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1. INTRODUCTION (cont.)
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2. ANALOG & DIGITAL
• Data & signals can be represented by
ANALOG or DIGITAL in form.
• Information that is continuous
• Have infinite number of values in a range
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3. PERIODIC &
APERIODIC
Aperiodic
within a measurable NONPERIODIC
time frame (Period) (prefix ‘a’ means
& repeats that ‘non’ in GREEK)
pattern over • Changes without
subsequent identical exhibiting a pattern
periods. @ cycle that repeats
• Completion 1 full over time.
pattern is called a
CYCLE
3. PERIODIC & APERIODIC
(cont.)
• In Data Communication:
Periodic
- Analog signal (need less bandwidth)
Nonperiodic
- Digital signal (represent variation in data)
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a) Periodic Analog Signals
• Can be classified as simple @
composite signals.
– Simple : Sine wave (cannot be
decomposed in simpler signals)
– Composite: composed of multiple sine
waves.
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a) Periodic Analog Signals
• Sine wave
• The most fundamental form of periodic
analog signal.
• Simple oscillating curve
• Change over the course of a cycle is
smooth and consistent
• Continuous & rolling flow
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a) Periodic Analog Signals
Sine wave are represented by three
parameters:
Peak Amplitude Frequency Phase
• Absolute value of • number of periods • Position of the
its highest intensity in 1s. waveform relative
• Period- amount of to time 0.
time (in seconds) a • Measured in
signal needs to degree @ radians.
complete 1 cycle.
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More about Frequency
• Period is the inverse of frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with
respect to time
– Change in a short span of time: high
frequency
– Change in a long span of time: low
frequency
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More about Frequency
• Frequency zero = signal does not
change at all (voltage level constant
for entire time it is active)
• Frequency infinite = signal changes
instantaneously (period = 0)
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More about Frequency
Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent
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More about Phase
• The amplitude is • The amplitude is
increasing decreasing
• Not shifted • Shifted to the
left by ¼ cycle
0º 90º
180º 270º
• The amplitude is • The amplitude is
decreasing increasing
• Shifted to the • Shifted to the
left by ½ cycle left by ¾ cycle
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More about Phase
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Wavelength
• Binds the period or the frequency of a
simple sine wave to the propagation
speed of the medium.
λ
Time & Frequency Domain
• To show relationship between
amplitude and frequency, we use
frequency domain plot
• An analog signal is best represented in
the frequency domain.
• A complete sine wave in the time
domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain
Time & Frequency Domain
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Composite Signal
• Complex Analog Signals
– Periodic signals that are not sine waves
– Can be decomposed into multiple sine waves using Fourier
Analysis.
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Bandwidth
• Bandwidth and Frequency Spectrum
– Frequency Spectrum – the collection of all sine
waves signals that make that signal
– Bandwidth – the width of the frequency
spectrum
– Mathematically , B = highest frequency – lowest
frequency
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Bandwidth
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Digital Signals
– Most digital signals are non-periodic – period and
frequency is not appropriate
– Can be described by bit interval (instead of period) and bit
rate (instead of frequency).
– Bit interval(s) - the time required to send one single bit
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Bit Rate
• Number of bits sent in 1 second
– the number of bit intervals per second
• Expressed in bits per second (bps)
• Also known as data rate, transfer rate
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Bit Rate (cont.)
• Significant Bandwidth and Medium
Bandwidth
– Frequency spectrum recreate at the receiver
with distortion is called significant spectrum
and its bandwidth is significant bandwidth
– Bit rate has a relation to significant bandwidth –
bit rate increases, significant bandwidth widens
– A transmission medium has a limited
bandwidth called medium bandwidth
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Bit Rate (cont.)
- If medium bandwidth less than required significant
bandwidth, the signal is distorted
- The maximum bit rate a transmission medium can
transfer is called channel capacity of the medium
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Bit Length
• Distance one bit occupies on the
transmission medium
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Transmission of Digital
Signals
• Sending over the channel w/o
changing digital to analog signal »
TRANSMISSION
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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Attenuation
• Loss of energy
• overcoming the resistance of the medium
• To compensate loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal
• Unit Decibel (dB)
Distortion
Noise
• Unwanted signal
• May corrupt original signal
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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Thermal • Random motion of electrons in a wire which creates
an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter
Induced
• Comes from sources such as motors and appliances
• Devices – sending antenna; medium – receiving
antenna
NOISE
Crosstalk
• Effect of one wire on the other
• One wire – sending antenna; the other wire –
receiving antenna
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DATA RATE LIMITS
• Data rate depends on
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of signal we use
3. The quality of the channel(level of
noise)
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Noiseless Channel
• Also known as Nyquist Bit Rate
• Nyquist bit rate formula defines theoretical
maximum bit rate:
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PERFORMANCE
• Bandwidth
– Bandwidth in Hertz
• For analog signals
• Range of frequencies in a composite signal
@ the range of frequencies that a channel
can pass.
– Bandwidth in Bits per second
• For digital signals
• Speed of transmission in a channel @ link
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PERFORMANCE (cont.)
• Throughput
– Measure of how fast can actually send
data through a network
– Throughput is always less than
bandwidth
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PERFORMANCE (cont.)
• Latency @ Delay
– How long it takes for entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from
the time the first bit is sent out from the
source.
– Made from 4 components
• Propagation time
• Transmission time
• Queuing time
• Processing delay SIGNPOST
PERFORMANCE (cont.)
• Bandwidth-Delay Product
– Number of bits that can fill the link
• Jitter
– Different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application
using the data at the receiver site is
time-sensitive
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REFERENCE
ITT300’s Textbook: