Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

San Jose, Pili, Camarines Sur 4418
www.cbsua.edu.ph

Module 1
The Nature and Relevance of Research in
Criminology
Topic

Week 2-3
INTRODUCTION

Research has been recognized as a vital tool for solving man's multifarious
problems and in making his life richer and fuller. In fact, the modern conveniences we are
enjoying today are a product of researches undertaken by scientists and professionals
from various disciplines. Today, research has become an integral part of all learning
areas known to man.
Public and private educational, business, and industrial organizations have
become interested in research undertakings. In this chapter, we are going to look more
into the nature and relevance of research, particularly in the field of criminology.

PRE-COMPETENCY CHECKLIST

Answer the following questions:

Select the letter of the item that answers each question or complete- each
statement.

1. Which among the following is not a common way of obtaining knowledge? (A) Expert
opinion (B) sensory experiences (C) agreement with others ) D) divine revelation

2. Which among the following is not true of research? (A) Research is just for scientists

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and experts (B) it is finding solutions to pressing problems. (C} it is the continuous
discovery and exploration of the unknown (d) it is concerned with understanding
phenomenon in the context of the stories

3. Research is systematic as (A) generalization drawn by a researcher is based on

evidence (B) there are interrelated steps to observe in solving a problem (C) conclusions
steps formulated by a researcher are based on actual findings (D) as its results can be
checked by other researchers.

4. Reasoning derived from general observation to particular or specific is (A) valid (B)
empirical (C) inductive (D) deductive.

5. Which of the following is not related to the scientific method in any way? (A)
Hypothesizing (B) common sense (C) projection of consequences (D) problem definition

6. In which phase of the research process does a researcher make sense out of the data
he collected? (A) Communication (B) synthesis (C) analysis (d) interpretation

7 .A Market researcher identifying the preference of housewives for a particular cooking

oil is doing (A) research project, (B) academic research (C) pure research (D) applied
research.

8. Applied research is undertaken for the purpose of (A) generating new knowledge (b)
solving a problem (C) formulating a theory (d) probing into what is unknown.

9. Research is the best method of obtaining information because it (A) involves collection
of data (B) provides the most reliable and valid source of information (C) can generate
answers to all questions (d) promotes hypothesizing.

10. Which among the following is an example of an action research? (A) a scientist
experimenting with rats to formulate a theory (B) a nursing student testing a theory in an
actual hospital setting (C) a classroom teacher creating a law for effective learning (D) an
economist devising a new principle of consumption.

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 LEARNING
RESOURCES

1. https://www.google.com/

2. Power-point Presentation (CBSUA VLP)

EXPLORE (TASK/
ACTIVITIES)

Discussions:

The Meaning of Research

The word research is derived from the prefix re, which means to repeat" or "re-do,
and the root word search, which means to find or look for". From the foregoing etymology
of this word, research literally means to repeat looking for something, which had been in
existence before.

Let us examine how research has been defined by experts. Research is concerned
with finding answers (Mason & Bramble, 1989). It is a systematic, organized search for
knowledge or answers to questions.

It is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information or data

for some purpose (Macmillan & Schumacher, 1989).

It is a process of obtaining knowledge through techniques, where truth, accuracy,

validity, reliability, and other criteria can be ascertained (Genato et al, 1993)

It is a critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation, having for its aim the
discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted
conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of newly discovered facts or the practical
application of such conclusions, theories or laws (Leedy, 1993).

It is a systematic inquiry geared towards providing information to solve problems

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(Emory, 1995). It is a systematic and empirical approach to answering questions. It is
concerned with understanding phenomenon, within the context of theories and
experiences regarding the phenomenon (Bieger & Gail, 1996).

It is the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an investigation of

new facts, leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods, or improvements
(Charles, 1998).

From the above definitions, it is evident that research is a process that is

systematic, organized, objective, critical, exhaustive, and comprehensive. It is done for
the purpose of solving a problem or adding to the body of existing knowledge. In addition,
it has to be emphasized that without discovery, there is no research to speak of.

Characteristics of Research

As already pointed out, research as a process has several distinguishing

characteristics. These characteristics differentiate research from other methods of gaining
knowledge. Let us go over some of these characteristics.

Systematic - It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a researcher

has to observe in solving a problem. It originates with a problem, followed by the
gathering of data in a logical and orderly manner guided by a reasonable guess or
hypothesis and ends with a conclusion based on observable facts or data.

Objective - It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have to be

gathered by the researcher prior to making a conclusion or proposing new solutions to an
identified difficulty or problems.

Comprehensive- If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he needs

to examine and analyze all aspects or angles before making a generalization or
conclusion.

Critical-This means that procedures employed by the researcher must be able to

withstand detailed scrutiny by other researchers.

Valid -whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these have to be based on actual

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findings.

Verifiable - Research is said to be verifiable when other researchers can check on the
correctness and validity of the results based on the methods and procedures employed by
the researcher.

Empirical - Research is empirical when generalizations drawn by a researcher are rooted

upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or
observations.

The Value of Research

There are different ways by which we can obtain knowledge and information
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1993). Since there are various means by which knowledge can be
derived, we may be tempted to ask why we have to be knowledgeable of the scientific
research methodology. Before answering this question, let us consider the different ways
of obtaining knowledge.

Expert Opinion is one of the sources of knowledge. When we have legal

problems, we seek advice of lawyers. When we are ill, we consult physicians. Suppose
your family doctor told you that you are afflicted with cancer and that you have only one
week to live, will you believe him right away? Others will advise you to seek a second or
even a third opinion. The foregoing situation points only to one thing - that even an expert
opinion can be doubted.

Sensory Experience can also be a way of obtaining information. Through our

sense of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, we can immediately know something.
Sensory knowledge however is not always dependable. Take for instance the case of two
young men who were asked by their English professor to describe the lady passing by the
corridor. One of them said, "She is beautiful. The other remarked, "She's just an ordinary
woman"

Others gain knowledge through agreement with others. When confronted by a

problem, we tend to ask friends and even colleagues what they did when they
experienced the same difficulty. In the process of soliciting their advice, don’t be surprised

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if they do not give the same suggestion on what to do. This only shows that the
aforementioned mode of knowing is not always a reliable source of knowledge. We can
also gain knowledge by reasoning sometimes, reasoning is derived from general
observation to particular or specific cases. This kind of reasoning is called deduction. On
the other hand, reasoning can also be inductive or from a particular to the general.
Consider the following

Syllogism:

All men are mortal.

Gary is a man.
Therefore, Gary is mortal.

Is the conclusion correct? Definitely, it is! Why? This is because the first two
statements or conditions are correct. We don't have to rely on our senses nor seek
agreement with others to confirm veracity. Examine the next syllogism:

If it rains, the ground is wet.

The ground is wet.

Therefore, it rained.

Can we consider the conclusion correct? Definitely, not. Although the first two
statements are right, it does not follow that the conclusion is right. Why? It does not mean
that the wetness of the ground is only caused by rain. This only means that there are
dangers in logical reasoning that we need to be aware of.

Common Sense is also one way of knowing. All of us use common sense yet it is
difficult to define. The major problem with common sense is that it is not a systematic way
of gaining knowledge. Research is another method of obtaining information. It is,
however, the most reliable source of knowledge. This is because research utilizes the
scientific method. This method involves five distinct steps, namely: identification of the
problem; definition of the problem; formulation of hypothesis; projection of the
consequences; and testing of hypothesis. We have to be familiar with the research

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process as it is only through research that we can gain valid and reliable knowledge.

The Importance of Research in Criminology

As research is the primary tool for advancing knowledge in the criminological

sciences, there is a need for criminology students to learn the rudiments of doing
research. Some of the reasons for learning research in the field of criminology are as
follows:

It helps students and even professionals to ascertain or recognize what works in

the areas of law enforcement, prosecution, legal service, court system, Community, and
correctional institutions. It provides the basis for the formulation of criminal justice policies.

It equips students with skills essential for educational and professional success,
notably critical thinking skills, analytical thinking skills and making sense out of the data
from multiple sources.

It helps students identify more effective approaches to law enforcement and

administration of justice.

It helps students become educated consumers of research by being able to identify

the strengths and weaknesses of studies in the field of criminology.

Types of Research

There are different ways of classifying research. On the basis of who undertakes
research, research can be either academic research or a research project. Academic
research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the requirements for the conferment
of an academic title or degree. Baby theses, master's theses, feasibility studies, and
doctoral dissertations fall under this type of research. Research project, on the other
hand, is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of individuals as part of
their professional work or assignment. A market researcher surveying the preference of
housewives for a particular brand of soap, for instance, is doing a research project

Based on the final use or application of the research results, research can either be
pure/theoretical or applied/practical. Pure or theoretical research is one done for the

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purpose of formulating a theory, principle, or law, with no intended application of results.
Research in this case is undertaken for the purpose of gaining knowledge tor knowledges
sake or the construction of theories or models that allow for a better understanding of, for
example, criminal behavior. Conversely, applied research is an inquiry to test or evaluate
a theory or knowledge arrived at, in the solution of a problem for useful ends. It is done
with a practical goal in mind, that of developing strategies to address the problem of
crime. When method of data analysis is considered, research can either be quantitative or
qualitative. Quantitative research is used for the purpose of measuring, for example, a
criminological or criminal justice reality. It is one where analysis proceeds by using
statistics, tables and charts. This is because data subjected to analysis are in the form of
numbers from precise measurements. On the other hand, qualitative research is done for
the purpose of capturing life as participants experience it. It is one where analysis is done
by extracting themes or generalizations from the data in the form of words and images
drawn from documents, observations and transcripts.

When methodology or research design is used as basis for categorizing research,

research can take any of the following types: descriptive; correlational; exploratory;
ex- post facto or causal-comparative: experimental; historical; and ethnographic.

Descriptive Research- This type of research seeks to describe systematically, factually,

accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon. It seeks to describe what
is. A criminology student who is assessing the personal values of a group of inmates in
one penitentiary is actually doing a descriptive study.

Correlational or Associational Research -In this type of research, the investigator tries
to probe on the significance of the relationship between two or more factors or
characteristics. A researcher who undertakes a study to find out the significance of
association between drug addiction of young adolescents and extent of parental guidance
is doing correlational research.

Explanatory Research - In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify why and
how a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Questions like, why being reared in a slum area contributes to juvenile delinquency or

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why males are more prone to commit crimes are problems which can be investigated
systematically through an explanatory research design.

Exploratory Research - This kind of study is, undertaken when the investigator is after
probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem. Feasibility
and pilot studies fall under this type of research. In criminal justice research, this is used
to explore a specific crime or criminal justice policy, where there is a dearth of data. Thus,
data are collected to establish baseline for future comparison. An example of a study that
can be done using this design is the extent of commission of cybercrime in the
Philippines.

Experimental Research - In this type of research, it probes into the cause of an effect by
exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatments or conditions. For
example, a study on the effects of mandatory arrest policy on the future patterns of
domestic violence cam be better accomplished through experimental research.

Ex-post Facto or Causal-Comparative Research - Research is of this type when the

investigator delves on analyzing the possible effect of a factor which cannot, be
manipulated and controlled. A social worker who is after determining the appropriate
intervention for young delinquents probed into the personal values of those under the
custody of DSWD is a good example of a study which lends itself to ex-post facto or
causal-comparative research.

Historical Research - In historical research, the researcher attempts to reconstruct the

past objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the
use of data taken from the past. For instance, to understand the reasons for suicide
among men and women in Metro-Manila from 1990 to 2000, this method is deemed the
best to apply.

Ethnographic Research- This type of research is done when the researcher is

concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically, with the use of
multiple data collection techniques. Topics like, the culture of criminology students of Jose
Rizal University and the teaching of criminalistics and law enforcement administration in
selected criminology schools in the National Capital Region lend themselves to this

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research methodology.

The Research Process

As a systematic process in solving a problem or adding to the existing body of

knowledge, research is not haphazardly done. It follows a standard procedure in a logical
sequence of steps explained below.

Step 1: Idea-Generating Phase. Research begins with an idea in which the researcher
has interest. It is in this phase wherein the researcher has to identify topics that interests
him the most. It is in this step where he has to justify why a study on a particular topic is
needed. Once a topic of interest is already identified, the researcher has to start reading
articles and books, talk with people who are knowledgeable in the area and begin thinking
about it.

Step 2: Problem-Definition Phase. As the ideas generated in the first phase are very
general or vague, the researcher has to refine them. This is the problem definition phase.
This step involves the following activities: identification and definition of the variables to be
studied; development of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study; the
formulation of the major and specific problems to be investigated; and the formulation of
hypothesis.

Step 3: Procedures-Design Phase. After identifying the problems and hypothesis, the
researcher has to decide on the methods and procedures he will use in the collection and
analysis of data. This is the procedures-design phase. The activities a researcher has to
undertake in this phase include the following: selection of research participants; decision
on what research methodology to employ; development and validation of data-gathering
tools; specification of the procedures to be observed in the actual collection of data; and
planning and analysis of the data gathered.

Step 4: Data-Collection Phase. After preparing the research plan, the researcher has to
proceed collecting the data from the subjects of the study. It is in this phase where the
procedures, designed in the previous step, are implemented by the researcher rigorously.

Step 5: Data-Analysis Phase. In this particular phase, the researcher analyzes the

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collected data from the previous step based on his data-analysis plan. Appropriate
qualitative and quantitative techniques and procedures are then applied to the data that
have been recorded, coded, and tabulated.

Step 6: Interpretation Phase. Having analyzed the data, the researcher continues to make
sense out of the data by interpreting the results in terms of how they aid in responding to
the research problem posed at the beginning of the study and how this answer
contributes to knowledge in the field. After generating answers to the problem, the
researcher has to compare the results predicted based on the theoretical framework of
the study.

Step 7: Communication Phase. After completing the data analysis and interpretation
phases, the researcher has to prepare a written or oral report of the study conducted,
either for publication or presentation to colleagues or a panel of experts. This report has
to include a description of all the above steps in the research process.

DISCUSSION BOARD

Questions:

1. What is research?

2. What are the characteristics of research? Explain each briefly.

3. What are the different ways of obtaining knowledge?

4. Why is research considered the most valid and reliable source of

information?

POST-COMPETENCY CHECKLIST

Do the following activity

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 List down three topics you are interested to study. Consider the Pillars of Philippine
Criminal Justice System in identifying possible topics for your study and explain why you
chose those topics.

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