Solid State Short Notes

Solid State g e
p a
r y
st
Solid is a state of matter which has strong intermolecular forces of attraction.
. i n m i
g e
The melting point of solids will be much above the room temperature.
h e
p a / c
t r ysolids arem
i s .co
Some of the characteristic features of
1. Strong intermolecularm
e b e
forces and short intermolecular distances
2. Rigid, possess. c h
definite
u t
shape, usize and volume
3. Solidsw
w . y o
w w
are almost incompressible
4. Solids havew
w high density
5. Solids have negligible fluidity
6. The diffusion of the particles in the solid state is negligible
https://www.chemistrypage.in https://www.youtube.com/chemistrypage
Types of Solids
g e
p a
Based on the three dimensional arrangement of particles in space, the solids are classified into two types.
• Crystalline solids
r y
• Amorphous solids
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
NaCl, KCl, CsCl Glass, Rubber and Plastics
Classification of Crystalline Solids
g e
p a
y
Based on the nature of inter-molecular forces and the component particles, crystalline solids are
r
classified into four types
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y o m
i s . c
m b
1. Molecular Solids
e e
. c h
2. Ionic Solids
u t u
w w . y
3. Metallic solido
w w
w4. Covalent solid
w
g e
p a
1. Molecular Solids
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
h
1. These solids have molecules as the component particles.
p a / c
y
2. In these crystals the molecules are held together by weak vander Waal’s forces of attraction.
t r
s .co m
i
3. These are subdivided into three types.
m
e tu b e
. c h u
w w . yo 1. Non polar Molecular Solids
w ww
2. Polar Molecular Solids
3. Hydrogen Bonded Molecular Solids
w
g e
1. Non polar Molecular Solids
p a
r y
i n
. em st
They contain either atoms (Ar and He) or the molecules formed by non polar covalent bonds
i
for example ۶૛ , ۱‫ܔ‬૛ , ۱۶૝ and ۷૛ .
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
1.
i s .co
The atoms or molecules are held by weak dispersion forces or London forces
2.
e m b e
They are soft and non-conductors of electricity
3.
. c h u t u
They have low melting points and are usually in liquid or gaseous state at room temperature and pressure.
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
2. Polar Molecular Solids
p a
r y
They contain substances like HCl, ଶ , etc.
. i n sti
g e e m
p a / c h
1)
t r
They are held together by stronger y o m
dipole-dipole interactions.
i s . c
2)
m b e
These are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
e
3)
. c h
Their melting points t
are higher
u uthan those of non polar molecular solids
Solid wand solid yo are some examples of such solids.
4)
w ww w ଶ
. ଷ
w
g e
3. Hydrogen Bonded Molecular Solids
p a
t r y
1) They contain polar covalent bonds between H andn
. i i s
F, O or N atoms.
Strong hydrogen bonding binds moleculesg e m
of such solidselike (ice).
2)
p a / c h ଶ
3)
t r y
They are non-conductors of electricity.
m
o under room temperature and pressure.
i s or soft.csolids
4)
m
Generally they are volatile liquids
e b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
2. Ionic Solids
p a
r y
1) They contain ions are the constituent particles. i n st
i
g e e m
p a
2) The ions are held together by strong electrostatic
/ c h
force of attraction (Ionic bond).
t r y m
i s .co
3) These are hard and brittle in nature.
m point. e
h e
4) They possess high melting
t u b
w . c
5) These are non-conductors u in solid state but conduct in solution and molten state.
w . yo
w ww
Ex: NaCl, KCl, NaNO 3
w
g e
3. Metallic Solids
p a
t r
1) In these solids metal ions known as Kernels are the constituentsparticles.
y
. i n m i
g e h
2) These kernels are held together by a sea of freely moving e electrons.
p a
electricity / c
r
3) These solids are good conductors of
t y o m in solid state as well as molten state
i
due to the presence of freelysmoving.electrons.
c
e m b e
h
4) These solids are malleable
. c t u
and ductile.
w a lustrous u
5) They possess
w . y o nature due to the presence of free electrons.
wmetalsw
Ex: All w mercury
except
w
g e
4. Covalent Solids
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
2) These atoms are held together by strong a
e
1) These solids have non metal atoms as their constituent particles.
g bonds. h
y p covalent
/ c
s t r
3) They are also called as giant molecules.
o m
m i e . c
4) They are very hard and brittle.
h e t u b
.
5) They possess very
w c u
high melting point and may even decompose before melting.
Ex: Diamond, Graphite y
w . o
w ww
w
g e
p a
tr y
. i n i s
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
g e
A regular three dimensional arrangement of points in
p a
space is called a crystal lattice.
r y
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
The following are the characteristics of a crystal lattice
w w . yo
1) Each point in the lattice is called lattice point or lattice position (location).
w ww
2) Each point in the crystal lattice represents one constituent particle which can be an atom, molecule or ion.
w
3) The lattice point are connected by straight lines, so that the geometry of the lattice can be indicated.
g e
Unit Cell
p a
r y
st
It is the smallest portion of the crystal lattice which when repeated in three dimensions generates the entire
lattice.
. i n m i
g e h e
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
m
e tu b e
. c h u
Each unit cell is characterised by 6 basic parameters.
w w . yo
w ww
(a) Unit lengths (a, b and c) along three edges of the unit cell
w
(b) Three angles (α, β and γ) between the three edges.
g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Types of Unit Cell
g e
p a
r y
. i n i st
Primitive (Simple)
Unit Cell
Face Centred
g e
Unit Cell
e m Body Centred
h
Unit Cell
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
m
e tu b e
. c h u
w w . yo
w ww
w

g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Packing in Crystal g e
p a
r y
n i
Close Packed Structures
i
. em st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
s .co (b) Close Packing (c) Close Packing
(a) Close Packing
in One Dimension
m i e
in Two Dimensions in Three Dimensions
h e t u b
w. c u
w . yo 1. Square close-packed layers
w ww
w 2. Hexagonal close packed layers
g e
(a) Close Packing in One Dimension
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
1.
m e
The number of nearest neighbours of a particle is called its coordination number.
e b
2.
. c h t u
Thus, in one dimensional close packed arrangement, the coordination number is 2.
u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
a
(b) Close Packing in Two Dimensions
r y p
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
Square close packing Hexagonal close packing
w ww
coordination number is 4 coordination number is 6.
w
g e
a
(c) Close Packing in Three Dimensions
r y p
1. Square close-packed layers
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
The lattice thus generated is the simple cubic lattice, and its unit cell is the primitive cubic unit cell
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
2. Hexagonal close packed layers
g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Types of Voids
g e
(Hexagonal close packed layers)
p a
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y m
i s .co
m
e tu b e
. c h u
T = Tetrahedral void; O = Octahedral void
w w . yo
w ww
Let the number of close packed spheres be N
w
The number of octahedral voids generated = N
The number of tetrahedral voids generated = 2N
(b) Placing third layer over the second layer there are two possibilities.
g e
p a
r y
st
(i) Covering Tetrahedral Voids:
i n
. em i
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w o
This structure is called
w . y
hexagonal close packed (hcp) structure
w ww
w
g e
(ii) Covering Octahedral Voids:
p a
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
This pattern of layers is often written as ABCABC ...........
w w . yo
This structure is called cubic close packed (ccp) or face-centred
w ww
cubic (fcc) structure.
w
Hexagonal close packed layers
g e
there are two possibilities
p a
r y
i st
(i) Covering Tetrahedral Voids (ii) Covering Octahedral Voids
e. i n m
a g h e
y p / c
t r
s .co m
m i e
h e tu b
w. c u
w . yo
w ww
w
Size of octahedral and tetrahedral voids
g e
p a
If the R is the radius of the sphere in the close packed structure
tr y
. i n i s
g e e m
p / c h
Radius (r) of tetrahedral voids = 0.225 R
a
t y
Radius (r) of octahedral voids = 0.414 R
r o m
i s .c
m e
In ionic solids, the bigger ions (usually anions) form the close packed structure and the smaller ions
e b
. c h u t u
(usually cations) occupy the voids.
w w . yo Radius of cation (‫ݎ‬ା ) occupy the tetrahedral voids = 0.225 ‫ିݎ‬
w ww Radius of cation (‫ݎ‬ା ) occupy the octahedral voids = 0.414 ‫ିݎ‬
w
If the latter ion is small enough then tetrahedral voids are occupied, if bigger, then octahedral voids.
Not all octahedral or tetrahedral voids are occupied.
Locating Tetrahedral and Octahedral Voids
g e
p a
We know that close packed structures have both tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
r y
i n i
Let us take ccp (or fcc) structure and locate these voids in it.
. em st
e
g ch
p a /
Locating Tetrahedral Voids
t r y m
s .co
Let us consider a unit cell of ccp or fcc lattice
m i e
h e t u b 1. There is one tetrahedral void in each small cube and eight tetrahedral
w. c u
o
voids in total.
w . y 2. Each of the eight small cubes have one void in one unit cell of ccp
w ww structure.
w 3.
4.
We know that ccp structure has 4 atoms per unit cell.
Thus, the number of tetrahedral voids is twice the number of atoms.
Locating Octahedral Voids
g e
p a
Let us consider a unit cell of ccp or fcc lattice
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . o
One octahedral void at the
y
body centre of the cube.
One octahedral void at the centre
w ww
of each of the 12 edges
w
Radius Ratio Rule
g e
p a
y
For the stability of an ionic compound each cation should be surrounded by maximum number of anion and vice versa
r
st
The umber of opposite charge ions surrounding each ion is called its coordination numbers
i n
. em i Radius (r) of tetrahedral void = 0.225 R;
e
g ch
Radius (r) of octahedral void = 0.414 R
p a /
where R is the radius of the spheres in close packing.
t r y m
s .co
Greater the radius ratio the largest is the size of the cation and hence greater is its CN
m i e
h e t u b
w. c u
w . yo
w ww
w
Relationship of Atomic Radii and Edge Lengths
g e
p a
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Relationship of Atomic Radii and Edge Lengths
g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Packing Fraction or Packing Efficiency
g e
p a
Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space filled by the particles.
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
p a
r y
. i n ist
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
Calculations of density of Solids
g e
p a
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h Z =
u t u
number of atoms per unit cell
w w . yoa = edge length in pm

w ww ߩ = density of solid
w M = molar mass (g/mol)
ܰ஺ = Avogadro’s number
Imperfections in solids
g e
The defects are basically irregularities in the arrangement of constituenty p a
s t r particles.
. i n m i
g e h e
Point defects
p a / c Line defects
t r y o m
i s or an e.c
The irregularities or deviations from The irregularities or deviations
atom in a crystallinee
m
ideal arrangement around a point
substance b
from ideal arrangement in entire
. c h u t u rows of lattice points
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
Types of Point Defects
p a
r y
. i n st
i
g e e m
1) stoichiometric defects
p a
2) impurity defects
/ c h 3) non-stoichiometric defects
t r y m
i s .co
1. Vacancy defect
e m b e 1. Metal excess defects
. c h u t u 2. Metal deficiency defect
w w
2. Interstitial defect
. yo
w defect
3. Schottky
w w
w
4. Frenkel defect
g e
p a
1. Vacancy defect
r y
2. Interstitial defect
. i n i 1. st
When some constituent particles occupy an
1.
e
When some of the lattice sites are vacant
g e m
h
interstitial site
2.
a c
This results in decrease in density of the substance.
p /
y
2. This defect increases the density of the substance
3.
r m
This defect can also develop when a substance is heated.
t
s .co
m i e
h e t u b
w. c u
w . yo
w ww
w
Vacancy and interstitial defects shown by non-ionic solids.
Frenkel and Schottky Defect
g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co large difference in the size of ions
e m e
KCl, AgBr
b
AgCl, AgBr
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
1. Vacancy defect in ionic solid
2. Electrical neutrality maintain
3. AgBr shows both, frenkel as well as schottky defects
Impurity Defects
g e
p a
r y
1. If molten NaCl containing a little amount of ‫ܚ܁‬۱‫ܔ‬૛ is crystallised
. i n i st
2.
g e e m
Some of the sites of ‫܉ۼ‬ା ions are occupied by ‫ ܚ܁‬૛ା
3.
a
Each ‫ ܚ܁‬૛ା replaces two Na+ ions.
p / c h
4.
t r y m
It occupies the site of one ion and the other site remains vacant.
i s .co
e
5. The cationic vacancies thus produced are equal in number to that of ‫ ܚ܁‬૛ା ions.
m
e tu b
6.
. c h
Example ‫ܚ܁‬۱‫ܔ‬૛ , ۱‫܌‬۱‫ܔ‬૛ and AgCl.
u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
3) Non-Stoichiometric defects 1. Metal excess defects
p a
2. Metal deficiency defect
r y
i n
. em i st
e
1. Metal excess defects
a g c h
p /
Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies
t r y m
s .co
1. This happens by loss of electron by sodium atoms to form Na+ ions.
m i 2.
e The released electrons diffuse into the crystal and occupy anionic sites
h e t u b3. As a result the crystal now has an excess of sodium.
w. c u
w . yo 4. The anionic sites occupied by unpaired electrons are called F-centres.
w ww 5.
6.
They impart yellow colour to the crystals of NaCl.
The colour results by excitation of these electrons when they absorb
w energy from the visible light falling on the crystals.
7. Similarly, excess of lithium makes LiCl crystals pink and excess of
potassium makes KCl crystals violet
g e
1. Metal excess defects
p a
r y
i n
. em st
