MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

1ST SEMESTER
MANAGERIAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT MATERIAL
SYLLABUS

UNIT – I: Managerial Skills: Importance Of Managerial Skills In Successful Management – Communication As One Of
The Managerial Skills. Communication: Meaning, Definition, Process, Functions, Objectives And Importance Of
Communication – Essential Elements Of Effective Communication – Communication Barriers – Overcoming
Communication Barriers. Significance Of Communication To Managers.

UNIT – II: Media Of Communication: Verbal & Non-Verbal. Oral Communication: Forms – Advantages And
Limitations. Written Communication: Forms – Advantages And Limitations. Non-Verbal Communication: Forms &
Importance Of Non-Verbal Communication – Measures To Improve Non-Verbal Communication.

UNIT – III: Channels Of Communication: Formal And Informal – Barriers To Formal And Informal Communication –
Steps To Improve The Effectiveness Of Formal And Informal Communication – 7C’s Of Communication.

UNIT – IV: Listening: Importance, Barriers And The Principles Of Good Listening – Guidelines For Effective Listening –
The Art Of Listening. Presentation: Oral And Written – Steps In Presentation – Guidelines For Successful
Presentation.

UNIT – V: Report Writing: Procedure And Guidelines For Effective Report Writing. Letters – Memos – Circulars –
Notices – House Journals. Negotiation: Meaning And Process Of Negotiation – Essential Skills Of Negotiation – Art Of
Negotiation – Measures To Improve Negotiation Skills Among Managers.

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 UNIT-1 MANAGERIAL SKILLS
Managerial Skills Definition: -
According To Robert L. Katz,
“If Managers Have The Necessary Management Skills Then They Will Probably Perform Well And Be Relatively
Successful. On The Other Hand, If Managers Do Not Have The Necessary Management Skills, They Will Probably
Perform Poorly And Be Relatively Unsuccessful In Their Careers.

Managerial Skills Meaning: -

Managerial Skills Can Be Defined As Certain Abilities That A Manager/Executive Should Possess In Order To Fulfill
Specific Tasks In An Organization. From The Very Beginning Of The Development Of Management Thought, Both
Management Practitioners And Researchers Have Emphasized Different Skills For Managers.

Importance Of Managerial Skills: -

Managerial Skills Are Very Important In Order To Be An Effective Manager. Today’s Business World Is
Very Competitive, Hence It’s Imperative That You Possess Much More Skills Than Ever Before. Not Every
Executive Has All The Skills That Would Make Them Highly Effective Managers. As The Technological Trend
Moves Forward And The Demand For Grouped Software And Faster Hardware Increases, The Skills That Will Be
Needed By Managers Will Change Rapidly. In Every Business, There Are Different Departments With Different
Types Of Managers. With Different Managers Come Different Protocols And Required Skills.

Managerial Skills Types: -

 Conceptual Skills: - A Conceptual Skills Are Manager’s Ability To Work With Ideas And Concepts.
These Skills Enable Executives To Understand And Better Decide The Actions That Have To Be Taken In A Particular
Field Of Work. For Example, Managers Use Conceptual Skills To Take Decisions And Formulate Strategies.
 Human Skills: - This Is A Manager’s Ability To Work With People, Understand And Motivate Them.
For Example, Managers Use Human Skills To Get Along With People And To Communicate And Work Within Teams.
 Technical Skills: - This Is A Manager’s Ability To Use Tools, Procedures, Or Techniques In His Specialized Area.
For Example, Using Certain Computer Software Packages (Like; MS Excel Or Access) Is An Advanced Technical Skill.

Definition Of Communication: -
Newman And Summer Defined Communication As “An Exchange Of Facts, Ideas, Opinions Or Emotions By Two Or
More Persons.”

Meaning Of Communication: -
Communication Is The Process Of Passing Information From One Person To Another. The Purpose Of Communication
Understands Of Information. Whatever One Wants To Say To Someone Should Be Clearly Understood By Him Else
The Very Purpose Of The Communication Would Be Defeated.

Importance Of Communication: -
Effective Communication Is Vital For Efficient Management And To Improve Industrial Relations. In Modern World
The Growth Of Telecommunication, Information Technology And The Growing Competition And Complexity In
Production Have Increased Importance Of Communication In Organisations Large And Small Irrespective Of Their
Type And Kind. A Corporate Executive Must Be In A Position To Communicate Effectively With His Superiors,
Colleagues In Other Departments And Subordinates. This Will Make Him Perform Well And Enable Him To Give His
Hundred Percent To The Organisation.

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Communication Process: -
The Communication Is A Dynamic Process That Begins With The Conceptualizing Of Ideas By The Sender Who Then
Transmits The Message Through A Channel To The Receiver, Who In Turn Gives The Feedback In The Form Of Some
Message Or Signal Within The Given Time Frame.

 Sender: - The Sender Or The Communicator Is The Person Who Initiates The Conversation And Has
Conceptualized The Idea That He Intends To Convey It To Others.
 Encoding: - The Sender Begins With The Encoding Process Wherein He Uses Certain Words Or Non-Verbal
Methods Such As Symbols, Signs, Body Gestures, Etc. To Translate The Information Into A Message. The Sender’s
Knowledge, Skills, Perception, Background, Competencies, Etc. Has A Great Impact On The Success Of The
Message.
 Message: - Once The Encoding Is Finished, The Sender Gets The Message That He Intends To Convey. The
Message Can Be Written, Oral, Symbolic Or Non-Verbal Such As Body Gestures, Silence, Sighs, Sounds, Etc. Or Any
Other Signal That Triggers The Response Of A Receiver.
 Communication Channel: - The Sender Chooses The Medium Through Which He Wants To Convey His Message
To The Recipient. It Must Be Selected Carefully In Order To Make The Message Effective And Correctly Interpreted
By The Recipient. The Choice Of Medium Depends On The Interpersonal Relationships Between The Sender And
The Receiver And Also On The Urgency Of The Message Being Sent. Oral, Virtual, Written, Sound, Gesture, Etc.
Are Some Of The Commonly Used Communication Mediums.
 Receiver: - The Receiver Is The Person For Whom The Message Is Intended Or Targeted. He Tries To Comprehend
It In The Best Possible Manner Such That The Communication Objective Is Attained. The Degree To Which The
Receiver Decodes The Message Depends On His Knowledge Of The Subject Matter, Experience, Trust And
Relationship With The Sender.
 Decoding: - Here, The Receiver Interprets The Sender’s Message And Tries To Understand It In The Best Possible
Manner. An Effective Communication Occurs Only If The Receiver Understands The Message In Exactly The Same
Way As It Was Intended By The Sender.
 Feedback: - The Feedback Is The Final Step Of The Process That Ensures The Receiver Has Received The Message
And Interpreted It Correctly As It Was Intended By The Sender. It Increases The Effectiveness Of The
Communication As It Permits The Sender To Know The Efficacy Of His Message. The Response Of The Receiver
Can Be Verbal Or Non-Verbal.

Functions Of Communication: -
 Informing: - The Principal Function Of Communication Is Informing Messages To Others. It Really Is Done Verbally
Or Non-Verbally. Verbal Messages Might Be Either Oral Or Written. On The Other Hand, Non-Verbal Messages
Can Be Sent Via Human Body Language, Gestures, Posture Etc.
 Integrating Various Divisions And Departments: - Attainment Of Organizational Goals Requires Integration And
Coordination Of Activities Performed By Various Individuals, Groups And Departments. Management Can Put
Together And Coordinate Those People Divisions And Departments By Building A Communication Network For
The Whole Organization.
 Helping In Choice Making: - Management Is Absolutely Nothing But Producing Decisions For Creating Decision,
Management Requirements Information. The Function Of Communication Is To Supply Relevant Info On The
Management In Time So That They Are Able To Make Appropriate Decisions.
 Reducing Misunderstanding: - In The Absence Of Communication, Misunderstanding, Distance, Conflict,
Controversies Etc. May Perhaps A Rise Inside The Organization. Communication Helps To Overcome And Avoid
These Misunderstanding, Disagreement And Controversies.

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 Solving Troubles: - Difficulties Are Favorite To Every Business. A Business Faces Good Deal Of Difficulties In Its
Day-To-Day Operations. Achievement Of Business Depends On Timely Items Of Individual Problems. Item Of
These Problems Is Impossible Without The Need Of Appropriate Communication With The Concerned Parties.

Objectives Of Communication: -
 Improve Human Relation And Industrial Relations
 Intergrate Different Departments, Business Units
 Estabilishers Coordination
 Convey The Right Message
 Develop Managerial Skills
 To Build Effective Policies
 To Make Right Decisions
 Educate
 Training
 Motivate The Employees
 Interpretation
 Influencing Others

Elements Of Effective Communication: -

1. Empathy: - Empathy Is A Skill That All Leaders In Your Business Should Have. Delivering Your Message Having First
Considered Not Only How It Affects Those Who Are Receiving It, But Also What Is The Best Way To Deliver That
Message To That Group Of People, Will Significantly Help Your Communication Efforts.
2. Listening: - It Is Easy To Consider Communication As The Way In Which You Speak To People, But Just As
Important Is The Way That You Listen To Others. Creating An Environment Where People Are Comfortable And Able
To Speak Up And Share Concerns Is Extremely Valuable.
3. Clarity: - Before You Deliver A Message, Take A Few Seconds To Consider What You Want To Say. Clear, Concise
Messages Are Easiest For Others To Understand, And Ensure That You Get Your Point Across Without Causing
Confusion.
4. Non-Verbal Communication: - Over 90% Of Our Communication Comes From The Things We Don’t Say, So
It’s Really Important To Get Your Body Language Right. Try To Maintain An Open, Relaxed Stance And Maintain Eye-
Contact Without Staring For Too Long.
5. Be Personable: - Even When You Are Communicating In A Business Environment, It Is Beneficial To Be Personable
– Particularly With Junior Members Of Staff. People Want To Be Treated Like People, So Take Some Time To Ask A
Question About Them.
6. Respect: - It Goes Without Saying That Respect Is Vital For Any Conversation In The Workplace, But How Can You
Make Sure That You Are Always Being Respectful? Use The Other Person’s Name, Stay Focused On The Conversation
And Ensure That You Are Listening Actively To Responses.
7. Medium: - Some Messages Are Best Conveyed By Email, Others By A Phone Call, Still Others By A Face-To-Face
Meeting. Consider Which Medium Will Be Best For The Message That You Are Delivering – Not Which Medium You
Prefer To Use. An Email Can Be Easily Misconstrued, But A Face-To-Face Meeting Could Cause Unnecessary Anxiety.

Communication Barriers: -
Definition Of The Barrier To Communication: ‘Any Obstacle Or Problem In The Process Of Communication Which
Hinders/Obstructs The Process Of Communication Is Called Barrier.’
Types Of Barriers: We Face Many Barriers While Communicating. These Barriers Can Create Obstacles In The
Communication Process. These Barriers Are Classified Into The Following Types.
1.Physical Or Environmental Barriers: - The Barriers In The Surrounding Or In The Environment Are The Physical
Barriers.
Noise: Traffic Noise Or Noise Of Machines In Factory Create Disturbances In Communication. Noise Pollution Is
Biggest Contributor Or Environment Pollution In India.
Time And Distance :Physical Distances Between People Can Create Major Problems In Communication. Time Zones
Around The World Are Not Same. Due To Differences In Timings Between Countries We Have To Adjust With The
Time Difference Of That Country.

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Wrong Selection Of Medium : Medium Means The Objects Used In Communication Eg. Emails,Mobile Phones Or
Telephones Etc. The Correct Medium Is Necessary. The Improper Use Of Some Machines Such As Emails Can Delay
The Messages.
High Temperature And Humidity: Excess Temperature Or Heat Or Cold Temperature Create Difficulties In
Communication
2.Language/Semantic Or Linguistic Barriers: - Barriers Arising Due To The Different Language Or Differences In
Language Can Create Problems In Communication. Semantic Barriers Means The Problems Arising Because Of The
Different Meanings Of The Words.
Different Languages Or Lack Of Common Language Can Create Obstacles In Communication. A Person Who Does
Not Understand The Native Language Or Even Foreign Language Cannot Communicate Well. This Becomes Very
Difficult Situation.
Words Can Have Different Meanings. Word Power Is Gift To Human Beings But At The Same Times Multiple
Meaning Or Spellings Of The Words Can Create The Problems In Communication.
Words With Similar Pronunciation But Different Meaning [Homophones]Also Create Problems In Communication.
E.G. Except-Accept, Fair-Fare, Council-Counsel,Principal Principle[Etc].
Jargon Words[Technical Words]Used By Professionals Such As Engineers/Doctors Or Any Other Professionals.
Many Times, Jargon Words Are Used Unintentionally. But Common People Or Those Who Do Not Understand The
Meaning Of These Words Face Problems.
By-Passed Instructions Means Many Times Short Cuts Are Used While Passing The Messages. Eg. A Manager
Ordered The Newly Appointed Secretary To Go And Burn The C.D.She Literally Burned It . He Meant To Copy The C.D.
3.Psychological Barriers: - Barriers Or Problems Arising Due To The Stress Or Psychological Problems Are
Psychological Barriers. It Is Difficult To Accept And Overcome These Barriers.
Ego: `I’ Attitude Means I Am Great Feeling Can Create Barrier In Mind. Ego Barriers Create Conflict In Human
Relations.
Emotions And Feelings : Emotional Disturbances Of The Sender Or Receiver Can Distort[Change] The
Communication.
Status : Status Create Barriers In The Employees . Higher Or Lower Status Create Obstacles In Thinking Or Mixing
With People. People Keep Distance While Communicating Due To Status Barriers.
Interest And Attitudes : Interests And Attitudes Of People Determines Communication Strategy. Lack Of Interest
Or Wrong Attitude Can Lead Improper Communication.
Poor Retention : Ability To Retain The Message Or Remember Is Important. But If It Is Poor Then Communication
Becomes Difficult.
4.Socio-Cultural Barriers: - Due To Differences In Social Status Or Cultural Barriers Many Times We Face Differences
In Communication. These Are Socio-Cultural Barriers.
The Time Is Not Perceived Similarly Across The Cultures. In Western Culture Time Is Important. In Asian Culture
Time Is Taken Leisurely. The Concept Of Punctuality Differs In Cultures.
Food Preparation Method Or Serving Methods Are Not The Same. There Are Certain Expected Norms Of Eating
Food In Meeting .These Are Called Dining Etiquettes.
Body Language[Non Verbal Behavior] Methods Around The World Are Not Same. There Can Be Misunderstandings
Because Of This.
Proximity[Concept Of Space]Differs From Culture To Culture. In Some Culture Close Distance Between People Is
Not Approved. In Some Culture Close Distance Is Accepted.
Value System Is Not Same Across The Cultures.Values Or Good Behavior Or Ethical Principles Guide In Our Life. But
The Methods Of These Value System Is Not Same Around The World.

Overcoming Communication Barriers: -

Use Of Simple Language: - Use Of Simple And Clear Words Should Be Emphasized. Use Of Ambiguous Words And
Jargons Should Be Avoided.
Reduction And Elimination Of Noise Levels: - Noise Is The Main Communication Barrier Which Must Be Overcome
On Priority Basis. It Is Essential To Identify The Source Of Noise And Then Eliminate That Source.
Active Listening: - Listen Attentively And Carefully. There Is A Difference Between “Listening” And “Hearing”.
Active Listening Means Hearing With Proper Understanding Of The Message That Is Heard. By Asking Questions The
Speaker Can Ensure Whether His/Her Message Is Understood Or Not By The Receiver In The Same Terms As
Intended By The Speaker.

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Emotional State: - During Communication One Should Make Effective Use Of Body Language. He/She Should Not
Show Their Emotions While Communication As The Receiver Might Misinterpret The Message Being Delivered. For
Example, If The Conveyer Of The Message Is In A Bad Mood Then The Receiver Might Think That The Information
Being Delivered Is Not Good.
Simple Organizational Structure: - The Organizational Structure Should Not Be Complex. The Number Of
Hierarchical Levels Should Be Optimum. There Should Be A Ideal Span Of Control Within The Organization. Simpler
The Organizational Structure, More Effective Will Be The Communication.
Avoid Information Overload: - The Managers Should Know How To Prioritize Their Work. They Should Not
Overload Themselves With The Work. They Should Spend Quality Time With Their Subordinates And Should Listen To
Their Problems And Feedbacks Actively.
Give Constructive Feedback: - Avoid Giving Negative Feedback. The Contents Of The Feedback Might Be Negative,
But It Should Be Delivered Constructively. Constructive Feedback Will Lead To Effective Communication Between The
Superior And Subordinate.

Significance Of Communication: -
Modern Organizations Are Complex Social Systems. No Social System Functions Effectively Without
Meaningful Interaction Between Its Participants. Thus, Communication Can Be Described As A Means Through Which
Organizational Participants Are Linked.
We Cannot Expect Effective Management Without Communication. According To Some Estimates,
Communication Takes Up Nearly Three-Fourths Of An Active Human Being’s Life; In The Case Of A Manager, This
Percentage May Be Even Higher.
Communication Is Essential For The Functioning Of An Organization. Every Day A Vast Amount Of
Information Flows From Managers To Employees, Employees To Managers, And From Employee To Employee. Apart
From This Internal Communication, A Considerable Amount Of Information Is Also Carried In And Out Of The
Organization.
This Communication, Internal And External, Takes Place In A Nonverbal And Verbal Manner: Through
Gestures, Expressions, Meetings, Listening, Speaking And Writing.

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 UNIT-2 MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication: -
Verbal Communication Is When We Use The Spoken Word To Communicate With Others. This Can Be Face To Face
With Another Person Or Group Of People, Or Over The Telephone Or Video Call, For Example Skype Or Zoom. Face-
To-Face Verbal Communication Is Usually The Preferred Method Of Communication; However, It Is Not Always
Realistic Due To Time Constraints Or The Location Of People.

Non-Verbal Communication: -
Non-Verbal Communication Helps You Get A Sense Of How Others Are Feeling And What They May Be Thinking.
Non-Verbal Communication Includes Facial Expressions, Eye Contact, Hand Movements, Touch And Posture.
These Things Usually Provide Reinforcement To Verbal Communication. Non-Verbal Communication Is Not Usually
Used On Its Own Without Verbal Communication Except When A Person Is Using Sign Language.
Physical Non-Verbal Communication Consists Of Body Posture, Eye Contact, Facial Expressions, Touch, And Overall
Movements Of The Body And Tone Of Voice. All Non-Verbal Communication Helps To Convey A Message To The
Person Or People You Are Communicating With.

Oral Communication Definition: -

According To University Of Virfinia, Oral Communication Is Defined As The Effective Intepretation, Composition, And
Presentation Of Information, Ideas And Values To A Specific Audience.

Oral Communication Meaning: -

Oral Communication Is The Exchange Of Information And Ideas Through Spoken Word. It Can Be Directly In Person In
A Face-To-Face Interaction Or Through An Electronic Device Such As A Phone, Video Platform Or Radio. The Most
Effective Way For Businesses To Transmit Information Verbally Is Through Oral Communication, Such As A Staff
Meeting, Webinar And Workshop.

Advantages Of Oral Communication: -

 There Is High Level Of Understanding And Transparency In Oral Communication As It Is Interpersonal.
 The Feedback Is Spontaneous In Case Of Oral Communication. Thus, Decisions Can Be Made Quickly Without Any
Delay.
 Oral Communication Is Not Only Time Saving, But It Also Saves Upon Money And Efforts.
 Oral Communication Is An Essential For Teamwork And Group Energy.
 Oral Communication Promotes A Receptive And Encouraging Morale Among Organizational Employees.
 Oral Communication Can Be Best Used To Transfer Private And Confidential Information/Matter.
 There Is No Element Of Rigidity In Oral Communication. There Is Flexibility For Allowing Changes In The Decisions
Previously Taken.

Disadvantages Of Oral Communication: -

 Relying Only On Oral Communication May Not Be Sufficient As Business Communication Is Formal And Very
Organized.
 Oral Communication Is Less Authentic Than Written Communication As They Are Informal And Not As Organized
As Written Communication.
 Oral Communication Is Time-Saving As Far As Daily Interactions Are Concerned, But In Case Of Meetings, Long
Speeches Consume Lot Of Time And Are Unproductive At Times.
 Oral Communications Are Not Easy To Maintain And Thus They Are Unsteady.
 There May Be Misunderstandings As The Information Is Not Complete And May Lack Essentials.
 It Requires Attentiveness And Great Receptivity On Part Of The Receivers/Audience.
 Oral Communication (Such As Speeches) Is Not Frequently Used As Legal Records Except In Investigation Work.

Elements Of Oral Communication: -

Sender: - The sender is the person who initiates communication to the receiver.
Medium: - The medium is the format in which the message is being sent. For example, a voicemail, a face-to-face
conversation or a PowerPoint presentation.
Channel: - The channel is the platform on which the message is delivered. For example, a podcast, a telephone or a
meeting.
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Receiver: - The receiver listens and decodes the message sent by the sender. The receiver then generates feedback
for the sender in response to the message.
Feedback: - This final stage is the reaction of the receiver, such as oral or written communication. No response from
the receiver is also a type of feedback. This completes the entire oral communication cycle.

Written Communication Definition: -

According To Ricky W. Griffin, “Written Communication Is The Message That Is Encoded And Transmitted In Written
Form.”

Written Communication Meaning: -

A ‘Written Communication’ Means The Sending Of Messages, Orders Or Instructions In Writing Through Letters,
Circulars, Manuals, Reports, Telegrams, Office Memos, Bulletins, Etc. It Is A Formal Method Of Communication And
Is Less Flexible. A Written Document Preserved Properly Becomes A Permanent Record For Future Reference.

Advantages Of Written Communication: -

 It Is Suitable For Long Distance Communication And Repetitive Standing Orders.
 It Creates Permanent Record Of Evidence. It Can Be Used For Future Reference.
 It Gives The Receiver Sufficient Time To Think, Act And React.
 It Can Be Used As Legal Document.
 It Can Be Sent To Many Persons At A Time.
 It Is Suitable For Sending Statistical Data, Chart, Diagram, Pictures, Etc.
 It Is Easy To Send Unpleasant Or Bad News Through Written Communication.

Disadvantages Of Written Communication: -

 It Is Time-Consuming. Composing A Message In Writing Takes Much Time. Writing Letters, Typing Orders, Notices,
Etc.
 It Is Expensive Not So Much Due To Postal Charges But In Terms Of So Many People Spending So Much Of Their
Time.
 It Cannot Maintain Strict Secrecy Which Would Have Been Possible In Oral Communication.
 Written Communication Has No Scope For Immediate Clarification If Not Understood Properly.
 Being Written In Nature It Is Less Flexible And Cannot Be Changed Easily.
 It Is Not Effective In The Case Of Emergency.

Characteristics Of Effective Written Communication: -

 Easy Language: - Easy Language Should Be Used In Written Communication. The Sentences Of Written
Communication Must Be Understandable To The Reader. Utilizing Easy-To-Understand Words And Languages Is
Essential In The Communication World.
 Structure: - Definite Structure Must Be Followed In Drafting Any Written Document. Every Written Form Has Its
Own Structure.
 Accurate And Precise: - A Well-Written Document Must Be Accurate And Precise. Written Communication Insists
On Greater Accuracy And Precision.
 Direct Speech: - Direct Speech Should Be Used In Written Communication. It Is Always Recommended For Writers
To Write In The Active Voice Rather Than Passive Voice. Indirect And Passive Sentences Must Be Avoided.
 Paragraph Design: - A Good Written Communication Bears A Paragraph Design. Paragraphing Is Also Important To
Clear Communication.
 Error-Less: - A Well-Written Document Must Be Free From Error In Both Grammar And Language For Better
Understanding And Clarity – Effective Written Communication.
 You-Attitude: - There Must Be Your Attitude In Written Communication. The Reader Can Be Impressed For This.
In Such Communication Contexts, You Will Be Able To Communicate Better With Readers By Limiting
Communication Barriers.
 Personal And Organizational Images: - A Good Written Communication Bears The Personal Image Of The Writer.
It Also Increases The Organizational Image As A Whole. Whether Written In Diplomatic Language, Casual
Language, Or Formal Language, Effective Business Communications Showcase Top-Notch Communication And
Information Literacy.

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The Importance Of Non-Verbal Communication: -
We Tend To Be Less Aware Of The Nonverbal Accompaniment To Much Of What We Say Than We Are To
The Actual Words We Speak. We Often Carefully Monitor And Edit Our Words To Achieve The Desired Effect, But
How We Are Saying Them As Likely More Important. Being Mindful Of Our Non-Verbal Communication Can Prevent
The Wrong Or Unintended Message From Inadvertently Being Passed On.
Face-To-Face Communication Allows For The Most Richness In Non-Verbal Communication; This Richness
Recedes From Our Interactions As We Move From Telephone Conversations To E-Mail, Memos, Bulletins And Post-It
Notes. These Forms Of Communication, However, Still Require That We Pay Significant Attention To Elements Of Our
Messages That Could Lead To Unintended Interpretations.

Measures To Improve Non-Verbal Communication: -

 Eye Contact: - Look The Person In The Eye During The Conversation.
 Physical Distance: - Maintain A Comfortable Distance Between You And The Other Person.
 Posture: - Lean Slightly Forward In A Relaxed And Open Posture.
 Gestures: - Avoid Fidgeting And Distracting Motions.
 Volume: - Loud Enough To Be Heard.
 Facial Expression: - Relaxed, Showing Positive Regard To The Other.
 Tone: - Even, Natural. Avoid Sarcasm, Whining.

Types Of Nonverbal Communication: -

 Kinesics (or body movements): -These include deliberate hand gestures and head movements like a thumbs-up
or affirmative head shake. This is one of the most easily controllable of the nonverbal forms of communication.
 Posture: - The way that you sit or stand and how open your body is to others around you communicates a lot
about your attitude and emotional state.
 Eye contact: - This is one of the primary ways that human beings gauge interest or disinterest. Wavering eyes
tend to communicate unease or even dishonesty.
 Touch: - Many Interactions Begin With An Exchange Of Physical Touch Like A Hug Or A Handshake.
 Paralanguage: - This Category Covers Vocal Qualities Like Loudness Or Tone Of Voice. Paralinguistic Signals Are
Any Aspect Of The Sound Of A Voice Outside A Direct Verbal Translation Of Words Being Spoken.
 Facial Expressions: - Facial Expressions Are One Of The Main Indicators Of Someone’s Attitude. An Emotional
Expression Like A Frown Or Smile Can Be Hard To Consciously Control.
 Physiology: - This Category Includes Changes In Body Physiology Like An Increase In Sweat Or Blinking Rapidly.
These Are Nearly Impossible To Deliberately Control.

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 UNIT-3 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Meaning of Formal Communication: -
‘Formal Communication’ refers to the flow of information through a structured path in a formal organisation.
It maintains superior-subordinate relationship and follows the chain of command.

Types Of Formal Communication: -

Upward Communication: - Upward Communication Takes Place Whenever A Sub-Ordinate Communicates With
His Superiors. Communication Flows From Down To Top.
Downward Communication: - Downward Communication Takes Place When A Superior Communicates With His
Sub-Ordinates. Communication Flows From Top To Bottom.
Lateral Communication: - Lateral Communication Is Also Called Horizontal Communication. If A Person
Communicating With Other Person Who Is Equally Designated To Him.
Diagonal Communication: - Diagonal Communication Takes Place When A Person Communicate With Other
Person Of Other Department Who Is More Or Less Designated To Him.

Characteristics of Formal Communication: -

1. Formal communication flows through structured path.
2. It is official and formal in nature.
3. It is mainly in writing but sometimes verbal communication is also considered as formal communication.
4. It requires sanction of higher authority.
5. It may be downward, upward or two-way.
6. The rank, position and authority have great significance in such communication.
7. A standard is maintained in such communication.
8. Flexibility is not found in it. It is generally rigid in nature.

Advantages of Formal Communication: -

1. Being official, formal communication is binding and effective.
2. Formal communication is generally written. So, there is less possibility of any ambiguity or misunderstanding.
3. Being written, it can be preserved and used as reference in future.
4. The responsibility of the sender and the receiver is great as formal communication is official.
5. Formal communication is less time-consuming as compared to informal communication which consumes lots of
time in discussion, side-talks and even arguments.

Disadvantages of Formal Communication: -

1.The scope of formal communication is limited within the boundaries of the department and the jurisdiction fixed
by the authority.
2. Being written, it uses stereotype language in almost all communication which often fails to convey the real
meaning intended.
3. Lack of explanation may sometimes lead to confusion.
4. It is less effective where personal guidance and motivation are necessary.
5. Owing to official procedure and formalities it requires much time and money.

Meaning of InFormal Communication: -

The Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is
exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes,
system, formalities and chain of command.

Types Of Informal Communication: -

Single Strand Chain: - In this type of grapevine communication the information passes through a number of
persons like a chain. A tells something to B, who tells it to C, who tells it to D and so on.

Gossip Chain: - In Gossip Chain one person actively conveys information to other persons around him. A circle or
wheel-like figure is formed in this communication.
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Here, in this picture. A is at the centre and transmits messages to ‘B’, ‘C\ ‘D\ ‘E\ ‘F, ‘G’, and ‘H’ around him/her.
Gossip Chain is generally used when information to be communicated is non-job oriented in nature.

Probability Chain: - It is a random process in which information may move from one person to any other person or
persons according to law of probability. Naturally, in this type of communication, some people of the organisation
will be informed and some others will remain outside the arena of the communication.
Here, in the illustration, E, F, G and K are outside the communication chain. This chain is used when information is
interesting but less important.

Cluster chain: - Cluster chain is mostly used and the dominant pattern of grapevine communication. In this type
one person tells something to some selected trust worthy persons. Some of these persons may inform a few
selected other individuals. Here in the picture, A tells some selected and trustworthy persons, B, C and D. C again
relays it to his selected persons, G, H and I. D tells J, a person of his choice. E and F remain outside The cluster.

Characteristics of Informal Communication: -

1. It is based on informal relationship.
2. It grows spontaneously.
3. It takes the form of gossip.
4. It is conveyed through conversation, facial expression, body movement, silence, etc.
5. It does not follow any structured route or channel.
6. Small groups are formed with like-minded people in such communication.
7. It is direct and fast.
8. It is flexible and dynamic in nature.

Advantages of informal communication: -

1.Informal communication, being unofficial and personal, promotes a social relationship among the participants.
2.Flow of information is fast and is suitable for emergencies.
3.New ideas, suggestions, opinions may come out through such communication as people can express their feelings
without fear.
4.It can create an atmosphere congenial for work as the relationship between the managers and the employees
improves.
5.It is an outlet of expression of complaints, dis-likings, grievances, etc.

Disadvantages of Informal Communication: -

1.Inaccurate, incomplete and half true information’s are spread through informal communication as everybody
interprets it in his/her own way.
2.In most cases it is emotional and full of sentiments which can change its meaning.
3.No one can be held responsible as it is not possible to find out the supplier of wrong information in the case on an
enquiry.
4.It spreads rumors and endangers consolidation and unity of the organisation.
5.It creates conflicts between groups by spreading rumors against them and reducing their mental strength.

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Barriers In Informal Communication: -
(a) Information Overload: - Information overload may also be a problem of effective communication. Information
overload is the situation when a person is given too much information at a time.
(b) Faulty Expression: - Faulty expression of message fails to convey exact meaning to the receiver. It happens due to
lack of clarity, use of vague term, badly expressed information, improper organization of ideas etc.
(c) Status or Power Difference: - Communication problem may arise when people of different power or status try to
communicate with each other. For example, the manager of a company may neglect suggestion from his subordinate
simply because of difference in their status. This under-treatment of people makes the communication ineffective.
(d) Negative attitudes to Change: - Some people always resist any kind of change in the organization. They think that
“old is gold” and are fearful about the changes. Therefore, they create problems in communication through
inattention, false interpretation, rumor, resistance, and non-cooperation.
(e) Noise: - Environmental factors may also disrupt effective communication. One such factor is noise. For example,
in oral communication, noise hinders smooth flow of information or message. In factories, loud noise of machines
makes oral communication very difficult.

Steps To Improve Formal Communication: -

 Keep it real.
 Be timely.
 Focus on consistency.
 Tailor your message.
 Reinforce it.
 Encourage feedback.
 Empower your managers.

Steps To Improve InFormal Communication: -

 Communicate informally.
 Listen actively.
 Speak persuasively.
 Negotiate effectively.
 Manage conflict.
 Participate in meetings.
 Deal with office politics.
 Make proper introductions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMAL & INFORMAL COMMUNICATION: -

FORMAL COMMUNICATION INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
 OFFICIAL CHANNEL  UN OFFICIAL CHANNEL
 DELIBERATELY PLANNED & SYSTEMATIC  UNPLANNED & SPONTANEOUS
 PART OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE  CUTS ACROSS FORMAL RELATIONSHIPS
 ORIENTED TOWARDS GOALS & TASKS OF THE  DIRECTED TOWARDS GOALS & NEED SATISFACTION
ORGANISATION OF INDIVIDUAL
 IMMPERSONAL  PERSONAL & SOCIAL
 STABLE & REGID  FLEXIBLE & INSTABLE
 SLOW & STRUCTURED  FAST & UNSTRUCTURED

7Cs of Effective Communication: -

 Completeness: - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the audience. The
sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set and convey the message accordingly.
 Conciseness: - Conciseness means “convey the message by using smallest words”. “Conciseness is the
prerequisite to effective business communication.” As you know that all executives have very short time. Hence a
concise message saves the time and expenses for both the parties.

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 Consideration: -Consideration means To consider the receiver’s Interest/Intention. It is very important in
effective communication while writing a message you should always keep in mind your target group or person.
Consideration is very important “C” among all the seven C’s.
 Concreteness: - It means that message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding of words creates
problems for both parties (sender and receiver). When you talk to your senior always use facts and figures instead
of generic or irrelevant information.
 Clarity: - Accurately is purpose of clarity. In effective communication the message should be very much clear, so
that reader can understand it easily. You should always choose precise, familiar and easy words.
 Courtesy: - Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy; be aware of your message receiver.
True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their feelings. It is not just
politeness with automatic placing of “please” and “Thank you”. “Warm regards.” “Feel indebted and obliged.”
 Correctness: - At the core of correctness is proper grammar and spelling. However, message must be perfect
grammatically and mechanically.

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 UNIT-4 LISTENING
Meaning Of Listening: - Listening Is The Receiver’s Activity In Communication. Listening Means Making Effort To Get
Speakers Full Meaning. It Involves Not Only Understand The Content Of The Message But Also Understanding The
Feeling Of The Speaker. Understanding The Feeling Is Called Empathic Or Active Listening.

Definition Of Listening: - According To K Davis “Listening Is A Conscious, Positive Act, Requiring Will Power. He Is Not
A Simple, Passive Exposure To Sound”.

Importance Of Listening: -
Listening Is An Active Process Where Patience, Compassion, And Determination Play Significant Roles. Human
Behaviour Is Such That It Tends To Block Out Most Of The Noises In The Surroundings. It Needs Concentration To
Absorb The Words And Process Its Meaning So That It Can Make Some Sense. The Process Of Listening Promotes
Participation In A Conversation To Foster Better Relationships. It Also Assists In Building Trust, Strengthening Ties,
Resolving Issues And Most Importantly Inspiring People By Making Them Realize You Are Giving Due Consideration
To The Words And Are Attentive Towards The Speaker.
Listening Is Not To Be Confused With The Hearing Because The First Is An Interpretative Action That Is
Intentional, Whereas The Latter Is A Biological Action Often Done Subconsciously. The Importance Of Listening Goes
Far Beyond The Scope Of Professional Or Personal Environment. It Is A Soft Skill That Gradually Cultivates So That It
Becomes An Inherent Quality In The Human System. It Facilitates Good Self-Esteem To Optimize Productivity.

Benefits Of Listening: -
 Finding Out More Information.
 Learning About People & How Their Minds Work.
 Improving Relations With People.
 Raising Morale Of Employees/Sub-Ordinates.
 Obtaining Suggestions & New Ideas.
 Discovering Why Employees Perform As They Do.
 Being Able To Help With Solving Problems.

Types Of Listening: -
Superficial Listening: - The Listener Has Little Awareness Of The Content Of The Verbal Message.
Appreciative Listening: - The Purpose Of The Listening Is To Derive Pleasure.
Focused Listening: - The Purpose Is To Get Some Specific Information.
Evaluative Listening: - The Purpose Is To Evaluate The Oral Message, Commentary & Develop A Line Of Thought.
Attentive Listening: - It Is Interactive & Protectible Facilitating Proper Interaction & More Effective Listener &
Speaker Relationships.
Empathetic Listening: - It Involves Listening To Speaker Feelings Emotions & State Of Ming.

Barriers To Listening: -
1. Physiological Barriers: - Some People May Have Genuine Hearing Problems Or Deficiencies That Prevent Them
From Listening Properly. It Can Be Treated. Some People May Have Problem In Processing Information Or Retaining
Information In The Memory. For Example Lack Of Concentration/Interest.
2. Physical Barriers: - These Referred To Distraction In The Environment Such As The Sound Of An Air Conditioner,
Cigarette Smoke, Or An Overheated Room. It Can Interfere The Listening Process. They Could Also Be In The Form Of
Information Overload.
3. Attitudinal Barriers :- Pre Occupation With Personal Or Work Related Problems Can Make It Difficult To Focus
One’s Attention Completely On What Speaker Is Saying, Even What Is Being Said Is Of Very Importance. Another
Common Attitudinal Barrier Is Egocentrism, Or The Belief That The Person Have More Knowledgeable Than The
Speaker, Or That There Is Nothing New To Learn From The Speaker’s Ideas. People With This Kind Of Close Minded
Attitude Are Very Poor Listeners.
4. Wrong Assumptions :- The Success Of Communication Depend On The Both The Sender And Receiver. It Is Wrong
To Assume That Communication Is The Sole Responsibility Of The Sender Or The Speaker And That Listeners Have No
Role To Play. Such An Assumption Can Be Big Barrier To Listening.

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5. Cultural Barriers :- Accents Can Be Barriers To Listening, Since They Interfere With The Ability To Understand The
Meaning Of Words That Are Pronounced Differently. The Problem Of Different Accents Arises Not Only Between
Cultures, But Also Within A Culture.
6. Gender Barriers :- Communication Research Has Shown That Gender Can Be Barrier To Listening. Studies Have
Revealed That Men And Women Listen Very Differently And For Different Purposes. Women Are More Likely To
Listen For The Emotion Behind A Speaker’s Words, When Men Listen More For The Facts And The Content.
7. Lack Of Training :- Listening Is Not An Inborn Skill. People Are Not Born Good Listeners. It Is Developed Through
Practice And Training. Lack Of Training In Listing Skills Is An Important Barrier. In Lack Of Training People Do Avoid
Listening To Difficult, Boring Or Complex Information And Selectively Listen Only To What Is Considered Interesting.
8. Bad Listening Habits :- Most People Are Very Average Listeners Who Have Developed Poor Listening Habits That
Are Hard To Said And That Act As Barriers To Listening.

Principles Of Effective Listening: -

1.Preparation Before Listening: - As Already Mentioned That Listening Plays Important Role In Communication. So
One Should Prepare Himself Before Starting Listening. In Preparation, There Are Following Guidelines That Are Stop
Talking, Remove Distractions And Good Environmental Conditions.
2.Listening To Understand, Not To Refute: - There Could Be Many Topics To Which The Listener Has Reservations.
Apart From These Reservations, The Listener Should Try His Best To Understand The Message.
3.Focusing The Attention: - There May Be Many Objects On Which The Listener Should Construct A Mental Outline
Of Where The Speaker Is Going In His Speech.
4.Concentration On Context: - The Listener Should Keep In Ming The Background And Theme Of Speech. This Thing
Enables Him To Absorb The Material Quickly And Efficiently.
5.Taking Notes: - Listener Should Keep On Taking Notes. Hence, He Should Jot Down Ideas Rather Than Sentences. In
This Way, He/she Could Make The Message Safe For A Long Time.
6.Curbing The Impulse To Interrupt: - One Should Avoid Interrupting The Speech Until The Speaker Invites
Questions. This Habit Puts The Speaker And Listener Both At Ease.
7.Asking Questions: - Asking Right Question On Right Time Is Quite Different From Interruption. Listener Should
Have An Idea To Know Right Time To Ask Questions.
8.Summary & Evaluation: - The Listener Should Summarize & Speech But Not During Listening Process.

Guidelines For Effective Listening: -

 Stop Talking: - Remember, You Cannot Listen If You Are Speaking.
 Pay Attention: - Give Your Full Attention To The Speaker. You Cannot Communicate If Both Parties Are Not
Actively Involved In The Process.
 Read Nonverbal Cues: - Along With Hearing And Processing The Words Of The Speaker, You Should Pay Careful
Attention To The Nonverbal Language Being Communicated. Watch For Eye Contact, Facial Expressions, Gestures,
Posture Changes, And Any Physical Responses (I.E., Fidgeting).
 Ask Questions: - A Good Way To Ensure That You Have Accurately Understood The Message Is To Ask Questions.
 Resist Distractions: - Stop Doodling! Do Not Shuffle Papers, Draw, Or Doodle When You Are Listening.
 Don’t Interrupt: - Even Though You May Get Angry Or Upset By Something The Speaker Says, Do Not Interrupt.
Let The Speaker Finish, And Resist The Temptation To Focus On Your Emotional Response To The Speaker’s
Words.
 Open Your Mind: - Try To Look At The Situation From The Speaker’s Point Of View And Not Just Your Own. Be
Flexible.
 Paraphrase: - Use Your Own Words To Mirror What You Have Heard. Restating Information In Your Own Words
Helps You To Remember What You Have Heard.

Art Of Listening: -
The Art Of Listening Is About Finding Out What The Speaker Thinks About Something. When Employees Listen To
One Another, They Learn From One Another. A Free Flow Of Ideas That Are Truly Listened To Can Lead To A
Workplace Where Employees Are Constantly Learning From Each Other.

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Definition Of Presentation: -
Moscow State Technical University Has The Following Definition “A Presentation Is A Formal Talk To One Or More
Persons That “Presents” Ideas Or Information In A Clear, Structured Way. All Presentations Have A Common
Objective: They Are Given In Order To Inform, Train, Persuade Or Sell”.

Meaning Of Presentation: -
A Presentation Involves Talking In Front Of A Group Of People To Explain An Idea, System, Process, Recent
Performance, Forecast, Or Other Topic. The Person Who Does The Explaining Is The Presenter And May Use Visual
Aids To Help Convey His Or Her Message More Effectively.

Features Of Presentation: -
 Contents Matching To The Audience
 Language Should Match With The Audience
 Briefity
 Smooth Sequence
 Science Of Preparation
 Lively Delivery
 Appropriate Sense Of Humour

Oral Presentation: -
An Oral Presentation Is A Short Talk On A Set Topic Given To A Tutorial Or Seminar Group. In An Oral Presentation
One (Or More) Students Give A Talk To A Tutorial Group And Present Views On A Topic Based On Their Readings Or
Research. The Rest Of The Group Then Joins In A Discussion Of The Topic.

Principles Of Oral Presentation: -

 Preparation
 Identify The Aaudience
 Strcture Of Presentation
 Practice
 Maintain The Audience Interest

Steps In Preparing Effective Oral Presentation: -

 Determine The Purpose Of Presetation And Identify The Objective
 Know About Your Audience
 Define Your Topic
 Arrange Your Material That Makes Sense Of Your Objectives
 Compose Your Presentations
 Create Visual Aids
 Practice Your Presentation
 Follow Up

Advantages Of Oral Presentation: -

You Can Use Body Language To Establish Credibility And Rapport With Your Audience. A Likable Personality Can Have
A Powerful Effect On Audience Receptiveness. Oral Presentations Allow For Give And Take.

Drawbanks Of Oral Presentation: -

One Attempt Is All You Get To Win Over An Audience, And The Pressure Makes It Easier To Stumble. An Oral
Presentation Is Limited In The Amount And Complexity Of Information It Can Present.

Written Presentation: -
A Written Presentation Tends To Be Rather Direct And To The Point. It Is Typically Very Objective In Nature, Highly
Organized, And Yet May Seem To Be Rather Impersonal. When You Plan A Written Presentation It Will Often Require
Careful Planning And May Rely On Rote Listing Of Information In Order To Achieve Its Message.

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Principles Of Written Presentation: -
 Length Of The Presentation
 Style Of Presentation
 Humour Touch
 Style Of Addressing

Steps In Preparing Effective Written Presentation: -

 Insist Of Confidentiality
 Use Of Good Grammar
 Limit The Presentation To The Reasonable Length
 Made A Professional Apperance
 Provide Solid Evidence For The Content To The Clients

Steps For Preparing Good Presentation: -

 Choose The Right Topic
 Know Your Audience
 Brainstorm
 Do Your Research
 Plan Your Presentation
 Draft/Write Your Presentation
 Design Your Presentation Slides
 Expect Questions
 Practice The Presentation
 Prepare The Room
 Adjust Slide Design For Virtual Displays
 Look After Background & Lighting
 Use Interactive Features

Guidelines For Successful Presentation: -

 Show Your Passion And Connect With Your Audience
 Focus On Your Audience’s Needs
 Keep It Simple And Concentrate On Your Core Message
 Smile & Make Eye Contact With Your Audience
 Start Strongly
 Remember The 10-20-30 Rule For Slideshows
 Tell Stories
 Use Your Voice Effectively
 Use Your Body Too
 Relax, Breathe And Enjoy

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 UNIT-5 REPORT WRITING
Report Writing Meaning: -
Report Writing Is A Formal Style Of Writing Elaborately On A Topic. The Tone Of A Report Is Always Formal. The
Audience It Is Meant For Is Always Thought Out Section. For Example – Report Writing About A School Event, Report
Writing About A Business Case, Etc.

Report Writing Advantages: -

 Report Gives Consolidated & Updated Information
 Report As A Means Of Internal Communication
 Report Facilitates Decision Making And Planning
 Report Discloses Unknown Information
 Report Gives Information To Employees
 Report Gives Reliable Permanent Information
 Report Facilitates Framing Of Personnel Policies
 Report Gives Information To Shareholders
 Report Solves Current Problems
 Report Helps Directors To Take Prompt Decisions

Guidelines For Effective Report Writing: -

 Know Your Objective, I.E. Be Focused.
• Analyse The Niche Audience I.E. Make An Analysis Of The Target Audience, The Purpose For Which Audience
Requires The Report, Kind Of Data Audience Is Looking For In The Report, The Implications Of Report Reading, Etc.
• Decide The Length Of Report.
• Disclose Correct And True Information In A Report.
• Discuss All Sides Of The Problem Reasonably And Impartially. Include All Relevant Facts In A Report.
• Concentrate On The Report Structure And Matter. Pre-Decide The Report Writing Style. Use Vivid Structure Of
Sentences.
• The Report Should Be Neatly Presented And Should Be Carefully Documented.
• Highlight And Recap The Main Message In A Report.
• Encourage Feedback On The Report From The Critics. The Feedback, If Negative, Might Be Useful If Properly
Supported With Reasons By The Critics. The Report Can Be Modified Based On Such Feedback.
• Use Graphs, Pie Charts, Etc To Show The Numerical Data Records Over Years.
• Decide On The Margins On A Report. Ideally, The Top And The Side Margins Should Be The Same (Minimum 1-Inch
Broad) But The Lower/Bottom Margins Can Be One And A Half Times As Broad As Others Can.
• Attempt To Generate Reader’s Interest By Making Appropriate Paragraphs, Giving Bold Headings For Each
Paragraph, Using Bullets Wherever Required, Etc.

Report Writing Process: -

A Report Presents The Results Of An Investigation Of A Topic Or Issue In A Formal Objective Manner.
Recommendations Are Often Made To Solve A Problem Or Indicate Directions For Further Research.
 Analyse The Task: - Identify The Purpose And The Audience. The Purpose Statement Contains Words Like:The
Aim Of This Research Is To Investigate/ Analyse. The Audience Is The Person Who Has Commissioned The
Research: The Decision Maker, E.G. The Client Or Manager. This Determines The Level Of Detail Included. Decide
On The Sections Of The Report.
 Brainstorm To Determine The Issues: - Bring All Your Ideas Together On One Page To Decide Which Issues And
Topics Are Relevant To The Purpose Of Your Research − Create A Preliminary Outline Of Headings To Ensure The
Relevance Of These Issues To The Purpose − Identify Possible Sources Of Information (Primary And Secondary)
To Address The Issues. Mind Maps Are Very Useful At This Stage.
 Collect The Information: - Gather Information From Both Primary And Secondary Sources – Use Recommended
Texts And Library Material First. Select The Most Credible And Reliable Sources Of Information To Address The
Issues. Conduct Any Tests, Surveys Or Other Research Tasks; Make Notes On The Findings. Look For Ways To
Structure The Sections Of The Report In Order To Integrate Your Results And Research. Record Bibliographic
Details Of All References Used — To Save Time, Ensure Accuracy, Avoid Plagiarism.

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 Sort The Information And Plan An Outline: - Draw Your Conclusions First: This Is What You Are Reporting On.
Organise The Information Under Appropriate Headings And Subheadings. The Plan Should Include: − Findings:
Main Points With Suitable Subheadings To Indicate The Topic − A Brief Outline Of The Introduction—With The
Purpose And Scope—And The Methodology (If Required) − Discussion Points: Evidence And Arguments Related
To Your Conclusions And Recommendations.
 Finalise Your Research: - This Is Focused Research, Providing Evidence From Other Studies To Expand On Your
Main Points. Refine Your Search Terms To Locate Precise And Current Information And Evidence In Academic
Journals From Library Databases. Use Efficient Reading Strategies To Locate The Information.
 Write The Report: - Write The Introduction And Methodology First, Then Findings, Discussion And Conclusions—
Related To The Purpose. Remember, A Paragraph Must Contain One Main Idea—Stated In The Topic Sentence.
Other Sentences Explain, Support And Give Evidence From The Literature, And/Or Provide Examples. Refer To
Figures And Tables, Etc. In The Paragraphs. Make Sure These Are Clearly Labelled. Reference Carefully. You Must
Always Acknowledge The Source Of Information, Whether Quoting Directly Or Paraphrasing; The Sources Of
Images, Graphics And Formulae Must Also Be Acknowledged.

Letter Meaning: -
A Letter Is A Form Of Non-Fictional Written, Typed Or Printed Communication. These Are Usually Written To
Facilitate Communication Between Two Individuals And Are Usually Sent To The Recipient Via Mail Or Post In An
Envelope.

Memo Meaning: -
A Memorandum (Memo) Is Used To Communicate Something Of Immediate Importance To People Within A
Business Or Organization. A Memo Also Can Be Sent To People Or Firms That Have Close Or Long-Standing
Relationships, Such As Vendors Or Consultants. Like A Business Letter, A Memo Is A Permanent Record Of Your
Communication.

Circular Meaning: -
A Circular Is Essentially A Letter Containing Some Important Information That Is Distributed To A Large Number Of
People. Say For Example You Have To Invite An Entire Department For A Meeting, Or Update The Dress Policy For
The Whole Office – A Circular Will Be The Best Mode Of Communication For These Purposes.

Notices Meaning: -
Notices Are A Means Of Formal Communication Targetted At A Particular Person Or A Group Of Persons. It Is Like A
News Item Informing Such Person Or Persons Of Some Important Event. This Can Be An Invitation To A Meeting, An
Announcement Of Any Event, To Issue Certain Instructions, Make Appeals Etc.

House Journal Meaning: -

A House-Journal Is Basically A Periodic Publication By An Establishment For Its Employees, Customers And Other
Interested People. In-House Journals Are Very Effective Means Of Communication. These Are Used To Foster A Sense
Of Loyalty Among Employees And To Build A Work Culture Among Them.

Negotiation Meaning: -
A Negotiation Is A Strategic Discussion That Resolves An Issue In A Way That Both Parties Find Acceptable. In A
Negotiation, Each Party Tries To Persuade The Other To Agree With His Or Her Point Of View. By Negotiating, All
Involved Parties Try To Avoid Arguing But Agree To Reach Some Form Of Compromise.

Process Of Negotiation: -
 Prepare: - Negotiation Preparation Is Easy To Ignore, But It’s A Vital First Stage Of The Negotiating Process. To
Prepare, Research Both Sides Of The Discussion, Identify Any Possible Trade-Offs, Determine Your Most-Desired
And Least-Desired Possible Outcomes. Then, Make A List Of What Concessions You’re Willing To Put On The
Bargaining Table, Understand Who In Your Organization Has The Decision-Making Power, Know The Relationship
That You Want To Build Or Maintain With The Other Party, And Prepare Your Batna (“Best Alternative To A
Negotiated Agreement”).

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 Exchange Information: - This Is The Part Of The Negotiation When Both Parties Exchange Their Initial Positions.
Each Side Should Be Allowed To Share Their Underlying Interests And Concerns Uninterrupted, Including What
They Aim To Receive At The End Of The Negotiation And Why They Feel The Way They Do.
 Clarify: - During The Clarification Step, Both Sides Continue The Discussion That They Began When Exchanging
Information By Justifying And Bolstering Their Claims. If One Side Disagrees With Something The Other Side Is
Saying, They Should Discuss That Disagreement In Calm Terms To Reach A Point Of Understanding.
 Bargain And Problem-Solve: - This Step Is The Meat Of The Process Of Negotiation, During Which Both Sides
Begin A Give-And-Take. After The Initial First Offer, Each Negotiating Party Should Propose Different Counter-
Offers For The Problem, All The While Making And Managing Their Concessions. During The Bargaining Process,
Keep Your Emotions In Check; The Best Negotiators Use Strong Verbal Communication Skills (Active Listening And
Calm Feedback; In Face-To-Face Negotiation, This Also Includes Body Language). The Goal Of This Step Is To
Emerge With A Win-Win Outcome—A Positive Course Of Action.
 Conclude And Implement: - Once An Acceptable Solution Has Been Agreed Upon, Both Sides Should Thank Each
Other For The Discussion, No Matter The Outcome Of The Negotiation; Successful Negotiations Are All About
Creating And Maintaining Good Long-Term Relationships. Then They Should Outline The Expectations Of Each
Party And Ensure That The Compromise Will Be Implemented Effectively. This Step Often Includes A Written
Contract And A Follow-Up To Confirm The Implementation Is Going Smoothly.

Essential Skills Of Negotiation: -

 Listening
 Adaptability
 Communication
 Patience
 Asking Questions
 Belief In Oneself
 Assertiveness And Empathy
 Vulnerability & Collboration
 Being Of Service
 Emotional Intelligence
 A Winning Mindset
 Projecting Confidence
 Understand The Intangibles
 Being Able To Say No

Negotiation Skills Meaning: -

Negotiation Skills Are Essential To The Successful Outcome Of A Contractual Agreement. While Any Party Can
Conduct Negotiation Meetings, It Takes An Experienced Negotiating Consultant To Bring Specialised Negotiation
Skills To The Table That Will Create Positive, Money Saving Contractual Agreements.

Measures To Improve Negotiation Skills: -

 Be Prepared
 Your Goals
 Consider Alternatives
 Don’t Sell Yourself Short
 Take Your Time
 Communication Is Key
 Listen Carefully
 Explore Other Possibilities
 Be Willing To Concede
 Seek A Win-Win Solution

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