Solution Manual

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Chapter 1 Answers to Questions
1.1 Only d and e are true. Below are brief explanations why each is true or false.
a. Remember that radiation is defined as energy propagated through a
medium, and it can take many forms. Only the high-energy end of the
electromagnetic spectrum is generally considered harmful.
b. There are many forms of ionizing radiation that do not have human origin.
Most of the ionizing radiation we are exposed to each day is naturally
occurring. All life on Earth has evolved in the presence of ionizing radiation,
and has adapted to it.
c. The alchemists of old believed this to be possible, and they were correct.
Unfortunately they lacked an understanding of atomic structure and nuclear
reactions.
d. We are literally bathing in it every second of our lives! It comes from the
planet, our sun, the universe, and us. If you’re not totally freaked out by
this, you’re good to go through the rest of this book.
e. As mentioned in d above, we are dosing ourselves. In fact, ingestion of
naturally occurring radon is responsible for much of our dose. We also dose
ourselves from the carbon and hydrogen atoms, and potassium ions that
help make up our bodies.
f. The fact that we cannot directly sense ionizing radiation is one of the
reasons we fear it. At levels high enough to cause fairly immediate
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noticeable biological damage such as skin burns, it could be said that our
bodies can detect ionizing radiation, but we cannot detect it at any level.
1.2 a, c, d, and e are all false.
a. Only protons and neutrons are considered nucleons.
b. Beta decay, positron decay, and electron capture are the three types of beta
decay.
c. Magic numbers are a reason for some unusual stability, but not all nuclides
with a magic number of protons and/or neutrons will be stable. For
example, oxygen has 8 protons, but not all isotopes of oxygen are stable.
d. Radiation is radiation. Its origin does not make it any more or less harmful.
e. An N/Z ratio equal to 1 is sometimes stable for low Z nuclides, but not for
higher Z nuclides.
f. The nucleus accounts for over 99.9% of the mass of the atom.
1.3 Answers will vary.
1.4 Radiation is energy propagated through a medium. It is often used in place of
the term ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is a particle or photon with
enough energy to turn an atom into an ion. There are many sources of ionizing
radiation. As humans on planet Earth, our greatest exposure is cosmic radiation
but it largely has a low probability of interacting with matter (i.e., us). Our
greatest dose of ionizing radiation is from 222Rn since we ingest it from the air
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we breathe and the water we drink. Other sources include rocks and dirt, our
bodies, and medical procedures. Ionizing radiation comes from cosmic radiation
and radioactive decay.
m
2.998 × 108
c s = 7.77 × 10−11m
1.5 λ= =
ν 3.86 × 1018 s−1
⎛ m⎞
hc
(6.626 × 10 −34
)
J•s ⎜ 2.998 × 108 ⎟
⎝ s⎠
1.6 E= = = 2.89 × 10−21 J
λ −5
6.87 × 10 m
This would be considered infrared radiation.
m
2.998 × 108
c s
1.7 ν= = = 3 × 1011 s−1 = 300 GHz
λ m
1 mm ×
1000 mm
m
2.998 × 108
c s
ν= = = 3 × 1010 s−1 = 30 GHz
λ m
10 mm ×
1000 mm
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Looking at the electromagnetic spectrum, this wavelength range falls within the
microwave region and is not ionizing. “High-frequency radio waves” is a bit of a
stretch, but is likely used because it will be viewed as safe by the general public.
How many people would step into a scanner knowing they were about to be hit
by microwaves?
1.8 E = hc/
⎛ m⎞
−18
(6.626 × 10 −34
)
J•s ⎜ 2.998 × 108 ⎟
⎝ s⎠
7.84 × 10 J=
λ
= 2.53 x 10-8 m
Looking at the electromagnetic spectrum, this wavelength falls within the
ultraviolet region. UV is not ionizing radiation.
1.9 Gamma rays and UV-light are both forms of electromagnetic radiation. Both are
transmitted as photons. However, gamma rays are a higher energy form of
electromagnetic radiation than UV. Gamma rays are so energetic that they have
enough energy to knock an electron loose from all forms of matter.
1.10 No, atoms are mostly empty space.
1.11 According to major league baseball (www.mlb.com), baseballs “measure not less
than nine nor more than 9 1/4 inches in circumference.” Let’s go with 9 1/8
inches for the circumference. Since the circumference of a circle is equal to 2πr,

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then the radius of a baseball is about 1.45 inches, and its diameter would then
be 2.9 inches. Since the atom is about 50,000× bigger than the nucleus…
(
2.9 in × 5 × 104 ×) 1 ft
×
1 mile
12 in 5280 ft
≅ 2 miles
1.12 Nuclide: All nuclei of any element, any number of protons and neutrons.
Nucleon: Protons and neutrons
Beta particle: A high-speed electron emitted by an unstable nucleus with a high
N/Z ratio.
Positron decay: One of two types of beta decay available for nuclei with a low N/
Z ratio. During this type of decay, a proton is converted into a neutron and a
positron is emitted.
Electromagnetic spectrum: a continuous range of photonic energy. It covers a
wide range of wavelengths and frequencies, from radio waves to gamma rays.
Isotope: Nuclides containing a constant number of protons but varying numbers
of neutrons.
Isobar: Nuclides with the same mass number, but differing numbers of protons
and neutrons.
ALARA: An acronym meaning “as low as reasonably achievable.” A policy
followed by those who work with all forms of ionizing radiation. If there is more
than one way to perform a procedure, then the path that results in the lowest
dose is used.
TESTofBthe
1.13 Belt of stability: The region ANKchart
SELL ofEthe
R.C OM
nuclides where stable nuclides
are almost always found.
Metastable: An excited nuclear state that exists for a reasonable amount of time
(more that a second or two).
Alpha particle: A 4He nucleus.
Isotone: Nuclides with the same number of neutrons, but differing numbers of
protons.
Electron capture: A form of beta decay where a proton transforms into a neutron
by the nucleus capturing one of its own orbital electrons.
Isomer: Two nuclides that differ only in energy state.
1.14 Isotopes: 14C and 12C
Isotones: 14C, 16O, and 13B
Isobars: 16O and 16N

1.15 Assume the density of a proton is about the same as an electron, then the ratios
of their masses will approximate the ratios of their volumes.
u volume
1.007 1.007
proton proton electrons
≈ = 1836
u volume proton
5.486 × 10−4 5.486 × 10−4
electron electron

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81
1.16 37
Rb → 81
36
Kr + +1
e 14
7
N + 01n → 11H + 14
6
C 137
55
Cs → 137
56
Ba + 0
e
−1
positron decay nuclear reaction beta (minus) decay

239
94
Pu → 42He + 235
92
U Hg + 21H → 201n +
201
80
201
81
Tl 208
83
Bi + e→
0
−1
208
82
Pb
alpha decay nuclear reaction electron capture decay
1.17 a. Good N/Z ratio
b. Magic number of protons and/or neutrons
c. Not too big; Z ≤ 82
d. Ground state; not an excited state nuclide
e. Even numbers of neutrons, protons, or both.
These answers do not guarantee stability, but are possible rationalizations to
explain why a particular nuclide is stable.
1.18 32P: both N and Z are odd 32P → 32S + –1e
64Ge: N/Z ratio is too low 64Ge + –1e → 64Ga or 64Ge → 64Ga + +1e
20O: N/Z ratio is too high 20O → 20F + –1e
100Ru*: nucleus is in an excited state 100Ru* → 100Ru +γ
212Po: too big 212Po → 208Pb + 4He
1.19 The first four are unstable, here’s why:

11C N/Z ratio is 5/6, and
TEStherefore
TBANKStooELLlow.
ER.ItCalso
OM has an odd number of
neutrons.
190W N/Z ratio is 116/74, or ~1.6. That is a bit too high for Z = 74.
114In With 65 neutrons and 49 protons, it is an odd-odd nuclide.
232Th Too darned big!
76Se Stable because it is even-even and has a good N/Z ratio (1.2)
225
1.20 90
Th → 221
88
Ra + 42He no, 221Ra is not stable because it is too big
184
73
Ta → 184
74
W+ 0
−1
e yes, 184W is stable
133m
58
Ce → 133
58
Ce + γ no, 133Ce is not stable because its N/Z ratio is too low
126
53
I+ 0
−1
e→ 126
52
Te yes, 126Te is stable

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1.21 40Ca should be unstable because its N/Z ratio is a little too low for its location on
the chart of the nuclides.
20 neutrons
= 1.00
20 protons
The optimal ratio for calcium is approximately 1.15 (43Ca, based on the
proximity of other stable nuclides). 40Ca is stable because it has magic numbers
of both neutrons and protons (doubly magic!), and its N/Z ratio isn’t too far out
of whack.
1.22 To get from 232 to 208, the mass number changes by 24. This requires six
alpha decays, since each alpha decay lowers the mass number by four and beta
decay does not change mass number. However, six alpha decays also reduces
the atomic number to 78. Our ending atomic number is 82, so four β-decays
must also occur to convert four neutrons to protons and give us the correct
atomic number for Pb.
1.23
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This decay series does not exist today because the half-life of 237Np is short
(2.14 × 106 a) relative to the age of the solar system (4.6 × 109 a). Any 237Np
present when the Earth was formed would have long since decayed.
1.24 Approximately 50% of the annual U.S. dose comes from natural sources.
1.25 Answers will vary. Below are the five sources listed in the text along with a brief
explanation.
1. The development, manufacture, testing, and use of nuclear weapons.
Development: As we’ll see in Chapter 9, the enduring legacy of the Cold War is
a large, complex, radioactive mess. Making plutonium for weapons requires

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chemical separations procedures. In the U.S., this was mostly done at the
Hanford site in Eastern Washington. In the early days (while processes were
still being developed) a lot of the wastes were buried in ditches. Later,
aqueous wastes were pumped into large steel tanks for “interim” storage.
Most of the R&D involving Pu has been weapons related. All of this work
generates contaminated wastes, some of which has found its way into the
environment.
Manufacturing: Once the plutonium is isolated it needs to be machined into
specific shapes for weapons. In the U.S. this work was largely done at the
Rocky Flats facility just outside of Denver, Colorado. When it was shut down in
1989, it was found to have heavily contaminated the local environment with
Pu.
Testing/Use: Over 2,000 nuclear weapons have been tested, about a quarter of
which of which were detonated above ground. Above ground tests were much
more damaging to the environment as radioactive fallout was spread over a
wide area. As we’ll learn in Chapter 9, fallout consists of a fair bit of the Pu (or
U) as well as a large number of lighter radioactive nuclides called fission
products. The fission products have mostly decayed away, but the plutonium
we spread around the planet is mostly still with us.
It should also be noted that nuclear weapons are occasionally lost, stolen or
detonated accidentally. Over 30 such accidents have been documented, in six
cases the weapon was not recovered. In several, enduring environmental
contamination occurred.
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2. Accidental releases from nuclear power plants such as Fukushima (2011),
Chernobyl (1986), and Three-Mile Island (1979).
Serious nuclear plant accidents were thought to be a thing of the past until
Fukushima. On the surface, it appears to be an example of human inability to
imagine a plausible worse case scenario. Three plants ended up experiencing
significant core meltdowns and radioactive releases primarily as a result of
damage from a tsunami and the subsequent extended power loss. Because of
the power loss (sadly ironic at a power plant), pumps needed to circulate
cooling water through the reactor cores and spent fuel pools were unable to
operate. This caused heat and pressure to build up, eventually resulting in
leaks through the containment structures. Loss of coolant within the reactors
lead to H2 production, which was not adequately vented and eventually
exploded. A year after the accident, it is still unclear how much radioactive
material was released. Estimates vary from one-tenth to ½ that released at
Chernobyl. Unlike Chernobyl, however, it appears that doses to local
populations, as well as plant workers, were minimized insofar as few, if any,
significant health effects will be observed.
Chernobyl is the poster child for nuke plant accidents. The disaster was
caused by a poor reactor design and operator error (stubborn arrogance or
stupid incompetence) and aggravated by the fact that the reactor had lots of
graphite in it. After an explosion blew the roof off the reactor building, the
graphite caught fire and burned for several days, spewing radioactive particles