Metal excess defect due to the presence of extra cations at interstitial sites
i
e
g ch
a
1. Zinc oxide is white in colour at room temperature.
r y p /
2. On heating it loses oxygen and turns yellow.
m
i t
s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo 1. The excess ‫ܖ܈‬૛ା ions move to interstitial sites and the electrons to
w ww neighbouring interstitial sites.
w 2. Now there is excess of zinc in the crystal and its formula becomes
‫ܖ܈‬૚ା‫۽ ܆‬.
g e
(ii) Metal Deficiency Defect
p a
r y
1.
n i
In metal deficiency defect, a cation is missing from its lattice site.
i
. em st
2.
e
To maintain electrical neutrality, one of the nearest metal ions acquires an extra
g ch
positive charge.
p a /
3.
t r y m
This type of defect occurs in compounds where the metal can exhibit variable
i s .co
m e
valency. e.g., Transition metal compounds.
e b
4.
. c h u t u
Example: Ferrous oxide, Nickel oxide.
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
e
g ch
p a /
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u Gd
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
p a
tr y
. i n i s
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
Band Theory
p a
r y
i n
. em i st
g e h
p a / c
t r y m
i s .co
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
g e
Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors
p a
r y
st
1. Their conductivity is increased by adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity.
2. This process is called doping.
i n
. em i
e
g ch
p a /
t r y
Doping
m
i s .co
m e
By adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity to increase the conductivity of semiconductors.
e b
. c h u t u
w w . yo
w ww
w
n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductors
g e
p a
r y
. i n i st
g e e m
p a / c h
t r y o m
i s .c
e m b e
. c h u t u
w w . yo Applications of n-type and p-type semiconductors
w ww
w
1. They are used for making electronic components.
2. Diode is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a rectifier.
3. Transistors are type of semiconductor used to detect or amplify radio or audio signals.
4. The solar cell is an efficient photo-diode
To ask doubt of this chapter
Message on telegram group (link given in description)
Do not forget to download Practice Sheet

Link given in description
For online test send your mail id in

telegram group/comment box
For quick revision

pdf of this video is available on this site (chemistrypage.in)

Solid State Short Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solid State Short Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solid State g e

w w . yo Radius of cation (‫ݎ‬ା ) occupy the tetrahedral voids = 0.225 ‫ିݎ‬

w ww Radius of cation (‫ݎ‬ା ) occupy the octahedral voids = 0.414 ‫ିݎ‬

w w . yoa = edge length in pm

. c h u t u rows of lattice points

. c h u t u 2. Metal deficiency defect

h e t u b3. As a result the crystal now has an excess of sodium.

w ww neighbouring interstitial sites.

Do not forget to download Practice Sheet

For online test send your mail id in

For quick revision

You might also like