FORMS OF CONDITIONAL

PROPOSITIONS
&
TAUTOLOGIES AND
FALLACIES
 MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY

ILLUSTRATES THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONDITIONAL

PROPOSITIONS.
ILLUSTRATES DIFFERENT TYPES OF TAUTOLOGIES AND
FALLACIES.
DETERMINES THE VALIDITY OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS.
ESTABLISHES THE VALIDITY AND FALSITY OF REAL-LIFE
ARGUMENTS USING LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS, SYLLOGISMS, AND
FALLACIES.
 OBJECTIVES

ILLUSTRATES THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONDITIONAL

PROPOSITIONS.
ILLUSTRATES DIFFERENT TYPES OF TAUTOLOGIES AND
FALLACIES.
DETERMINES THE VALIDITY OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS.
ESTABLISHES THE VALIDITY AND FALSITY OF REAL-LIFE
ARGUMENTS USING LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS, SYLLOGISMS, AND
FALLACIES.
 REVIEW
A.CONSTRUCT TRUTH TABLES FOR EACH STATEMENT.
1.(A) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 (B) 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝
2.(A) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 (B) 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
3.(A) 𝑝 → 𝑞 (B) 𝑞 → 𝑝

B. 1. COMPARE 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 AND 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝
2. COMPARE 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 AND 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
3. COMPARE 𝑝 → 𝑞 AND 𝑞 → 𝑝
𝒑 𝒒
T T
T F
F T
F F
 ACTIVITY
REWRITE EACH STATEMENT IN IF-THEN FORM.
1. COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES ARE ANY TWO ANGLES WHOSE SUM MEASURES
90.

2. TWO ANGLES WITH THE SAME MEASURE ARE DEFINED TO BE CONGRUENT.

3. DIAGONALS OF A PARALLELOGRAM BISECT EACH OTHER.

4. PERPENDICULAR LINES FORM RIGHT ANGLES.

5. A CHAMPION IS AFRAID OF LOSING

 PARTS OF CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
ANTECEDENT (HYPOTHESIS) -THE STATEMENT BETWEEN THE
WORDS “IF” AND “THEN” DENOTED BY 𝑝.

CONSEQUENT (CONCLUSION)- THE STATEMENT AFTER THE

WORD “THEN” DENOTED BY 𝑞.
EXAMPLE: IF IT IS 9:30 AM, THEN IT MUST BE DAYTIME.
𝑝 (IT IS 9:30 AM), 𝑞 (IT MUST BE DAYTIME)
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONDITIONAL
PROPOSITIONS
A.CONVERSE (𝑞 → 𝑝) “IF 𝑞 THEN 𝑝”

B.INVERSE (~𝑝 → ~𝑞) “IF NOT 𝑝, THEN NOT 𝑞”

C.CONTRAPOSITIVE (~𝑞 → ~𝑝) “IF NOT 𝑞, THEN NOT 𝑝”

 EXAMPLE:
1. WRITE THE INVERSE, CONVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE STATEMENT
BELOW. THEN, TELL WHETHER EACH SIDE IS TRUE OR FALSE.
“IF TWO ANGLES FORM A LINEAR PAIR, THEN THEY ARE SUPPLEMENTARY.”
ANSWER:
HYPOTHESIS: TWO ANGLES FORM A LINEAR PAIR
CONCLUSION: THEY ARE SUPPLEMENTARY
INVERSE:
IF TWO ANGLES DO NOT FORM A LINEAR PAIR, THEN THEY ARE NOT
SUPPLEMENTARY. (FALSE)
CONVERSE:
IF TWO ANGLES ARE SUPPLEMENTARY, THEN THEY FORM A LINEAR PAIR. (FALSE)
CONTRAPOSITIVE:
IF TWO ANGLES ARE NOT SUPPLEMENTARY, THEN THEY DO NOT FORM A LINEAR
PAIR. (TRUE)
 EXAMPLE:
2. WRITE IN WORDS THE INVERSE, CONVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE
STATEMENT “IF 𝑛 IS AN EVEN NUMBER, THEN 𝑛 + 1 IS AN ODD NUMBER”.

ANSWER:
HYPOTHESIS: 𝑛 IS AN EVEN NUMBER
CONCLUSION: 𝑛 + 1 IS AN ODD NUMBER
INVERSE:
IF 𝑛 IS NOT AN EVEN NUMBER, THEN 𝑛 + 1 IS NOT AN ODD NUMBER.
CONVERSE:
IF 𝑛 + 1 IS AN ODD NUMBER, THEN 𝑛 IS AN EVEN NUMBER.
CONTRAPOSITIVE:
IF 𝑛 + 1 IS NOT AN ODD NUMBER, THEN 𝑛 IS NOT AN EVEN NUMBER.
 • IF 𝑝, THEN 𝑞
• IF 𝑝, 𝑞
CONDITIONAL • 𝑞 IF 𝑝
EQUIVALENTS • 𝑝 IMPLIES 𝑞
• 𝑞 WHENEVER 𝑝
THE FOLLOWING ARE OTHER • 𝑝 ONLY IF 𝑞
INTERPRETATIONS OF 𝑝 → 𝑞. • 𝑝 IS SUFFICIENT FOR 𝑞
• 𝑞 IS NECESSARY FOR 𝑝
• 𝑞 IS IMPLIED BY 𝑝
 EXAMPLE:
1. WRITE THE INVERSE, CONVERSE AND THE CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE STATEMENT “
IF YOU CANNOT PASS THE FINAL EXAM, YOU CANNOT PASS THE SUBJECT”.
ANSWER:
HYPOTHESIS: YOU CANNOT PASS THE FINAL EXAM
CONCLUSION: YOU CANNOT PASS THE SUBJECT
INVERSE:
IF YOU CAN PASS THE FINAL EXAM, THEN YOU CAN PASS THE SUBJECT.
CONVERSE:
IF YOU CANNOT PASS THE SUBJECT, THEN YOU CANNOT PASS THE FINAL EXAM.
CONTRAPOSITIVE:
IF YOU CAN PASS THE SUBJECT, THEN YOU CAN PASS THE FINAL EXAM.
 EXAMPLE:
2. LET 𝑝=IT IS A MATH SUBJECT AND 𝑞=IT IS LOGICAL. EXPRESS EACH
STATEMENT IN SYMBOLIC FORM.

a. IF IT IS MATH SUBJECT, THEN IT IS LOGICAL.

b. IF IT IS NOT LOGICAL, THEN IT IS NOT A MATH SUBJECT.

c. IT IS LOGICAL IF IT IS A MATH SUBJECT.

d. BEING A MATH SUBJECT IS SUFFICIENT FOR BEING LOGICAL.

e. IT IS NOT A MATH SUBJECT ONLY IF IT IS NOT LOGICAL.

TRUTH TABLES OF THE CONVERSE,
INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE
STATEMENTS
 CONDITIONAL
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
CONTRAPOSITIVE
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒒 → ~𝒑
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
 CONVERSE
𝒑 𝒒 𝒒→𝒑
T T T
T F T
F T F
F F T
INVERSE
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 → ~𝒒
T T F F T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
 EQUIVALENT
TWO PROPOSITIONS 𝑝 AND 𝑞 THAT HAVE THE
SAME TRUTH VALUES ARE SAID TO BE LOGICALLY
EQUIVALENT AND DENOTED BY
𝒑 ⟺ 𝒒 OR 𝒑 ≡ 𝒒
 EXAMPLES:
1. ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) AND ~𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞

2. ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) AND ~𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞

3. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) AND (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
 1. ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) and ~𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∼𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

2. ~(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) and ~𝒑 ∨∼ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∼𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 3. 𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓) and (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒓)
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
DE MORGAN’S LAW

•~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
•~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
 EXAMPLE:
1. USING THE DE MORGAN’S LAW, WRITE A STATEMENT EQUIVALENT TO:
“IT IS NOT TRUE THAT MATTHEW IS A MATHEMATICIAN OR COMEDIAN.”
ANSWER:
LET 𝑝 BE THE STATEMENT MATTHEW IS A MATHEMATICIAN.
𝑞 BE THE STATEMENT MATTHEW IS A COMEDIAN.
THE GIVEN STATEMENT IN SYMBOLS IS ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞). ITS EQUIVALENT
STATEMENT WOULD BE ~𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞.
THUS, THE EQUIVALENT STATEMENT WOULD BE:
“MATTHEW IS NOT A MATHEMATICIAN AND NOT COMEDIAN.”
 EXAMPLE:
2. WRITE THE NEGATION OF EACH STATEMENT.
A. 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
ANSWER:
USING THE DE MORGAN’S LAW, WE CAN NEGATE THIS DISJUNCTION BY
NEGATING EACH COMPONENT STATEMENT AND CHANGING ∨ TO ∧.
∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ (∼ 𝑞)
∼𝒑∧𝒒
B. I’M GOING TO BAGUIO AND BOHOL.
ANSWER:
USING DE MORGAN’S LAW, WE CAN WRITE THE NEGATION IN ENGLISH
WITHOUT HAVING TO TRANSLATE INTO SYMBOLIC FORM. TO NEGATE THIS
CONJUNCTION, NEGATE EACH COMPONENT STATEMENT AND CHANGE
“AND” TO “OR”.
“I’M NOT GOING TO BAGUIO OR I’M NOT GOING TO BOHOL.”
 EXAMPLE:
3. WRITE A STATEMENT THAT IS EQUIVALENT TO: “IF NORMAN FAILS, HE WILL TAKE SUMMER CLASS AND CANNOT
TRAVEL.”
ANSWER:
LET 𝑝 BE “NORMAN FAILS.”
𝑞 BE “ NORMAN WILL TAKE SUMMER CLASS.”
𝑟 BE “NORMAN CANNOT TRAVEL.”

WRITE FIRST THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT IN SYMBOLIC FORM. THAT IS,

𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟)
THEN, ITS EQUIVALENT STATEMENT WOULD BE THE CONTRAPOSITIVE.
∼ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟) →∼ 𝑝
APPLY DE MORGAN’S LAW FOR NEGATION ON CONJUNCTIONS.
[∼ 𝑞 ∨∼ ∼ 𝑟 ] →∼ 𝑝
SIMPLIFY
(∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) →∼ 𝑝
THUS,
𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟) ≡ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) →∼ 𝑝
THE STATEMENT WOULD BE,
“IF NORMAN WILL NOT TAKE SUMMER CLASS OR CANNOT TRAVEL, THEN HE WILL NOT FAIL.”
 EXAMPLE:
4. SHOW THAT 𝑝 → 𝑞 AND ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ARE EQUIVALENT.
ANSWER:
CONSTRUCT A TRUTH TABLE SHOWING THE VALUES FOR 𝑝 → 𝑞 AND ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 𝑝→𝑞 ∼𝑝∨𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F

SINCE THE TRUTH VALUES ARE THE SAME, THEN, THE TWO STATEMENTS ARE EQUIVALENT.
 EXAMPLE:
5. USE THE RESULT IN EXAMPLE 4 TO WRITE A STATEMENT THAT IS EQUIVALENT
TO “IF A NUMBER IS EVEN, THEN THE NUMBER IS DIVISIBLE BY 2.”
ANSWER:
THE GIVEN STATEMENT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN SYMBOLIC FORM AS
FOLLOWS:
𝑝: THE NUMBER IS EVEN.
𝑞: THE NUMBER IS DIVISIBLE BY 2.
IN SYMBOLIC FORM, THE STATEMENT IS 𝑝 → 𝑞. FROM THE TRUTH TABLE, WE
KNOW THAT ITS EQUIVALENT STATEMENT IS ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞. THE STATEMENT IN
WORDS IS
“THE NUMBER IS NOT EVEN, OR THE NUMBER IS DIVISIBLE BY 2.”
 EXAMPLE:
6. SELECT THE STATEMENT THAT IS NOT EQUIVALENT TO “ IF IT’S SUNNY, THEN
I NEED AN UMBRELLA.”
a. IT IS NOT SUNNY OR I NEED AN UMBRELLA.
b. I NEED AN UMBRELLA OR IT IS NOT SUNNY.
c. IF I NEED AN UMBRELLA, THEN IT IS SUNNY.
d. IF I DO NOT NEED AN UMBRELLA, THEN IT IS NOT SUNNY.
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
THE NEGATION OF 𝑝 → 𝑞 IS 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞. THIS CAN BE EXPRESSED AS
∼ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
THE TRUTH TABLE SHOWS THAT 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 NEGATES 𝑝 → 𝑞.
𝑝 𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
 NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

NOTE:
TO FORM THE NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT,
1. LEAVE THE ANTECEDENT UNCHANGED;
2. CHANGE THE 𝑖𝑓 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 CONNECTIVE TO 𝑎𝑛𝑑;
3. NEGATE THE CONSEQUENT.
 EXAMPLE:
WRITE THE NEGATION OF THE FOLLOWING:
1. IF THE MUSIC IS PLAYING, THEN I CANNOT
CONCENTRATE.
2. ∼ 𝑎 → ~𝑏
ANSWERS:
1. THE MUSIC IS PLAYING AND I CAN CONCENTRATE.
2. ∼ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏
 TAUTOLOGIES AND FALLACIES

TAUTOLOGY- A STATEMENT THAT IS ALWAYS TRUE.

CONTRADICTION- A STATEMENT THAT IS ALWAYS

FALSE.
 EXAMPLES:
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLE FOR EACH OF THE
FOLLOWING AND SHOW THAT THE COMPOUND STATEMENT
IS A TAUTOLOGY.
1. 𝑝 → 𝑞 ↔ ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
2.~ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ↔ ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
3. 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞
4.(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟
 1. 𝒑 → 𝒒 ↔ ~𝒒 → ~𝒑
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

2. ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ↔ ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 3. 𝒑 ∨ ~𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∨ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 𝟒. (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) → 𝒓
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
 𝑳𝑰𝑺𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑨𝑼𝑻𝑶𝑳𝑶𝑮𝑰𝑬𝑺
Name Tautology
Associative: for ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 → [𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ]
for ∧ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 → [𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 ]
Commutative: for ∨ 𝑝∨𝑞 →𝑞∨𝑝
for ∧ 𝑝∧𝑞 →𝑞∧𝑝
Distributive: for ∨ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 → [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ]
for ∧ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 → [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 ]
Law of Biconditional Propositions 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑝 → (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞)
Modus Ponens [𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ] → 𝑞
Modus Tollens [∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ] →∼ 𝑝
Exportation 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 → [𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)]
Transposition or Contraposition (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝)
Addition 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
 𝑳𝑰𝑺𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑨𝑼𝑻𝑶𝑳𝑶𝑮𝑰𝑬𝑺
Simplification (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑝
Conjunction [ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ] → (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
Double Negation 𝑝 →∼ (∼ 𝑝)
Absorption 𝑝 → 𝑞 → [𝑝 → 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ]
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝 → 𝑞
Disjunctive Syllogism
[(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧∼ 𝑞] → 𝑝
Material Implication (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
Disjunctive Simplification (𝑝 ∨ 𝑝) → 𝑝
Resolution (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) → (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
Hypothetical Syllogism [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ] → (𝑝 → 𝑟)
Constructive Dilemma [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 → 𝑠 ] ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) → (𝑞 ∨ 𝑠)
Destructive Dilemma [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 → 𝑠 ] ∧ (∼ 𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑠) → (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑟)
 VALID ARGUMENT AND FALLACY
• AN ARGUMENT IS A COMPOUND PROPOSITION OF THE FORM
(𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) → 𝑞
• AN ARGUMENT IS MADE UP OF TWO PARTS: THE PREMISES AND
THE CONCLUSION.
• AN ARGUMENT IS VALID IF THE CONCLUSION IS TRUE WHENEVER
THE PREMISES ARE ASSUMED TO BE TRUE.
• AN ARGUMENT THAT IS NOT VALID IS SAID TO BE AN INVALID
ARGUMENT, ALSO CALLED FALLACY.
 EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLE:
PREMISE 1: IF ONE LOVES ALGEBRA, THEN HE LOVES MATHEMATICS.
PREMISE 2: MIKE LOVES ALGEBRA.
CONCLUSION: THEREFORE, MIKE LOVES MATHEMATICS.
REPRESENT EACH SIMPLE STATEMENT WITH A LETTER.
𝑝 ONE LOVES ALGEBRA
𝑞 ONE LOVES MATHEMATICS
WRITING THE TWO PREMISES AND THE CONCLUSION IN SYMBOLIC FORM.
PREMISE 1: 𝑝→𝑞
PREMISE 2: 𝑝
CONCLUSION: 𝑞
TO CHECK WHETHER THE ARGUMENT IS VALID OR A FALLACY, WE REWRITE IT AS A
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT.
𝑝→𝑞 ∧𝑝 →𝑞
 CONTINUATION…
CONSTRUCT TRUTH TABLE OF THE STATEMENT. 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 → 𝑞

𝒑 𝒒

T T
T F
F T
F F

SINCE THE FINAL COLUMN IN THE TRUTH TABLE IS TRUE IN EVERY CASE, THEN THE STATEMENT IS
A TAUTOLOGY. SINCE THE CONCLUSION IS TRUE WHENEVER THE PREMISES ARE TRUE (FIRST
CASE), THEN THE ARGUMENT IS VALID.
 NOTE:
IF THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT IN THE FINAL
COLUMN IS FALSE IN THE FIRST CASE, THEN THE
ARGUMENT IS INVALID OR IS A FALLACY. AND THE
STATEMENT IS NO LONGER A TAUTOLOGY. NOTE THAT IT
IS NOT A CONTRADICTION EITHER.
 EXAMPLES:
USE TRUTH TABLE TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE SYMBOLIC FORM OF THE ARGUMENT IS A
TAUTOLOGY AND WHETHER IT IS VALID OR A FALLACY.

A. 𝑝→𝑞
∼𝑝
∴ ∼𝑞

B. ∼ 𝑝 → 𝑞
∼𝑞
∴ 𝑝

C. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)
𝑝
∴ 𝑝∨𝑞

D. [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ] → (∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑟)
 A. 𝑝→𝑞
∼𝑝
∴ ∼𝑞

THE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT IS [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧∼ 𝑝] →∼ 𝑞

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 B. ∼ 𝑝 → 𝑞
∼𝑞
∴ 𝑝

THE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT IS [(∼ 𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧∼ 𝑞)] → 𝑝

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
 C. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)
𝑝
∴ 𝑝∨𝑞

THE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT IS [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝) ∧ 𝑝] → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

𝒑 𝒒
T T
T F
F T
F F
 D. [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ] → (∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑟)
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 ~𝒒 ~𝒓
T T T F F
T T F F T
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T F F
F T F F T
F F T T F
F F F T T
 Valid Arguments Invalid Arguments/Fallacy
1. Direct Reasoning or Modus Ponens 1. Fallacy of the Converse
𝑝→𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
𝑝 𝑞
∴ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝
1. Contrapositive Reasoning or Modus Tollens 2. Fallacy of the Inverse
𝑝→𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
STANDARD ∼𝑞
∴∼ 𝑝 ∴
∼𝑝
∼𝑞
FORMS 2. Disjunctive Reasoning or Disjunctive 3. Misuse of Disjunctive
OF Syllogism Reasoning
𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
ARGUMENT ∼𝑝 ∼𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
∴ 𝑞 ∴ 𝑝 ∴ ∼ 𝑞 ∴ ∼𝑝
3. Transitive Reasoning or Hypothetical 4. Misuse of Transitive Reasoning
Syllogism 𝑝→𝑞
𝑝→𝑞 𝑞→𝑟
𝑞→𝑟 ∴𝑟→𝑝
∴𝑝→𝑟 ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑟
∼ 𝑟 →∼ 𝑝
 EXAMPLES:
A. TRANSLATE EACH ARGUMENT INTO SYMBOLIC FORM. THEN,
PREPARE TRUTH TABLE TO DETERMINE WHETHER EACH
ARGUMENT IS VALID OR A FALLACY.

1. IF I’M RELAXED, I’M PRODUCTIVE. IF I’M PRODUCTIVE, I’M

HAPPY. ∴ IF I’M NOT HAPPY, I’M NOT RELAXED.

2. IF IT IS COLD AND RAINY, I STAY AT HOME. IT IS NOT COLD OR IT

IS NOT RAINY. ∴ I DON’T STAY AT HOME.
 1. IF I’M RELAXED, I’M PRODUCTIVE. IF I’M PRODUCTIVE, I’M HAPPY.
∴ IF I’M NOT HAPPY, I’M NOT RELAXED.
USE LETTERS TO REPRESENT EACH STATEMENT IN THE ARGUMENT.
LET 𝑝: I’M RELAXED.
𝑞: I’M PRODUCTIVE.
𝑟: I’M HAPPY.
EXPRESS THE PREMISES AND CONCLUSIONS SYMBOLICALLY.
𝑝→𝑞
𝑞→𝑟
∴ ∼ 𝑟 →∼ 𝑝
THE ARGUMENT IS VALID BECAUSE OF TRANSITIVE REASONING.
THE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT IS [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ] → (∼ 𝑟 →∼ 𝑝)
 WE CONSTRUCT TRUTH TABLE FOR THIS. [ 𝒑 → 𝒒 ∧ 𝒒 → 𝒓 ] → (∼ 𝒓 →∼ 𝒑)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 ~𝒑 ~𝒓
T T T F F
T T F F T
T F T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T T F
F F F T T
THE ENTRIES IN THE FINAL COLUMN OF THE TRUTH TABLE ARE ALL TRUE, SO THE
ARGUMENT IS A TAUTOLOGY AND VALID AS WELL.
2. IF IT IS COLD AND RAINY, I STAY AT HOME. IT IS NOT COLD OR IT IS NOT RAINY.
∴ I DON’T STAY AT HOME.
USE LETTERS TO REPRESENT EACH STATEMENT IN THE ARGUMENT.
LET 𝑝: IT IS COLD.
𝑞: IT IS RAINY.
𝑟: I STAY AT HOME.
EXPRESS THE PREMISES AND CONCLUSIONS SYMBOLICALLY.
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟
∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
∴ ∼𝑟
THE ARGUMENT IS NOT TRANSLATED IN ANY OF THE FORMS OF ARGUMENT.
THE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT IS {[(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟] ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞)} →∼ 𝑟
 WE CONSTRUCT TRUTH TABLE FOR THIS. {[(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) → 𝒓] ∧ (∼ 𝒑 ∨∼ 𝒒)} →∼ 𝒓

𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 ~𝒑 ~𝒒~𝒓
T T T F F F
T T F F F T
T F T F T F
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F T F T F T
F F T T T F
F F F T T T
THERE ARE THREE ENTRIES IN THE LAST COLUMN THAT IS NOT TRUE, SO THE
ARGUMENT IS NOT A TAUTOLOGY. IT IS ALSO A FALLACY.
 ABSTRACTION
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