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in its smoke. Once airborne, the radioactive materials were distributed over
much of the Northern Hemisphere, although the highest concentrations
remained closest to the plant. Dozens of emergency responders died within
days, and thousands have suffered health effects since.
Three-Mile Island is the worst nuke plant accident in the U.S. A faulty valve led
to a partial core meltdown. The radioactive materials released were gases that
had accidentally been vented from the containment structure to another
building where it leaked out into the surrounding atmosphere. The gases were
quickly dissipated and doses to people near the plant at the time of the
accident are calculated to be very low.
3. Regulated releases from nuclear power plants.
Radioactive gases build up inside the containment building of nuclear power
plants. These plants are allowed to regularly release these gases to the
atmosphere. If you live downwind from a nuke plant and this worries you, it
shouldn’t. People living downwind of coal-fired power plants receive a greater
dose of radioactivity from the plant than those living downwind of a nuke
plant. Neither are at levels to get excited about.
4. Irresponsible disposal of radioactive waste.
Up until the early 80’s the Soviet Union, the UK, and France all dumped some
their radioactive wastes at sea. Some of this is now being distributed through
the world’s oceans. Also note the response to #1 above mentions that the U.S.
dumped some of its weapon’s waste on land in an irresponsible manner.
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5. The manufacture, use and disposal of radioactive nuclides for research or
medical applications.
Quite a lot of scientists make their living working with radioactive materials –
the author of this book is one! Waste is part of this work, and must be
disposed of properly. Fortunately, most countries that have research
programs involving radioactive materials have responsible waste practices.
Most nuclear medicine procedures use the nuclide 99mTc, which decays to 99Tc,
which is also radioactive. The 99Tc is generally cleared from the patient
through their urine and/or feces. Millions of people each year send a little bit
of 99Tc into the environment through their toilets.
1.26 It is because protons have charge and neutrons do not. Adding protons to small
nuclides such as those in figure 1.9 means that we’re putting more and more
positive charges in a very small space. The positive charges repel each other,
making it impossible to add too many to a small nucleus.
1.27 Air is roughly 80% N2, 20% O2, with very small amounts of H2O, Ar, and CO2.
Since nitrogen dominates, a quick look at Figure 1.9 tells us that its most
abundant (by far!) isotope is 14N.
1.28 231Pa. It undergoes alpha decay to 227Ac with a half-life of 3.28 × 104 a.

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2.1 Since we can’t use the direct conversion factor, we’ll have to first figure out how
many atoms are in 1 g of 12C, and then convert to unified atomic mass units.
12 mol 12 C 6.022 × 1023 12 C atoms 12.00 u 12 C

1.000 g C× 12
× 12
× 12 = 6.022 × 1023 u
12.00 g C mol C C atom
It should look very familiar – it is Avogadro’s number! This happens because the
mass (g) of one mole of any atom is numerically equivalent to the mass (u) of a
single atom. Note also that the inverse of 1.66 × 10-24 is 6.02 × 1023.
2.2 The average can be calculated by looking up the % abundance and atomic mass
of all three naturally occurring isotopes of Mg (Appendix A).
(0.7899)(23.9850 u) + (0.1000)(24.9858 u) + (0.1101)(25.9826 u) = 24.30 u
2.3 Let x = the fractional abundance of 85Rb, then 1 – x = the fractional abundance of
87
Rb. Then:
(84.9118 u)x + (86.9092 u)(1 – x) = 85.4678 u
x = 0.72164
85
Rb is 72.164% abundant, and 87Rb is 27.836% abundant.
2.4 The percent abundance T

ofES
81 TBANKSELLER.COM
Br is 49.31%.
1 mol Br2 2 mol Br 6.022 × 1023 Br atoms 49.31 81Br atoms

1.56 g Br2 × × × ×
159.8 g Br2 1 mol Br2 mol Br 100 Br atoms
= 5.80 × 1021 81Br atoms
2.5 Count rate is the number of decays recorded by the detector per unit time.
Typically, only a small fraction of all ionizing radiation being emitted by a
radioactive source is picked up by the detector.
Decay rate is the total number of decays that take place for a given source per
unit time. Decay rate is proportional to count rate; specifically, they are related
by the counter’s efficiency.
count rate
% efficiency = × 100%
decay rate
2.6 In this case one half-life has passed, so t = t1/2. We also know that the activity
has dropped by a factor of two during this time, so A1 = 2A2. Substituting into Eq.
2.1 gives:
2A2
ln = λt1/2
A2

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The A2’s cancel out, giving:

ln2 = λt1/2
Divide both sides by half-life and you’ve got Eq. 2.3:

ln2
λ=
t1/2
2.7 Since each half-life reduces the activity by 1/2, three half-lives would cut activity
by 1/8:
3
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 2⎟⎠ = 8
and five half-lives would cut activity to 1/32 of the original value:
5
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 2⎟⎠ = 32
2.8 First convert days to years, and then plug into equation 2.2.
a
2016 d × = 5.520 a
365.24 d
TESTBANKSE−Lln2
LE×5.520
R.CaOM
A2 = A1e − λt = 95 kBq × e 5.271 a
= 46 kBq
2.9 Since both activities are known, it’s best to use the formula that allows easier
solution of half-life:
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ 5718dpm⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞

ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ×t ln ⎜ =⎜ ⎟ × 24.0h t1/2 = 6.91h
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎝ t1/2 ⎠ ⎝ 515dpm ⎟⎠ ⎝ t1/2 ⎠
2.10 Using a half-life of 2.7476 days for 99Mo:

⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ ln2 ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ ×t
( )
⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ −⎜ ⎟ ×30.0d
⎝ 2.7476d ⎠
A2 = A1e 1/2
= 15,000dpm e = 7.7dpm or 460 decays per hour
2.11 We’ll use equation 2.1, solved for time.
2.22 × 106 dpm

0.501µCi ×
A1 µCi
ln ln
A2 1.48 × 10 dpm
5
t= = = 11.0 a
λ ln2
3.78 a
It was calibrated 11.0 years ago.

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10
2.12 According to Appendix A, the half-life for 244

Pu is 8.11 × 107 years.
−
ln2
(
× 4.6×109 a )
N2 = N1e − λt 20 × 106 = N1 × e 8.11×107 a
N1 = 2.4 × 1024 atoms
Convert to mass.
1 mol 244 g
2.4 × 1024 atoms × × = 962 g
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
2.13 Using the percent efficiency equation:

cpm 2554 cpm
% efficiency = × 100% = × 100% = 23.7%
dpm 10756 dpm
Notice the answer is rounded to three significant figures because count data are
not usually good beyond this number.
2.14 4.03 years had passed since this source was calibrated. Using a half-life of 3.78
years for 204Tl, the activity on May 26, 2017 was:
⎛ 1000 Bq 1 dps 60 s ⎞ −
ln2
×4.03 a
A2 = A1e − λt = ⎜ 361 kBq × × × ⎟ × e 3.78 a
= 1.03 × 107 dpm
⎝ kBq 1 Bq min ⎠
Shelf efficiencies were therefore:
shelf 1:
TESTBANKS347,816
ELLER.cpm
% efficiency =
COM× 100% = 3.36%
1.03 × 107 dpm
236,560 cpm
shelf 2: % efficiency = × 100% = 2.29%
1.03 × 107 dpm
135,284 cpm
shelf 3: % efficiency = × 100% = 1.31%
1.03 × 107 dpm
2.15 The first step is to determine the activity of the source today:
1500 cpm
3.45% = × 100%
x dpm
activity = 4.35 × 104 dpm
Next solve for the activity 5.00 days from now:
ln2
− ×5.00 d
A2 = A1e − λt = (4.35 × 104 dpm)e 2.669 d
= 1.19 × 104 dpm
2.16 It’s arbitrary, but first let’s figure out how many potassium ions are in a 100 kg
body:
140 g K mol 6.022 × 1023ions

100 kg × × × = 3.08 × 1024 ions
70 kg 39.10 g mol

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11
How many are 40K?
0.0117 40K ions

3.08 × 1024 K ions × = 3.60 × 1020 40
K ions
100 K ions
Now calculate activity.
A=
ln2
t1/2
N=
ln2
5.259 × 105
min
(
× 3.60 × 1020 40
)
K ions = 3.8 × 105 dpm
1.25 × 109 a ×
a
Your results will vary depending on your mass, or the mass you decide to use. To
check your answer, divide your mass (in kg!) by 100, and then multiply the result
by 3.8 × 105 dpm.
2.17 Like any specific activity problem, it doesn’t matter what mass we start with. The
clever approach would be to assume 1 g or 1 kg and just calculate activities.
Let’s take the slightly more cumbersome approach and assume a mass of 100
kg. This way we’ll also see approximately how hot humans are. Let’s start with
tritium.
1000 g H mol H 6.022 × 1023 atoms H 5.0 × 10−15 atoms 3H
N = 9.5 kg H × × × ×
kg H 1.008 g H mol H 100 atoms H
= 2.8 × 1011 atoms 3H
TESTBANln2
KSELLER.COM
A = λN =
ln2
t1/2
N=
⎛ min⎞
(
× 2.8 × 1011atoms 3H )
12.32 a × ⎜5.259 × 105
⎝ a ⎟⎠
= 3.0 × 104 dpm
Rinse and repeat with 12C and 40K.

1000 g C mol C 6.022 × 1023 atoms C 1.2 × 10−10 atoms 14
C
N = 18.6 kg C × × × ×
kg C 12.01 g C mol C 100 atoms C
= 1.1× 1015 atoms 14
C
A = λN =
ln2
t1/2
N=
⎛
ln2
min⎞
(
× 1.1× 1015 atoms 14
C )
5715 a × ⎜5.259 × 105
⎝ a ⎟⎠
= 2.6 × 105 dpm
1000 g K mol K 6.022 × 1023 atoms C 0.0117 atoms 40K

N = 0.35 kg K × × × ×
kg K 39.10 g K mol C 100 atoms K
= 6.3 × 1020 atoms 40
K

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12
A
ln2
t 1/2
N=
ln2
⎛ min ⎞
(
× 6.3 × 1020 atoms 40
)
K = 6.6 × 105 dpm
1.25 × 109 a × ⎜ 5.259 × 105
⎝ a ⎟⎠
We can now calculate specific activity.
3.0 × 104 dpm + 2.6 × 105 dpm + 6.6 × 105 dpm dpm
= 9.5 × 103
100 kg kg
Regardless of your mass, your specific activity is ~9500 dpm/kg. That’s a lot of
radioactive decay going on inside each of us every day (~1 billion decays per
day)!
2.18 First calculate the number of 99Tc atoms that are present:
1 mol NaTcO4 1 mol Tc 6.022 × 1023 atoms

0.353 g NaTcO4 × × ×
185.9g NaTcO4 1 mol NaTcO4 mol Tc
= 1.14 × 1021atoms 99 Tc
Now determine the activity for 1.14 × 1023 atoms of 99Tc (t1/2 = 2.13 × 105 years):
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
A= ⎜
ln2
×⎜
a
⎝ 2.13 × 10 a ⎠ ⎝ 5.259 × 10 min⎟⎠
5 ⎟ 5 ( )
× 1.14 × 1021 atoms 99 Tc = 7.08 × 109 dpm
Finally, calculate specific

TEactivity:
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7.08 × 109 decays min 1 Bq 1 MBq
× × ×
min 60 s 1 dps 106 Bq MBq
S.A.= = 334
0.353g g
2.19 In order to do the problem, you need to know that several isotopes of platinum
occur naturally, but only one is radioactive (the others are all stable). The one
radioactive isotope is 190Pt, and it makes up only 0.014% of all platinum. In other
words, if you went and dug up some Pt, only 0.014% of it would be 190Pt. You
also need to know the half-life of 190Pt, which is 6.5 × 1011 a. With all of that in
mind, assume exactly 1 gram of Pt. Since only one isotope of Pt is radioactive,
we should first determine the number of 190Pt atoms present in one gram of Pt
(all isotopes).
mol Pt 6.022 × 1023 Pt atoms 0.014 190Pt atoms
1g Pt × × ×
195.1 g Pt mol Pt 100 Pt atoms
= 4.3 × 1017 190Pt atoms
The activity is then:

ln2
A = λN = × 4.3 × 1017 atoms = 0.88 dpm
5.259 × 105
min
6.5 × 1011 a ×
a

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13
Specific activity is:

µCi
0.88 dpm ×
2.22 × 106dpm µCi
= 3.9 × 10−7
1g g
This problem could also be done starting with the assumption that there is some
other mass of Pt. Since specific activity is characteristic of a particular element
or compound, it does matter how much of it you have, the specific activity
remains the same.
2.20 20% by weight means that if we have 100 g of fertilizer, 20 g will be K2O. Since
potassium is naturally radioactive (and oxygen is not), we should first calculate
the number of 40K atoms present in 20 g of K2O.
mol K2O 2 mol K 0.0117 mol 40K 6.022 × 1023 atoms

20 g K2O × × × ×
94.2 g K2O 1 mol K2O 100 mol K mol
= 3.0 × 1019 atoms 40
K
Activity is then:
ln2
A = λN = × 3.0 × 1019 atoms
5.259 × 10 min
5
1.25 × 109 a ×
a
= 3.2 × 104 dpm
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Specific activity is:
3.2 × 104 decays min Bq
× ×
min 60 s dps Bq
= 5.3 × 103
kg kg
100 g ×
1000 g
Whoa! That’s 26× higher than allegedly allowed by the Japanese government. It
looks like the journalist was incorrect, and was perhaps more interested in
raising fear than awareness.
5,300 Bq/kg is a conservative value, because we’re ignoring other radioactive
components of fertilizers. Two other common components are ammonium ( NH4+ )
and urea (CH4N2O). Since both carbon and hydrogen are naturally radioactive,
the specific activity of our fertilizer is likely higher.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
14
2.21 The ratio of the current activity to the original activity is given in this problem
(0.559). Using a half-life for 14C of 5715 years:
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ ln2 ⎞

ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ×t ln ⎜ = ×t t ≈ 4800 years ago
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎝ t1/2 ⎠ ⎝ 55.9 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5715 a ⎟⎠
2.22 This is like a dating problem (dinner or a movie?) only backwards. Equation 2.2
is probably the easiest to use on this one.
ln2
− ×19,000 a
A2 = A1e − λt = 14 dpm/g × e 5715 a
= 1.4 dpm/g
2.23 Over time, some of the 40K decays to 40Ar. We need to know how much 40K was
present in the rock when it was formed. First, let’s figure out how much 40K
would produce 0.530 40K – don’t forget that only 10.72% of all 40K decays produce
40
Ar.
mol 40 Ar 1 mol 40K 100 decays (all) 40.0 g 40K

0.530 g Ar × × × ×
40.0 g 40 Ar 1 mol 40 Ar 10.72 decays (to 40 Ar) mol 40K
= 4.94 g 40
K
Now calculate the amount of 40K that was present when the rock was formed.
40
0.092 g K + 4.94 g 40
K = 5.04 g 40
K
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
We can use the same formula as was used in the Rb-Sr example in the chapter to
determine when the rock was formed. We can use masses instead of activities
because mass is proportional to activity for the same nuclide:
N1 5.04 g
ln ln
N2 0.092 g
t= = = 7.2 × 109 a
ln2 ln2
−
t1/2 1.25 × 109 a
We assume that all of the 40Ar found in the rock came from decay of 40K that had
also been in the rock. This seems unlikely, as this rock appears to be quite a bit
older than our solar system.
2.24 Cl decays by ß– emission to 36Ar, and by ß+ (or EC) to 36S with branch ratios of
36
98.10% and 1.90% respectively. The two partial half-lives are therefore:
3.01× 105 a 3.01× 105 a

= 3.07 × 105 a for ß– = 1.58 × 107 a for ß+ and EC
0.9810 0.0190

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
15
2.25 This is very similar to Example 2.11. The atomic mass of 64Cu is 63.93 g/mole,
therefore N is:
( )
N = 9.76 × 10−15g ×
mol
63.93 g
×
6.022 × 1023atoms
mol
= 9.19 × 107 atoms
Now, activity – remember to adjust for efficiency and branch ratio. Only 38.5% of
all 64Cu decays emit a beta particle (Table 2.1).
dpm beta dpm all
A = 2315 cpm beta × × = 8.35 × 104 dpm
0.0720 cpm beta 0.385 dpm beta
Finally, we can determine half-life:
8.35 × 104 dpm =

ln2
t1/2
(
× 9.19 × 107 atoms )
t1/2 = 763 min = 12.7 h
2.26 a. 231
Pa is part of the 235U decay series, i.e., it is a radioactive daughter. The half-
lives are 7.04 × 108 a (235U) and 3.28 × 104 a (231Pa). Since it is a rock, it has
likely been sitting around for a few billion years (> 7 × 3.28 × 104 a), and is
therefore at equilibrium. The equilibrium is secular because we will only be
observing it for a short time compared to the half-life of the parent (7.04 × 108
a).
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
b. 47Ca decays to 47Sr, which is also radioactive. Equilibrium is attained because
35 days is longer than seven times the half-life of 47Sc (3.349 d). It is at
transient equilibrium because the parent (47Ca) has decayed significantly
during this time period (t1/2 = 4.536 d).
c. Neither, the daughter (72Ga) has a half-life of 14.10 h and the time of
observation is less than 3.5 daughter half-lives.
d. Neither, 19F is stable.
2.27 Since the uranium was separated from its daughters and the activity ratio is not
one, this is not at equilibrium. We’ll have to use equation 2.8 to solve this one.
ln2
ATh-230 7.56 ×104 a
×t
= 0.290 = 1− e
AU-238
t = 3.73 × 104 a
The correction is important because 234U would’ve also been deposited in the
calcite along with the 238U. 234U will also produce 230Th. The correction is done by
measuring the 234U/238U activity ratio, which is greater than 1!

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
16
2.28 Since this is a rock, we can safely assume it is at secular equilibrium, therefore
the activities of all radioactive nuclides in the series will be equal. Unfortunately
there is a branch in this decay series at 212Bi—it only decays to 212Po 64.06% of the
time.
⎛ mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms ⎞
⎜ 10.1 g Th × × ⎟ × ln2
N A × ln2 ⎝ 232.0 g mol ⎠
AB = B.R. × = 0.6406 ×
t1/2(A) 5.259 × 105 min
1.40 × 1010 a ×
a
= 1.58 × 106 dpm
2.29 Since this is a rock, we can safely assume it is at secular equilibrium, therefore
the activities of all radioactive nuclides in the series will be equal. Ignoring the
branch at 212Bi, ten radioactive nuclides are present in this decay series. We can
ignore the branch because the sum of the activities of the two nuclides formed
by 212Bi should equal the activity of each of the other nuclides. All we have to do
now is calculate the activity of 1.77 g of 232Th and multiply by ten.
ln2 mol 6.022 × 10−23 atoms

ATh-232 = × 1.77 g × ×
5.259 × 105 min 232 g mol
1.40 × 1010 a ×
a
= 4.33 × 10 dpm
5
Atotal = 4.33 × 105 dpm ×T10

ESTBANKSELLER.COM
= 4.33 × 106 dpm
2.30 These two nuclides are formed in the 238

U decay series, and this sample is at
secular equilibrium.
365.24 d
N Th-230 t1/2(Th-230) 7.56 × 104 a ×
= = a = 1.15 × 106
N Th-234 t1/2(Th-234) 24.10 d
Unfortunately, NB/NA is a ratio of the numbers of nuclides, and this problem asks
for a mass ratio.
230 g 230 Th
1.14 × 10 mol 6 230
Th 230
× mol 234Th = 1.13 × 106
mol 234 Th 234 g Th
234
mol Th
2.31 a and c are true.

b is false because λ = ln2/t1/2 therefore λ(A) << λ(B).
d is false because it takes approximately 7 daughter half-lives after isolation of
the parent for secular equilibrium to be reached.

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17
2.32 Given the time of observation (56 h) and the two half-lives involved, this is an
example of transient equilibrium (common for radionuclide generators). The only
formulas we know for transient equilibrium apply at equilibrium. Fortunately 56
h is greater than 7 × t1/2(Tc-99m), so we can assume we are at equilibrium. To use
the equation, we’ll first need to find the parent activity (99Mo) after 56 h.
ln2
( )
− t ln2
t1/2 − ×2.33 d
A2 = A1e = 7.67 × 10 dpm × e 13 2.7476 d
= 4.26 × 1013 dpm
If only 86% of the decays follow this path, then only 3.66 × 1013 dpm form 99m
Tc.
AMo-99 t1/2(Tc-99m ) AMo-99 3.66 × 1013 dpm

= 1− ATc-99m = = = 4.0 × 1013 dpm
ATc-99m t1/2(Mo-99) t1/2(Tc-99m ) 6.008 h
1− 1−
t1/2(Mo-99) 65.9 h
2.33 The half-life for 32Si (parent) is 160 a, while 32P (daughter) is 14.28 d. Since the
time of observation is short compared of the parental half-life, and the parent’s
half-life is enormously long compared to the daughter, this is clearly secular
equilibrium, although the sample will not have reached equilibrium after only
four weeks since this is only equivalent to (roughly) 2 daughter half-lives. We’ll
have to use the equation below.
⎛ −
ln2
×t ⎞
− λP-32t ln2 t1/2(P-32)
AP = ASi (1− e )= × NSi × ⎜1− e ⎟
t1/2(Si) TES⎜⎝ TBANKSE⎟⎠LLER.COM
6.022 × 1023 atoms ⎛ ×28 d ⎞
ln2
ln2 −6 mol −
= × (7.0 × 10 g) × × × ⎜ 1− e 14.28 d
⎟
5.259 × 10 min
5
32.0 g mol ⎝ ⎠
160 a ×
a
= 8.1× 108 dpm
2.34 Two isotopes of Ra are formed in this decay series, 228Ra and 224Ra. To find the
total amount of radium present, we’ll have to calculate both and add them
together.
⎛ mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms ⎞
⎜ 1.00g Th × × ⎟ × 5.76 a
N At1/2(B) ⎝ 232.0g mol ⎠
NB = =
t1/2(A) 1.40 × 1010a
= 1.07 × 1012 atoms of 228
Ra
⎛ mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms ⎞

⎜ 1.00g Th × × ⎟ × 3.63 d
⎝ 232.0g mol ⎠
NB =
1.40 × 1010a × (
365.24 d
a
)
= 1.84 × 109 atoms of 224Ra

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18
mol 228 g
1.07 × 1012 atoms × × = 4.04 × 10−10 g 228
Ra
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
mol 224 g
1.84 × 109 atoms × × = 6.85 × 10−13 g 224
Ra
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
Total radium = 4.04 × 10–10g + 6.85 × 10–13 = 4.05 × 10–10 grams of radium
There is no 219Rn formed in this decay series, therefore no activity will be
observed from it.
2.35 The half-life for 48Cr is 21.6 h, while the half-life for 48V is 15.98 d. Since the
daughter half-life is longer than the parent, they will not reach equilibrium. Even
so, maximum daughter activity can still be calculated. First we need to get the
two half-lives into the same units.
d
t1/2(Cr) = 21.6 h × = 0.900 d
24 h
⎡1.44t t ⎤ t ⎡ ⎤
t max = ⎢ 1/2(Cr) 1/2(V)
⎥ × ln 1/2(Cr) = ⎢1.44 × 0.900 d × 15.98 d ⎥ × ln 0.900 d = 3.95 d
(
⎣ )
⎢ t1/2(Cr) − t1/2(V) ⎥
⎦
t1/2(V) ⎢( ⎣
0.900 d − 15.98 d ) ⎥
⎦
15.98 d
2.36 No. With only 20 data collected,

TESTBAN weKSshould
ELLEexpect
R.COMroughly 19 (95%) to fall within
2σ, and roughly 1 (5%) to be outside the x ± 2σ range. If we repeat the data
collection several times, we should observe 19 count rates within x ± 2σ and 1
outside 2σ most of the time. However, sometimes we’ll see no data outside 2σ
and other times 2 count rates outside 2σ. Such is randomness.
2.37 The mean ( x ) is 2115 cpm and is simply the average of the sample data.
The standard deviation is:
σ = x = 2115 = 46 cpm
For a Gaussian distribution, the standard deviation defines a range over which
we might expect another measurement to fall. If our data fit a Gaussian
distribution, then ~68% of the data should lie within 1σ of the mean value
(2115±46 cpm) and ~4% should lie outside of 2σ of the mean (2115±92 cpm).
Only 50% of the data given in this problem lie within 1σ, and 20% lie outside of
2σ. These data do not appear to fit a Gaussian distribution.
The standard deviation of the mean is:
σ 46
σmean = = = 10 cpm
N 20

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
19
The RSD is:

