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Date: ________________________
Comments:
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(Total 8 marks)
Suggest one way in which the working memory model might be a better explanation of
2. short-term memory than the multi-store model.
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(Total 1 mark)
Outline what psychological research has shown about short-term memory according to the
3. multi-store model of memory.
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(Total 4 marks)
Flip Huge
Flit Large
Flop Great
Flap Giant
Flab Vast
Flan Mighty
Flat Epic
After seeing the lists, participants were tested on their ability to recall the words.
When tested immediately, participants found it more difficult to recall the words from List A in the
correct order.
When tested after 30 minutes, participants found it more difficult to recall the words from List B in
the correct order.
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(Total 4 marks)
(a) Evaluate the use of case studies, like that of Patient X, in psychological research.
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(5)
(b) Briefly explain how the experiences of Patient X could be interpreted as supporting the
multi-store model of memory.
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(2)
With reference to the experiment involving Patient X, outline two types of long-term
memory.
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(b) Discuss two differences between the types of long-term memory you have outlined in your
answer to part (c).
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(Total 15 marks)
Explain two differences between short-term memory and long-term memory in this
mode
Difference 1 ____________________________________________________________
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(2)
Difference 2 ____________________________________________________________
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(Total 4 Marks)
A, B and C relate to memory. Write the appropriate letter in the box below. The first
8. one has been done for you.
A 7±2
C Mainly acoustic
Write letter C in the appropriate box below.
Short-term Long-term
memory memory
Encoding
Capacity A
Duration
(Total 2 marks)
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(Total 4 marks)
Which type of long-term memory would be most associated with the following?
10.
Write the correct type of long-term memory in the spaces provided.
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(Total 3 marks)
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Apart from the central executive, name and briefly outline two other components of
12. the working memory model.
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(Total 4 marks)
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In Condition A, 20 students performed the following two tasks at the same time:
In Condition B, 20 different students performed the following two tasks at the same time:
The researcher predicted that the performance of students in Condition A would be better than
the performance of students in Condition B.
(a) Name the two components of working memory that would be involved in the performance
of the tasks in Condition A.
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(2)
(b) Briefly explain two ways in which the working memory experiment described above could
be improved.
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(4)
(Total 6 marks)
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(Total 2 marks)
Natasha had studied a lot for her A-level Drama performance, mostly practising lines
16. from a play alone in her room. However, once on stage in front of her teacher and the
examiners, Natasha struggled to remember her lines. Instead, she kept quoting lines
from a different play she had once learnt for GCSE.
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(Total 16 marks)
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(Total 3 marks)
Outline techniques used in the cognitive interview and discuss the effectiveness of these
18. techniques on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
(Total 8 marks)
(Total 2 marks)
Kai and Neri were discussing a report of an armed robbery in the newspaper.
20.
Kai: “I think all the witnesses would have trouble recalling what they had seen as the robbers
were really dangerous.”
Neri: “I’m not so sure. When I had a car accident I was in danger, but I was able to give lots of
detail.”
Discuss what research has shown about the effects of anxiety on eye-witness testimony. Refer to
the conversation above in your answer.
(Total 12 marks)
Outline and evaluate research (theories and/or studies) into the effects of misleading information
21. on eyewitness testimony.
(Total 16 marks)
Below are five evaluative statements about the cognitive interview. Which two statements are
22. correct?
(Total 2 marks)
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(Total 4 marks)
0 No relevant content.
Possible content
• knowledge of procedures and/or findings/conclusions of studies which investigate duration
of sensory memory, STM or LTM, eg Peterson and Peterson - Trigrams study (1959),
Bahrick - Yearbook study (1974).
Note: That the term ‘research’ may include theories/explanations and/or studies.
Possible evaluation:
• use of artificial material, eg recall of trigrams, lists of unconnected words etc
• use of artificial laboratory setting
• discussion of issues of validity (higher in Bahrick study), reliability
• alternative explanations – Peterson and Peterson’s findings may be more to do with
interference than duration.
[AO3 = 1]
2.
1 mark for a brief suggestion of why the WMM offers a better explanation.
Cranleigh Abu Dhabi Page 14 of 32
Possible content:
3. [AO1 = 4]
0 No relevant content.
Content:
• Capacity is thought to be 7 items Plus or minus 2 items (between 5 and 9). Capacity can be
increased by chunking items together to reduce the number of separate items overall
• Duration is thought to be approximately 18-30 seconds. Duration can be extended by
verbal rehearsal ie information can be maintained in the rehearsal loop
• Coding is acoustic, sound based, phonological, auditory. Causes confusion where material
sounds the same
A detailed outline of one aspect (capacity, duration, coding) can be awarded full marks.
Credit other relevant material e.g. ways of forgetting from STM (e.g. displacement)
Immediate task
Delayed task
• list B is made up of words that are semantically similar/have similar meaning
• this will cause confusion/difficulty/problems (when tested after 30 minutes) as long-term
memory (LTM) uses semantic/meaning-based coding.
0 No relevant content.
Likely content:
Application to the case of ‘Patient X’ may be present but is not essential for full marks.
(b) [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for the link to the MSM: this suggests that STM and LTM are separate
stores/functionally different (supporting the model).
Plus
1 mark for the idea that whilst Patient X’s STM is functioning normally, he is unable to
retain new info in LTM/the link between STM and LTM appears to have been cut.
2 marks for an outline of two types of LTM from the following (1 for each type):
Plus
2 marks for linking the two types to the information in the stem (1 for each type):
• Procedural – his performance improved on the rotating disc task over consecutive
days
0 No relevant content.
Content:
• Semantic – may not recall when we learned/encoded these memories – episodic –
stored with reference to time and place
• The fact that evidence suggests that these types of memory reside in different areas
of the brain
Do not credit differences that merely restate the definitions of both types of memory.
6. AO2 = 4
Candidates are likely to identify capacity, duration and encoding as ways in which STM and LTM
differ. Processes are acceptable eg putting information into the stores or keeping information in
the stores. Any legitimate difference(s) in multi-store model should be credited.
For each difference:
1 mark for identifying the difference eg STM holds less than LTM or LTM lasts longer than STM.
2nd mark for accurate elaboration eg the capacity of STM is limited to 7 + / - 2 items whereas the
capacity of LTM is unlimited or the duration of STM is up to 30 seconds whereas the duration of
LTM is a lifetime.
0 marks for simply naming eg capacity, duration, encoding of STM or LTM but no difference.
0 No relevant content.
AO1
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model of memory (MSM) makes a distinction
between the separate stores of sensory, short-term and long-term memory.
Likely features include:
Structural nature.
Each store has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration.
AO3
Use of research in support of the distinction between STM and LTM; in terms of capacity,
duration and encoding eg HM, Glanzer and Cunitz.
8. AO1 = 2
It is likely that candidates will refer to the experiment by Peterson and Peterson (1959). They
presented participants with a consonant trigram. Although Peterson and Peterson is the most
likely study, answers need not refer to an identifiable study to receive credit. Rehearsal was
prevented by asking them to count backwards in threes from a specified number. After intervals
of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds participants were asked to stop counting and to repeat the
trigram. The % of trigrams correctly recalled was recorded for each time interval.
Duration has also been investigated in a similar way using single words or sets of words.
Research relating to word length effect in the phonological loop would be credit-worthy. Any
acceptable way of investigating duration of STM should be credited.
1 mark for a brief answer, eg reference to trigrams in a duration study.
3 further marks for elaboration.
For full marks all three elements should be covered.
[AO1 = 1]
10.
Episodic
1
[AO1 = 1]
Procedural
1
[AO1 = 1]
Semantic
1
[3]
[AO3 = 4]
11.
Level Mark Description
0 No relevant content.
Possible evaluation:
• Central executive is vague and untestable (despite being the component in overall charge)
• Central executive itself may be divided into separate sub-components
• links with attention research – allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-tasking
• use of evidence to support or contradict the central executive, eg Hunt (1980).
Possible content:
• visuo-spatial sketch/scratch pad – temporary storage of visual and spatial information;
inner eye; visual coding; can hold 3–4 items; visual cache, visual scribe
• phonological store/loop/articulatory loop/control process/primary acoustic store – limited
capacity temporary storage system; holds acoustic information according to tone, volume,
pitch, etc; inner ear; verbal rehearsal loop, sub-vocal speech; duration 1.5–2 secs; inner
voice
• episodic buffer – integrates/synthesises information from other stores; link to LTM; modality
free.
[AO3 = 3]
13.
3 marks for a clear, coherent and detailed explanation of a limitation, using appropriate
terminology.
2 marks for a less detailed explanation of a limitation using some of the detail given below.
Possible limitations:
• vague, untestable nature of the central executive or episodic buffer
• evidence suggesting the central executive is not unitary, eg EVR had good reasoning skills
but was poor at decision-making
• evidence that visuo-spatial scratch pad is not unitary and divided into inner scribe and
visual cache
• supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model
• doesn’t account for musical memory because it’s possible to listen to instrumental music
without impairing performance on other auditory tasks.
Mentally counting backwards from 100 – Articulatory loop or store; phonological loop or
store; articulatory control processes.
Accept central executive / episodic buffer for either component, but not the same answer
for both.
If more than one component is named for either task, only the first should be marked.
2
(b) [AO3 = 4]
Possible improvements: how the experiment could be improved (this might include
why this would be an improvement).
