Socio Economic and Political Influence of Landscape Architecture in India During Mughal Period

Dissertation |Echoes of Paradise |
2019
ECHOES OF PARADISE
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE
OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
DURING MUGHAL PERIOD
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
2019-2020
Submitted by:
SOUMINI DHAR
163/SSAA/B.Arch./16
Guide: Ms. Neha Mallick, Assistant Professor
Coordinator: Radha Dayal, Associate Professor
SUSHANT SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE
ANSAL UNIVERSITY, GURGAON, INDIA

2019
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This Dissertation is submitted by Soumini Dhar, student of Fourth Year B. Arch. Session 2019-2020, at Sushant School of
Art and Architecture, Gurgaon, as partial requirement for the Five-Year B. Arch. Degree course of Ansal University,
Gurgaon.
Originality of the information and opinion expressed in the Dissertation are of the author and do not reflect those of the
guide, the coordinator or the institution.
Signature of Guide
Signature of the Student: Roll
Name: Prof. Neha Mallick Date:31/10/2019
No.: 160BARCHI163
Name: Soumini Dhar
Signature of Coordinator
Name: RADHA DAYAL
Date: 31/10/2019
Page | 1
2019
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The end outcome of this undergraduate dissertation research project required a lot of supervision and assist from various
people and I am extremely obliged to have their guidance and direction along this journey.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude towards my guide and advisor, Assistant Prof. Neha Mallick,
who has supported me throughout my dissertation with her patience, motivation and immense knowledge. Her valuable
guidance and the weekly discussions helped me to formulate my research question and executing the research work. I
thank her for helping me immensely throughout the journey and the developing a systematic method of working on the
paper, which encouraged me to work towards my best capabilities.
I would like to thank our dissertation coordinator, Prof. Radha Dayal, for providing the students with well-coordinated
instructions and submission guidelines, followed by helping us to understand how to write a quality research paper.
I would like to thank Prof. Piyush Das, for providing me his time for discussion for in-depth vision and information
regarding my topic of research followed by imparting me with knowledge about how planning and work execution is
done in real life for Heritage conservation buildings.
I would also like to thank Prof. Sylvie Dominique for providing me with immense support and motivation and helping me with
consistent guidance throughout from previous semester. Her guidance tremendously helped me in forming up my
research framework and research question.
Page | 2
2019
ABSTRACT
The identity of a society and its culture can be represented through its distinctive form of architecture. Thus,
this is the component, in terms of design, for providing meaning and identity to the present generation and the further
generations to come. Persian gardens have evolved throughout the various periods in history and have been reshaped
with regard to the culture and beliefs of the society.
The intent of this research is to develop a fresh synthesis of understanding the transformation of a Persian recreational
space Pairidaeza1 (Four walled garden) which will be focused towards gardens from where they initially originated
and its transformation in India, specifically during the Mughal Reign. It would also focus on the origination and
development of gardens in Indian subcontinent and the significance of this element in the different styles of
architecture, the original and transformed typology followed by an analysis of the impacts of these gardens taken place
politically and on the culture of the region.
This research would also retrace the evolution of Mughal garden arts from their antecedents in ﬁfteenth-century
Central Asia, through the expansion of the Mughal empire in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, and its
ultimate collapse in the mid-nineteenth century. The present study will also provide an insight on the
contemplation of garden and culture in Mughal India.
The research is carried out through a set of primary and secondary case studies in different regions of Northern
India (part of the Mughal empire) and Iran, and an analysis has been attempted between the several
typologies of the gardens which prevailed in Iran and India. It intends to summarise the overall paradigm shift of
contemplation of natural landscape in India and the resulting nature of gardens in India.
1Pairidaeza is a modern Persian term used for describing an open space which is enclosed within walls, particularly used for gardens.
“Pairi” accurately translated as open space and “daeza” as the surrounding walls. Thus meaning “walled gardens”. (Kaushar .S, 2001,
p-111)
Page | 3
2019
S.NO FIGURE HEADIN SOURCE

NO. G
1 Figure 1 Idea of a Garden in 5000BC (Indus valley Author
Civilization)
2 Figure 2 Idea of a garden in Achaemenid period C.M Villiers 2001,
Illustration: Author
3 Figure 3 Four elements of Nature according to Islamic belief - Eden or Subhash Parihar,1999,
heaven on Earth Some Aspects of
Indo-
Islamic
Architecture
64 Figure 4 A traditional Charbagh Garden Pattern from Author
orientation of elements
5 Figure 5 derivation of various shapes with the same geometry Author
6 Figure 6 A Chahar Taqi garden layout in Cyrus’s complex Author

7 Figure 7 Schematic diagram of garden Document d- Iran
8 Figure 8 Stages of development of a walled garden Pairidaiza Document d- Iran
9 Figure 9 The layout of the final garden Author

10 Figure 10 The gardens of Ishzaq, Iran. Google Images 2019
11 Figure 11 A typical Mesopotamian Garden sketch Author
12 Figure 12 A typical Achaemenid Garden sketch Author

13 Figure 13 Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in Author
conjunction with the water source.
14 Figure 14 Vertical access shaft of Qanat in Aerial view Document d- Iran
15 Figure 15 Vegetation trees and shrubs Moynihan. E, 1997
16 Figure 16 Pasargadae garden site Location Author
17 Figure 17 Pasargadae garden plan Wescoat, J 1997

18 Figure 18 Pasargadae site plan Author
19 Figure 19 Pasargadae site section Author
20 Figure 20 Site orientation Author
21 Figure 21 Site contour and topography Author
22 Figure 22 Site axis Author
23 Figure 23 Fertile soil and vegetation Author
24 Figure 24 Open pavilion near the site Author
25 Figure 25 Hierarchy of spaces in the Pasargadae plan Author
26 Figure 26 Hierarchy of spaces in the Pasargadae plan Author
Page | 4
2019
27 Figure 27 Tomb of Lodhi garden World History 101

(2019)
28 Figure 28 Tomb site of Muhammed Shah 1451- World History 101
1526 (2019)
29 Figure 29 Plan of tughlaqabad fort Author

30 Figure 30 Plan of lodhi garden complex Author
31 Figure 31 Schematic diagram of Timurid garden principle or the Author
“Garden city” principle (Late 15th century)
32 Figure 32 Schematic diagram of late Timurid garden (15th century) Author
33 Figure 33 Shalimar garden site (Rainawari, Srinagar, Kashmir) Author

34 Figure 34 Shalimar garden plan and section C.M Villiers,1913
35 Figure 35 Water fountain channel connected to Qanat C.M Villiers,1913
36 Figure 36 Pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas C.M Villiers,1913
37 Figure 37 Water channel connection from the bagh to the Lake Author
39 Figure 38 Pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas C.M Villiers,1913
40 Figure 39 Possible locations of the bagh and the actual site Google Earth 2019
41 Figure 41 Schematic plan – Shahjahanabad, Old Delhi 1648AD Rao, Devika (2016)
42 Figure 42 Schematic line drawing of Agra (16th century AD) Koch, E (1997)
43 Figure 43 Location of Riverfront monuments in Agra Wescoat, J (1997)
44 Figure 44 Plan of Red Fort complex and Mughal gardens in Wescoat, J (1997)
Shahjahanabad (1648 AD)
45 Figure 45 Nahr-i-bihist through the Palace. (Red Fort, Old Wescoat, J (1997)
Delhi)
46 Figure 46 Nahr-i-bihist in infront of Diwan-e-am. (Red Fort, Author
Old Delhi)
47 Figure 47 Layout of water channel systems in the Red Fort Author
complex
48 Figure 48 Hayat-i-Baksh garden in Red Fort Koch, E (1997)
Shahjahanabad 1648 AD (Reconstructed) And Author
49 Figure 49 schematic diagram of Jahangir’s Zenana Gardens Koch, E (1997)
(Stepped gardens) seen in Agra and Kashmir
50 Figure 50 Schematic figure depicting arrangement of Author
Garden / architectural blocks along the riverfront in
Shahjahanabad
Page | 5
2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BonafideCertificate.......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract....................................................................................................................................................................3
List of Tables / Figures / Illustrations......................................................................................................................4
Chapter 1: Introduction......................................................................................................................8
1.1Overview............................................................................................................................................9
1.2Aim and Objective.............................................................................................................................9
1.3Research question......................................................................................................................................9
1.4Scope and Limitation..........................................................................................................................9
Chapter 2 : The Concept and Etymology of a Garden
2.1............................................................................................................. The meaning of

a garden............................................................................................................................................11
2.2.............................................................................................................. Paradigm shift in
Design of garden during 30th century BCE.............................................................................................12
2.3.............................................................................................................. Derivation of the
geometry of the Charbagh garden............................................................................................................13
2.4............................................................................................................. De
velopment of walled gardens or Pairidaeza in Persia during the Achaemenids period (500BC) – An
evocative process..............................................................................................................................15
Chapter 3: Morphology of gardens in later Mesopotamian stage................................................18
3.1............................................................................................................. Derivation of
principles from the predecessors.............................................................................................................18
3.2 Physical context of the site and characteristics governing the design of the garden 19
3.2.1................................................................................................ Soil 19
3.2.2................................................................................................ Water 19
3.2.3................................................................................................ Sub terrain
water channel – Qanat....................................................................................................20
3.2.4................................................................................................ Vegetation (Flora
and Fauna)...........................................................................................................................20
3.2.5................................................................................................ Space 21
3.3............................................................................................................. Socio cultural and

political aspects related to Persian gardens.............................................................................................23
3.4............................................................................................................. Pasargadae
Page | 6
gardens of Pasargad, Iran (539BC)..........................................................................................................24
2019
3.4.1 Factors governing the location of the garden and analysis of its constituents
3.4.2................................................................................................ Developmental
Features of an Ancient Persian garden..................................................................................26
3.4.3................................................................................................ Developmental
system of Pasargadae garden................................................................................................26
3.4.4................................................................................................ Characteristics of
Pasargadae garden.................................................................................................................30
Chapter 4: Persian gardens during the Mughal period in Northern Indian subcontinent
(1526 – 1857 AD)
4.1.............................................................................................................. Contemplation of
gardens in India during the Sultanate period (1206-1526 AD).................................................................32
4.2.............................................................................................................. Contemplation
of gardens in India during the Mughal Raj (1526-1675 AD)...........................................................34
4.2.1................................................................................................ Commencement
of change of Garden design in India......................................................................................35
4.2.2................................................................................................ Socio cultural

and Political reasons for the development of the gardens......................................................37
4.3............................................................................................................. Case study

Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir.......................................................................................................38
4.3.1................................................................................................ Statistics of the

site...................................................................................................................................38
4.3.2................................................................................................ Design
characteristics........................................................................................................................39
4.3.3................................................................................................ Socio economic

and cultural influence............................................................................................................40
Chapter 5 : Case study : Red Fort, Shahjahanabad, Old Delhi (1648 AD)...................................42
5.1............................................................................................................. The sovereign

city of Mughal India – Shahjahanabad....................................................................................................42
5.2............................................................................................................. The Red fort

complex............................................................................................................................................43
5.3............................................................................................................. Design
characteristics.........................................................................................................................................44
5.4............................................................................................................. The main

garden : Hayat-i-Baksh.....................................................................................................................46
Chapter 6 : Analysis of features of garden design in Iran and India............................................49
Chapter 7 : Conclusion.....................................................................................................................51
Page | 7
Glossary.............................................................................................................................................53
2019
Bibliography......................................................................................................................................54
Page | 8
2019
Chapter 1: Introduction
The term “Gardens” refers to a space which is usually planned outside a building intended for a function such as
a display or for recreational activities. It is an crucial part of the urban habitat and it was considered equally
important, since the beginning of the civilisation. The development of garden architecture in Central Asia dates back
to the Mesopotamian period (3000BC), when nature was realized as an element of Symbolism of life on earth,
and gradually became a part of the architecture, usually acting as a space for recreation and retrospection.
Though more attention was always provided towards the man-made architecture rather than the naturally present
landscape around it, it was until the 500BC, when the Persian gardening methods evolved. Persia (modern day
Iran) realized the beauty of nature incorporated into buildings. It was a simple concept of providing pleasant
accent to the building with the help of gardens. The idea of creating “heaven on earth” emerged, which was
purely a perception of symbolism. And this simple idea of an ideal garden evolved into a complex systematic
gardening layout which still has a long lasting impression in the history of gardens in the world.
Persian gardens or Pairidaeza baghs, which were constructed in Central and southern Asia during the fifth
century BC throughout till eighteenth century AD constitute as one of the most distinguished chapters in the
history of garden and landscape. It was the time when nature was considered to be enhanced and adorned with
features. For the Persians, the motive of the construction lied on symbolic purposes as well as altering the micro
climate of the region. The dominant purpose of creating these paradise gardens was to achieve the conception of
‘Paradise’ on Earth, or as one may say, ‘where heaven meets Earth’ (Dickie, 1985). Iranians believed on the
principles of Cosmos and incorporated them in their design.
Theme of Persian gardens is usually a combination of pre-Islamic garden and architecture and the architecture
method of centuries after that. Perhaps one of the reasons behind making resemblance of the Mughal garden with
the Paradise garden was all because of the extreme beauty of the gardens. An inscriptional description of the
beauty of garden, found at Qandahar Fort (dated 1684 AD), mentions that one laid out a garden like ‘a picture
(tasvir)’ and that the
sight of the garden has such bright effect that it turns the black collyrium (surma) of the eyes into
‘divine light’ (nur)’ (Sadaf Fatma, 2016) 2 Thus, gardens were compared, in beauty, not only with the gardens of
Paradise but with other worldly things of natural beauty as well.
“Gar firdaus bar-rue zamin ast, hami asto, hamin asto, hamin ast”
“If there is a heaven on earth, it’s here, it’s here, it’s here.”
– Emperor Jahangir
2 Sadaf. Fatma, 2016, Gardens in Mughal India, Aligarh Muslim University 2016.
Page | 8
2019
I. AIM:
To study the proposition of a Paradise garden in Ancient Persia and its transformation as Charbagh in
Mughal India. Which will be further followed by studying the characteristics of its developmental design
features in regions under the Mughal reign and the socio cultural and political effects of these
developments.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To establish the background idea and symbolism of a Persian Paradise Garden and its development in
Iran
2. To study the development of the Persian Charbagh in India under the Mughal reign and the key motives
behind these fabrications with respect to the geographical contexts.
3. To understand the association of these gardens with socio cultural and political behaviour pattern in Mughal
India.
4. To understand how the establishment of Persian Gardens in India has resulted into a major change in
the Landscape and Garden Culture on India
III. RESEARCH QUESTION
Has the contemplation of nature changed, from the time of its commencement in Persia, to the time when
Mughal Garden construction had reached its peak point in Indian subcontinent?
IV. SCOPE:
The scope of this study would focus towards the changing paradigm shift of garden architecture and the
virtue of contemplation of nature in Persia and in Mughal gardens in Iran and Northern India respectively.
This would be followed by an overview of the socio cultural and political aspects linked to the typology
of the garden and will be focusing on the time period when the Mughal rule prevailed in Northern
India (15th to late 18th century).
Page | 9
2019
V. LIMITATION :
The study will be containing limited research on architectural design values other than the landscape patterns
since the study primarily focuses on the landscape like a component of architecture. The research will not be
highlighting the key Persian features of gardens and landscapes in areas other than Central Asia.
Methodology
Understanding the etymology of a garden space with respect to the architec
nderstanding natural landscape through various parameters – physical, social and via a renowned theory
Parameters
Via case studies Kaplans theory

Physical Social
Of natural
Rhythm landscape
Geographical Economical Generating a matrix of analysis between
Uniformity case studies, through studying the
Functional Political
Symmetry parameters and establishing a theoretical
Vegetation Cultural Interaction genesis of development of natural landscape
in
Water sources Symbolistic Elements of
design India
Material Rituals
Analysis
Connecting the thread between contemplation of nature in terms of symbolism and in other infl
Design of a Gardenasa Study of Merging :

garden, with respect to geometry
derivativeof Possible factors
and symbolism.
Paradise (Jannat) that lead to the
Aesthetics& “paradigm
symbolism shift”in & p
Functionality
contemplation
Page | 10
2019
Chapter 2 : The Concept and Etymology of a Garden
2.1 The meaning of a garden

A garden, as one is aware about in present day, is a space which is usually constructed in an outdoor space, which is
meant for recreational purpose, and acts as an open buffer zone in between architectural element. In Persian culture, the garden
is considered as a cultural phenomenon and a significant manifestation of architecture rather than being a merely physical site.
As it was soon realized as a part of the built architecture, gardens have elevated the interaction of nature and man as well as the
interaction of nature with architecture. The typology of a garden would differ from a one geographical location to the other as
well as the type of vegetation and flora fauna, which ultimately affects the garden design.
Ali Akbar Dehkhoda3 (Iranian philologist and poet) in 1956 wrote about the meaning of the word Pardis4 Median
language (Pairidaeza) meaning the Garden and wall. The term Pairidaeza stood for a garden which is walled from all the
four sides. Which means that a garden was particularly differentiated from the external environment and it was highlighted
with the help of boundary walls.
2.2 Paradigm shift in Design of garden during 30th century BCE
Garden is a natural form derived from the human mind and built by his hand, it is a lush and colourful environment,
elegant and refined and based on environmental conditions that in its formation human tastes, skills, culture and his decision
has a fundamental role (Abholghasem.S, 1998)5. Being a pseudo- modernist Professors of modern architecture, he has presented
with many definitions of the term garden and its origination and geometry in Central Asia. His other definition of the
Persian Garden is:
"Persian Garden is composed of simple and harmonious combination, accurate and stable relationship, considered
hierarchies, intellectual logic, geometrical system, regular farming, perpendicular lines, quadrilateral flat plots,
balanced divisions, direct pointed passages that are sometimes combined with space openness, directed flowing water
network that is developed in both covered and outdoor areas and smiles to the face of sky.” He considers the Persian
Garden as beautiful, multi-purpose and a functional work of art. (Abholghasem.S, 1998)6.
These developments of a Persian garden took place over a period of time. Gardening or garden making was a
key precursor to landscape architecture, which began in West Asia, Mesopotamia and Persia. It then eventually led to its
expansion in the different parts of the world. Garden has been
defined as ‘the purest of human pleasures and the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man’ (Bacon
3 Abedi, K. 2000, Sur-e esrafil wa Ali-Akbar Dekhoda. S.L: Naadar (pg 102)
4 Pardis– Typically means ‘paradise ‘in Persian language
5 Abholghasem .S, 1998, Iranica heirloom: Persian literature. Iranian Studies 31, 527-542
6 Abholghasem .S, 1998., Iranica heirloom: Persian literature. Iranian Studies 31, 527-542
Page | 11
2019
1883). 7 According to Hunt, gardens are “concentrated or perfected forms of place-making’ (Hunt 2000). 8Garden is also
perceived as a symbolic site, resulting from the human’s attempts to materialize Eden on the earth (Alon.T, 2004).9
Therefore, before the development of Persian gardens, the natural landscape was barely paid any attention to. We are
unable to discover any significant developments in gardens other than it being an open buffer area. However, with the
coming of the Mesopotamian empire after the Sumerian period, there have been seen significant developments in the planning
and design of gardens. (refer Fig 1 and Fig 2)
According to Moynihan (1980)10, the Persian gardens are the oldest evidence of creation of which dates back to 546 BC in
Pasargadae demonstrating generally modern features. The pattern of civilization as seen during 5000BC still pertained to
exist in the layout of these gardens. However, some of the concepts employed, particularly the use of right angles and geometrical
designs which established a connection with the sacred area, are influenced by the historical concepts of Persian
Symbolism.
Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

(Achaemenid period )
Figure 1: Idea of a Garden in 5000BC

Figure 2: Idea of a Garden 500BC
(Indus valley Civilization)
(Achaemenid period )
Various methods of garden designing have existed both in the ancient Harappan civilization and in Mesopotamia. The influence
of Mesopotamian techniques and concepts is furthermore evident on the art
7 Bacon, F. 1883, The Genius of the Place – The Garden Landscape 1620-1820, London. 51-56
8 Hunt, J.D. 2000, Greater perfections: the practice of garden theory, University of Pennsylvania Press.
9 Alon Mozes, T,2004, Gardens and the emergence of culture: The Meir Garden: The first Hebrew garden for the first Hebrew city,
Tel Aviv. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 24, 55-64.
10 Moynihan, E, 1980, Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India, Scholar Press London.
2019
and culture of Persia due to the close vicinity of the two civilizations, presence of the Elamids civilization11 to the south of Persia,
and the geographical similarities between the two civilizations of Persia and
Mesopotamia.
Timeline of the developments taken place in natural landscapes
(Tahereh, 2005)12
11 Elamids Civilization : an ancient pre-Iranian civilization that existed before the Achaemenids civilization. (2700-1500BC)
12 Tahereh.A, 2002, Terrestrial gardens : Persia, McGill University.
Page | 13
2019
2.3 Derivation of the geometry of the Charbagh garden
The conceptual derivation of the geometrical layout of Charbagh gardens (Refer Fig 3 and Fig 4) in Persia was
derived from certain beliefs in Islamic culture. Since the Achaemenids time and basis of the ancient Zoroastrian13 beliefs,
there are four holy elements: wind, earth, water and fire and using the same number (four), the idea of the garden emerged.
Layouts being developed keeping in mind these principles of beliefs, thus generating the Charbagh pattern. (Wescoat J.L,
2002)14
Figure 3: Four elements of Nature Figure 4: A traditional Charbagh

according to Islamic belief - Eden or Garden Pattern from orientation of
heaven on earth elements
Thus, emerged the well-known quadrant division of garden planning also known as the Charbagh (four division gardens).
The design layout of these formal gardens were based on symbolic approaches and connected to the viewer as a visual
approach. The design was also implemented by water channels and basin and flanked by fruit trees from all the sides.
They were usually placed on a sloping land, near a water source, from where water was derived through the action of
gravitational force and this was circulated around the periphery of the garden, after which, it returned back to the water
chamber to be re-used. Thus, the geometry of the garden was governed by :
1. Topography of land (land contour)

2. Layout of water channel network
3. Availability of vegetation
4. Micro climate of the area (for a successful planning of the garden)
13 Zoroastrian – a pre Islamic religion during 5 th century BCE

14 Wescoat, J. L, Jr. Beneath Which Rivers Flow: Water, Geographic Imagination, and Sustainable Landscape Design, in U. Fratino
et al (2002)
Page | 14
2019
Figure 5: derivation of various shapes with the same geometry
The planning principles of these gardens were inspired from the verses of Holy Quran15, which stated:
“And give good tidings to those who believe and do righteous deeds that they will have gardens [in Paradise]
beneath which rivers of Milk and Honey flow. Whenever they are provided with a provision of fruit therefrom, they will
say, ‘This is what we were provided with before.’ And it is given to them in likeness. And they will have therein purified
spouses, and they will abide therein eternally.”
According to the Quran, the phrase “gardens beneath which rivers flow” is a very common sentence about depiction
of the eternal Heaven. Other descriptors mentioning lush, green, and life are also common elements that arise in the book.
The gardens were heavily inspired for creating the element or generating the experience of “Heaven” on earth, for the
mankind to experience how it would feel like to be in heaven. Thus, these gardens were only allowed to exist in heaven. The
principal idea was of creating such gardens, on earth as well, was for the mankind to experience what ‘heaven’ felt like. The
elements
of the earth can be prolifically seen in the design of the gardens:
Water – Symbolized life
Plants and Trees – Symbolized deity
Together they combined symbolized the eternal life.
15 Ganeri, A. 2002, The Quran. London: Evans 2002 (translated)
Page | 15
2019
2.4 Development of walled gardens or Pairidaeza in Persia during the Achaemenids period (500BC) –
An evocative process.
The Achaemenids period envisioned a great amount of developments, both in terms of architecture and incorporation of
nature with the built. It was only during 539 BC when the prominent design of the Charbagh emerged. The use of Chahar
Taqi 16[the structure which is open to the four directions] and the four-division geometry was introduced. This geometry
evolved through the verses as described in Quran.
Figure 6: Mesopotamian king Cyrus’s

Figure 7: Garden is always walled or buffered
garden complex during 500BC (the
from all the sides (to spatially demarcate its
division of external land and garden spaces
presence)
by walls) – chahar taqi
These layouts were carefully planned and laid out. (Refer Fig. 7)The key idea in focus, was to create a barrier between
the outside and inside world. The walled gardens provided a sense of detachment from the external surroundings. In Islamic
culture, heaven is described as a beautiful garden, with beautiful colours, aroma, a pleasant place that creates a positive
attitude towards life and death. This similar concept was applied to the walled gardens, and thus, the pairidaiza was
created.
Another reason for the creation of these gardens was because, since we are aware that Iran is a place which experiences
arid type of climate, it is evident that to create a heavenly place, it must be differentiated well from the surroundings.
Hence, Persian Charbaghs were flanked with vegetation and trees for shade, followed by water channels and walkways to control
the micro climate temperature, and water screens were provided to act as a passively designed component.
16 The term Char-Taqi is linked with any geometrical figure which is always divided into four different quadrants.
Page | 16
2019
A typical geometry laid out for the garden Walls extruded on all the four sides, to
The garden further divided into smaller
differentiate from the surroundings
segments, though which water channels run
Figure 8: Stages of development of a

walled garden Pairidaiza
These stages of divisions can be seen even in the later stages; however, their geometry may be different from the one
as seen above. (Baghs became more rectangular in terms of configuration in later stages). The main reason behind having a
square shape was to allow the water channels pass from the underway. Straight and linear geometry would allow a better
channel for water transportation.
The aim of the design is to discipline nature and not to imitate it. Thus, these gardens were planned to enhance the
attributes of nature, and create something called as the “Paradise on Earth” (Alemi.M,1970)17 The Persian garden became
the first garden ever to embrace the tradition of celebrating nature and its components. The way these gardens were designed,
provided utmost importance and detail to the natural surroundings and it became an important part of the built and the
surrounding.
Figure 9: The layout of the final garden Figure 10: The gardens of Ishzaq, Iran.
17 Alemi, M. 1930. Symbolism in Persian gardens: the nature sense in the Safavid royal gardens.
Page | 17
2019
Chapter 3: Morphology of gardens in later Mesopotamian stage
3.1 Derivation of principles from the predecessors
David Stronach (1978) 18provides a detailed account concerning the scales of Achaemenids Gardens as compared to those of
Mesopotamian Gardens, and the innovations employed by the Achaemenids. ″It was once believed that the Achaemenids
modelled their gardens after those of Mesopotamia. Recent studies, however, prove that this is only one small part of a much
larger whole.” This was majorly influenced through `the geographical and topographical contexts.
Figure 11: A typical Mesopotamian Garden

Figure 12 : A typical Achaemenid Garden
sketch
sketch
The scales of these gardens differed from each other greatly. (Refer Fig. 11 and Fig.12) According to Stronach (1978), the
scales of these gardens were a reflection of how strong and enormous the empire was. While in Mesopotamian gardens, the
scale of the garden was comparable to the built units, the scales were more proportionate and contingent. However, in the era of
Cyrus19 (king of Achaemenid empire in 539BC), gardens for him was a showcase of the empire’s strength and more detail and
ornamentation of it led to a conception of a well-built empire. Usually the status of an empire was depicted through the
gardens since they were visually appealing.
18 Stronach, David. 1978, Pasargadae. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.

19 Cyrus the great – Ruler of Achaemenid empire in 539 BC
Page | 18
2019
3.2 Physical context of the site and characteristics governing the design of the garden
The construction of a Persian Charbagh was extremely crucial in terms of planning and laying out its geometry on the site.
There were certain criteria’s which needed to be fulfilled, in coherence to having a successful Bagh on the land. In general, the
main characteristics of the Persian Garden can be seen in the following:
i. Constructing a bagh on sloping land (in order to derive water from the source)
ii. Being enclosed with a wall all around (to differentiate it from external surrounding)
iii. Use of a permanent stream of water source
iv. Water flowing in such a way to create the sound of water (water slope)
v. Use of lots of shady trees and narrow passages
vi. Using only straight lines in garden design (to allow ease of water flow)
Figure 13 : Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in

conjunction with the water source.
The above conditions, if were fulfilled, only then the construction of a Bagh would be considered successful. Bagh
architecture is subjected to natural factors and conditions of the environment such as fertile soils and water. Garden finds a
special significance due to climatic differences in various regions of Iran, especially in tropical areas. Persian Gardens consist
of three main elements : water, plants and architectural space. The most important thing to enliven the garden is to bring
water from distant way into the garden which creators of the garden by digging subterranean area also known as qanat.20
20 Qanat is an internal water carriageway system, which allows the transportation of water from the main source to the bagh.
Page | 19
2019
In the period of Achaemenid, generally the water work configuration was not very evolved. Thus the site was chosen in
such a way the water source was located at a level higher than the site for the garden. Thus due to the action of gravity,
water could be easily derived and circulated around the internal side of the garden. (Frye and Arberry.A, 1979) 21. The slope of
the garden was also carved in a certain way such that there would be a gentle slope for derivation of water, such that water
does not overflow from the original source. Usually this slope would range from 5-10% (Usually 20-50m of slope).22
3.2.1 Soil
The land consists of the major function as it holds the garden. Apart from general shape and position, there
are many different factors such as the type of soil, slopes and difference in level, feasibility of irrigation, and
fertility. For instance, the main attribute of the garden was to acquire water from a source, thus being located at a
position level lower than that of the water source, such that the garden can derive water through the natural
influx of gravitational force.
Iranian gardens may be constructed on a land with either a low or a steep slope Thus the soil plays a crucial
element in deciphering the nature of the garden. The steepness of the slope governs the orientation of the garden
since layout of water channel needs to be aligned with the slope. Hence, the topography and soil play a major role
governing the shape and size of a garden area.
3.2.2 Water
Flowing water is the most important element and considered extremely crucial for the garden. Since the concept
of the garden revolves around the carriage of water, it dominates the entire system of the layout. 23The
geometrical layout of the garden is governed by the water carriage pattern for ease of flow.
Duct water flows through channels and streams and passes through the main stream, it flows through lateral
channels. In most cases, ducts and springs have been the main sources of supply to gardens.
There are many instances where the amount of water and its management and distribution, done accurately and
carefully, has determined the garden’s area. The main planning of the garden is governed by the layout of water
channel, and the sources of fixtures, from where the water would be released.
21 Frye,R. and Arberry, A. 1954 ,The Legacy of Persia,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, p.287.
22 Generally,slope was considered at a ratio of 1:10 – 1:5, depending upon the conditions, which were either naturally present or artificially
constructed.
23 The water layout configuration was the main system that governed the geometry of the site
Page | 20
2019
3.2.3 Sub terrain water channel – Qanat
Most Iranian gardens, particularly in the central and desert regions are built in the origin of subterranean canals
because a very low amount of water floats on surface. When water comes out of the source of Qanat, it is
controlled and floated in the garden. Qanat is a water installation that pulls water from underground through digging
canals inside the soil and let the water flows on the surface. they are complicated structures and their main elements are:
installations on the land, consisting Heranj (the source), pool, water canals and dividers.
Figure 14 : Vertical access shaft of Qanat

in Aerial view
The installations inside the ground are: The mother well, Teran, Tarehkar (wet work), Khoshkeh Kar (dry work)
and milleh (bar). The system of water float in the subterranean canals employees both pressure and gravity;
therefore, water could be collected in the wet work part well based on
the proportion of the depth of mother well and the height of the water in main reservoirs (Asher, 1992). 24
3.2.4 Vegetation (Flora and Fauna)
Apart from geographical boundaries, the characteristic vegetation also depends from region to region, which further
influences the design of a garden. Plants even play a role in protecting gardens against destructive natural events.
In an Iranian garden plants are used for different purposes including shade, yield, and garden ornamentation
(Ansari.M, 2008)25. Since usefulness is a very important aspect of Iranian gardens, fruit bearing trees are more
prevalent at the site and shading trees are less frequent. However, in a climate like that of Iran, shading trees were
24 Asher, Catherine ,1992, The Mughal gardens of pleasure, (Cambridge, 1992).

25 Ansari, M. A.A. Taghvaee & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on Water and Trees.
African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
Page | 21
2019
considered very important, as they provided the required shade, followed by acting as passive coolers. They
would also help in decrease the rate of evaporation of water from the gardens, keeping it sufficiently cool even
in the hot climate.
Use of flowers and shrubs to provide colour and scent were also considered to be planted. Trees such as Cedar,
Pine and Aspen, Tabriz and Rowan have mostly been planted in clay lands. Wychelm, bid, and purple trees, have
often been planted around pools. The walkway routes of the a garden, were covered by fruit seedlings, plots around the
gardens were covered by grapevines. Instead of planting high trees and bushes among the plot to cover the garden’s
building, sprout shrubs (a kind of alfalfa) were used. (Ansari, 2008)
Cedar tree Pine tree Aspen tree Alfalfa shrub
Figure 15 : Vegetation trees and shrubs
3.2.5 Space
A garden’s definition also requires the architectural space, providing the garden with an elaborate discipline, forming
the areas and sections inside and outside the garden. In Iranian gardens, closed spaces are combined with open
spaces and are not separated from each other. We even see that water flows through the walkway paths. The
garden is surrounded with a wall which is generally long and made of adobe, and lacking any ornaments. Hence,
Iranian gardens have been both a place of solitude to rest in, and a place that is secure since it is bound by walls
and secluded from the external environment
Page | 22
2019
3.3 Socio cultural and political aspects related to Persian gardens
Iranian gardens have eternally been associated as a metaphor for heaven or Paradise land on Earth. Though these gardens
were primarily correlated with enhancing the beauty of nature, or providing a unique identity to the environment, they stood
as a powerful symbol of Aristocracy as well. Officials were profound with the technique of constructing gardens in areas under
their reign which would display their wealth and power. There has been a conspicuous correlation between the construction of
grand gardens and territorial expansion (Brookes.J, 1991) 26.The construction of the garden was directly related to the depiction
of the empire’s strength and power as well as the functional aspect of their use in political background.
In the period of the Achaemenids empire, which was led by King Cyrus, the people had experienced numerous
constructions in terms of Persian gardens as a status of Royal power and territorial expansion. The key idea was to construct
gardens in areas which would support the physical conditions required for its construction as well as areas where the king
would symbolise Rule and domination. Generally, a garden with a larger area and better ornamentation would symbolise a
stronger hold in political background and display the wealth of a king. In Iran, mainly the ornamentation component was
seen in the era of King Shahzadeh of Safavid empire27, in his famous garden park Shahzadeh Mahan garden (1500AD).
Similar approaches were prevalent even in Mughal India, where the gardens were associated with the idea of expanding territory
and conquering the land. Generally, There were mainly five principal functions of the garden, which are as follows:
 Recreational area for activities and leisure

 Political meetings
 Occasional Military Base for Army
 Family gathering and weddings
 Surrounding areas getting converted to Bazaar
The role played by the gardens in the life of Muslims, in general, and for the Mughals, in particular, appears to stem from
the concept of the ‘ideal garden’ of Paradise as portrayed in the Quran. It has been discussed, repeatedly, in the Quran that
whosoever will do the righteous deeds and make God happy, will be rewarded the ‘Garden of Paradise’ (Jannat-ul Firdaus),
‘Garden of Eternity’ (Jannat-ul Adnin) and the
‘Garden of Bliss’ (Jannat-un Naim) etc. below which rivers flow. However in Persian subcontinent, the
symbolism of the gardens and the idea of creating heaven on earth was a major component, rather than being a political
statement. Nevertheless, in later stages, there have been traces of gardens being linked
26 Brookes, L. (1991). Brookes:. Politics in Islamic gardens, 19(2), p.187.

27 Shahzadeh Mahan garden – a 16th century garden of the Safavid dynasty in Persia.
2019
with the strong and the powerful, since for the concept that only the king’s and the queen’s were allowed
to live in heaven.
3.4 Pasargadae gardens of Pasargad, Iran (539BC)
The Pasargadae gardens in Iran is the first prominent Persian garden which was developed during the Achaemenids Period
(539BC – 330BC) under the reign of King Cyrus. According to Moynihan(1980), Cyrus’s Tomb and palaces were constructed
amid a big garden located in a green plain irrigated by several Watercourses branching off Polvar River. It was the first garden
created, under the Achaemenid empire, and the first ever garden that depicted the Pairidaeza.
Site location : Pasargad, Iran

Orientation : East-west axis
Typology : Garden complex
Period : 5th century BC
Site area : 2250 sqm
Construction by : King Cyrus
(Achaemenids empire)
Figure 16 : Pasargadae garden site

Location
Kings palace Garden
complex
Water fountain attached to the Qanat
Walls attached to the garden Separating

from the external environment
Figure 17 : Pasargadae garden plan
Page | 24
2019
Figure 18 : Site plan
River
Bagh site
Slope down
Figure 19 : Site Section AA’
Pasargadae appeared as a rather empty city where monumental buildings where loosely distributed over a large area.
(Fig.18) It became evident that these constructions may be considered today as the only visible parts remaining from Cyrus’s
project at Pasargadae as a capital for ruling the province of Persia. (Stronach,1997). Excavations at the site revealed more open
spaces present around the garden site area than built. The neighbouring buildings were made of lines of rooms, not larger
than 100 m², generally built parallel to the slope. This postulates that a more open space was preferred for constructing the
Page | 25
2019
gardens, as well as the availability of water source, which governed its location. Achaemenid’s territorial development and
expansion were based on water control and a network of interrelated small farming settlements. French comprehensive
studies on the remains of dams and canals on two connected dams, located near the Shahidabad village thirty kilometres north of
Pasargadae, provided evidence that the water was regionally controlled by the Achaemenids (Ansari, M. & H.M. Nejad,
2008.)28
3.4.1 Factors governing the location of the garden and analysis of its constituents:
Figure 20 : Site Orientation

Figure 21 : Site Contour and Terrain map
Site orientation according to Sun and Sloping terrain

Wind path Site is dominated by the sloping terrain factor
The site is oriented in a manner such that it provided due to the transmission of water with the help of
maximum daylight diffusion into the garden, followed natural phenomenon(gravity). Pasargadae garden
by swift ingression of wind movement. was located down the slope to increase water
flow.
28 Ansari, M. & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on Water and Trees. African and
Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
Page | 26
2019
Figure 22 : Site Axes
Location of water source Axis of the site

The major factor for site’s mechanism is to derive The entry and exit of the site was well planned
water from a permanent source. Polvar river, according to the axis. Line 1 represents the axis route
located near the site provided an excellent condition from the residential districts and line 2 represents the
for the garden’s construction. axis from the tomb (once a palace) to the garden
Figure 23: Fertile soil and vegetation
Open area around the site

Rich and Fertile soil
The gardens were generally laid out in an open Soil behaved as the principal element regarding the
space, which would not cause any hinderance to
garden construction, and it was the key feature
wind movements or sun light, followed by generally which predicted whether the garden would be able
located away from the settlement pattern to allow
to sustain or not. Located near the river bed, it was
decongestion. the optimum location for the garden.
Page | 27
2019
3.4.2 Developmental Features of an Ancient Persian garden:
All elements required for the Persian Garden were designed and planned by the architect concerned.
It involved the planning of the following techniques:
 Deciphering soil’s bearing capacity
 Deciding orientation of the site components
 Laying out the water channels and connecting them to the water source
 Irrigation systems (Qanats)
 Plantation of favoured vegetation and trees
 Developing paths or walkways which connect the palace to the garden complex
 Understanding scale of the garden that can be achieved
 Procuring materials which were relevant in the construction
 Adjustment of environmental elements such as :
o Knowledge of water transmission
o Plantations
o Adjustment of slope due to water flow
All these challenges call for creative engineering of resources in order to solve all problems concerning cultivation and
irrigation. "Iranians love of trees, water, and flowers has gradually turned into an eternal love which has manifested itself into
Persian Gardens. The Persian Garden is Eternal. It sees the beauty of every blossom and loves every nuance of colour, but
to him a garden means more than that″ (Arthur. A, 1938).29 The principal source of water to the Persian gardens
were30:
(i) lakes or tanks

(ii) wells or step-wells
(iii) canals, harnessed from the rivers,
(iv) natural springs.
29 Arthur.A,
1938. Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on Water and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
30 Siddiqui.Hussain,1986, ‘Water-works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times’, Journal of the Economic and
Social History of the Orient, (Feb., 1986)
Page | 28
2019
3.4.3 Developmental system of Pasargadae garden
Site access from King’s Palace
Main Building and Secondary
Building
Plant type and Vegetation
Page | 29
2019
Water circulation in and around the garden
3.4.4 Characteristics of Pasargadae garden
i. Kushk (Pavilion) of garden
The garden complex of Pasargadae consisted of a small pavilion which is a unique sample of indigenous
architectural design. The pavilion is 10m in height and served as a thoroughfare between the palace and the garden.
The entire pavilion is constructed through precisely cut stone blocks from large monoliths and they were
approximately 450mm by 300mm size. This ensured a thermal lag in the block, which prevented the summer heat
to enter the pavilion as well as the garden.
Figure 24: Open pavilion situated near the Pasargadae garden
Page | 30
2019
ii. Vegetation and Plants
Pasargadae garden became a site where various typologies of trees and plants could be cultivated, which not
only provided a pleasant look to the environment, but also provided shade and coolness. Plants such as cedar,
pine, aspen were tall enough to act as a buffer and visually segregate the internal and external environments and fruit
trees such as pomegranates, grape shrubs, apple trees and oranges were grown in these gardens and sometimes they
became a source of production for fruits.
iii. Water works and irrigation system
Pasargadae garden’s waterworks formerly originated from downstream tributary of Polvar River, which after
traveling a certain distance joined the main stream, entered directly into the ground floor via water ducts Qanat
and was transported to a nearby reservoir through which water was supplied and used for the purpose of
irrigation and water circulation around site.
iv. Spatial Hierarchy

In order to protect the garden from the external environment, and to provide features such that the
monotonous and repetitive elements are eliminated. The entrance of the garden and the pathway to the pavilion has
been designed with an accurate hierarchy, followed by some interplay of levels. Which is Similar to traditional
houses, mosques and schools, the entrance to the garden occurs from a completely public area to a semi-public
one and then to the private.
Pathway
site entry
Garden complex
A – public zone
King’s pavilion
External surrounding
B – semi public zone C
– private zone
Figure 25: Pasargadae garden site complex
Page | 31
2019
Chapter 4: Persian gardens during the Mughal period in Northern Indian subcontinent (1526
– 1857 AD)
Even though gardens were being constructed prior to the Mughal influence as well as even after their decline in 19th
century, but yet, still today, the Mughal gardens have had a long lasting impression in the history of the design of natural
landscape. Mughal gardens have coined the term "Charbagh" or the four squares gardens which is a synonym of Persian
paradise garden, seen in India. At the scale of an individual volume, this typology of gardens has likewise evoked a common
spatial image – square enclosures, symmetrically divided into four equal parts delineated by slightly elevated walks and water
channels that create the garden type. “In addition to its iconic form, the Charbagh has a strong symbolic association
with the Holy Quran, gardens underneath which rivers ﬂow,that await all faithful Muslims who have done
good works at the Day of Judgment.” (Johnstone,2003). 31Being ruled by various dynasties prior to the Mughal influence,
India as a whole entity, experienced an extensive paradigm shift in the prospective of contemplation of nature.
4.1 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Sultanate period (1206-1526 AD)
Timeline of the Delhi Sultanate
Mamluk
Khilji Dynasty
Tughlaq Dynasty
Sayyid Dynasty
1206 – 1290 Lodhi Dynasty
1290 - 1320
AD 1320 - 1398
AD 1414 - 1450
AD 1451 - 1526
AD
AD
Natural landscape under the Delhi Sultanate (predecessor: Ghurid 32Dynasty) did not experience a substantial amount of
difference. The gardens laid out by them were primarily buffer zones or green areas which surrounded the architecture,
and these areas could be used as a recreational space for various activities such as leisure, significant occasions, gatherings
and celebrations followed by acting as a cultural zone (but cultural zones were more prominent in the era of Mughal
empire).
31J. Johnstone, 2003, The Itinerary of Ludovico Di Varthema of Bologna from 1502-to 1508,(N.Delhi, 2003), pp. 64-65.
32 Ghurid dynasty – ruled before the advent of the Delhi sultanates.
Page | 32
2019
The sultanate did not perceive garden as an element of beautification, however the tombs that they erected were flanked by
gardens from all the sides, to impose a dominant focus towards the tomb. During the initial phase (from Mamluk dynasty to
Khalji), there were no significant developments in the gardens other than them being recreational spaces. These spaces
were mostly vacant areas, ornamented by bushes and shrubs and a few trees to provide shade and bear fruits. However
some development in the gardening strategies has been noticed during the last dynasty which is during the reign of the
Lodhi’s. (Eicher, 1997). 33
Figure 26 : Tomb site of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluk (Tughluk Dynasty) Figure 27 : Tomb site of Muhammed Shah
1320-1412 1451-1526
Figure 28: Figure 29 :

Giyas-ud-Din Tughluk’s fort plan in Tughlakabad Site location of Tomb of Lodhi garden in Delhi
Asymmetrical garden set out in the palace complex
The garden designs have been asymmetric and they did not possess any form of symbolic element. Instead, they were just
a mere physical site, where huge tombs were being erected. From the above analysis, we can receive a viable outcome that
the scales of gardens differed from ruler to ruler. There
33 Eischer.1997 Gardens of the Mughal,. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Page | 33
2019
was a deliberate amount of finesse which was seen during the time of Lodhi’s reign. The gardens were built on specific
ideas. The definition of a garden differed from an individual to another. However, the idea behind the development of
these gardens remained unique.
4.2 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Mughal Raj (1526-1675 AD)
When the Delhi Sultanate fell weak, after consequent wars, the Mongols (Mughals) were successful enough to acquire more
than forty percent of the Northern India under their Reign. And thus began a new chapter for Hindustan. Moghuls brought their
traditional customs with them and planned to build monuments and structures, especially gardens all over the regions to
denominate control and power in the Indian Subcontinent.
The origin of Mughal gardens can be traced to central Asia, while the climax was reached in India over a long period of
time (Koch, 1997). Started by Babur in the first place, Mughal gardens were influenced by gardens of other regions and times
such as regional influences from central Asia, Kashmir, western Punjab, Persia and Delhi sultanate (Wescoat, 1996). Mughal
gardens had always had a powerful impact on architectural history and design as one of the pre-eminent expressions of
Islamic art, culture, and values. It represents the extraordinary synthesis of human concerns. It integrates the finest features of
natural and built environments with the finest traditions of local and regional landscape design. They draw together human
aspirations for worldly spiritual order by merging the Paradise imageries with real garden design on earth (Wescoat, 1996).
Timeline of the Mughal Reign in Northern India
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
1526-1530
Jahangir
Shah Jahan
AD 1530-1556
AD 1556-1605 Aurangzeb
1605 - 1627
AD
1627- 1657
AD
AD 1657 - 1707
AD
Babur
Humayun Akbar
Initiator of Mughal garden Focused towardsacquiring Interested in union of
territories
design In India. interest in arts, and expansion, territories, envisioned mainly
made him realise his passion for Humayun’s reign did not see infrastructural developments,
much developments in garden designs.
architecture and garden design. and few gardens which
Envisioned to change the showed influences from other
natural landscape of Mughal cultures. (Rajput – Mughal
India. gardens)
Page | 34
2019
Jahangir Shah Jahan Shah Jahan
A follower of his great grand His passion for poetry and love Mughal empire fell weak during
father (Babur), grew fond of for literature and classics made his reign. Focus drifted towards
gardens and ornamentations. He him appreciate beauty in nature saving the falling economy and
appreciated beauty in nature and and architecture. Most renowned fortifications. His focus was again
in architecture. His fondness in work is the Taj Mahal, and bent towards territorial expansion.
arts and paintings made him Shahjahanabad. Therefore, reign under Aurangzeb
appreciate beauty. Many gardens experienced very little or no
in Kashmir and Agra were construction of gardens at all.
developed during his reign.
4.2.1 Commencement of change of Garden design in India
The initiator of the Mughal gardens in India was Zaheeruddin Babur (15th CE, First Mughal ruler in the Indian
Subcontinent) who had witnessed the beauty of Timurid gardens in Central Asia during his early days. Being the earliest ruler of
the Mughal Dynasty, his vision for creating Mughal gardens consisted of both beautification and strategic developments
(Dixon,1987). Babur was greatly influenced by the Persian culture, which affected both his own actions and those of
his successors in the Indian subcontinent. (Sparavigna, 2015).
Unimpressed and highly dejected with the conditions of the natural landscape areas in Northern India, as mentioned in
Baburnama34, Babur decided to construct garden structures all over the region of territory which supported it
physically. His designs and ideas had caused an immense change and developments in the Landscape history of Mughal
India. Since, the geographical conditions and topography surveyed in India were found to be suitable for the creation of
the Persian gardens, hence, Babur envisioned creating paradise gardens in India, which somehow brought major developments
in the History of garden architecture in India. The designs of his initial garden resembled the ones that he observed in
Ferghana valley ( a region under the territory of the Timurids in 1494AD) (Refer Fig. 31)
Babur (1526 – 1530 AD) wanted to distinguish his gardens from the ancestors and develop his own ideology due to his love
for nature and poetry. He relied on the fact that erecting these garden structures for him meant to establish a seat of power and
domination. As argued by James Wescoat (1988), He would usually use this as a “visual metaphor” for establishing rule.
“Building his gardens in India outside the citadels or fortress palaces of pre-Mughal rulers in deliberate opposition to
them, as symbols of the appropriation of land and "royal emblems of territorial control."'
34 Baburnama – “Memoirs of Babur” The original autobiography of emperor Babur (Translated by Annette Beveridge, 1921)
Page | 35
2019
However besides the territorial control, His purpose for the development of the gardens was to establish the ‘idea’ of a paradise
on land, which he took inspirations from the Persian gardens. Even though their focus had very little to do in terms of
sophistication. For him, the geographical factors mattered more than any other specific factor. Gardens needed to be laid
carefully on a sloped land, from where water could be derived through the action of gravity and the needed a specific
type of climate to for the cultivation of the trees and bushes. Thus for him, it was more about the physical ornamentation
and the development of the garden. He would often pay careful attention towards the landscaping elements and the vegetation.
“they were intended as an image of his reign and empire as garden, paradise of the ideal king whose good government had
brought about a new golden age of an unending spring.” (Moynihan, 1980).
Commenting upon the paradisiacal form of the Mughal gardens, James Wescoat (1995) rightly remarks that Mughal gardens
expressed a ‘denotation but not connotation of Islamic Paradise and they achieved the form, but not the meaning of paradise
gardens.’ Thus, practically the Mughals wanted to create a metaphor of paradise and not the real paradise.
Ralph Blakstad (1998) criticized the stereotype notion of Paradise that ‘Paradise garden is an allegorical description for a
psychic state and garden as a physical fact is not a Paradise. ’Aesthetically, Mughal gardens were created with the pictorial
imagery of Quranic paradise but their philosophical intention had pragmatic goals related to the world.
The gardens were laid out according to the general characteristics that are: slope of land, located near a permanent water source,
type of soil and its bearing capacity and fertility, and with proper orientation Sfrom solar and wind path. Vegetation, trees
and flowers that were cultivated were roses, violets, sunflowers, jasmine, marigolds, poppies, carnations, hollyhocks,
wallflowers, delphiniums, hibiscus, hyacinths, jasmine, lilies, narcissus, lotus, lilacs and tulips, which were all watered by
hand during the extensive dry season. For irrigation purposes, artificial lakes, canals and wells with raised water by an
arrangement of wheels and levers was used for many years before Mughal (Lehrman, 1980).
Fig 31 : Schematic diagram of Timurid garden

Fig 32 : Schematic diagram of late Timurid garden
principle or the “Garden city” principle (Late 15 th
(15th century)
century)
Page | 36
2019
4.2.2 Socio cultural and Political reasons for the development of the gardens
There were various factors linked to the design of the gardens in the Mughal :
 Size of the empire and their hold in Democracy.
 Availability of land and proper water resources.
 Land Morphology which would allow the development of the gardens.
 Political constraints (Size of garden depended on the King’s hold in monarchy).
Apart from its conceptual metaphysical aspect, the royal Mughal gardens may be viewed as symbol of royalty, reflection
of kingship and territorial control. (Wescoat, 1996)35
 Gardens being used as Army bases (Thus a larger monarchy would need a larger land and hence a larder
garden).
 They served as ground for royal ceremonies, such as coronations, enthronement and encampment or
carvansarai.
 They served as grandeurs for victory celebration as well as halting places for friendly companions of other
dynasties.
 The Mughal emperors such as Akbar and Aurangzeb were crowned in the gardens. The traditions were followed from
their ancestors.
There happens to be a direct co-relation between the building of grand gardens and territorial and geographical expansion,
be it Timur in Samarqand; Shah Abbas in Isfahan; or Akbar in Hindustan. Thus, the synthesis of garden design with territorial
expansion and geographic science exemplified by Baburnama had not been forgotten. It was continued by his successors
Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and other regional rulers more intensely.
35 Wescoat, J. and Wolschke-Bulmahn, J. 1996, Mughal gardens,Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.
Page | 37
2019
4.3 Case study Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir
1.6 KM
Fig 33 : Shalimar garden site

(Rainawari, Srinagar, Kashmir)
4.3.1 Statistics of the site :
Site location : Rainawari, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir (near Dal lake)
Site area : 147,370 sqm (590m x 250m) Site
orientation : Northeast-Southwest Period of
construction : 1619 AD Construction led
by : Emperor Jahangir
Shalimar Bagh is an adaptation of the formal Persian Chaharbagh pattern, as seen in Iranian gardens. Traditionally
uniform in shape, with a water source in its centre and four radiating streams that divide the garden into four sections. The
garden being located at a higher level, in a comparison to the Dal lake, incorporates a very long passage (1600m) of Qanat
system,(11m width) which connects the Shalimar garden and the Dal lake.
Page | 38
2019
Figure 34 : Shalimar garden plan and section
The central water canal of the garden (Shahnahar36) forms its main axis, uniting the three terraces with their regularly
placed fountains and tree-lined vistas. Beginning at the top of the garden, the canal runs through each of the baradaris
(pavilions) in the garden. At each terrace, the canal flows into a larger pool, highlighting its baradari.
Within the Shalimar Bagh, each of the three terraces had a different function and level of privacy: a public garden (first terrace), a
private garden, also called the Emperor's Garden (second terrace) and the zenana (harem) garden, on the third terrace.
Figure 35 : Terracing in levels in Bagh Fig36 :Water fountain channel connected to Qanat
36 A typology of a qanat, but in India it was called a shahnahar.
Page | 39
2019
The purpose of the terracing was done for the following reasons:
1. Water collection chamber that is also linked to the side flow from the garden.
2. This terrace has numerous fountains that is supplied water from the third terrace, from where it flows to the lowest
terrace. The second terrace is considered the most impressive in view of the twenty three niches provided
in the arched recess just behind the cascade.
Fig37 : pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas Fig38 : pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas
These terraces also provided viewpoints from the site towards the city and the lake. The main reason for this was done to
allow water flow from the highest point to the lower point, and the again allowing recirculation of the water. The water
channel, or the Qanat, which connects the Bagh to the lake, was not supposed to be initially planned as such a long
channel. It was done to connect the lake. However, due to the location of the Bagh at such a distance from the water
source, the channel was made long and 11m wide, to allow efficient flow of water. “A canal, about a mile in length and
twelve yards broad, runs through the marshy swamps, the willow groves, and the rice-fields that fringe the lower end of
the lake, connecting the garden with the deep open water. On each side there are broad green paths overshadowed
by large chenars37” (Villiers .C , 1913)
Fig 39 : Water channel connection from the bagh to the Lake
37 Chenar – an oriental plane tree, which had been particularly cultivated in the region of Iran
Page | 40
2019
Village settlements
Possible location of the garden

Actual location of the garden
lake
Village settlements
Dal
Fig 40 : Possible locations of the bagh and the actual site
Inferences from the Case study :
1. The garden, even though was located at a great distance from the water source (1.6 Km), it was observed as a
political understatement as it was built in within the city, rather than being on the outskirt of the city.
2. The location, as we can observe from the above map, demarcates that the location chosen for the construction of the
garden lied in the centre of the village, which was a statement of domination, rather than being made on the
periphery of the city.
3. The location of the garden would also conduct as a means of revenue generation.
4. They became a pleasing abode for foreign officials and travellers as well.
5. They symbolistically provided the contemplation of “peaceful domination”- The political message of imposing the
territorial encapture was clear.
Page | 41
2019
Chapter 5 : Case study : Red Fort, Shahjahanabad, Old Delhi.
5.1 The sovereign city of Mughal India – Shahjahanabad
The Red fort complex (Qila-i-Mubarak) is a part of the well esteemed Shahjahanabad, presently a part of Old Delhi,
which was constructed by Shah Jahan in the year 1648. This was a time period when Delhi went under total eclipse as the
capital had been shifted from Delhi to Agra under the reign of Akbar, thus major part of the architectural developments taking
place in that region. Thus, there was a need of a well-planned city, in Delhi, as the conditions in Delhi were fairly
remorse. (Refer Fig. 41)
Fig 41 : Schematic plan – Shahjahanabad, Old Delhi 1648AD
Page | 42
2019
5.2 The Red fort complex
The Red fort complex was designed as the palace-fortress for the kings and the officials which was constructed in the
South Eastern part of Delhi. The location chosen for the construction of the palace was at an appropriate distance from the water
source, however, it was located near the settlements area for a more dominant focus on the palace-fortress.
The palace complex was itself designed as a remodel of the plan of Agra in the 16th century. This was done in
consideration, keeping in mind that Agra was already a well-established Mughal capital. However, the new capital, Delhi, also
was in ardent need of demonstrating the Mughal power. Thus, the planning principle of the Red fort complex was
constructed according to the layout of settlements as seen in Agra. The waterfront of the palace thus appears like an
individualized section of one of the banks of the river in Agra. (Koch, 1997)38
Fig 42: Schematic line drawing of Agra (16th century AD)
38 Koch, Ebba. 1997, Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1648), p.143.
Fig 42 : Line Drawing of Map of Agra in

Page | 43
1573 AD
2019
Thus, the major conceptualisation for the plan of the fort complex
was to replicate the design of Agra (Refer Fig. 42) and therefore, bring
to the new capital, Delhi. The riverine plain of Delhi was already
overshadowed after coming of Mughals and emergence of Agra as
Mughal capital but in mid seventeenth century Shahjahan resurrected it,
and built a
great and glamorous citadel, after his name.39 (Naqvi M, 2011)
Fig 43 : Location of Riverfront monuments in Agra
The location of building became the utmost important, since Delhi already served as a capital for the previous empire, the
Sultanates, and therefore, it was important to overpower them by building the citadel in the heart of Mughal India, Delhi.
The complex of Red fort in Shahjahanabad was planned as a city within a fortification, as the gardens were assumed to be
only accessed by the kings and the officials, rather than the common citizens. Thus, imposing the idea of power among the rulers,
such that, a garden space is a commodity of exclusivity, which is only allowed to be accessed by the ones in power.
5.3 Design characteristics
The design of the fort was done in such a way that, gardens were used as ‘modules’ of similar dimensions and
characteristics. The plan of the fortress palace, today called the Red Fort, is based on giant muthamman Baghdadi40. (Koch
1997) In the organization of each individual complex, it is clearly recognized that the formula of the waterfront garden which
in the palace of Shahjahanabad was used as a modular unit for the planning of the whole riverfront. Moreover, the garden as
a basic planning component for the Mughal riverfront city was here claimed by the palace41. Now the whole palace was
conceived as a garden. (Koch 1997)
Statistics of the site :

Site location : Old Delhi, India.
Typology : Palace – fortress
complex
Period : 1648 AD
Site area : 241 acre
Total number of gardens
present : 9
Commissioned by : Emperor
Shah Jahan (Mughal empire)
Fig 44: Plan of Red Fort complex and Mughal gardens in
Shahjahanabad (1648 AD)
39 Naqvi M. 2011, Shahjahanabad, The Mughal Delhi, 1638-1803: An Introduction, 2011

40 muthamman Baghdadi – An octagonal garden complex, usually present in Shahjahani garden designs.
41 Koch, Ebba. 1997, Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1648), p.154.
Page | 44
2019
Thus, as visible from the above diagram and Fig. each of these gardens, with similar dimensions, were used as a
modular block for generating the plan of the complex. The main canal of the palace of Shahjahanabad, the Nahr-i
Bihisht 42 flowed "like the water of life" through the band formed by the riverfront terraces and entreated all riverfront
buildings. Its branches served the individual gardens. At the same time the riverfront terrace provided the terrace component
(kursi) for each garden unit. 43 Hence, replicated the riverfront design of Agra. Each of the garden spaces were attached to small
pavilion, or a unit of the building. (Koch 1997)
Fig 45: Nahr-i-bihist through the

Fig 46 : Nahr-i-bihist in infront of
Palace. (Red Fort, Old Delhi) Diwan-e-am. (Red Fort, Old Delhi)
Fig 47: Layout of water channel systems in the Red Fort

complex
42 Nahr-iBihisht – A typical water transporting canal, which was usually attached to the garden and carried water from the main source to the
destination through the pavilions.
43 Koch, Ebba. 1997, The Mughal water front garden, (1997), p.4.
Page | 45
2019
5.4 The main garden : Hayat-i-Baksh
The Bagh-i Hayat Bakhsh was the northernmost garden which is a part of the Red Fort. The garden is not fully preserved,
but the missing elements were however reconstructed (Koch, 1997) from the descriptions of Warith and Kanbo44. it was
of unpreceded size for a Mughal palace garden and represented a great innovation, not in its form but in how its formal
aspects were used to express the symbolic position of the garden in the palace. The principal garden of the palace was
transferred into a more official area and distinguished as an imperial site.
The garden consisted of a waterfront terrace (23m deep) and a vast square Charbagh (250m x 200m) with a large Hauz in
its centre and water courses through its four principal intersecting at the meeting point. Today only the two eastern garden
quadrants survive. Originally there were three buildings on the terrace, a larger structure in the middle flanked by
pavilions with bangla roofs. Which means that the garden was modelled on the zenana gardens of Agra and Kashmir.
(Koch 1997) (Compare Fig. 48 with Fig. 49) and refer to sheet.
Fig 49: schematic diagram of Jahangir’s

Fig 48: Hayat-i-Baksh garden in Red Fort
Zenana Gardens (Stepped gardens) seen in
Shahjahanabad 1648 AD (Reconstructed)
Agra and Kashmir
Fig 50: Schematic figure depicting arrangement of Fig 51: Schematic figure depicting arrangement of
Garden / architectural blocks along the riverfront in Shahjahanabad Garden / architectural blocks along the riverfront in Agra
44 M. Warith, 1990, Badshah Nama, S.M. Yunus Jaffery Publication 1990.
Page | 46
2019
The arrangement of the blocks in Red fort of Shahjahanabad were planned in a similar way to that of Agra. (longer
sides towards the central pavilion and their shorter sides towards the river). This extensive idea of replicating the plan of Agra in
Shahjahanabad was a consequential progress towards establishing the idea of Mughal power in Delhi back again. Since Agra
was an area which communicates the idea of strong presence of Mughal empire, even on present day, it was a
carefully planned technique of juxtaposing the riverfront city idea even in Delhi. This successfully conveyed the idea of
a “Mughal” influence. Also, the planning styles of the Gardens of Red fort in Shahjahanabad consisted of a similar pattern
of the gardens present in Agra and Kashmir. Thus, the location, the design principles of planning and context, were clearly
interrelated with the socio economic profile of Shahjahanabad.
The buildings of the palace, in particular those of the Hayat Bakhsh, were conceived as artificial gardens with plant-
like columns, water channels, and flowerbeds on their walls. The main inscription of the palace tells us that "the Hayat
Bakhsh is to the build ings what the soul is to the body" 45thus we realize that the main function of the palace garden,
aside from its recreational value, was a symbolic one. The Hayat Bakhsh as a metaphor of the entire palace epitomized
its concept as a garden.
Shah Jahan’s main idea was to turn the palace into paradise, not merely one of well-ordered nature like Babur's
gardens, or an architectural one, like Akbar's palaces, but into a new garden paradise that was to surpass all imaginable
models. Shah Jahan's palace was a terrestrial image of Jannat under which rivers are running, even surpassing its
Quranic prototype.
Shah Jahan's paradisiacal palace, symbolized by the Hayat Bakhsh with its intermingling of real plants and
naturalistic, artfully rendered vegetation also threw all-natural gardens into the shade; even Spring had to confess that it could not
achieve anything like it. The new three-dimensional naturalism of the organic plant forms gave the concept of the garden the
highest level of reality, and marble and precious stones gave it permanency. Style itself had become meaning. (Koch, 1997).
Hence the design of the garden fort complex and palace was a pleasing blend between making a place feel like paradise,
followed by a strong socio economic and political hold.
45 Koch, Ebba. 1997, The Mughal water front garden, (1997).
Page | 47
2019
Chapter 6 : Analysis of features of garden design in Iran and India :
The features of the garden design has been taken into account in two categories:
1. The physical context as a parameter

a. Location
b. Site area
c. Scale
d. Vegetation
e. Water source
f. Geometry
g. Material
h. Design principles (According to Kaplans theory)
i. Rhythm (Repetition of elements in regular sequence)
ii. Uniformity of elements
iii. Orientation of elements (Symmetric / Asymmetric)
iv. Interaction of factors
v. Interaction of factors (Coherence of elements readability, organizing, predictability,
and space differentiations)
vi. Hierarchy
vii. Harmony (of elements around the garden )
viii. Dominance / Emphasis
ix. Contrast
2. The socio economic and cultural influence as a parameter

a. Social purposes
b. Political influence
i. Administrative
ii. Economy
iii. Enhancing cultural relations
iv. Settlements
v. Territorial expansion
c. Symbolism in culture
d. Military influence
e. Religious prospect
f. Rituals
Page | 48
2019
The relationships between Persian garden and Mughal Charbagh elements with the help of Kaplan’s
preference factor can be derived from the from Table 1.
Thus, table 2 represents the correlation of different elements that are observed in the gardens through detailed case
studies. Thus establishing a prospect, whether the design of Mughal gardens in India were a derivative of purely
symbolism and religious function, or were there other contextual interpretations that affected the design of garden.
Table 3 : Socio economic and political aspects interlinked with the design of the garden
Thus, from the above three Tables (Table 1,2,3) we are able to derive a relation between the ideal geometric composition
of a garden, and the diverged factors that could also lead to a change in the ideal design of a garden. As seen in Table 2
and 3, we are able to establish a background of Persian gardens. Through the table, we can understand that, Persian
gardens were designed purely on the basis of symbolism and natural beauty of landscape. Attention was paid majorly towards
the beautification of the garden and landscape, to make it more visually appealing and provide the feeling of Jannat.
(as a
replication of verses in Quran). The idea of “paradise on earth “was heavily taken into account, and the
factors that governed the design of the garden relied solely on symbolism.
However, a contrasting feature is noticed, in case of Mughal garden designs in India. The gardens were subjected to influence
from majorly three factors : geographical, historical events, and socio economic culture. The design is an amalgamation of
opposition to certain elements as well as consequences of certain elements. These elements have been described in detail in
the table 1 and table 2. Mughal gardens in India moderately deprived of the symbolic interpretations (evocative allusion of
four rivers of paradise, poetry, Sufi) and it was limited to a matter of significance.
Page | 49
2019
Chapter 7 : Conclusion
Therefore, in the mean course of time, gardens in India were pronounced as an ultimate “cultural” zone, rather than
being just a mere physical site. The gardens brought up the amalgamation of both symbolic and functional needs of the
society. Persian gardens, as we are aware, are regarded as a “symbolic” representation of Quranic Paradise. The basis of
its design is purely planned upon the depiction of paradise in Quranic verses. Thus the Persian garden designs followed a
strong coherence with the design principles and geometry, which are considered to be Holy and aesthetic.
The Mughal gardens, on the other hand, also evidently managed to depict this symbolism of Jannat. However, it
possessed more aspects that influenced its design. Symbolism was one of the aspects. The main reason, that led to the rise
of the Mughal gardens, were its symbolism as a lineage. The Mughal gardens were a portrayal of the Mughal Dynasty. Even
today, these gardens yet possesses the authority of power. It reminds us the presence of a powerful empire in India.
Apart from the notion of symbolism, the gardens also were portrayed as a powerful emblem of authority, territorial
control, kinship, and as a reflection of the nation. It emerged as a symbol of administrative power, combined with socio
economic and cultural influences. The meaning of garden has taken a new path. In present day, observing a Mughal garden
would give rise to the knowledge of presence of a very powerful empire, the Mughals. Based on literary evidences and
maps, we can understand that the spread of the Mughal gardens in India were nonetheless belonging to the political arena
rather than being more symbolic. However, the initial idea of the construction of these gardens were to enhance the natural
landscape of India. This paradigm shift caused a swift change in the meaning of a garden.
The Mughals started to build their way through each territory they conquered, by building their symbol of power –
the gardens. Though architecture was also a major aspect of their lineage, however, Babur’s main motive was to enhance the
aesthetics of natural landscape, as he had already been seeing in his hometown, Farghana valley in Uzbekistan. This idea of
beautification of the landscape designs has increasingly benefitted the natural landscape of India, as there has been seen a huge
paradigm shift. Thus the major contribution towards the architecture of Charbagh in India is dedicated to Emperor Babur. In case
of Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, the need for territorial expansion emerged. Thus conquering territories and
demarcating his land by expansion of his administration became a major focus. Akbar on the other hand, wanted to lead to
union of territories, which he felt could not be won with war. His immense approach towards uniting territories, especially
with the powerful kingdoms such as the Rajput’s and Marathas, led to the birth of newer typologies of garden types, which
amalgamated the design features of both the styles. Thus these features can be seen in the forts of Amer in Rajasthan and
even in the regions under the Maratha empire. Jahangir, was also a nature lover who inherited the love
Page | 50
2019
of nature from his great grandfather became the great garden builder and wanted to synchronize nature with aesthetics. During
his reign, multiple gardens were built, with carved stones and heavy ornamentations, some of which are still present
today. The garden construction agenda reached its zenith with the reign of Shah Jahan, who also built and rebuilt numerous
gardens around the reign of territory The best specimen of well-planned garden can be seen in Taj Mahal and Shalimar
Bagh in Kashmir. He transformed the facets of Delhi by adopting the riverfront scheme, in Agra, following the principles
of design of his father. Although Aurangzeb abandoned the tradition of building monumental gardens except a few, he
put in efforts to maintain the existing gardens.
Garden was a significant component of ‘urbanization’ and urbanization worked as stimulus in laying out ‘gardens’. High
expenditure was required in the laying out as well as in the maintenance of the gardens. Economically, gardens generated
income by selling fruits, flowers and vegetables. This income was generated by sub-letting the gardens for commercial purposes
but income was ever lesser than the expenditure. Ultimately, it led to the disparity in sanctioned and actual number of
gardeners and oxen. To meet out the deficiency, there were concessions in garden tax (sar-i darakhti), from time to time,
by the Mughal emperors. This in turn helped to grow the economy and relations through generating revenue. (Fatima S,
2016)
Thus gardens of the Mughal India synthesizes to demarcate the barrier between the “imagined” and the “real”. In a way that, it
combines the symbolic aspect with the real-world aspect, and also manages to appear as a symbol of power. Thus,
sometimes, the poetical and symbolic retrospection of garden as a paradise was followed and sometimes it was accompanied
by economic, political, cultural and other uses and meanings. Thus the journey of Persian gardens from Iran, and their
characteristics and idea have experienced a great paradigm shift and it has evolved greatly in terms of symbolism and
political characteristic.
Page | 51
2019
Glossary :
1. Chenar Tree – an oriental plane tree, which had been particularly cultivated in the region of Iran.
2. Char-Taqi : any geometrical figure which is always divided into four different quadrants (Char-bagh)
Char – four and Taqi - halves
3. Cyrus the great – Ruler of Achaemenid empire in 539 BC in Ancient Persia.
4. Ghurid dynasty – Ruled the grounds of northern India before advent of the Delhi sultanates. (1101 AD- 1205AD)
5. Nahr-i Bihisht – A typical water transporting canal, which was usually attached to the garden and carried
water from the main source to the destination through the pavilions. A typical case of passive design strategy adopted in
Mughal architecture.
6. Pairidaeza - modern Persian term used for describing an open space which is enclosed within walls, particularly used
for gardens. “Pairi” accurately translated as open space and “daeza” as the surrounding walls. Thus meaning “walled
gardens”.
7. Pardis – Typically means ‘paradise ‘in Persian language.
8. Zoroastrian – a pre Islamic religion during 5th century BCE
Page | 52
2019
References and Bibliography :
Articles and Journals
Abbas, M., Nafisi, N. and Nafisi, S. (2016). Persian Garden, Cultural Sustainability and Environmental Design Case Study
Shazdeh Garden. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, pg.510-517.
Alemi, M. ,1970, Symbolism in Persian gardens: the nature sense in the Safavid royal gardens. Manzar 1970.
Ali, Asif. 2016, Mughal Gardens in India: Symbolic or Climate Responsive, Indian, Journal of Archaeology
Alon-Mozes,T, 2004, Gardens and the emergence of culture: The Meir Garden: The first Hebrew garden for
the first Hebrew city—Tel Aviv. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 24, 55-64.
Ansari, M. A.A. Taghvaee & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on
Water and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, pg 101-124.
Balabanlilar, Lisa, 2009. “Emperor Jahangir and Pursuit of Pleasure,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
173-86
Borazjani, V. & M.R. Javadi. ,2004, Persian Garden: Ancient Wisdom, New Perspective. Contemporary Arts Museum of
Tehran Publications. Tehran.
Dadlani, Chanchanl. "The "Palais Indiens" Collection of 1774: Representing Mughal Architecture in Late
Eighteenth-Century India." Ars Orientalis 39 (2010): pg 175-97.
Dadlani, Chanchal. 2018. From Stone to Paper: Architecture as History in the Late Mughal Empire. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
Dadvar, Abolghasem, 2000, Iranians in Mughal Politics and Society, 1606-1658. New Delhi: Gyan
Publishing House, 2000.
Dalmia, Vasudha, and Munis Daniyal Faruqui. 2014. Religious Interactions in Mughal India. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Dickie, J. 1985, The Mughal garden : Gateway to paradise, Muqarnas, pg.128-137.
Elkins, J. 1993. On the conceptual analysis of gardens, The Journal of Garden History 13, pg 189-198. Faghih,
N. & A. Sadeghy. 2012. Persian Gardens and Landscapes. Architectural Design 82, pg 38-51.
Page | 53
2019
Guha, Sumit. 2015. “Rethinking the Economy of Mughal India: Lateral Perspectives.” Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient 58, no. 4: 532–75.
Koch, Ebba. 2006, The Complete Taj Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra. London: Thames & Hudson.
Koch, Ebba. 1994, Diwan-i Amm and Chihil Sutun: The Audience Halls of Shah Jahan. Muqarnas, pg 143-
165.
Koch, Ebba. 1997, Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1648). Muqarnas.
Jain, M, 2002, Rescued Water Landscapes at the Fort of Nagaur, Rajasthan, India, and U. Fratino et al.,
Landscapes of Water: History, Innovation and Sustainable Design, pg 282-88.
Kausar Sajjad. , 2001, Symbolism in Mughal Landscape, Journal of Central Asian Civilization. pg102-111.
Khan, Mohammad Afzal., 2001, A Monument of the Early Mughal Period: The Jami' Masjid of Pilakhna
(Aligarh District).
Moynihan, E.B. 1980. Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India. Scolar Press London.
Motallebi, R, 2013, Existence Sound of Iranian garden. Manzar: The Iranian Scientific Journal of Landscape.
4, pg50-51.
Naghizadeh, M. 2013, Representations of beauty in Persian gardens. Manzar: The Iranian Scientific Journal
of Landscape , pg 6-9.
Rehman, Abdul, Shahid Jamal, and James L. Wescoat, Jr. 1994. “Evolution and Development of Urban Design during
Mughal Period.” Lahore Museum Bulletin.
S. Fatima, 2016, Gardens of the Mughal India, Aligarh Muslim University.
Siddiqui.Hussain, 1986 ‘Water-works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times’, Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient 1986.
Taghvaei. S, 2011, The Totality of the Garden and the Evergreenery Secret. Manzar: The Iranian Scientific
Journal of Landscape 3, pg 6-11.
Tajaddini .L, 2011, Review of the Characteristics of Mahan Garden: One Type of Persian Gardens. World Academy
of Science, Engineering and Technology.
Page | 54
2019
Books :
Abdul Qadir B. 1990, Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh, George Ranking, Reprint. (New Delhi, 1990)
Abū al-Faz̤l ibn Mubārak and Beveridge, H. ,2010, The Akbarnama of Abuʻl Fazl. Kolkata: Asiatic Society. Asher,
Catherine ,1992, The Mughal gardens of pleasure, Cambridge University Press.
Asher, Catherine. ,1992, Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Babur and
Beveridge, A. 1971, The Bábar-Náma. London: Luzac.
Khansari, M., Moghtader, M. and Yavari, M. ,2004, The Persian garden. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. Hussain, M., Rehman, A.
and Wescoat, J.1996, The Mughal garden. Rawalpindi: Ferozsons.
Moynihan, E. 1980, Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India. Scolar Press London.
Stronach, David. 1978, Pasargadae. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.
Page | 55

Socio Economic and Political Influence of Landscape Architecture in India During Mughal Period

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Socio Economic and Political Influence of Landscape Architecture in India During Mughal Period

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dissertation |Echoes of Paradise |

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE

OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

DURING MUGHAL PERIOD

Guide: Ms. Neha Mallick, Assistant Professor

Coordinator: Radha Dayal, Associate Professor

SUSHANT SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

ANSAL UNIVERSITY, GURGAON, INDIA

Name: Soumini Dhar

Name: RADHA DAYAL

S.NO FIGURE HEADIN SOURCE

6 Figure 6 A Chahar Taqi garden layout in Cyrus’s complex Author

9 Figure 9 The layout of the final garden Author

12 Figure 12 A typical Achaemenid Garden sketch Author

17 Figure 17 Pasargadae garden plan Wescoat, J 1997

27 Figure 27 Tomb of Lodhi garden World History 101

29 Figure 29 Plan of tughlaqabad fort Author

32 Figure 32 Schematic diagram of late Timurid garden (15th century) Author

33 Figure 33 Shalimar garden site (Rainawari, Srinagar, Kashmir) Author

List of Tables / Figures / Illustrations......................................................................................................................4

Chapter 2 : The Concept and Etymology of a Garden

2.1............................................................................................................. The meaning of

Chapter 3: Morphology of gardens in later Mesopotamian stage................................................18

3.3............................................................................................................. Socio cultural and

4.2.2................................................................................................ Socio cultural

4.3............................................................................................................. Case study

4.3.1................................................................................................ Statistics of the

4.3.3................................................................................................ Socio economic

5.1............................................................................................................. The sovereign

5.2............................................................................................................. The Red fort

5.4............................................................................................................. The main

Chapter 6 : Analysis of features of garden design in Iran and India............................................49

III. RESEARCH QUESTION

Understanding the etymology of a garden space with respect to the architec

Via case studies Kaplans theory

Design of a Gardenasa Study of Merging :

Chapter 2 : The Concept and Etymology of a Garden

2.1 The meaning of a garden

2.2 Paradigm shift in Design of garden during 30th century BCE

Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

Figure 1: Idea of a Garden in 5000BC

2.3 Derivation of the geometry of the Charbagh garden

Figure 3: Four elements of Nature Figure 4: A traditional Charbagh

1. Topography of land (land contour)

13 Zoroastrian – a pre Islamic religion during 5 th century BCE

Figure 5: derivation of various shapes with the same geometry

Water – Symbolized life

Plants and Trees – Symbolized deity

Together they combined symbolized the eternal life.

15 Ganeri, A. 2002, The Quran. London: Evans 2002 (translated)

Figure 6: Mesopotamian king Cyrus’s

Figure 8: Stages of development of a

Chapter 3: Morphology of gardens in later Mesopotamian stage

3.1 Derivation of principles from the predecessors

Figure 11: A typical Mesopotamian Garden

18 Stronach, David. 1978, Pasargadae. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.

iii. Use of a permanent stream of water source

v. Use of lots of shady trees and narrow passages

Figure 13 : Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in

3.2.3 Sub terrain water channel – Qanat

Figure 14 : Vertical access shaft of Qanat

3.2.4 Vegetation (Flora and Fauna)

24 Asher, Catherine ,1992, The Mughal gardens of pleasure, (Cambridge, 1992).