σ 46 cpm
RSD = = = 0.022
x 2115 cpm
Chi-squared must be calculated to determine if the data fit a Poisson distribution.
1
( )
2
χ2 =
n
∑ n −n = 37.3
Chi-squared is a measure of how well a set of data fit a Poisson distribution. For
20 data, there is a 1% chance that this value will exceed 36.1 and the data still fit
a Poisson distribution. Therefore, it is quite likely that the data presented here
do not fit a Poisson distribution and there is a serious problem with the
instrument that determined them.
2.38 Using Excel to do the math, the following can be obtained.
Run 1 (cpm) Run 2 (cpm)

x
89 1904
2σ 19 87
% error
TESTBA21% 4.6%
NKSELLER.C OM
RSD 0.11 0.023
Both the percent error and the RSD are lower for the higher count rates. This is
consistent with the general statement that with any measurement, the larger the
value measured, the lower the relative error. Higher count rates have lower
relative errors.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
20
3.1 Let’s start with exactly 1 u and see if it turns into 931.5 MeV.
2
1.660 × 10−27 kg ⎛ m⎞
E = 1.000 u × × ⎜ 2.998 × 108 ⎟ = 1.492 × 10−10 J
1u ⎝ s⎠
6.242 × 1018 eV 1 MeV

1.492 × 10−10 J × × 6 = 931.3 MeV
J 10 eV
3.2 Mass defect is the difference between the expected atomic mass of a nuclide and
its actual atomic mass. It represents the amount of mass that has been “lost”
and converted to energy during the assembly of the nuclide, or it is the amount
of energy required to disassemble a nucleus.
72
Ge mass of 32 protons + 32 electrons 32(1.007825 u) =32.250400 u
mass of 40 neutrons 40(1.008665 u) =40.346600 u
expected atomic mass 72.597000 u
actual atomic mass – 71.922076 u
mass defect 0.674924 u
3.3 This nuclide is unstable toward fission. Splitting into two smaller nuclides will
release energy.
239 TESTBANKSELLER.COM
94
Pu mass of 94 protons + 94 electrons 94.735550 u
mass of 145 neutrons + 146.256425 u
expected atomic mass 240.991975 u
convert to energy × 931.5 MeV/u
binding energy 1807 MeV
÷ 239 nucleons
binding energy per nucleon 7.560 MeV/nuc
3.4 First calculate the mass defect, then the average mass lost per nucleon.
6
3
Li 3(1H) (3)1.007825 u = 3.023475 u
3( n)1
(3)1.008665 u = 3.025995 u
expected mass 6.049470 u
actual mass -6.015123 u
# of nucleons ÷6 nuc
avg. mass lost/nucleon 0.005725 u/nuc
Avg. mass of a proton = 1.007276 u – 0.005725 u = 1.001552 u
66
30
Zn 30(1H) (30)1.007825 u = 30.234751 u

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21
36(1n) (36)1.008665 u = 36.311937 u

266
107
Bh 107(1H) (107)1.007825 u = 107.837278 u
159( n)
1
(159)1.008665 u = 160.377722 u
3.5 This nuclide is stable towards fission and fusion. Either process will require the
addition of energy, i.e., this nuclide is in the “sweet spot” of 50 < A < 100.
99
43
Tc mass of 43 protons + 43 electrons 43.336475 u
mass of a 56 neutrons + 56.485234 u
expected
TESatomic
TBANK mass
SELLER.COM 99.821709 u
convert to energy × 931.5 MeV/u
binding energy 852.7 MeV
÷ 99 nucleons
binding energy per nucleon 8.614 MeV/nuc
The average mass of a neutron in 99Tc is:
0.915455 u
1.008665 u − = 0.999418 u
99
3.6 The first part is just like Example 3.2. Write out the balanced decay equation.
226
88
Ra → 222
86
Rn + 42He
Look up the masses, and do the math.
⎣ ( ⎦ u
)
⎡226.025410 u − 222.017578 u + 4.002603 u ⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 4.871 MeV
To figure out how much ice melts, we can continue to follow the math in the
book.

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22
4.871 MeV 1.60 × 10−13 J 6.022 × 1023 decay J

× × = 4.69 × 1011
decay MeV mol mol
kJ mol 18.0 g kg
4.69 × 1011 J × × × × = 1.34 × 106kg
1000 J 6.30 kJ mol 1000 g
Finally, we can calculate the number of moles of CH4 needed to melt this much
ice from the fact that combustion of one mole of methane produces 9 × 105 J.
1000 g mol 6.30 kJ 1000 J mol
1.34 × 106 kg × × × × × = 5 × 105 mol
kg 18.0 g mol kJ 9 × 105 J
mol
or 4.69 × 1011 J × = 500,000 mol
9 × 105 J
3.7 We’ll need to know how much mass is lost per each type of decay, then calculate
our mass lost from each over a month. Let’s start with tritium, then 14C, then 40K.
40
K is calculated twice to take care of both of its branches. Here, your numbers
will vary, depending on your mass. The below assume a mass of 100 kg.
3.0 × 104 decay 0.0186 MeV 1.66 × 10−24 g 5.26 × 105 min a g
× × × × = 4.4 × 10−20
min decay 931.5 MeV a 12 mo mo
2.6 × 105 decay 0.156 MeV 1.66 × 10−24 g 5.26 × 105 min a g
× × × × = 3.2 × 10−18
min decay TES931.5
TBANMeVKSELLER.CaOM 12 mo mo
6.6 × 105 decay 1.31 MeV 1.66 × 10−24 g 5.26 × 105 min a g
× 0.893 × × × × = 6.1× 10−17
6.6 × 105 decay 1.50 MeV 1.66 × 10−24 g 5.26 × 105 min a g
× 0.107 × × × × = 8.3 × 10−18
g g g g g
4.4 × 10−20 + 3.2 × 10−18 + 6.1× 10−17 + 8.3 × 10−18 = 7.2 × 10−17
mo mo mo mo mo
3.8 Assuming a body mass of exactly 100 kg:
1000 g C mol C 6.022 × 1023 atoms C 1.2 × 10−10 atoms 14

C
N = 18.6 kg C × × × ×
kg C 12.01 g C mol C 100 atoms C
= 1.1× 1015 atoms 14
C
ln2 ln2
A = kN = N= × 1.1× 1015 atoms 14
C
t1/2 ⎛ min ⎞
5715 a × ⎜5.259 × 105
⎝ a ⎟⎠
= 2.6 × 105 dpm

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23
2.6 × 105 decays 0.156476 MeV 1.60 × 10−13 J J

× × = 6.5 × 10−9
min decay MeV min
To check your answer, divide your mass by 100, and then multiply the result by
6.5 × 10–9 J/min.
3.9 First let’s figure out how much energy is produced in a single decay, since it is
strangely absent from Appendix A …
238
Pu → 234
U + 4He
(238.049560 u − 234.040952 u − 4.002603 u) × 931.5u MeV = 5.594 MeV

Now we can calculate the amount of energy from a whole mole of decays:
5.594 MeV 1.60 × 10−13 J 6.022 × 1023 decays J

× × = 5.39 × 1011
decay MeV mol mol
To determine the energy released per minute by 2.0 kg of 238
Pu, first calculate
the number of atoms present:
238 1000 g 1mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms

2.0kg Pu × × × = 5.06 × 1024 atoms
1 kg 238.0 g mol
Next, calculate activity in decays per minute:

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
A = kN =
ln2
5.259 × 105 min
( )
× 5.06 × 1024 atoms = 7.61× 1016 dpm
87.7a ×
a
Finally, convert to J/min using the energy released per decay:
5.594 Mev 1.60 × 10−13 J J

7.61× 1016 dpm × × = 6.81× 104
decay MeV min
3.10 Nuclear binding energy: The energy required to separate a nucleus into
individual nucleons. OR: The amount of energy released when a nucleus is
assembled from its individual nucleons.
Mass defect: The difference in mass between an actual nucleus and the sum of
the masses of its nucleons.
Binding energy per nucleon: The average amount of energy it takes to pluck a
single nucleon from a nucleus.
Total energy of decay: The amount of energy released during a single
radioactive decay.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
24
3.11 a. b.
c. d.
e.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
3.12 Since holmium has one less proton than erbium, this is an example of either
positron or electron capture decay. Since we can’t yet decide that issue, let’s
calculate the total energy of decay:
(164.930723 u − 164.930322 u) × 931.5MeV

u
= 0.374 MeV
Since this value is less 1.022 MeV, it cannot be positron decay, and must be an
example of electron capture.
165
68
Er + 0−1e → 165
67
Ho
Assuming this decay is like the others we’ve seen in this chapter, we can now
draw the decay diagram:

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
25
3.13 This one is a little more straightforward, as it is clearly an example of gamma

decay.
89m
Y→ 89
Y+γ
If the mass of an atom of 89m

Y = x, then:
931.5Mev
(x − 88.905848 u) × = 0.9091 MeV
u
x = 88.906824 u
Again, assuming this decay is like the others we’ve
seen in this chapter, the decay diagram looks like the
one to the right.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
3.14 Remember that the mass of the daughter is always less than the parent.
u
0.546 MeV × = 0.000586 u
931.5 MeV
89.907738 u—0.000586 u = 89.907152 u

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26
3.15 N decays to 13C by emitting a 1.190 MeV positron. The total energy of decay is
13
2.2205 MeV. Since 2.2205 MeV – 1.190 MeV ≈ 1.022 MeV, we can draw the
decay diagram with some confidence.
The atomic mass of the parent nuclide could be determined in the same way as
in problem #8. Another approach is shown below, just for a little variety. First
calculate the mass lost from the total energy of decay:
u
2.2205 MeV × = 0.002384 u
931.5 MeV
Now add the mass to the mass of the daughter.

13.003355 u + 0.002384 u = 13.005739 u
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
3.16 68
Ge decays to 68Ga by electron capture with a total energy of decay of 0.11 MeV.
68
Ga decays to 68Zn primarily by emitting a positron with an energy of 1.899 MeV.
Thankfully, 68Zn is stable. The diagram below is drawn to scale on the y-axis.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
27
4.1 Nuclear fission: The splitting of a nucleus into typically two fragments. It
usually occurs when a neutron hits the nucleus of certain, large atoms.
Fissile: Nuclides that undergo fission with thermal (slow) neutrons.
Fission chain reaction: When one or more of the neutrons produced when a
nucleus splits causes other nuclei to split.
Critical mass: Just enough fissile nuclides nearby to sustain a fission chain
reaction. It depends not only on the mass, but also how it is distributed.
4.2 Both heat water to steam, which drives a turbine to produce electricity. The
difference is in how the water gets heated. Nukes use the energy released from
a nuclear fission chain reaction, while fossil fuel plants use the heat from
chemical combustion reactions.
4.3 Moderators slow neutrons down. Slower neutrons will be more efficient at
starting new fission reactions. A good moderator will tend to scatter neutrons
(make them lose energy) rather than be absorbed. Control rods soak neutrons
up, to control the rate of a fission chain reaction.
4.4 A pressurized water reactor (PWR) has three water loops, and a boiling water
reactor (BWR) only has two. The additional loop in a PWR is heated by the reactor
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
loop and is used to drive the turbine. The reactor loop in a PWR is kept
sufficiently pressurized that the water in it remains liquid (does not boil). The
reactor loop in a BWR runs at lower pressures, allowing the water to boil.
4.5 Isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties, so any chemical reaction that
is performed on a mixture of isotopes (like all the naturally occurring Sn
isotopes) results in all isotopes undergoing the reaction to the same extent.
Therefore mixtures of isotopes are pretty much immune to separation processes
based on chemical reactions.
Physical separation methods often depend on the masses of the components of
the mixture. Since isotopes vary slightly in mass, their physical properties also
vary slightly. Taking advantage of these differences is the basis of all isotopic
separation procedures.
4.6 H2O is faster because it is lighter. To see how much faster, let’s plug their molar
1
masses into Eq. 4.1. Note that the molar masses will be the sums of the atomic
masses of the hydrogen
1
⎛ g ⎞ g g
H2O: ⎜ 2 × 1.0078 ⎟ + 16.00 = 18.02
⎝ mol ⎠ mol mol

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28
2
⎛ g ⎞ g g
H2O: ⎜ 2 × 1.0141 ⎟ + 16.00 = 20.03
⎝ mol ⎠ mol mol
rate1H O molar mass2H O 20.03 g/mol

2
= 2
= = 1.054
rate 2H O molar mass1H O 18.02 g/mol
2 2
1
H2O is 1.054 times 5.4% faster than 2H2O.
4.7 UF6 is placed in a cylinder that is spun around at high speed. The heavier 238UF6
tends to collect near the cylinder wall, while the lighter 235UF6 tends to collect
near the central axis of the cylinder
4.8 Thorium works nicely, especially since it occurs in Nature as 100% 232
Th.
232
Th + 1n 233
Th + γ
233
Th 233
Pa + –1e
233
Pa 233
U + –1e
4.9 Depleted uranium: What’s leftover after most of the 235U is removed from
uranium. It is about 99.7% 238U and only about 0.3% 235U.
Spent fuel: Nuclear fuel rods than can no longer be used in a reactor. They are
95% 238U, 3% fission products, 1% 235U and 1% 239Pu.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
HEU: Highly enriched uranium. Uranium that is more than 20% 235
U.
Reprocessing: Removing the fission products from spent fuel using chemical
separations. What remains then could be re-used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
4.10 A cynical view would suggest the politicians are simply distributing these pills to
give their constituents a false sense of security. Specifically, 1) People would
need to take the pills before they are exposed. Getting the word out to all
people near a nuke plant while the disaster is in progress is unlikely. 2) There
are other radioactive nuclides they will be exposed to. The KI pill will only
protect against thyroid uptake of iodide.
The only significant public health effects to the people living near Chernobyl
when it blew have been thyroid problems—mostly among those that were
children at the time of the disaster. Had they been able to take a KI pill before
being exposed, there might not have been such a significant problem.
4.11 Hopefully you answered no! At such a low level of exposure, it will not cause
adverse health effects. The stress levels felt by some were likely more
dangerous to their well-being.
As we discovered in problem 4, the KI pill only protects against thyroid uptake of
iodide. So which isotope of iodine are we talking about? Careful reading of the
chapter informs us that it is 131I. A quick look at Appendix A tells us it has a half-

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29
life of about 8 days. By the time the radioactive materials made it to the U.S., the
131
I had already gone through almost 2 half-lives of decay – roughly 75% was
already gone. The other nuclides commonly emitted in nuclear power plant
accidents have much longer half-lives, and would therefore likely make up most
of the measureable radioactivity. The bottom line is that people on the west
coast of the U.S. got a very small dose from the Fukushima accident, and (likely)
only a small fraction of it was iodine. Taking a KI pill would’ve been silly.
The Fukushima nuclear plant problems were a great example of how the media
likes to use peoples’ fear of radiation as a way to boost ratings. People in the
United States were so worked up about the problems at the reactors, that they
sometimes lost site of the magnitude of the death and devastation from the
earthquake and tsunami. Approximately 20,000 people died from the natural
disaster, but none from the subsequent release of radioactive materials.
4.12 As stated in the chapter, roughly 1.4 × 1019 Bq was released. Assuming it all to
be 137Cs:
(1.4 × 10 19
)
Bq ×
1 dps 60 s
×
1 Bq min
= 8.4 × 1020 dpm
5.259 × 105 min

(8.4 × 1020 dpm) × 30.07 a ×
A a
N= = = 1.9 × 1028 atoms
λ ln2
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mol 137 g kg
1.9 × 1028 atoms × × × = 4,400 kg!
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol 1000 g
4.13 Assume 100 U nuclides today, and then we’d have 99.27 atoms of 238U and 0.72
atoms of 235U. Now we need to figure out how many of each were around 1.7 ×
109 a ago:
238
U 235
U
N2 = N1e − λt N2 = N1e − λt
N2 N2
N1 = − λt
N1 =
e e − λt
99.27 atoms 0.72 atoms
= ⎛ ln2 ⎞
= ⎛ ln2 ⎞
9 9
−⎜ ⎟ ×(1.7×10 a) −⎜ ⎟ ×(1.7×10 a)
⎝ 4.47×109 a ⎠ ⎝ 7.04×108 a ⎠
e e
= 129.2 atoms = 3.8 atoms
3.8 atoms
% abundance= × 100% = 2.9%
129.2 atoms + 3.8 atoms
4.14 Pro-nuke:
a. Produces energy without dumping tons of CO2 and Hg into the
atmosphere

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30
b. We have plenty of fuel

c. It has proven to be much safer than other major forms of power
generation
d. Produces little waste when compared to fossil fuel plants
e. It has very low operating costs
f. Radiation exposures near a nuke plant are lower than near some coal
plants and are not even close to causing negative health effects
g. The waste will lose 98% of its radioactivity in just 300 years
Anti-nuke:
a. Nuke plants are very expensive to build
b. The waste issue remains unresolved in some countries, including the U.S.
c. The waste will remain radioactive for thousands of years
d. If another disaster like Fukushima or Chernobyl happened, the local
population will suffer the psychological effects if dislocated, or if they are
especially fearful of radiation
e. Nuke plants can be used to produce plutonium, increasing the odds that
such a weapon could fall into the wrong hands.
f. Like fossil fuel plants, nuke plants can cause local thermal pollution
g. Like other forms of mining, uranium mining is hazardous to the miners
and the local environment
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4.15 No. Statistically speaking, running a natural gas plant is more dangerous than a
nuke plant. Also, the natural gas plant will dump tons of CO2 into the
atmosphere – 546 million metric tons were dumped by U.S. CH4 power plants in
2016. A natural gas plant will contribute to global climate change, increasing
storm intensity, damage and loss of life.
4.16 A tamper’s main function is to hold the supercritical mass together long enough
to get a really big explosion. It also can act as a neutron reflector (scattering
neutrons), sending some of the stray neutrons back into the fissile material to
get more fission reactions to happen. Finally, if it is built from fissionable
material, like 238U, it can also fission, releasing even more energy.
The neutron initiator provides a little burst of neutrons just as the supercritical
mass is formed. This helps jump-start the fission chain reaction.
4.17 It would be a very bold move for the U.S. to completely dismantle its nuclear
arsenal. Bold enough, perhaps, to encourage other nations to follow suit. Even
if just a few did, the world would be a safer place—fewer nukes means less of a
chance than one will be stolen, lost, or accidentally detonated. In addition, we
could use the fissile material from these weapons to generate electricity!
The major concern would be that the U.S. would no longer be able to retaliate in
kind should nuclear weapons be used against it in a conflict. Another concern is

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31
that those nations holding onto their nukes after the U.S. dismantles, might use
them to bully the U.S. on foreign policy issues—much like the U.S. has tried to
use its arsenal for much of the past 70 years.
4.18 According to the Chapter, the Nagasaki weapon had a yield of 22 kilotons and
was 17% efficient.
1000 ton 4.2 × 109 J MeV fission

22 kton × × × −13
×
kton ton 1.60 × 10 J 200 MeV
= 2.9 × 1024 fission reactions
The number of fission reactions occurred must be equal to the number of 239
Pu
atoms that underwent fission.
mol 239 g kg
2.9 × 1024 atoms × × × = 1.1 kg
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol 1000 g
That’s only the amount of 239Pu that underwent fission. Since the weapon was
17% efficient, the total mass of 239Pu present in the weapon was roughly:
1.1 kg
= 6.7 kg
0.17
The plutonium that didn’t undergo fission was spread around the blast area and
was carried away in the fallout.
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4.19 A radiological dispersion device, or dirty bomb. It is a mixture of conventional
(chemical) explosive and some radioactive material. It is most likely to cause
panic and emotional distress in the short term, as well as economic dislocation
in the long term.
4.20 This is like the example problem given in the text, only backwards.
(1− e )
NPa-231 t 1/2(Pa-231) − λPa-231t
=
NU-235 t 1/2(U-235)
3.28 × 104 a ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ln2 ⎞
NPa-231 −⎜ ⎟ 27.4 a
⎝ 3.28×104 a ⎠
= ⎜ 1− e ⎟ = 2.70 × 10−8
NU-235 7.04 × 10 a ⎜⎝
8
⎟⎠
4.21 This problem is based on a real-life event. The energies of the alpha particles
are the most important data. They indicate that the sample is mostly (if not
entirely) 238U, aka depleted uranium. The only thing this chunk of metal is useful
for is the casing (tamper) of a nuke. The low alpha count rate suggests a thin (or
partial) coating on the surface, shielding most of the alpha particles. The low
density suggests it might have air bubble inside, or the stuff is not pure
uranium.

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32
It’d be a good idea to sample some of the metal to put some numbers to what
we already know. This might also allow you to figure out how long ago it was
made, and maybe even provide clues as to its origin.
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33
5.1 Recoil energy: kinetic energy of the daughter after decay. Most easily seen in
alpha and cluster decay.
Antineutrino: the antiparticle of the neutrino. Observed in beta minus decay. It
has no charge, very low mass, and an extremely low probability of interacting
with matter.
Characteristic X-ray: an X-ray that is generated when an outer shell electron fills
an inner shell vacancy. Produced with specific energies corresponding to the
difference in energy between the orbitals traversed.
Conversion coefficient: the relative probability of internal conversion compared
to gamma emission; the ratio of ejected electrons to gamma photons.
Fluorescence yield: the probability that X-rays will be produced following
electron capture, as opposed to an Auger electron.
5.2 First write out the decay equation:
245
96
Cm → 241
94
Pu + 42He
Next use equation 5.2 to find recoil energy:

⎛ m ⎞ 4
K F = KT ⎜ ⎟ = 5.623 MeV × = 0.0918 MeV = 91.8 keV
⎝ M + m ⎠ TESTBANKSE241+ 4 .COM
LLER
5.3 The decay equation is:
244
94
Pu → 240
92
U + 42He
To determine the recoil energy, the total energy of decay must first be
calculated.
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛M + m⎞ ⎛ 240 + 4 ⎞
Since K α = K T ⎜ ⎟ , then K T = K α ⎜ ⎟ = 4.589 MeV ⎜ = 4.665 MeV
⎝M + m⎠ ⎝ M ⎠ ⎝ 240 ⎟⎠
Since KT = Kα + KF, then KF = KT – Kα = 4.665 MeV – 4.589 MeV = .0765 MeV recoil
The atomic mass of 240U can be calculated from the mass of the parent minus the
mass of 4He and the total energy of decay:
⎛ u ⎞
244.06420 u − 4.00260 u − ⎜ 4.665 MeV × = 240.05659 u
⎝ 931.5 MeV ⎟⎠

268
109
Mt → 264
107
Bh + 42He
Appendix A gives the following information for 268Mt: It undergoes alpha decay,
most commonly emitting alpha particles with energies of 10.10 MeV and 10.24

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34
MeV. It has an atomic mass of 268.1387 u, and its daughter has an atomic mass
of 264.1246 u. The total energy of decay is calculated from the mass difference.
(268.1387 u − 264.1246 u − 4.002603 u) × 931.5u MeV = 10.7 MeV

Now we can calculate the maximum energy an alpha particle can have in this
decay.
⎛ M ⎞ 264
Kα = K T ⎜ ⎟ = 10.7 MeV × = 10.5 MeV
⎝M + m⎠ 264 + 4
Note that this value doesn’t match either of the

two alpha energies given in the appendix.
Therefore neither one decays directly to the
ground state of 264Bh. The decay diagram can now
be drawn. Unfortunately, we have no information
on how the excited states of 264Bh decay to the
ground state – since no gamma rays are listed in
Appendix A for 268Mt.
Notice also that the alpha arrows are not drawn
all the way to the excited states of 264Bh. This is
to indicate that a small, but significant amount of
the energy for each of those emissions ends up as daughter recoil.
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Mt is named for Lise Meitner and Bh is named for Niels Bohr.
Finally, we should calculate the recoil energies for the two excited states of 264
Bh
that are formed.
⎛M + m⎞ ⎛ 264 + 4 ⎞
K T = Kα ⎜ ⎟ = 10.24 MeV ⎜ = 10.4 MeV
⎝ M ⎠ ⎝ 264 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4.00 ⎞
KF = 10.4 MeV × ⎜ = 0.155 MeV
⎝ 264 + 4 ⎟⎠
⎛M + m⎞ ⎛ 264 + 4 ⎞
K T = Kα ⎜ ⎟ = 10.10 MeV ⎜ = 10.3 MeV
⎝ M ⎠ ⎝ 264 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4.00 ⎞
KF = 10.3 MeV × ⎜ = 0.153 MeV
⎝ 264 + 4 ⎟⎠
5.5 The Law of Conservation of Particles: A particle cannot be created all by itself;
an antiparticle must also be created at the same time.
The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum: The difference in spin
between reactants and products in a nuclear equation must be a whole number.

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35
The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can be converted into different

forms of energy or even into matter, but it can’t just go away or be created from
nothing.
An antiparticle must be present for these to be true. More specifically in beta
decay the antiparticle is an antineutrino. The antineutrino has a spin value of ½,
an extremely low probability of interacting with matter, and randomly shares the
total energy of decay with the beta particle.
5.6 First convert the total energy of decay into mass:
u
1.372 MeV × = 0.001473 u
931.5 MeV
Now add to the daughter’s mass:
197.966769 u + 0.001473 u = 197.968242 u
5.7 A decay diagram consistent with the information given in this problem looks like:
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
The mass of the parent can be calculated from the total energy of decay and the
mass of the daughter:
⎛ u ⎞
58.933195 u + ⎜1.565 MeV × = 58.934875 u
⎝ 931.5 MeV ⎟⎠
5.8 Generally speaking, proton-rich, low-Z nuclides will undergo positron decay
rather than electron capture. This is because the K shell electrons are not held
as closely (tightly) as they are for higher-Z nuclides, and are therefore less
accessible to the nucleus. Additionally, the walls of the valley of beta stability
are steeper for lower-Z nuclides, indicating that most decays give off a great deal
of energy—positron emission is better suited to a large energy change than
electron capture.
Ar defies the trends because its total energy of decay is only 0.8139 MeV, well
37
below 1.022 MeV, which is the minimum required for positron decay.
The N/Z ratio for 37Ar is 1.06, pretty darned good for this part of the chart. Is it
really proton-rich? Yes! Its only other isobaric decay option is beta (minus) to
37
K—but that’s not energetically possible! 37K decays via positron emission to
37
Ar, therefore 37Ar must be lower in energy than 37K.

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36
54 EC
5.9 25
Mn + e→
−1
54
24
Cr + γ or 54
25
Mn ⎯⎯⎯ → 54
24
Cr
The total energy of decay is:
(53.940363 u − 53.938880 u) × 931.5u MeV

= 1.381 MeV
Since a 835 keV gamma occurs in almost every
decay, then electron capture accounts for:
1,381 keV – 835 keV = 546 keV
Why no gamma in some decays?
1. It is possible that, in a very small percentage of all decays, 54Mn can decay
directly to 54Cr – either by EC or positron decay.
2. It is also possible for the isomeric transition to occur by emitting a conversion
electron, instead of a gamma photon.
5.10 M2 → K = 109.651 keV – 4.831 keV = 104.820 keV
The M2M3M5 Auger electron does not exist for element X as insufficient energy is
generated by the M3 → M2 transition to overcome the electron binding energy of
an M5 electron.
KL2L3 Auger = 109.651 keV – 19.693 keV – 16.300 keV = 73.658 keV
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L2M3M5 or L2M5M3 Auger electron = 12.315 keV
5.11
5.12 Assuming that one positron leads to the ground state of the daughter, then its
energy will be:
6.138 MeV – 1.022 MeV = 5.116 MeV
Assuming that the other positron leads to an excited daughter state which
decays directly to the ground state by emitting the observed 677 keV gamma
photon:
6.138 MeV – 1.022 MeV – 0.677 MeV = 4.439 MeV

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37
5.13
6.02 × 1023 β + MeV

5.14 0.01mol × × 1.02 = 6 × 1021 MeV
mol positron
If you prefer energy units of J:
1.6 × 10-13 J
6 × 1021 MeV × ≈ 109 J!!
MeV
5.15 Little Boy had an explosive yield of 15 kilotons.
1000 T 4.2 × 109 J MeV u 1.66 × 10−24 g

15 kT × × × × × = 0.70 g
kT T 1.60 × 10−13 J 931.5 MeV u
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This is the total amount of matter being destroyed, since only half of it would be
antimatter, only 0.35 g would be necessary. This is especially small when
compared to the ~60 kg of 235U in Little Boy.
We are fortunate that the development of antimatter weapons has two major
stumbling blocks: 1) Making antimatter is a very energy intensive and tedious
process, 2) Once made, antimatter is very difficult to store—any contact with
regular matter results in annihilation.
Photon is very appropriate! Annihilation of a positron and an electron produces
two 511 keV photons.
5.16
Mode of
Isobar N Z N/Z Atomic Mass (u)
Decay
25
9
F 16 9 1.78 β– 25.01210
25
10
Ne 15 10 1.50 β– 24.99779
25
11
Na 14 11 1.27 β– 24.989954
25
12
Mg 13 12 1.08 Stable 24.985837
25
13
Al 12 13 0.92 β+ 24.990429
25
14
Si 11 14 0.78 β+ 25.00411

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38
5.17 The stable nuclides in a set of isobars have the lowest masses, if the N/Z is too
high the nuclide will undergo beta minus decay, and if the N/Z is too low the
nuclide will undergo positron decay (if E > 1.022 MeV) and/or electron capture.
5.18
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5.19 Because of von Weizsäcker’s parabolas. Neighboring isobars cannot have exactly
the same mass, i.e., neighboring nuclidic ground states can’t have exactly the
same energy. One neighbor (the parent) has to be higher in energy than the
other (daughter), and will decay.

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39
5.20 The m indicates that this is a metastable state (or nuclear isomer) of 60Co. When
60m
Co decays to 60Co via isomeric transition, it can do so by internal conversion or
γ emission. The Ie/Iγ ratio indicates the relative probabilities of these two decay
routes. It is 41× more likely to produce a conversion electron than a γ quantum.
5.21 This nuclide decays by IT to 97Tc and electron capture to 97Mo.
5.22 It might be helpful to draw a decay diagram, just to more visually express all of
the information given in this problem and in Appendix A.
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All the percentages above are for 137Cs decays. What we’d really like to know is
the branch ratio for the IT decay of 137mBa.
94.40 × B.R. = 85.1
B.R. = 0.901
In other words, 90.1% of all 137mBa decays produce a gamma photon; the
remainder proceed via internal conversion. The conversion coefficient is
therefore:
Ie 1− 0.901
αT = = = 0.11
Iγ 0.901
5.23 661.7 keV is available after the decay of 137Cs to 137mBa. This energy is that of the
isomeric transition that follows the β– emission. The binding energy of a K shell
electron in Ba is 37.441 keV. The energy of the conversion electron is therefore:

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40
661.7 keV – 37.441 keV = 624.2 keV

That is one energetic electron!
5.24 Fluorescence yield is the probability that X-rays are produced instead of an Auger
electron following electron capture decay. As Z increases, so does the
probability that a photon is emitted. If an electron is emitted, it is most likely
emitted from the L shell. Conversion coefficient is the probability that a
conversion electron will be emitted instead of a gamma photon during an
isomeric transition. As Z increases, so does the probability that an electron is
emitted. K shell electrons are most likely emitted.
The two are similar in that an atom with energy to spare is looking to get rid of it
by emitting a photon or one of its electrons. The difference is in how the excess
energy is generated. After electron capture, the energy is generated from an
electron dropping to a lower shell. An isomeric transition means that the excess
energy is already present – in the nucleus. This difference brings about the
contrasting results for the two modes of decay.
5.25 Let’s start with alpha decay.
234
92
U→ 230
90
Th + 42He
(234.040952 u − 230.033134 u − 4.002603 u) × 931.5u MeV = 4.858 MeV

Now cluster decay. TESTBANKSELLER.COM
(234.040952 u − 205.97750 u − 27.983877 u) × 931.5u MeV = 74.12 MeV

Finally, the fission example.
⎣ ⎦ ( )
⎡234.040952 u − 92.922033 u − 137.91101 u − 3 × 1.008665 u ⎤ × 931.5 MeV
u
= 169.4 MeV
Remember, it’s not the amount of energy being released that determines
probability of a specific decay pathway, rather it is the energy barrier for the
process.
234
U occurs naturally because it is part of the 238U decay chain. Note that its half-
life is too short for this stuff to have been around since the planet was formed.
5.26 It turns out that 234U can also emit 24Ne or 26Ne in cluster decay. We’ll stick with
the equation given in Section 5.8.2.
234
92
U→ 206
80
Hg + 28
12
Mg
Conveniently enough, the total energy for this decay was calculated (74.12 MeV)
in problem 5.25. The kinetic energies of the products can be determined wit
Equations 5.1 and 5.2.

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41
28 206
K Hg = 74.12 MeV × = 8.87 MeV K Mg = 74.12 MeV × = 65.2 MeV
206 + 28 206 + 28
5.27 Let’s write out the decay equation and calculate the kinetic energies of the two
emitted particles first.
5
2
He → 42He + 01n
(
E = K T = 5.0122 u − 4.002603 u − 1.008665 u × ) 931.5 MeV
u
= 0.9 MeV
⎛ m ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
KE for the alpha particle = K α = K T ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9 MeV ⎜ = 0.2 MeV
⎝M + m⎠ ⎝ 4 + 1⎟⎠
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
KE for the neutron = Kn = K T ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9 MeV ⎜ = 0.7 MeV
⎝M + m⎠ ⎝ 4 + 1⎟⎠
There’s obviously significant recoil in the daughter (4He). Notice also that there’s
no change in atomic number in neutron emission.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM

14
5
B→ 13
6
C + 01n + e+ ν
0
−1
We can calculate the beta + neutron total energy from the difference in masses:
⎣ ( ⎦ u
)
⎡14.02540 u − 13.003355 u + 1.008665 u ⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 12.46 MeV
5.29 130
Te decays via double beta emission directly to 130
Xe.
130
52
Te → 130
54
Xe + 2 −1e + 2ν
The total energy of decay needs to be calculated.
(129.906224 u − 129.903508 u) × 931.5u MeV = 2.530 MeV

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42
5.30 Nuclides with odd mass numbers are eo or oe. As a result, energy differences
between neighboring isobars tend to consistently increase away from the single
stable isobar. In other words, there’s only one parabola modeling any set of A =
odd isobars, therefore it is impossible to have a neighboring isobar be both
closer to the stable isobar and be higher in energy than one further from
stability.
When mass number is even, any group of isobars will oscillate between ee and oo
as Z changes by one. Any transition from ee to oo could potentially be
energetically unfavorable, necessitating decay to the next ee isobar (skipping the
oo isobar). This would result in a double beta decay.
5.31 See the answer to problem 5.29 for the total
energy of decay for 130Te.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
This is the only known set of isobars with
both double beta and double electron
capture decay modes.
It is fairly symmetric about the lone stable
isobar, 130Xe. This suggests that the optimal
N/Z ratio for A =130 is close to 76/54 ≈
1.41.
It is curious that 130I does not decay via
electron capture to 130Te. It is energetically
favorable (E = 0.42 MeV).

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43
6.1 First convert the energy to Joules.

J
100 eV × = 1.60 × 10−17 J
6.242 × 1018 eV
Now we can use E = hν to calculate frequency,
E 1.60 × 10−17 J
ν= = = 2.42 × 1016 s−1
h 6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
and c = λν to calculate wavelength.
m
2.998 × 108
c s = 1.24 × 10−8m
λ= =
ν 2.42 × 1016 s−1
6.2 Gamma rays are higher energy photons than purple light. Gamma rays have
enough energy to knock an electron loose from an atom, purple light does not.
6.3 Ionizing radiation: enough energy being propagated through a medium to
knock an electron loose from an atom. Alpha particles, beta particles, positrons,
gamma rays, and X-rays are all forms of ionizing radiation.
Linear energy transfer: (LET) the average energy lost by the charged particle per
unit length. It is obtained by multiplying the specific ionization by the W-
quantity. TESTBANKSELLER.COM
Bremsstrahlung: X-rays produced by inelastic scattering of electrons by nuclei.
German word roughly translated as “braking radiation”. It is also referred to as
continuous X-rays.
Compton scattering: an incident X- or γ-ray photon transfers some of its energy
to a valence electron in the matter it is travelling through. It results in a
scattered photon and a Compton electron (knocked loose from its atom).
Photoelectric effect: an incident X- or γ-ray photon is completely absorbed by an
inner shell electron in the matter it is travelling through and results in a
photoelectron (knocked loose from its atom).
Pair Production: the atom absorbs the entire energy of the incident photon.
Then an electron and a positron are created: the “pair”. Of the three photon
interactions with matter studied in this book, this one is the least likely to be
observed.
Half-value layer: the thickness of material that is needed to attenuate a photon
beam to half its original intensity.
6.4 How much energy was transferred?
0.0010% 106 ev
5.4895 MeV × × = 55 eV
100% MeV

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44
That’s enough to boot any of the M shell electrons, but nothing lower. The
energies of the secondary electrons are calculated below:
from M1 = 55 eV – 27 eV = 28 eV
from M2 or M3 = 55 eV – 14 eV = 41 eV
6.5 We know that it takes an average of 33.85 eV to create an ion pair in air.
5.00 MeV
= 1.48 × 105 ion pairs
eV MeV
33.85 ×
IP 106 eV
6.6 Yes, The higher energy particle is moving faster, therefore it spends less time as
it passes by each atom of matter. Therefore the higher energy particle has a
lower probability of interacting and will penetrate deeper into the matter.
6.7 The relative stopping power (RSP) in titanium.
6.8 We’ll need the energy in Joules for all of our calculations, so converting the
energy units is a good place to start.
106eV J
7.6868 MeV × × = 1.231× 10−12 J
MeV 6.242 × 10 eV
18
Starting with the proton, using the classical equation (remember that mass must
be in kg):
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
KE 1.231× 10−12 J m
v = = = 3.837 × 107
1/ 2 × m −27
1/2 × (1.673 × 10 kg) s
v 3.837 × 107 m/s

= = 0.1280
c 2.998 × 108 m/s
Now the proton using the relativistic formula:

2
⎛
( ) ⎞
2 2
−27
v ⎛ mc 2 ⎞ (1.673 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 108
m/s
= 1− ⎜ = 1− ⎜ ⎟
2⎟ ⎜
( )
2⎟
c ⎝ KE + mc ⎠ −12 −27
⎝ 1.231× 10 J + (1.673 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
= 0.1272
The electron, classical formula:
KE 1.231× 10−12 J m
v= = = 1.644 × 109
1/ 2 × m −31
1/2 × (9.109 × 10 kg) s
v 1.644 × 109 m/s

= = 5.485
c 2.998 × 108 m/s
The electron, relativistic formula:

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
45
2
⎛
( ⎞
)
2 2
v ⎛ mc ⎞ 2 (9.109 × 10−31 kg) × 2.998 × 108 m/s
= 1− ⎜ = 1− ⎜ ⎟
2⎟ ⎜
( )
2⎟
c ⎝ KE + mc ⎠ −12 −31
⎝ 1.231× 10 J + (9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
= 0.9981
For both particles, different answers were obtained using the classical and
relativistic formulas. The proton results were pretty close, but the electron
results were vastly different. Since the energies were equal, it is clear that the
electron’s lower mass causes the difference. Relativistic effects kick in a lot early
for lower mass particles. The relativistic formula always gives a correct answer.
The fact that the classical formula gives a velocity greater than the speed of light
(impossible!) for a 7.6868 MeV electron supports this notion.
6.9 Just to be safe, let’s use the relativistic equation for all three. First, an electron:
⎛ ⎞ 2
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞ −31
⎛ 8m
⎞
KE = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc = ⎜
2
− 1⎟ × (9.109 × 10 kg) × ⎜ 2.998 × 10
s ⎟⎠
( ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝
2 2
⎜⎝ 1− v / c ⎟⎠ 1− 0.5
= 1.267 × 10−14 J
Now a proton:
⎛ ⎞ 2
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
KE = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc T=E⎜STBANKS
2
−E
1⎟L×L(1.673
ER.C×O10
M kg) × 2.998 × 10
−27
⎜⎝
8
s ⎟⎠
( ) ⎝ ⎠
2 2
⎜⎝ 1− v / c ⎟⎠ 1− 0.5
= 2.326 × 10−11 J
and the alpha particle—a 4He without its two electrons:
⎛ ⎞ 2
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞ −27
⎛ 8m
⎞
KE = ⎜ − 1⎟ mc = ⎜
2
− 1⎟ × (6.6445 × 10 kg) × ⎜ 2.998 × 10
s ⎟⎠
( ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝
2 2
⎜⎝ 1− v / c ⎟⎠ 1− 0.5
= 9.239 × 10−11 J
Notice that the energy increases with the mass of the particle—since the velocity
is the same for each, this is expected.
Had we used the classical equation, we would’ve obtained significantly different
(note we are working with 4 significant figures here) results in every example.
6.10 Emax = 3.510 MeV for 6He. First, let’s convert the energy to units of Joules.
106 eV J
3.510 MeV × × = 5.623 × 10−13 J
MeV 6.242 × 1018 eV
Now use the relativistic formula to calculate the velocity of the beta particle.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
46
2
⎛
( )
⎞
2
−31
(9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 108
m/s
v = 2.998 × 10 m/s 1−
8 ⎜ ⎟
⎜
( )
2⎟
−13 −31
⎝ 5.623 × 10 J + (9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
= 2.974 × 108 m/s
This is a maximum velocity because we used the maximum possible energy for
the beta particle. Normally, this energy is shared with the neutrino, so beta
particles emitted by 6He will have lower velocities.
6.11 a. False: While Compton scattering is the most likely interaction with low Z
materials over most energies, it is most likely for medium and high Z materials
only at moderate photon energies.
b. True.
c. True.
d. False: Pair production is dominant for very high-energy photons (too much
caffeine!).
e. False: The overall probability of interaction generally decreases with increasing
energy of the photon.
6.12 The half-life for 241
Am is 432.7 years. Remember that time units should cancel
out.
TESTB2.22
ANK×S10
E6Ldpm
LER.COM 5.259 × 105min
1.0 µCi × × 432.7 a ×
A A × t 1/2 µCi a
N= = =
λ ln2 ln2
= 7.3 × 1014 atoms
mol 241 g
7.3 × 1014 atoms × × = 2.9 × 10−7 g
6.022 × 10 atoms mol
23
If this number of americium atoms is contained in AmO2, there’ll be 7.3 × 1014

formula units of AmO2. The total mass of the sample is:
mol 273 g
7.3 × 1014 AmO2 × × = 3.3 × 10−7 g
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
and the specific activity is:
Ci
1.0 µCi ×
10 µCi
6
Ci
−7
= 3.0
3.3 × 10 g g
The americium sources inside smoke detectors are usually pretty well contained,
and they are small enough that almost no ionizing radiation is emitted beyond
the outside casing of the smoke detector. The only serious hazard would be if
the source was removed and ingested.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
47
6.13 First we need to know the range of these alpha particles in air.
( )
3/2
Rα -air ≅ 0.31E α3/2 = 0.31× 5.3044 MeV = 3.8 cm
We can now use Equation 6.6 to calculate linear energy transfer (LET), which then
allow us to calculate specific ionization (SI).
E 5.3044 MeV MeV
LET= = = 1.4
R 3.8 cm cm
LET 1.4 MeV/cm × 106 eV/MeV IP

SI= = = 4.1× 104
W 33.85 eV/IP cm
Assuming all of the alpha particle’s energy goes into creating ion pairs (why is
this a really bad assumption?), the total number of ion pairs each alpha particle
could create is:
5.3044 MeV
= 1.567 × 105 IP
eV MeV
33.85 ×
IP 106eV
Po is a clever poison because it emits only alpha particles (no gamma
210
photons!), and it decays to a stable nuclide (206Pb). Once ingested, it will be very
difficult to detect any radioactive emissions. It is clear from the calculations
above that each alpha particle will do a lot of local damage once inside the body.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
6.14 Like all forms of ionizing radiation, they will cause ionizations and excitations.
They will generally behave more like alpha particles than electrons, since the
mass of a proton is much closer to an alpha particle than an electron (no
scattering). If all three particles have the same energy, protons would be
expected to have a range intermediate between alpha particles and electrons.
The data in Table 6.2 support these hypotheses.
6.15 Just divide the masses:
6.6445 × 10−27kg
= 7294
9.109 × 10−31 kg
6.16 Tenth value layer: the thickness of material that is needed to attenuate a
photon beam to one-tenth its original intensity.
Attenuation: absorbing or scattering a photon as it passes through a matter, i.e.
a photon that is not transmitted straight through some matter.
Photoelectron: the ejected electron that results from the photoelectric effect.
Usually a K shell electron.
Compton electron: the ejected electron that results from Compton scattering, a
valence electron.
Cherenkov radiation: an obscure form of radiation that results from particles
(typically electrons) traveling from one medium into another. The speed of light

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
48
depends slightly on the medium it is traveling through, so when a particle

traveling close to the speed of light moves from one medium to another it
releases energy (observed as a blue glow) as it slows down.
6.17 If 25% of the energy gets transferred, then the electron still has 75%.
2.51 MeV × 0.75 = 1.88 MeV
106eV J
1.88 MeV × × = 3.02 × 10−13 J
MeV 6.242 × 1018 eV
2
⎛
( ) ⎞
2
−31
(9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 108
m/s
v = 2.998 × 10 m/s 1−
8 ⎜ ⎟
⎜
( )
2⎟
−13 −31
⎝ 3.02 × 10 J + (9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
= 2.93 × 108 m/s
The 12C nucleus (no electrons!) gets the remaining energy.

2.51 MeV × 0.25 = 0.628 MeV
106eV J
0.628 MeV × × = 1.01× 10−13 J
MeV 6.242 × 1018 eV
⎛ 1.6605 × 10−27 kg ⎞
12
C nucleus = ⎜12.00 u × ⎟ − 12 × (9.109 × 10−31kg)
⎝ u ⎠
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
=1.992 × 10-26 kg
2
⎛
( ) ⎞
2
−26
(1.992 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 108
m/s
v = 2.998 × 10 m/s 1−
8 ⎜ ⎟
⎜
( )
2⎟
−13 −26
⎝ 1.01× 10 J + (1.992 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
= 3.18 × 106 m/s
The classical equation should give the same result. Notice that the 12C is moving
a lot slower that the scattered electron!
6.18 First let’s figure out how much energy was lost as the blue photon.
E = =
−34
(
hc (6.626 × 10 Jis) × 2.998 × 10 m/s
8
)
= 4.37 × 10−19 J
λ m
455 nm × 9
10 nm
Now calculate the original kinetic energy of the electron.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
49
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1
( )
2
KE = ⎜ − 1⎟ × (9.109 × 10−31 kg) × 2.998 × 108 m/s
⎜ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎟
⎜ 1− ⎜ 2.997 × 10 m/s ⎟
8
⎟
⎜⎝ ⎝ 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8 ⎟⎠
= 3.088 × 10−12 J
The amount of energy lost is very small compared to the energy of the electron.
There will not be a significant difference, therefore the best answer we can give
for the new velocity is 2.997 × 108 m/s. The problem assumes one photon is
released as the electron slows, which is incorrect. The electron releases energy
to the water, which then generates blue photons. The blue light is known as
Cerenkov radiation.
6.19 Remember that energy must be expressed in MeV to use the equations below,
and that backscattering means θ = 180°.
E0 0.662 MeV
E SC = = = 0.184 MeV
⎛ E0 ⎞ ⎛ 0.662 MeV ⎞
1+ ⎜ (
⎟ × 1− cosθ ) 1+ ⎜
⎝ 0.511 ⎟⎠
(
× 1− cos180° )
⎝ 0.511⎠
=184 keV
ECE = E0 – ESC = 662 keV – 184 keV = 478 keV
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
6.20 Just like Problem 6.17, but with different numbers.
0.167 MeV
E SC = = 0.163 MeV = 163 keV
⎛ 0.167 MeV ⎞
1+ ⎜
⎝ 0.511 ⎟⎠
(
× 1− cos23° )
ECE = E0 – ESC = 167 keV – 163 keV = 4 keV
6.21 Emax for 90Y is 2.281 MeV, therefore the most probable energy is:
0.3 × 2.281 MeV = 0.684 MeV
106eV J
0.684 MeV × × = 1.10 × 10−13 J
MeV 6.242 × 10 eV
18
2
⎛
( ⎞
)
2
v (9.109 × 10−31 kg) × 2.998 × 108 m/s
= 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.904
⎜
( )
2⎟
c −12 −31
⎝ 1.10 × 10 J + (9.109 × 10 kg) × 2.998 × 10 m/s ⎠
8
IP
4500
SI = m = 5510 IP = 55.1 IP
(0.904)2 m cm