• improving the sample / sampling method / target population – details of alternative
method, e.g. stratified
• changing the design – use of an alternative design (repeated measures, matched
pairs) and brief details of how this would be implemented
• changing the nature of the tasks – suggestions for tasks that are more reflective of
real-life behaviour, e.g. reading e-mails whilst talking on the phone, etc
• changing the type of experiment – suggestions for alternative, e.g. field study – carry
out the research in a more natural setting, e.g. an office environment or a classroom
• participants should be randomly allocated to each experimental condition; brief
explanation of how this would be done.
Possible strengths:
• use of evidence from lab studies to support the role of interference in forgetting, eg
McGeogh & McDonald (1931)
• use of evidence from everyday/real life situations which have shown interference can
explain forgetting, eg Baddeley and Hitch (1977); Schmidt et al (2000)
• practical applications, eg avoiding similar material when revising for exams.
0 No relevant content.
Retrieval failure:
• forgetting is due to the absence of cues/tip-of-the-tongue forgetting
• lack of external contextual cues – where environment for learning and recall is different (eg
different room)
• lack of internal contextual cues – where physical state for learning and recall is different (eg
mood)
• encoding specificity principle
• description of relevant evidence, eg Godden and Baddeley.
Interference:
• when two memories conflict/confuse/become mixed up with each other
• more likely when material is similar (creates response competition)
• proactive interference – when an older memory disrupts a newer memory
• retroactive interference – when a newer memory disrupts an older memory
• description of relevant evidence, eg Baddeley and Hitch.
Possible application:
• retrieval failure – Natasha is not in the same context as when she learnt the material for her
drama exam – on stage vs in her room; Natasha is unlikely to be in the same physical,
emotional state as when she learnt the material – in her room alone vs in front of the
teacher and examiner
• interference – Natasha has mixed up/confused words from another exam which has
caused her to forget; interference is likely in this case because the A-level and GCSE
performances/plays may be similar.
Possible discussion
Retrieval failure:
• use of evidence to support or contradict, eg Godden and Baddeley suggests that retrieval
failure/absence of cues is a valid explanation of forgetting
• application of explanation, eg improving memory using mnemonics, category headings
• context has to be very different in real-life to have any effect
• context effect only occurs when memory is tested in particular ways – free recall vs
recognition.
[AO1 = 3]
17.
2 marks for a clear, elaborated explanation of retroactive interference.
Possible content:
• when new/recently stored information disrupts/affects the recall of old/previously stored
information
• more likely if competing information is similar.
Plus
0 No relevant content.
Possible content:
• report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the
event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant
• context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including
details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and the individual’s emotional
state including their feelings at the time of the incident
• recall from changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from different
points of view, e.g. describing what another witness present at the scene would have seen
• recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to recall the scene in a different chronological
order, e.g. from the end to the beginning.
Credit also features of the enhanced cognitive interview e.g. relax, speak slowly.
Candidates can achieve up to 4 marks by either outlining two techniques in some detail or by
covering more than two in less detail.
[AO1 = 2]
19.
A: Alter the perspective
E: Reverse the order
[2]
0 No relevant content.
• students might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety is
associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety
• in Johnson & Scott (1976) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a
person when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were holding a knife covered
in blood (33%)
• Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a
boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the incident
• however, in a real-life study Yuille and Cutshall (1986) found witnesses who had been most
distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months later. Also,
Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found victims of genuine bank robberies were more
accurate in their recall than bystanders.
Possible application:
• Kai’s comment may be linked to research that shows anxiety reduces accuracy, eg Loftus
(1979)
• Neri’s comment may be linked to research that anxiety improves accuracy, eg Yuille and
Cutshall (1986) or Christianson and Hubinette (1993)
• the different comments may both be linked to the Yerkes-Dodson curve.
• the contradictory nature of the research, e.g. the Yerkes-Dodson curve / Deffenbacher’s
meta-analysis showed inconsistent effects of anxiety
• lack of ecological validity in laboratory studies
• problems of control might also be relevant, e.g. in Yuille & Cutshall’s study those who
experienced the highest levels of stress were closer to the event, which might have helped
their recall
• practical applications of research could also be relevant
• alternative explanations for changes in accuracy e.g. surprise (Pickel, 1998) / neurotic vs
stable personalities (Bothwell et al., 1987).
0 No relevant content.
AO1 content
Knowledge of research (theories and/or studies) into the effects of misleading information on
EWT.
Leading questions:
• Loftus and Palmer (1974) – estimates of speed based on changing verb in the critical
question
• Loftus and Zanni (1975) – ‘Did you see the/a broken headlight?’
• Loftus (1975) – ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’
• response-bias explanation – leading questions do not affect memory, just choice of answer
• substitution bias/explanation – question wording actually distorts memory.
Post-event discussion:
• Gabbert et al (2003) – paired discussions influence recall of crime
• memory contamination – co-witnesses mix (mis)information
• memory conformity – witnesses go along with others for social approval.
22. [AO3 = 2]
1 mark – B
1 mark – D
23. [AO1 = 4]
0 No relevant content.
Possible content: