Factors to consider
-Topic
-Role
-Purpose
-Audience
Formality- Reflects your
dignified stance in your writing
as a member of the academic
community
Objectivity- academic writing
requires special knowledge and
use of more complex language
and objectivity
Explicitness- academic writing
demands the use of sign posts
that allow readers to trace
relationships in the parts of a
study
Structure- sentences needs to
be constructed in such a way
that they show a level of
complexity that reflects the
sophistication of an academic
writer.
Nominalization- the verbs are
made central as they denote
action
Passive Construction- the
results of actions are
highlighted
Plagiarism- a serious form of
academic dishonesty and is
frowned upon in the academe
-defined as the copying
verbatim of language and ideas
of other writers and taking
credit for them
note taking techniques-
summarizing, using quotations,
and paraphrasing are used to
address plagiarism of language.
Author-oriented citations- starts
with the surname of the author,
followed by the year of
publication in parentheses.
text-oriented citation- a
paragraph or sentence form a
source is followed with the
surname of the author of the
work and the year of publication
Another way of citation- start
the sentence or paragraph by
using the phrase “according
to..”
Plagiarism of ideas- occurs
when credit for a work is
ascribed to oneself untruthfully
Plagiarism of language-
happens when an author uses
the language of another writer
and claims it as his or her own.
Direct quotations- employed for
statements that are so closely
associated that altering the
words may lose its rhetorical
impact
Summarizing- a short
restatement of the main idea of
the text
Paraphrasing- a restatement in
your own words of the main
idea and supporting details of a
text
Literal paraphrasing- replaces
vocabulary terms
Structural paraphrasing-
changes the sentence structure
as well as the word class of key
words of the original text
Alternative paraphrasing- the
writer first poses questions
about the text such as what the
text is about.
Thesis statement- the overall
idea or argument of your work.
Good thesis statement- should
be focused and succinct, and
must be framed as a
declarative sentence.
Topic sentence- serves as the
main idea of a paragraph
Essay- similar to research in
that it requires planning and
execution.
Outline- helps in organizing
ideas
APA- american psychological
association
Critiques- an important
rhetorical pattern in academic
writing as they present a
balanced view of things.
Definitions- are essential in
schoolworks as they serve as a
frame of reference for
discussions.
Formal sentence definitions-
include term,class, and
distinguishing features.
Extended definitions- are essay
length texts that use different
rhetorical patterns to show
meaning of a particular term or
concept
Concepts- may be explained
through different modes or
patterns.
-can be developed
through explanation by
providing examples or
situations
Position paper- devoted to a
discussion of one side of an
issue
Issue- developed into an
argumentative thesis that states
the stand of the author on the
issue
Claims- these are statements
that support the author’s stand
Evidence- these are proofs to
strengthen the author’s claims
Yes or no question- the issue
posed as an interrogative
statement.
Argumentative thesis- the
sentence that takes stand on
the issue and includes the
claims to support your stand
Summary of counterclaims-
constitute the 2nd paragraph of
your position paper and is
devoted to an enumeration of
arguments opposing a stand.
Technical report- a document
that needs different approaches
of data collection and
treatment.
Background study- this section
delves into the nature of the
problem, the circumstances that
led to the problem
Relevant literature- this section
synthesizes studies that
support the investigation
Methods, Materials and
Participants- describes the
different ways of collecting data
and the strategies to answer
the research questions
Results and Discussion- this
section expounds on the
answers to the research
questions
Conclusions and
recommendations- this section
presents the generalization
drawn from the research results
and discussion.
Methods section- describes the
way data was collected and
analyzed
Presentation of your data-
requires organization so as not
to confuse readers
diagrams/figures- illustrate
concepts or process
Tables- used to present
numerical information
Line graphs- used to present
trends over time
Pie charts- used to illustrate
portions
Bar graph- used to compare to
or more values with certain
variables
Non-prose texts- give
supporting details for your text
and need to be explained or
interpreted.
Inferences- made when two or
more facts are combined to
come up with ideas
Abstract- a summary of your
research project
Research
Quantitative research-inquiry
into a social or human problem
based on testing a theory
composed of
variables,measured with
numbers, and analyzed with
statistical procedures.
Qualitative research-defined as
an inquiry of understanding a
social or human problem based
on building a complex, holistic
picture formed with words,
reporting detailed views of
informats, and conducted in a
natural setting.
Positivism- an epistemological
position that advocates the
application of methods
Realism- an epistemological
position that acknowledges a
reality independent of the
senses that is accessible
Numerical description- refers to
frequency distribution,
percentage and measures of
central tendencies like mode,
median and mean.
Causal explanation- relates to
the meaning of causality, which
refers to a concern with
establishing causal connections
Prediction- a statement about
the future based on facts.
Nature of social reality- refers to
what can be known and how.
Survey- intended to acquire
information from people
concerning the predominance,
distribution, and interrelations of
variables
Objectivist- refers to the nation
that reality is objective
Empirical examination-
generally referred to as
information that is derived
through observation or
experiment.
Measurement- procedure for
assigning symbols, letters, or
numbers to empirical properties
of variables
Hypothesis- an informed
speculation
Hypothesis testing- checking if
the independent variable and
dependent variable have a
relationship
Randomization- is related to
random assignment, a term
used in connection with
experiments to refer random
allocation of research
participants
Research protocol- the
sequence of manipulations and
measurement procedures
Questionnaire- a collection of
questions administered to
respondents
Deductive approach- an
approach to the relationship
between theory and research in
which the latter is conducted
with reference to hypothesis
and ideas
Reliability- speaks of
consistency of a measure of a
concept
Stability- this means there is
“very little variation over time in
the results obtained if it is
administered to a group and
readministered again
Internal reliability- this means
”consistency of the scale or
index, whether respondents’
score on any one indicator
tends to be related to their
scores on the other indicator.
Inter-observer consistency- this
means “being cautious of the
possibility of the inconsistency
of observers when a great deal
of subjective judgment is
involved.
Validity- refers to the issue of
whether an indicator that is
developed to measure a
concept really gauges that
concept
Face validity- the measure
reflects the consent of the
concept in question
Concurrent validity- employs
criterion on which cases are
known to differ and that is
relevant to the concept in
question
Predictive validity- uses future
criterion measure rather than a
contemporary one
Construct validity- deduces
hypotheses from a theory that
is relevant to the concept
Convergent validity- the validity
of a measure ought to be
gauged by comparing it to
measures of the same concept
developed through other
measures
Causality- they are strong on
explaining why things happen in
certain ways.
Generalization- pursue findings
that can be generalized beyond
the margins of a certain context
in which the research was
undertaken.
Replication- the ability to repeat
an important component of an
activity.
Descriptive research- designed
to give answers to the
questions of who, what,
when,where and how which are
linked with a research problem.
-defines existing
condition of a classified
variable.
Experimental research-
authorizes researchers to
control the situation which
allows them to answer the
question.
-applies scientific
method to prove the cause-
effect relationship among a
group of variables
Survey research- intended to
acquire information from people
concerning the predominance,
distribution, and interrelations of
variables within an identified
group
Correlational research- based
on pairs of measures or scores
for members of a single sample
and provide an indication of the
strengths of the relationship
between two variables.
-tries to define the
degree of relationship between
two or more variables using
statistical data.
Causal-comparative-/quasi-
experimental research-
endeavors to ascertain cause-
effect relationship among
variables
Categorical variable- a variable
that is made up of different
types or categories of a
phenomenon
Quantitative variable- a variable
that varies in degree or amount
of phenomenon
Independent variable- a
variable that is presumed to
cause changes in another
variable
Dependent variable- a variable
that changes because of
another variable
Mediating variable- a variable
that comes in between other
variables
Moderator variable- a variable
that delineates how a
relationship of interest changes
under different circumstances
Theories- refers to models, and
explanations that elaborate on
why events have occurred, are
devised to describe causal
relationships between actions
and or events
Construct- captures the what of
theories
logic- capture the how
Construct- captures the why
Conditions- captures the who
when and where
Research question- foundation
of your research study
Literature review- defined as an
examination of relevant books,
scholarly articles and any other
sources.
Integrative review- are simply
summaries of past research
Theoretical review- wherein
researcher focus on extant
theory that relates to the
problem being studied
Methodological review-
provides not only a summary of
the studies but also an actual
critique of the strengths and
weaknesses of the methods
sections
Citation- is the way you tell your
readers that certain materials in
your work came from another
source.
The survey design- indicate the
reasons why a survey is the
preferred type of data collection
for the study
Population and sample-
describe the population in the
study.
Instrumentation- identify the
survey being used in the study
Variables- indicate the rating
scales to be used to measure
the variables of the study
Data analysis- indicates the
information about the number of
returns and non returns of the
survey.
- discuss the method by
which response bias will be
determined
Ratio- variables where the
distances between the
categories are identical across
the range, but there is an
absolute zero and it has
meaning
Interval- variables where the
distances between the
categories are identical across
the range but there is no zero
point where the trait does not
exist
Ordinal- variables whose
categories can be rank-ordered
but the distances between the
categories are not equal across
the range
Nominal variables whose
categories cannot be rank-
ordered and have name value
only.
Rating scale- is used to capture
arepondent’s reactions or
responses to a given item in the
scale
Binary scale- a nominal scale
consisting of binary items that
assume one of two possible
values.
Likert scale- it is a popular
rating scale for measuring
ordinal data in research
Semantic differential scale- is a
composite or multi item scale.
Indicate their opinions or
feelings toward a single
statement
Guttman scale- another type of
a composite or multi item scale
designed by louis guttman
-uses a series of items
arranged in increasing order of
intensity of the concept of
interest
Inter-rater reliability- is a
measure of consistency
between two or more
independent raters of the same
construct.
Test-retest reliability- is a
measure of consistency
between two measurements of
the same construct
administered to the same
sample administered to the
same sample at two different
points in time
Split-half reliability- is a
measure of consistency
between two halves of a
construct measure
Internal consistency reliability-
is a measure of consistency
between different items of the
same construct
Random error- is the error that
can be attributed to a set of
unknown and uncontrollable
external factors that randomly
influence some observations
but not others
Systematic error- is an error
that is introduced by factors that
systematically affect all
observations of a construct
across an entire sample
Sampling- the statistical
process of selecting a subset of
a population of interest for
purposes of making
observations and statistical
inferences about that
population
Population- is the group you
want ton generalize to
sample -refers to the actual
units selected for observation
Population refers to all units of
analysis with the characteristics
that one wishes to study
Sampling frame- is the list from
which you can draw your
sample
Probability sampling technique-
is a technique in which every
unit in the population has a
chance of being selected in the
sample and this chance can be
accurately determined
Simple random- all possible
subsets of a population are
given equal probability of being
selected
Systematic- the sampling frame
is ordered according to some
criteria and elements are
selected at regular intervals
through that ordered list
Stratified random- the sampling
frame is divided into
homogeneous and non
overlapping subgroups and a
simple random sample is drawn
within each subgroup
Cluster-random samples of
successive cluster
Stage- combination of cluster
and random or stratified
random sampling of individuals
Official statistics- offer social
researchers advantages over
some other forms of
quantitative research
Content analysis- it is an
approach to the analysis of
documents and texts that seeks
to quantify content in terms of
predetermined categories and
in a systematic and replicable
manner
Statistics- is an integral part of
quantitative research.
Descriptive statistics- you can
do univariate analysis as well
as bivariate analysis.
-are statistical methods
that refer to the analysis of data
that helps describe, show, or
summarize data in a meaningful
way.
Inferential statistics- the
statistical procedures that are
used to reach conclusions
about associations between
variables
Factor analysis- is a data
reduction technique that is used
to statistically aggregate a large
number of observed measures
into a smaller set of unobserved
variables
Discriminant analysis- is a
classificatory technique that
aims to place a given
observation in one of several
cominal categories
Logistic regression- is a general
linear model in which the
outcome variable is binary and
is presumed to follow a logistic
distribution
Probit regression- is a GLM in
which the outcome variable can
vary between 0 and 1
Path analysis- is a multivariate
GLM technique for analyzing
directional relationships among
a set of variables
Time series analysis- is a
technique for analyzing time
series data or variables that
continually changes with time.
Structured interview- entails the
administration of an interview
schedule by an interviewer
self -completion questionnaire-
has no interviewer to read the
questions to the respondents
Measures of central tendency-
are measures that attempt to
get at the middle or average
score
Measures of spread- shadow
the degree of variability or
range within your data.
Bivariate analysis- is concerned
with the analysis of two
variables at a time
Contingency tables- are the
most flexible methods of
analyzing relationships
Pearson’s r- method for
examining relationships
between interval/ratio variables
Spearman’s who- designed for
pairs of ordinal variables, but is
also used when one variable is
ordinal and the other is
interval/ratio
Phi and cramer’s V- two closely
related statistics
Phi coefficient -used for the
analysis of the relationship
between two dichotomous
variables
Cramer’s V-uses similar
formula to phi and can be
employed with nominal
variables
Chi-square test- applied to
contingency tables. It allows us
to establish how confident we
can be that there is a
relationship between two
variables in the population