention of Obesity

Physical Activity\Inactivity Levels

Exercise Guidelines for Children and Adolescents

State of Physical Education Youth Physical Activity Statistics

Participation in Physical Education Classes

State of Youth Sports Participation

Tremendous opportunities exist today for

• Natale, R.A., Messiah, S.E., Asfour, L., Uhlhorn, S.B., Delamater, A., Arheart, K.L. (2014). Role

5. America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being,2015 (www.childstats.gov)www.phita-

• Growth and Development

• Defining Physical Activity, Exercise

• Measuring and Tracking Physical

• Strength and Cardiovascular

Health Related Physical Fitness Components

Physical Activity and Sports

Children and adolescents need to be physically active year-

Every effort should be made to help kids become more

Growth, Development, and Maturation

Common Age Categories

Growth, Development, and Maturation

Defining Physical Activity, Exercise and Physical Fitness

Measuring and Tracking Physical Activity Levels in

Percentage of California Students in the FITNESSGRAM

Physical Fitness Test Grade 5 Grade 7 Grade 9

Aerobic Capacity 58.3% 58.6% 48.6%

Body Composition 67.5% 66.8% 67.4%

Abdominal Strength 80.0% 81.6% 79.5%

Trunk Extension 85.2% 86.9% 80.3%

Upper Body Strength 62.5% 60.7% 60.5%

Flexibility 64.7% 70.0% 69.8%

Cardiovascular Development in Children and Adolescents

Cardiovascular Response to Exercise in Children and Adolescents

Resting and submaximal blood pressure

Smaller hearts, lower peripheral resistance during exercise

Resting and submaximal stroke volume and heart rate

Higher HR: compensates for low SV

Slightly lower cardiac output than an adult

Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise

Maximal SV lower than in adults

Maximal cardiac output lower

Lung volume increases with age

Metabolic function increases with age

Children’s Running Economy

With age, skills improve, stride lengthens

Endurance Running Pace with Age

Occurs regardless of VO2max changes, training status

Strength Development in Children and Adolescents

Mechanisms Responsible for Strength Development in

Children’s PAR-Q Screening Form

Childs name: Parent/Guardian name:

Parent/guardian’s signature: _____________________________________________________

Components of Informed Consent