Underground mining: Caving Methods Ore drawing/ Gravity Flow:

Because of the heterogeneity of coarse materials and a great number other factors and conditions,
3. CAVING METHODS the gravity flow of these materials is a very complex process (Fig. 3). The basic laws and principles
Caving mining methods that are based on a planned caving of rock above and/or at times surrounding the of gravity flow are independent of fragment size; they are the same for course material as for small
material being mined (rock is induced to cascade down under gravity) can be classified in two broad granular material (i.e. small gravel or sand).
categories: Formation and behavior of extraction ellipsoid is of utmost importance in determining the
3A. Sublevel Caving geometrics and the ore drawing sequence (Fig. 4).
3B. Block-caving
3C. Top Slicing

Each requires a relatively large, regular, and predictable ore body. As a rule, the effect of mining results
in some form of impact or change on the surface.

Advantages:
1. High productivity and high percentage of extraction of the mineral being mined.
2. Ability to standardize the various elements of work taking place underground.
3. The nature of mining methods lends them to a high-level of mechanization.

The caving method is unique in that the exploitation openings are deliberately destroyed by the process
of mining. Fig. 3: Gravity flow of Ore into sublevel drift

(3A) Sublevel Caving

Mass mining method based upon the utilization of the gravity floor of the blasted ore and the caved
waste rock. Sublevel caving extracts the ore via sublevels, which are developed in the ore body at
regular vertical spacing. Each sublevel features systematic layout with parallel drifts, along or across
the ore body. In the wide ore body, sublevel drifts start from the foot wall drive to continue across
to the hanging wall. Fig. 1: Sublevel caving in a large, steeply dipping ore body. Different unit operations are conducted
on adjacent sublevels.
Long-Hole rigs drills drill the ore section above the drift, in a fan spread pattern. Drilling, charging
and blasting long holes are timed to suit the mines production schedules. Blasting on each level
starts at the hanging wall and retreats towards the foot wall.

As mining removes ore without back filling, the hanging wall shall keep caving into the voids.
Continued mining results in the subsidence of the surface.

Application:
1. Adapts to large ore bodies with steep dip and continuation at depth. A vertical dip is best, while
more than 60° dip is fine.
2. Possibility of loss of ore in non-vertical steep dips and considerable loss in flat dips.
3. Low-grade, low-value ore bodies.
4. Preferably the ore and the rock should be easily separable,
5. Surface should be amenable to caving.
Development:
Development is mainly drifting to prepare sublevels. Drifting is a simple and routine job for the
mechanized mine. A ramp connection is needed to connect different sublevels and communicate
within transport routes. Ore passes are also required at strategic locations along sublevels, for LHDs
to dump from sublevels to be collected and transported along the haulage level.
Ore handling:
Ore handling involves mucking out at the cave, transport on sub levels and dumping into the ore
passes.
Fig. 4: Phases of extraction ellipsoid; A: model prepared for extraction; B, C and D: Successive phases
showing the flow of (black) material from the extraction ellipsoid and simultaneous development
of the ellipsoid of loosening
Design of Sublevel Caving Geometry:
The main question in the design of a sublevel caving mining method is the determination of a mining
geometry that will satisfy as much as possible the parameters of gravity flow. This means that one
needs first to determine the width and thickness of the extraction ellipsoid for a certain extraction
height. These parameters can be determined by in-situ tests.
 Vertical Spacing of Sublevel Drifts
The sublevel extraction drifts should be located in a checkered pattern conforming to the
pattern of gravity flow. Using traditional sublevel caving methods, in vertical locations (Fig. 5)
sublevel drifts should be located in the zone where the extraction ellipsoid has a maximum
width, WT. This occurs at about 2/3 hT. In principle, this location indicates approximately the
Fig. 2: Schematic Layout of Stopes at Oscar Project, LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden
height hS of the sublevel.
 Horizontal Spacing of Sublevel Drifts Disadvantages: (3B) Block Caving
An approximate horizontal spacing (SD) of the sublevel drift axis can be determined knowing HT Block Caving is a general term that refers to a mass mining system where the extraction of ore
1. Relatively high dilution of the ore by caved waste (refer Fig. 6), especially when higher recovery
and WT. depends largely on the action of gravity. By removing a thin horizontal layer at the mining level of
is needed.
1. For hS ≤ 18m, SD < WT/0.6 the column by drilling and blasting, the vertical support of the ore column above is removed and
2. All ore must be drilled and blasted in order to obtain a coarse material suitable for extraction
2. For hS > 18m, SD < WT/0.65 the ore then caves by gravity. Generalized view of Block Caving shown in Fig. 8.
by gravity flow.
In conventional sublevel caving SD ≤ hS
3. Various types of ore loss can occur. When the extraction limit (that point yielding the maximum
acceptable amount of dilution) is reached, the remaining highly diluted ore represents an ore
loss.
4. A relatively large amount of development is required (refer Fig. 1).
5. Mining generates progressive caving in overlying rock and results in subsidence and damage to
the surface (refer Fig. 7).

To maximize ore recovery, minimize dilution, and achieve a high efficiency of mining, good data
regarding the gravity flow parameters for the blasted ore and the caved waste are of utmost
importance (Read the article “Block Cave Ops Benefit from Real-time Data” for more details).

Fig. 5: Vertical location of sublevel drifts conforming to pattern of gravity flow

Advantages:
1. Safety:
Because all mining activities are executed from relatively small openings, sublevel caving is one Fig. 8: Generalized view of Block Caving design
of the safest mining methods.
An under-cut with haulage access is driven under the orebody with “draw bells” (inverted cones)
2. Mechanization: excavated underneath the undercut. The draw bells serve as a place for caving rock to fall into. The
Major mining activities may be broken down into four groups of unit operations. Fig. 6: Dilution of the Ore by Caved Waste during Sublevel Caving ore body is drilled and blasted at the under-cut level and the ore is removed via the haulage access.
 Drifting and reinforcing, Due to the friability of the ore body, the ore above the first blast caves and falls into the draw bells.
 Fan drilling, As ore is removed from the draw bells, the ore body caves in providing a steady stream of ore.
 Production blasting,
 Ore drawing, loading and transportation.
Application:
Because of the repetitive nature, all activities can be standardized. This means that a high 1. It can be applied to steeply dipping, typically low-grade massive ore bodies of large horizontal
degree of mechanization is possible. In modern sublevel caving, cross-sections of the drifts and dimensions which are structurally weak.
tunnels are sufficiently large enough to allow the introduction of trackless equipment (LHD,
2. Both the ore and the rock of the deposit and overburden should cave freely. Rocks in this
rubber-tyred loaders etc.)
category are highly jointed, fractured or thin-bedded rocks with low bond strength across joints.
3. Flexibility:
3. The rock material should break but not repack – allowing some grinding action during the
Standardization and specialization of mining activities and equipment on separate levels
caving cycle.
together with a trackless haulage system (LHD) creates a high degree of flexibility.
4. The lateral extent of the ore body must be large enough to insure that a cave can be established.
4. Organization:
The work can easily be organized into a system which excludes interference between mining 5. Generally the minimum horizontal dimension of the mining area should be about 90 m.
activities. Fig. 7: Progressive Failure Process in Sublevel Caving
Cavability:
After determining that the size of the ore body is large enough to justify consideration for block
caving, then the cavability must be established. Determining the rock quality designation (RQD) of 3D view
the drill core has become rather standard practice when block caving is being considered.

At least three sets of major fractures are necessary to justify the use of block caving. Two vertical
sets at approximately 90° orientations to each other and a third set lying approximately horizontal
will form rectangular blocks when the fractures separate. Strong, less-fractured rock may cave very
slowly whereas weak highly-fractured rock may cave very rapidly.

There is no method to predetermine how rapidly a given ore body will cave. Experience at other
mines with similar type rock will be the best guideline, and after that, experience at the mine will
be the final criterion.

Systems of Block Caving

There are three systems of Block Caving, determined by the production equipment used. They are
Grizzly or gravity system, Slusher drift system and Rubber-tyred system (LHD).

1. The Grizzly or the Gravity system

It is a full gravity system wherein the ore from the draw points flows directly to the transfer
raises after sizing at the grizzly and then is gravity loaded into ore cars (Fig. 8). Sledge hammers
are used to break up oversized pieces at the grizzly. Some large pieces which may hang up in
the finger raises, usually are broken up by secondary blasting using packaged dynamite placed
strategically against the oversized rocks. The system is generally used for fine material.

Examples: San Manuel Copper Mine in Arizona, USA and the Andina Copper Mine in Chile

2. Slusher drift system

The system uses slusher scrapers for the main production unit for rock that will break into
moderate-size pieces. The system consists of the haulage level, slusher drifts immediately
above, finger raises and the undercut level. The slusher drifts are driven at right angles to the Plan view
haulage at even intervals (Fig.9).

Example: Climax molybdenum mine in Colorado, USA Fig. 10: Block caving, with machine loading in draw drifts.

3. Rubber-tyred system (LHD) General:

This system uses load-haul-dump units (LHD) as the main production unit in case that the ore
breaks into large pieces (Fig.10). In this system, diesel equipment require substantial room to
maneuver and therefore will require wider draw point spacing.
Rubber-tyred system consists of a haulage level, ore transfer raises, the production level, draw
point entries, draw cones to the under-cut level and undercut drifts. The haulage level should
be located well below the production level so that adequate storage is available in the
centralized ore passes. This will provide sufficient loading capacity so that loading transport are
not directly dependent on LHDs for loading.
Example: The Henderson molybdenum mine in Colorado, the Erstberg copper mine in
Indonesia and the El Teniente mine in Chile
 Production level: The haulage level is located under the production level, the distance
depending to some extent on which system is used. In the grizzly system, the grizzly level
becomes the production level. With the slusher system, the slusher drifts may be considered
the production level. The production level for the LHD system is the LHD drifts that provide
access to the draw points.
 The undercut drifts are driven a suitable distance over the tops of the draw points. They are to
be used for the long-hole drilling that will affect the final undercut blast to produce caving.
 Long-hole drilling is the last step before undercut blasting. The height of the blasted zone can
vary from 2 m to 15 m. If the ore is very blocky and caving may be difficult to initiate, then a
higher undercut may be justified.

 Boundary weakening: It has two purposes; one is to minimize the side-flow of waste material
into the broken ore column and the second and more important is to facilitate caving.
Fig. 9: Block caving, with scraper loading in slusher drifts.
  Ventilation: A good ventilation system and frequent monitoring of air quality is essential with (3C) Top Slicing Underground mining: Supported Openings
a block –caving system. The production face for all three systems will generate a substantial The only mining method available in the mid-1800’s and earlier for mining thick bulk ore. Top slicing is a
amount of dust especially if the ore is dry. high-cost method and is seldom used today. 2. ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED STOPES
 Importance of the height of Block: The greater is the height of ore column, greater is the Application: Supported methods are used when production openings will not remain standing during their life and
potential for ore dilution. The critical height of ore is such that the mineral content will pay for  Steeply dipping deposits, ore width greater than 3 – 4 m when major caving or subsidence cannot be tolerated. A supported opening is one in which a significant
the development, production, milling, and overheads and still provide profits. The grade of the  Weak ore and walls part of the incumbent load is carried on an artificial support system. Backfill has the greatest ability to
ore and selling price of the product will have a substantial effect on critical height. It is obvious  High ore value support once subsidence and compaction have occurred.
that the higher the ore column, the cheaper the development cost per tonne will be. Shorter
columns are desirable to keep dilution low. Advantage: (2A) Cut-and-Fill Mining Method
 Low loss and dilution Cut-and-fill mining method is another artificially-supported method of mining of which general and
 Dilution Control: It is not possible to predetermine the dilution factor, but some estimate can
Disadvantages: sectional views are shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively below in their different variations.
be made based on experience in other similar mines. The dilution factor can typically vary from
10 to 25% of the total ore drawn. The amount of dilution that can be accepted often is a  Stope production and personnel productivity are low
function of ore grades, grade of the dilution material, costs and metal prices. The only method  Costs are high Raise for fill, transport,
to ensure good ore recovery with minimal dilution is carefully monitored ore control. The draw ventilation etc.
must be evenly distributed over the entire area, making sure that the rate of draw from point
to point will not vary much.

 Number of Active Draw Points: The number of draw points required for a given level of
production will depend on the rate that the ore will cave, the amount of tonnage that will flow
Stope Drilling
through the draw point per day, and the productive capacity of the equipment.
Ore pass Ramp
Ore pass Manway
Advantages:
1. Low-cost high production method
Filling material
Disadvantages:
Transport drift
1. Potential for excessive dilution,
2. Significant loss of ore,
3. Surface subsidence as a great environmental impact and loss of productive land.

Block caving example: Chuquicamata Underground will begin block cave mining below the pit in 2018
Fig. 1: General view of Cut-and-Fill stoping

Applications:
1. Mining of steeply dipping ore bodies, (greater than the angle of repose of the broken ore.)
Fig. 11: Top slicing 2. That have considerable vertical extent,
3. Large irregular-shaped ore bodies,
Ore is extracted by excavating a series of horizontal (sometimes inclined) timbered slices alongside each 4. Suitable to ore bodies that meet one of the following conditions:
other, beginning at the top of the ore body and working progressively downward; the slices are caved by I. Require selective mining,
blasting out the supporting timbers or allowing them to crush, bringing the capping or overburden down
II. Have weak walls,
upon the bottoms of the slices, which have previously been covered with a floor or timber mat to separate III. Have poor continuity,
the cave from the solid ore beneath and prevent admixture of waste with the ore (Fig. 11). Successive IV. Other mining methods produce excessive dilution.
slices are mined in a similar manner up to the overlying gob or mat, which consists of an accumulation of
Level 1
1,840 m broken timbers, flooring, and lagging used in the overlying slices and of caved capping or overburden. As Development:
the slices are mined and caved, this mat follows the mining downward, filling the space formerly occupied 1. Foot-wall haulage drive along the ore body at the main level.
Level 2 by the ore. The mat also serves to control the movement of the caved overburden and to prevent dilution 2. Undercut of the stope area with drains of water,
1,625 m of the ore with barren capping. 3. Spiral ramp in the foot wall, with access drive to undercut.
Level 3 4. Raise connection to level above, for ventilation and filling material and as manways.
1,409 m
Top slicing is applicable to the mining of soft, weak ore that will stand unsupported for only a very short 5. Ore passes to the haulage level.
time, even over narrow spans, and that is overlain by an unconsolidated overburden or a weak capping
Level 4 that will break up and cave promptly after removal of support, tightly filling the space formerly occupied
1,193 m by the slice and leaving no open holes.
 UPPER HAULAGE LEVEL Practice at Bogala Mines, Sri Lanka:

ORE

JACK LEG SLUSHER

SCRAPER
MANWAY

Fig. 5: Mining Block

OREPASS
OREPASS

SERVICE

SAND FILL SAND FILL

LOWER HAULAGE LEVEL CHUTES Fig. 3: Cut-and-Fill stoping

Fig. 2: Longitudinal Section of a typical non-mechanized breast stope

Method/Production:
Cut-and-Fill stoping includes methods in which a single excavation pass (cut) is completed and back-
filled before another cut is made. (It removes the ore in horizontal slices starting from a bottom cut
and advances upwards).

In Overhand-Cut-and-Fill stoping, the drill-and-blast-mucking cycle is a sub-cycle of the Cut-and-Fill

cycle.

Horizontal cuts 1.8 m to 4.6 m (6 to 15 ft) in height are mined advancing away from an access point.
The excavated ore falls and rests on back fill placed during the previous cut-and-fill cycle. As cut and
fill cycles are completed, the stope is advanced upwards. This means that an ore block is developed
from the bottom. Fig. 6: Stope Profile
The back-fill material may be broken rock from development excavations, sand and/or gravel, soil or
classified mill tailings. Sand tailings are conveyed and distributed via plastic pipes. The wall
supporting function of the back-fill aids in the prevention of massive wall failures in stopes. Dilution
in Overhand-Cut-and-Fill Mining frequently occurs when ore gets mixed with backfill during the
mining process. Fig. 4: Cut-and-Fill stoping
In small scale operations, integral rock drills are used for breast drilling and with a higher level of Cases of Application:
mechanization; drifting jumbos are used for rapid drilling. When the water has drained from the sand 1. Sunshine Mine-Kellog, Idaho, USA-Narrow, steeply dipping veins of copper, silver ore. Average
fill, the fill surface is smooth and compact and, a good base for mobile machines such as LHDs for employee productivity –about 10 mt. per employee-shift).
transport is created at stope level. 2. Home Stake mine-South Dakota, USA. Mining fairly wide steeply dipping gold at2100m level.
In competent ore, the stope back may require little or no support. An occasional rock bolt or stull Average stoping labour productivity is 29 mt. per employee-shift.
may be required to support a loosened slab. 3. Bogala Graphite Mine, Sri Lanka-Mining of graphite Vein system at Aruggammana, Kegalle, Sri
lanka.
If backs and ribs are in poor condition, and breasting must be used, installing timber sets after each
blast provides support for the back and ribs.
Fig. 7: Stope
Depending on geological, geo-technical conditions, different technologies and techniques are applied.
These are country-wide/regional variations. Some practices are shown in Fig. 1 to Fig. 4.
 Stoping Process:
From the shaft, horizontal cross-cuts are excavated approximately 60 m intervals apart linking the
shaft to the steeply dipping graphite vein system. In further development, horizontal drifts (drives)
are excavated along the vein from the cross-cuts 40-50 m intervals along the dip of the vein.
Those adjacent parallel drifts are connected by winzes (openings along the vein) at 40 to 50 m intervals
creating 30 m × 45 m graphite blocks in the vein. In the application of the Overhand Cut-and Fill
method ore extraction takes place from bottom towards up while the intact vein is hanging over the
stope and the lower void is filled with rock debris as the mining of the block progresses upwards.
The average vein thickness in Bogala mines is about 30 cm. But, in the mining process, a width of 1.3
m to a height of 1.8 m is mined out to give enough working space for the mining operation.
From the mine only graphite is hoisted and the blasted rock material is used for back filling of the
lower level reducing the cost of hoisting and improving the level of safety by back filling.
In stoping, explosives are used to break the HW and FW rocky part of the profile while the graphite
vein is not charged as blasting of the profile, broken rock gets mixed with graphite giving rise to
dilution, reducing recovery.
Application: (2C) Square-set Stoping
1. Rock Strength: hanging wall and foot wall being relatively competent. Philipp Deidesheimer, a German mining engineer designed this mining system for the Ophir Mine in
2. Deposit shape: aprox. tubular; can be irregular. Virginia City, NY in 1860. What he designed, the square set timber method can be considered as the
3. Deposit dip: works best at ˂ 450(but flat to steep dipping). most elaborate timbering system ever used.
4. Deposit size: relatively thin (usually 3.6 m or less; for thicknesses greater than 3.6 m, other
Each timber set consists of a vertical post and two horizontal members known as cap and girt. The
support systems are necessary)
timber ends are sawed to allow adjoining timbers to interlock (Fig. 10). They are framed at mutual
5. Ore grade: fairly high
right angles, and when joined with other sets form a continuous timber frame work that conforms to
6. Ore continuity: moderate; can sort ore and waste in the stope
the irregular shape of the stope. The posts are 6 to 7 ft (1.83 to 2.13 m) high, while caps and girts are
7. Depth: moderate, less than 1.1 km
4 to 6 ft(1.22 to 1.83 m) long. Caps and girts are placed on top of the posts. Square sets vary in
dimensions from mine to mine, but in general should give a clear opening of at least 5 ft (1.52m) each
between posts to afford sufficient working space in the stope. The system of timber support can be
adapted to large and irregular ore bodies resulting in an elaborate network extending the full height
and width of a stope.

(2B) Stull Stoping

Stull stoping is a form of stoping used in hard-rock mining that uses systematic or random timbering
("stulls") placed between the foot and hanging wall of the vein (or stope opening). The method
requires that the hanging wall and often the footwall be of competent rock as the stulls provide the
only artificial support.

Prior to 1860, open stoping using stulls was the common underground mining method in many areas
of mining. In the Western United States, many high-grade deposits were developed with similar
exotic mining systems. On many instances back filling had to be used to reduce ground movements. Fig. 10: Square-set timbering and Vertical transverse section through typical square-set stope
Timbering systems, in one fashion or another, are still commonly used. Fig. 9: Stull Stoping

Dolcoath Mine Disaster:

This type of stope has been used up to a depth of 3,500 feet (1,077 m) and at intervals up to 12 feet Application:
(3.7 m) wide. The 1893 mining disaster at Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, England was caused by failure 1. Steeply-dipping ore bodies under difficult working conditions.
of the stulls holding up a huge weight of waste rock. 2. Ore deposit is structurally weak,
3. Faulting and fracturing of the surrounding rock makes it weak,
Advantages: 4. Deposits with irregular boundaries,
1. Simple method; adaptable to small, irregular ore bodies
2. Low capital cost; low development cost
3. Selective; versatile for thin tabular deposits at any angle Advantages:
4. Low dilution  Provides high recovery of ore.
5. Max. ore extraction possible
6. Trained crews can easily install the system Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:  High cost in labour and materials. (seldom used in modern mining due to this),
Fig. 8: Stull
1. Require adequate timber supply and it’s cost  Low productivity,
The timbers are normally called posts in a near vertical position or stulls in a pitching deposit. Stull 2. Low productivity
stoping is infrequently used and relatively unimportant today. 3. Low production rate
4. High mining cost
5. Labour-intensive and slow
6. Timber alone cannot support heavy ground in deeper mines
(2D) Undercut and Fill Mining Examples:
This is a method of extracting a block of ore by mining successive slices (1.8 to 4.6 m in height) from 1. Hecla’s Lucky Friday Mine in Mullan, Idaho, USA.
the “top down” and filling each successive cut with cemented sand fill. (Method was developed in 2. In deep mines of Idaho (USA) Coeur D’alene district.
the late 1950s by Inco Ltd., Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.)

(2E) Long-wall Mining

Longwall mining in its original concept is employed primarily to extract coal, although with
modifications the method is used to extract metallic minerals e.g. uranium and gold. It is an
underground method of excavating coal from tabular deposits, as well as soft mineral deposits such
as potash.

Fig. 13: The process of Longwall coal mining

Fig. 11: Longitudinal section of an undercut-and-fill stope

A vertical or steeply dipping vein is developed on levels 45 to 60 m, apart with a system of lateral
drifts driven in the wall rock parallel to the vein structure on each level. Extraction cross cuts are
driven through the vein on 30 to 90 m intervals. Raises for the ore passes are driven in the vein up
to the upper level, or are bored in the vein from the level above. In mines where the ore is not
competent, the raises are located in the wall rock. Loading chutes are then installed at the bottom
of the ore pass raises.

The initial floor is established on the upper level. It is mined by driving a conventional drift and the
opening is supported by square sets or by rock bolts and mats. The ore is removed by use of slushers,
or LHD equipment in mechanized stopes, through ore passes to the level below. When the initial cut
is completed, a timber and/or fabric mat is placed on the floor of the cut, and the opening is filled
tightly with cemented sand fill.
Drilling is done with either jack-legs or jumbos. Before drilling commences, the face and walls are
barred down, and the underside of the mat is checked to remove any loose sand fill.
Temporary ground support is provided by posts and/or rock bolts. As mining progresses, round
wood posts are placed under the previous cut. Rock bolts may also be used to supplement the posts.
In narrow veins, posts may not be required and rock bolts are used to provide temporary support
until the mat is constructed and the cemented sand fill is poured.
The cemented sand fill supports the major portion of the load. The posts and mat have the double
function of carrying the weight not supported by the sand fill and also prevent any pronounced
settling of the fill mass. The fill placed in each of the successive cuts must be competent in order for
this method to be successful. There must be adequate cemented sand fill material available at the
stope by having a dependable sand plant and distribution system.
Application:
1. Undercut and Fill Stoping can be used where either the wall rock or vein is too unconsolidated
to permit safe mining by overhand cut and fill mining methods.
2. To the ore bodies that vary in width and to those that dip from vertical to flat lying.
Fig. 12: Longwall mine panel layout
Large rectangular blocks of coal are defined during the development stage of the mine and are then
extracted in a single continuous operation. Generally each defined block of coal, known as a panel,
is created by driving a set of tunnels, known as headings, from main or trunk roadways in the mine,
some distance into the panel. These roadways are then joined to form the starting face of longwall
face. As the coal is cut, the longwall face is supported with hydraulically-operated supports. The
function of these supports is to provide a safe working environment by supporting the roof as coal is
extracted as well as advancing the longwall equipment.
There are two methods of longwall mining, namely, Long Wall Advance Mining (Fig. 13) and Retreat
Mining (Fig. 12). In Long Wall Retreat Mining, longwall face is installed and as mining continues into
the panel the entries are allowed to collapse behind the face line to form part of the gob.
Fig. 14: The process of Longwall coal mining
The ore is excavated in slices, usually along a straight work face. The excavated area close to the face
is supported to provide space for ore removal. At some distance from the face, the roof may be
allowed to cave.
Soft rock:
The major elements are a shearing machine (Fig. 15) or plough, an Armoured face conveyor (AFC)
(Fig. 16) and roof supports (Fig. 17). The long face is established across a panel between sets of
entries and retreated or advanced by narrow cuts aided by the complete caving of the roof and
hanging wall.
Longwalling is considered a supporting stoping method because of the massive props used to support
the roof over the face, although controlled caving of the roof is also involved.
The basic requirement for longwall mining to be considered as a method include deposit size and
thickness, back and overburden strata, dip, face characteristics, abrasiveness and hardness, and gas
conditions.

Fig. 15: Shearing Machine
Fig. 16: Armoured Face Conveyor
Fig. 17: Roof Support
Applications:
1. Thin-bedded deposits of uniform thickness, normally occurring as a flat seam of large horizontal
extent.(thickness from 0.9m. to 2.5m. and dipping less than 120).
2. The method can be used for hard or soft rock conditions since the working can be supported
well.(South African gold mines are examples of long wall mining in hard rock, while soft rock long
wall mining can be seen in coal mines)
3. The rock material overlying the deposit should be thin-bedded, relatively incompetent and cave
freely and completely behind the prop line.
4. The rock floor should be competent to support the prop loads.
Hard rock:
The Cat Rock Straight System is a fully mechanized longwall system designed for continuous mining
of flat and tabular deposits and reefs of hard rock minerals.
The system combines the use of a hard rock shearer that uses “CAT” activated undercutting
technology, which is specifically designed for the extraction of bedded hard rock deposits.
A low-profile hard rock chain conveyor and hard rock hydraulic roof supports complete the system,
which delivers simultaneous cutting, loading and hauling- controlled by the proven CAT longwall
automation system.
The efficient mining system is designed to replace conventional drill-and-blast operations in low
heights, ranging from 1.3 to 2.0m and in bedded deposits such as some types of platinum, copper
and gold deposits.
The system can follow the seam and maximize ore mined while keeping dilution to a minimum.
Additional benefits include reduced health and safety risks. The electrically powered rock cutter and
hard rock conveyor have no exhaust emissions, and there is no need for explosives use in the
production cycle. Compared to conventional hard rock mining, fewer people are needed
underground, and remote control places the operator in a climate controlled cabin.
The activation movement optimizes velocity, momentum and impact of each pick- while moving the
pick away quickly to minimize wear and heating. The result is reduced energy consumption and
replacement cost of cutting tools.
The “HRM220” incorporates electronic modules that enable control, monitoring and protection of
the miner. Remote operation and diagnosis of major components can be done from the operator
cabin via on-screen information. Of course data can be transferred to a surface location for analysis
when needed.
 Underground mining: Unsupported Methods Horizontal sections of the ore are also left, to support mine workings above the producing stopes (1A3) Long-Hole Stoping
are called crown pillars. Enlarging the stope dimensions influences mining efficiency favourably. This is fundamentally an adoption of sub –level stoping often referred to as blast–hole stoping. The
1. SELF-SUPPORTED OPENINGS Miners therefore aim for largest possible stopes. The stability of the rock mass is a limiting factor drilling pattern used is a series of ring-like fans. Heavy drifters drilling holes up to 50 m are used
to be considered while dimensioning the stopes and pillars. and the method achieves continuous high production.
(1A) Open-stope Mining
An Open Stope is an underground opening from which ore is removed without use of material for
wall or roof support.

(1A1) Isolated Openings

Fig. 4: Sublevel stoping (blasthole method) using ring drilling and blasting into a slot

Fig. 1: Isolated Openings without pillars

Fig. 2: Schematic of Sub-level Stoping
These are essentially un-pillared from isolated pockets. Un-supported underground openings which
have ore extracted from isolated pockets, lenses and shoots of ore (Fig-1). When the surrounding
rock is strong enough to permit the drilling, blasting, and removal of ore without caving, in mines
where the rock requires no artificial support, the operation is known as open stoping.

(1A2) Sub-level Stoping (SLOS)

Sub-level Stoping is used for mining mineral deposits with following characteristics.

Applications:
1) Steep-dipping narrow, wide-vein and bedded deposits, the foot wall inclination must exceed
the angle of repose.
2) Stable (competent) rock both in the Hanging Wall and Foot Wall.
3) Competent ore.
4) Regular ore boundaries.

Two basic configurations are possible: Longitudinal and Transverse

In both stope configurations ore is mined from sub levels by benching and flows by gravity to the
draw points. Longitudinal sub-level stoping is used for comparatively narrow steeply dipping Fig. 3: Schematic of Sub-level Stoping (Transverse stope)
deposits. The stopes run parallel to the strike of the deposit. Stopes up to about 20 metres have
been mined in this manner. Between stopes, ore sections are set aside for pillars to support the
Fig. 5: Blasthole stoping method using ring drilling and blasting into a slot
hanging wall. Pillars (support columns/ ore left unmined) required are rib and floor pillars and
extraction of the order of 75%. Pillars are normally shaped as vertical beams, across the ore body.
Development:
1. Haulage drift must be developed at the main level below the bottom of the stope.
2. Raises must be developed to provide access to sub –levels and subsequent development of the sub-
levels.
3. Drilling drifts must be driven through the ore or sub-levels.
4. An under-cut must be made at the bottom of the stope.
5. A loading draw-point system must be developed to allow the ore at the bottom of the stope to be
recovered safely.
6. A Slot-Raise must be developed at the end of the stope. Subsequently, the slot-raise is enlarged to a
full-slot to open up the area for blasting.
Production:
In sub-level stoping, the mining is accomplished from level at pre-determined vertical intervals. Sub-levels
may be developed between the main levels. Ore is drilled and blasted from drifts on the sub-levels. The
ore broken in large vertical slices falls to the bottom of the empty stope, where it can be recovered for
transport out of the mines.
To prevent the stope walls collapsing, large ore bodies normally are divided into separate stopes. Between
the stopes, part of ore is left as pillars. These pillars can be designed as both vertical and horizontal
separations. The pillars can be recovered either partially or fully. Normally the pillar recovery takes place
during the final stage of the mining operation.
When ring drilling is used the entire cross-section of the stope is drilled with holes that radiate from the
drilling drifts. Drilling is done by special long-hole rock drills, (equipped with extension drill steels in 1.2-
1.8 m. The diameter of the drill holes is approximately 55-60 mm). The hole length varies with the hole
pattern. The Application of down-the-Hole(DTH) hammers provide a hole diameter between 102 and 178
mm and hole length between 45 to 60 m. The drilling often can be done in advance of the actual mining
operation.
Ore-handling:
1. The ore may be loaded through chutes and into mine cars. Boulders can be frequent in sub-level
stoping and they can make this system inconvenient. Since secondary breaking in the chutes is quite
complicated, the presence of boulders in the ore lowers the overall production capacity.
2. Slushers (scrapers) may be used to load the ore into the mine cars. This system makes handling of
boulders much simpler.
3. Overhead loaders may be used for loading. This is practiced in many large mining operations.
Advantages:
1. Drilling, Blasting and loading can be performed independent of each other.
2. Can be used mechanized equipment.
3. High productivity.
Disadvantages:
1. Boulders may reduce the production capacity.
2. Complicated and comprehensive development work.
3. Need clear ore boundaries.
Examples:
1. Kid-Creek mines-USA: Massive metal sulfide mine. Reaching a depth of 219 m by open-cast mining.
Mining has switched over to underground mining using the method Sub-Level Stoping with stopes
averaging 18 to 24 m wide, 30 m long and 91 m high.
2. Kahatagaha Mine, Dodangaslanda, sri lanka: A steep-dipping vein type deposit is mined by open
stoping method.
(1A4) Vertical Crater Retreat Mining (VCR – Mining)
History:
The VCR mining method was developed by INCO and CIL Inc. and is based on C.W. Livingston’s
crater blasting theories. It was first used in 1974, at the Levack mine located in the Sudbury Basin’s
North Range and it provided productivity benefits almost immediately.
Mining productivity, measured in pounds of nickel and copper produced per manshift, has
improved by approximately 80% at the Sudbury basin between 1980 and 1990, after their
conversion to VCR mining.
The mining method soon spread worldwide; being adopted for use for the first time in the U.S. in
1977 at the Homestake mine. It is currently the dominant mining method of the Sudbury basin, as
both Inco and Falconbridge regard VCR as their mining method of choice.
Introduction:
Vertical crater retreat (VCR), also known as Vertical retreat mining, is an open stoping, bottom-
up mining method that involves vertically drilling large-diameter holes into the orebody from the
top, and then blasting horizontal slices of the orebody into an undercut.
Similar to Sublevel open stoping and Blasthole stoping methods, VCR mining is used for steeply-
dipping (>45°), or both vertically and horizontally large orebodies with competent ore and waste
rock strength. It differs from other open stoping methods in that it is a bottom-up method, as
opposed to a left-to-right method, and it does not require the excavation of sublevel drifts before
blasting and mucking can take place. The thickness of one horizontal slice varies between 2 and 5
meters in height.
Fig. 6: Generalized schematic of VCR mining method
The concept of VCR:
The concept of VCR, is simple. On a specific pattern layout, large diameter vertical holes are drilled
from a cut (top sill) into the ore to breakthrough at the undercut (bottom sill) anywhere from 33 m
to 122 m below.
Mining Process:
With the development of drills capable of drilling large –diameter 200 mm holes up to 60 m in
length, Conventional blasthole stoping has been replaced in part by a more efficient stoping method.
Ore body – The block must have a shape (A vertical barrel-like shape) that can be basically defined
from two sills spaced a significant vertical distance apart shown in Fig. 6.
The vertical separation between the sills is dependent upon ore consistency, drilling accuracy,
accessibility, and hanging wall competency. The stope has a similar shape, but when compared with
blast hole stoping, instead of small drilled holes in fans, large blast holes are drilled vertically from
a top sill to break through into a bottom sill in the sub-level below.
Longhole production drill rigs are used for the production blastholes. These machines are equipped
with a powerful hydraulic rock drill, as well as a carousel storage for extension rods. In addition,
drilling can be performed by remote controls, so that the operator may remain in a safe
position. Down-the-Hole Drills can also be used for the blastholes, which operate by breaking the
hard rock into small flakes and then blowing them clear using an exhaust system.
Drilling is done from the top sill all the way down to the bottom sill. The cross-sectional dimensions
of the top sill must be 11ft (3.4m) high and 15ft (4.5m) wide in order for the drill mast to achieve
clearance and maneuverability. The most common drill hole diameter used in VCR mining is 165mm,
however 140mm diameter holes have been used as well as 205 mm diameter holes, in some rare
cases. The benefit of using 165mm diameter drill holes is that it allows for a simple 4 x 4 m drill hole
spacing. Drill holes can be up to 60 m (200 ft) in length.
Holes drilled from the top sill right down to the bottom sill are called “breakout” holes. As drill holes
are so lengthy, accuracy is very important. Drill accuracy is determined by the drill pattern laid out
in the top sill. Often times mines will check the bottom sill for proper alignment before drilling of
the hole is complete. This is done to determine if there is a large amount of deviation from the
planned pattern, in which case additional holes would need to be drilled to correctly cover the stope.
First the hole is blocked at proper height. Blocking is the process of securing two wedges of wood
approx. 3 ft long attached to the bottom of a rope and lowered into the hole at the desired location
near the bottom. After blocking, explosive charges are lowered, stemming of sand and water placed
on top of the charge. The concentrated “spherical” charge (L/D ratio not less than 6:1) positioned
at a specified distance from the surface underneath and detonated creates crater-shaped openings
in the rock charge. Holes are grouped with charges at the same elevation and distance to rock
surface.
This allows the ore to be broken into the bottom sub-level in successive horizontal slices (approx.
0.3 m) using the same blast hole for each successive deck or blast. Only the bottom of each hole is
loaded for each successive blast. Cable bolts are used to stabilize the back and hanging wall of the
top sill during the blasting cycle.
The blasted ore falls into the draw-point level below, where it can be mucked out. Mucking provides
room in the stope for the next blast. Dilution is controlled by removing just enough ore to create a
sufficient void for the following blast. Finally, stopes are mucked clean and prepared for cement-
stabilized back-filling (Fig. 7).
 4. Ore is tied up in the stope until final draw-down, which represents loss income and can tie up Variant 1: Short hole blasting from Shrinkage Stope
significant funds,
5. The powerful VCR charges involve higher risks for damaging surrounding rock than the SLOS
method.

Example:
1. Homestake Mining Company: Homestake mine located in the Northern Black Hills of South
Dakota, USA. Underground gold property with an annual production of approximately 1.9
million mt per annum.

(1A5) Shrinkage Stoping

Application:
1. The ore body must have a steep dip.
2. The hanging wall and foot wall must be stable.
3. The ore body must have regular boundaries. Fig. 9: Cross-section of short-hole blasting; 1: Haulage drift, 2: Haulage drift of the upper level,
4. Usually applied to ore bodies on narrow veins or ore bodies where other methods cannot be 3: Raises, 4: Chutes, 5: Rim Pillars, 6: Drift Pillar.
used or might be impractical or uneconomical.
5. The method can be easily applied to ore zones as narrow as 1.2 m (4 ft.), but also can be Development:
successfully used in ore widths upto 30 m (100ft.) 1. A haulage drift must be developed along the bottom of the stope,
6. Logically, the broken ore should be free flowing and not pack in the stope. Neither the ore nor 2. Crosscut must be made into ore under the stope,
adjacent country rock should contain undue amount of clay or other sticky material to cause 3. Finger raises and cones must be developed from the cross cuts to the undercut,
Fig. 7: VCR version of sublevel stoping the ore to hang together in the stope nor difficult or impossible to draw. 4. The stope must be undercut, taking a complete bottom slice at a distance of 5 to 10 m above
7. Ore should not readily oxidize, which may cause the broken pile to re-cement itself, and the haulage drift,
Blasted ore is collected at the drawpoints using LHD vehicles, and then transported to orepasses,
consequently “hang up.” 5. A raise must be provided, passing from the haulage drift, through the undercut, and to the main
sometimes to be crushed, before it is transported to surface for processing. Upon completion of
8. Ore should be fairly continuous along the strike of the vein or ore body in order to avoid level above. This raise provides both access and ventilation to the stope.
the ore extraction, the stope is often backfilled from the top drift, providing rock stability for
upcoming blasts. This process is repeated until the orebody is mined. Dilution is controlled by extensive amounts of waste as dilution. Production:
removing just enough ore to create a sufficient void for the following blast. In this method, standard practice is to use air-leg rock drills. Ore is excavated in horizontal slices,
starting at the bottom of the stope and advancing upwards. (Overhand method); whereby, most of
Load-Haul-Dump (LHD) Vehicles are the most commonly used mucking equipment in
the broken ore remains in the stope to provide a working platform for miners. Another reason for
VCR mining. These four-wheel drive, rubber-tired machines are either electric or diesel powered
leaving the broken ore in the stope is to provide additional wall support until the stope is completed
and maintain a low profile.
and ready for draw-down. The conventional method of handling ore entails direct loading into rail
Productivity of a stope in a VCR mining is directly related to the stope size. Large stopes have high cars from chutes at the bottom of finger raises.
tonnages that can support high mucking rates for long periods of time, resulting in higher
Normally, about 35% of the ore derived from the stope can be drawn off (“shrunk”) as mining
productivity rates.
progresses. When the stoping has advanced to the upper limit of the planned stope, drilling and
Advantages: blasting is discontinued and the remaining 60 to 70% of the ore can be recovered.
1. Cheapest and most productive mining methods.
Small ore bodies can be mined as a complete shrinkage stope, but large ore bodies usually are
2. Bulk, high-capacity mining method with good recoveries,
divided into separate stopes with intermediate pillars that stabilize the hanging wall.
3. Efficient stoping method that is very susceptible to mechanization and can have high
productivities. The level interval is 50-60 m and it is divided into 40-100m interval by raises.
4. Offers good wall support during the stoping phase using shrinkage,
The method is labor-intensive and cannot be readily mechanized.
5. Safe method with miners working under fully-supported roof that can be fully-ventilated.

Disadvantages/Constraints:
1. Flat hanging walls tend to increase dilution,
2. Ore widths of less than 5 m do not crater blast well,
3. Requires extensive diamond drilling, pre-stope planning and development lead time for
maximum effectiveness, Fig. 8: Shrinkage Stoping
Variant 2: Systems with breaking of ore from special workings
1 of ore from special workings.
Fig. 10: Cross-section of Systems with breaking of ore from special workings; 1: Timbered raises,
2: Boundary raises of the block, 3: Blast holes
Compared with Variant-1, here the ore mass is drilled not from broken ore surface but from special
workings, usually of small section. These systems are used for mining thick ore bodies and less
stable ore.
Three timbered raises are arranged in between the boundary raises in a block of 50 m long with 6-
8 m lead over the stope. These raises act as the special workings and drilling of 4 m deep blast holes
is done from these raises.
Disadvantages:
1. More complex and labour-consuming development,
2. Difficulty to check the completeness of ore breaking at contacts,
3. High losses and dilution of ore, especially with irregular and strong contacts.
Variant 3: Deep Blast Hole Breaking Systems
This method is not common and is only applied to thick ore bodies.
Development and Stoping:
1. Haulage drifts are established at 50-60 m intervals.
2. Level is divided into blocks by raises arranged at 60m intervals axially,
3. Drilling rooms are arranged at 7-8m vertical intervals at the ends of the stope in the raises.
4. Horizontal and slightly dipping holes are drilled from both drilling rooms (chambers) at the ends
depth of hole about 25 to 30m in the fan pattern.
5. 30-40% of the ore is discharged from the stope before the holes are blasted
Advantages: (1B) Pillared Open Stopes
1. With deep holes, labour productivity rises, Generally, a mineral deposit of considerable extent such as a narrow or wide-vein deposit or a large
2. Stoping expenses diminishes, pocket or lense of ore, cannot be mined as a single unsupported open stope. To maintain stability,
3. Labour safety improves. support is required within the limits of the deposit, and if this support is effected by leaving areas of
Disadvantages: unexcavated ore or waste, the system of mining is referred to as pillared open stoping.
1. Higher losses and dilution of ore when the ore body –rock contact is irregular.
(1B1) Random Pillars
Evaluation of Shrinkage Systems
Main advantages:
1. A low volume of development work. But the exception is the shrinkage systems with breaking
2. Favourable working conditions for drillers. High efficiency of drilling and blasting operations
and haulage of ore.
3. The simplicity of systems and possibility of switching over to another mining system.
Fig. 11: Open stope with random pillars
Main disadvantages:
1. A fairly limited sphere of application; angle of dip must be at least 55°-60°. Oxidation of ore is Random pillars are used in mining;
impermissible.  Pillars are left in lower grade sections where possible.
2. The impossibility of discharging the ore from the block in individual grades.  Inclined deposits less than 30° which are relatively narrow.
3. Ore dilution.  In reasonably competent rock, a major requirement is that the hanging wall is relatively
competent over a short period of time or is capable of support by rock bolts that are used
Example: extensively in room-and-pillar mining.
La Libertad Mine, Pueblo, Nuevo, Durengo, Mexico in Sierra Madre Mountains. (Virgin silver-gold
deposit developed entirely for shrinkage mining) The span permissible between random pillars varies with the quality of the roof rock. The extraction
and recovery from random pillar open stopes is of the order of 60 to 80 per cent.
(1B2) Regular Pillars
Generally in bedded deposits in which grade and ore thickness are relatively uniform, regular pillar
systems are used (see Fig. 12 & 13). This is generally called Room-and-Pillar Mining method.
The method is cheap, highly-productive, easily-mechanized, and relatively simple to design. Ore
body is mined as completely as possible, leaving parts of the ore as pillars to support the hanging
wall. The pillars are arranged in a regular pattern or grid. They can be any shape but usually square
or rectangular. The dimensions of the rooms and pillars depend on many design factors.
Applications:
1. The method is particularly suited to bedded deposits of moderate thickness (2 to 6m) such as
coal, the main application being salt, potash, shales and limestone.
2. In ore bodies with a horizontal or flat dip that does not exceed 30°.
3. Competent hanging wall and ore.
4. With poor ground conditions, roof bolting is used for increasing the stability of the hanging wall.
5. Only feasible method for mining flat deposits of limited thickness
Three different systems of Room-and-Pillar mining may be used.
1. Horizontal ore bodies
2. Inclined ore bodies
3. Step mining of inclined ore bodies
Pillar design: There are various methods of room and pillar stoping. The most common are full-face slicing or and a bench (or benches), which is the bottom slice (or slices). It is common for mining to be
breast Stoping, illustrated in Fig. 12 & 13. organized so that there is simultaneous mining on the breast and one or two benches (Fig. 12).

Multiple slicing is usually done from the top down (underhand stoping), but mining from the bottom
up (overhand stoping) is equally feasible provided a layer of broken ore is left as a working platform.
Over-hand stoping is, however, more dangerous since new roof is simultaneously exposed, whereas
underhand stoping can be carried out under an undisturbed, supported roof.

With regard to machinery, crawler-mounted drills can be used for drilling vertical or inclined holes.
Load-Haul-Dump Units may be used for transport.

Example:
Buick mine in the Missouri lead Belt in Iron Country south-west of St. Louis, USA. Production is
approximately 5100 mt coming from two shifts with an overall efficiency of 75 mt per employee-
shift. Average thickness is 4.3 m.

It is based on the assumption that the stress in a pillar is evenly distributed and equally to the
original geo-static stress divided by the pillar area/original area ratio; and that pillar failure occurs
when the stress exceeds the compressive strength of the rock.
𝐵𝑝 + 𝐵𝑜
𝜎𝑝𝑎 = 𝜎𝑧 (1) Fig. 12: Open stoping with regular pillars (Room-and-Pillar mining) in flat deposits
𝐵𝑝
Where; Bp: Width of the pillar
Bo: Width of the room
σz: Geo-static or pre-mining stress

This can be stated more simply for the common case of rectangular or irregular-shaped pillars in Ore Handling in Room and Pillar mine
terms of extraction ratio – R, where;
𝐵𝑜
𝑅=
𝐵𝑜 + 𝐵𝑝

R is the ratio of the area extracted to the total of the orebody mined.

Since,
𝐵𝑝
1−𝑅 =
𝐵𝑝 + 𝐵𝑜

Eq. 1 can be rewritten as;

1
𝜎𝑝𝑎 = 𝜎𝑧 ( )
1−𝑅
𝐻 (1 − 2𝛾𝑤 ) 𝛾 𝑝 𝐻 𝐸𝑤
[2𝑅 − 𝐾𝑎 𝐿 − 𝐾 ]
(1 − 𝛾𝑤 ) (1 − 𝛾𝑝 ) 𝑜 𝐿 𝐸𝑝
𝜎𝑝𝑎 = 𝜎𝑧
𝐻 𝐸𝑤 1 𝑅𝐵 (1 − 2𝛾𝑤 )
𝐿 𝐸𝑝 + 2(1 − 𝑅) (1 + 𝑁) + 2 𝐿 (1 − 𝛾𝑤 )
Fig. 13: Open stoping with regular pillars (Room-and-Pillar mining) in an inclined deposit
{ }
Production:
Where: H: beam height In Fig. 12, the rooms are opened to their full vertical height with no mineral or economic value left
L: extent of the mined area in the roof or floor. The reasonable safe limit for full-face slicing is 8 to 10m, depending on drilling Roof Bolting in Room and Pillar mine
K0: ratio between σn and σz are the coefficient of geo-static stress and support equipment, and beyond this, multiple slicing is used. (In the USA, mostly coal, trona,
Ew, Ep, γw and γp: elastic constants of the wall (roof and floor) and pillar materials and potash deposits are mined in one slice. Limestone, lead and zinc mines with thick deposits use
multiple slicing). In multiple slicing, the face is divided into a breast or brow, which is the top slice,