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
50
5510 IP 33.85 eV MeV MeV

LET = SI ×W = × × 6 = 0.186
m IP 10 eV m
This is a pretty low-energy for an alpha particle, but we could still use Eq. 6.7 to
calculate its range in air.
( )
3/2
Rα -air ≅ 0.31E α3/2 = 0.31× 0.684 MeV = 0.18 cm = 1.8 mm
The alpha particle range in air is much smaller than the beta particle in tissue!
This is no surprise, as, at the same energy, the alpha particle is moving much
slower than the electron and therefore has more time to interact with the atoms
of the matter it is passing through. The alpha particle also has twice the charge
of an electron, which also makes it more likely to interact.
6.22 First, let’s convert the mass attenuation coefficient to a linear attenuation
coefficient. Assuming our human to have the same density of water (1.0 g/cm3):
cm2 g
µ = µm × ρ = 0.088 × 1.0 3 = 0.088 cm−1
g cm
I −1
= e −µx = e −0.088 cm ×25 cm = 0.11
I0
Only 11% of all the photons make it all the way through, therefore 89% are
attenuated.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
137
Cs emits photons with an energy of 662 keV, and humans are made up of fairly
low Z material. Using Figure 6.9a, it looks like Compton scattering is the most
likely interaction.
6.23 First, let’s calculate the linear attenuation coefficient (µ) by rearranging the
equation that defines the atomic attenuation coefficient:
8.8 × 10−24 cm2 8.9 g 6.022 × 1023 atoms

µ × ρ × Avogadro’s # × ×
µ= a = atom cm3 mol = 0.74 cm−1
atomic mass 63.5 g
mol
Now we can determine the half-value layer:
ln2
HVL = = 0.93 cm
0.74 cm−1
6.24 The density of iron is 7.86 g/cm3.
cm2 g
µ = µm × ρ = 0.047 × 7.86 3 = 0.37 cm−1
g cm
ln2 ln2
HVL = = = 1.9 cm
µ 0.37 cm−1

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
51
ln10 ln10
TVL = = = 6.2 cm
µ 0.37 cm−1
6.25 We also need to know the average atomic mass of iron (55.85 g/mol). Thank
goodness for the periodic table!
µ × atomic mass atomic mass
µa = = µm ×
ρ × Avogadro’s # Avogadro’s #
g
55.85
cm2 mol cm2
= 0.047 × = 4.4 × 10−24
g atoms atom
6.022 × 1023
mol
We’re calculating I0 in the second part of this problem.
I = I0e −µx
photons −1
5800 = I0 × e −0.37 cm ×7.0 cm
s
photons
I0 = 7.7 × 104
s
6.26 First calculate the energy of the incident photon which clearly belongs to the X-
and γ-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(
E = hν = 6.626
TE× S
10T−34 ) (
BAJ ⋅Ns K×S9.66
ELLE × 10 )
R.18CsO−1M= 6.40 × 10−15 J
6.242 × 1018 eV keV

6.40 × 10−15 J × × = 40.0 keV
J 1000 eV
Subtract the binding energy, and we’ll have the energy of the photoelectron:
40.0 keV – 36.0 keV = 4.0 keV.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
52
7.1 Beta particles have varying energy when emitted from a source and would
therefore appear as a broad spectrum of energies. Alpha particles are
monoenergetic, and would appear as a single energy. Beta particles are also
typically lower in energy than alpha particles and are less likely to deposit most
or all of their energy inside the detector. Therefore, beta particles will typically
show up at lower energies than alpha particles.
7.2 The detectors are listed in order of decreasing voltage in the table below.
Detector Distinguishing characteristic or typical use

provides good count data, but no energy information,
Geiger-Müller or G-M
cascade needs to be quenched
Proportional Counters provides good count and energy data
pocket dosimeter, used to estimate significant short-

Ionization Chamber
term exposure, provides only approximate count data
7.3 Table 6.5 gives us values of the energy levels for the different electron shells
(and subshells) for argon. The differences in energy will be equal to the energies
of the photons produced. Let’s start by looking at the energy (in eV) ranges for
these kinds of photons.TMost
ESTBgeeks
ANKSdefine
ELLEvisible
R.COMlight as having wavelengths
between 750 nm and 380 nm.
⎛ m⎞
(4.14 × 10−15eV ⋅ s) × ⎜ 3.00 × 108 ⎟
hc ⎝ s⎠
E= = = 1.6 eV
λ m
750 nm × 9
10 nm
⎛ m⎞
(4.14 × 10−15eV ⋅ s) × ⎜ 3.00 × 108 ⎟
hc ⎝ s⎠
E= = = 3.3 eV
λ m
380 nm × 9
10 nm
So visible light energies will fall between 1.6 eV and 3.3 eV. Likewise, UV is
typically defined as having wavelengths from 380 nm to 10 nm.
⎛ m⎞
(4.14 × 10−15eV ⋅ s) × ⎜ 3.00 × 108 ⎟
hc ⎝ s⎠
E= = = 100 eV
λ m
10 nm × 9
10 nm
To one sig fig, it is the same as the border between non-ionizing and ionizing
radiation (UV and X-rays). Nice, eh? So UV has an energy range of 3.3 eV to 100

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
53
eV. X-rays would then be anything with a value above 100 eV. Using Excel to do
the subtraction, here are all the possible electronic transition energies for Ar.
L1 L2 L3 M1 M2 M3
eV 327 250 248 27 14 14
K 3200 2873 2950 2952 3173 3186 3186
L1 327 77 79 300 313 313
L2 250 2 223 236 236
L3 248 221 234 234
M1 27 13 13
M2 14 0
The table works like this: an electron drops from the subshell listed across the
top to the subshell listed along the left. The electron binding energies (eV) are
listed right next to the subshell designations. Therefore, an L2 " K transition
would yield a 3200 keV – 250 keV = 2950 eV (2.95 keV) photon; clearly an X-ray.
In fact, any transition ending in the K shell (L " K or M " K) will produce an X-
ray. All M " L transitions also produce X-rays. UV photons will be given off by
two of the three possible transitions within the L shell (L2 " L1 77 eV and L3 " L1
79 eV). Similarly, transitions within the M shell that end in M1 (13 eV) will
produce UV radiation. Visible light can only be produced by an L3 " L2 transition
in Ar. TESTBANKSELLER.COM
7.4 No, it wouldn’t. Neutrinos have an EXTREMELY low probability of interacting with
matter, and G-M tubes don’t use a lot of matter for detection—they are a type of
gas-filled detector.
7.5 When Al is placed on top of a source, some of the gamma photons that travel
through it will be scattered. Given the energy of the photons involved (~1.3
MeV), and the relatively low Z nature of the shielding, Compton scattering is the
most likely interaction—by far (i.e., very few will be absorbed). Since the
shielding is placed directly on the source, an entire hemisphere of photons being
emitted can potentially be scattered. With the source about 2 cm from the
detector, there are a lot more photons in the hemisphere that are originally
headed away from the detector that are headed toward the detector (i.e., the
detector sees less than half the hemisphere. Therefore, the probability of a
photon (originally destined to miss the detector) being scattered into the
detector is higher than one (originally headed toward the detector) being
scattered away. Thus, a higher count rate is expected with the Al than without—
weird, eh?
7.6 Any gas-filled detector will do, but an ionization chamber is best. Here, being
inefficient is a good thing.
7.7 A proportional counter would be best for the beta emitting nuclide, while an
inorganic scintillation or a semiconductor detector would be best for gamma
spectra.

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54
7.8 The test is designed to look only for gamma-emitting contaminants, such as
99mTc. Because of its short half-life, the 99mTc could have decayed almost entirely
to 99Tc by the time of the test. 99Tc is basically a pure β– emitting nuclide, which
would not be detected using their protocol. 99Tc emits relatively low energy beta
particles that could easily be absorbed by the swipe paper or the glass test tube,
and are very unlikely to be detected by a gamma spectrometer.
7.9 By using low-Z materials in the scintillation cocktail.
7.10 Placing a TLD in the area that is suspected of leaking would work just fine.
7.11 Iodide is most likely to interact with the gamma, losing an electron from the K
shell. This creates a vacancy, which is filled by another electron. When the
vacancy is filled, an X-ray can be generated. If this X-ray leaves the detector, the
full energy for that gamma photon will not be recorded, instead the full energy
minus the energy of the missing X-ray (~28 keV) will be observed. The electron
binding energy of a K shell electron in iodine is 33 keV. Therefore, the energy of
the photoelectron is: 100 keV – 33 keV = 67 keV.
7.12 Inside a gas-filled detector ionizing radiation causes ionizations which completes
an electrical circuit. Scintillation detectors work by converting ionizing radiation
to visible light via excitations.
7.13 According to Appendix A, the energy of the most common gamma photon
emitted during the decay of 41Ar is 1.294 MeV.
TE1.294
STBANKSELLER.COM
E BS = = 0.214 MeV = 214 keV
( )
1+ 3.91 1.294
E ED = 1.294 MeV − 0.214 MeV = 1.080 MeV
7.14 First, calculate the energy of the incident photon from the energy of the
backscatter peak (Equation 7.2).
E0
0.213 MeV =
(
1+ 3.91× E 0 )
E 0 = 1.27 MeV
Now, use Equation 7.1 to determine the energy of the Compton edge.
(1.27 MeV)
2
E ED = = 1.06 MeV
1.27 MeV + 0.2555
7.15 Backscattering doesn’t need to occur through an angle of 180° for the scattered
photon to end up in the detector, especially if the scattering takes place near the
detector. If the scattering angle is less than 180°, the energy of the scattered
photon will be higher.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
55
7.16 Low energy gamma rays (like the 140.5 keV

photon emitted by 99mTc) do not significantly
interact with the detector via Compton
scattering, rather, they are big on the
photoelectric effect. In other words, the
Compton continuum for this peak will be
tough to see. Therefore the most significant
features of this spectrum are likely the
photopeak at 140.5 keV, a small iodine escape
at:
140.5 keV – 28 keV = 112 keV
and a Tc X-ray peak at 18 keV. The X-ray
originates from conversion electrons being
emitted in some of the 99mTc decays.
7.17 The .51 MeV peak is likely due to positron annihilation outside of the detector
(the 1.02 MeV peak is a sum peak—commonly observed in well detectors for β+
annihilation). This suggests that the n,γ reaction produced a β+ emitting nuclide
—rare but possible. 63Cu(n,γ)64Cu and 79Br(n,γ)80Br are two examples.
The other possible (not a good one) source of the 0.51 MeV peak is pair
production outside the detector or a gamma photopeak that just happens to
have an energy close to 511 keV. None of the nuclides that could be produced
by an n, γ reaction have TaEprominent
STBANKSgamma
ELLERnear
.CO511
M keV as part of their decay,
so the latter possibility can be eliminated. Only one (Al) produces a nuclide with
a prominent gamma with enough energy to undergo pair production.
At this point, only P and Tm (quite possibly the coolest element on the periodic
table!) can be eliminated, and Al is a bit of a dark horse (like the Milwaukee
Brewers!). This controversy could easily be resolved with a half-life
determination since 80Br has a half-life of 17.66 min, while 64Cu is 12.701 h, and
28Al is 2.25 min. Also notice that Cu and Br could produce two radioactive
nuclides each when placed in a neutron beam, and therefore would likely give
complex results.
7.18 The Compton continuum results from gamma rays that interact with detector
material via Compton scattering, depositing some of its energy in the detector,
but the rest escapes the detector as the scattered gamma ray. Since a variable
amount of energy can be deposited, a broad energy continuum is observed in the
gamma spectrum. This continuum has a maximum energy that is less than the
energy of the photopeak.
7.19 A nuclide undergoes positron decay. The emitted positron annihilates outside of
the detector, producing two 511 keV annihilation photons, ~180° apart. One of
these photons can enter the NaI(Tl) detector. If it deposits all of its energy in the
detector, a count will be recorded at 511 keV—producing an annihilation peak.
7.20 Electron capture and internal conversion.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
56
7.21 It helps to calculate the energies of the backscatter peaks and Compton edges.
7.22 It is a lead X-ray. It comes from gamma rays interacting with the Pb collimator
via the photoelectric effect. This creates a vacancy in the K shell of a Pb atom,
which, when filled, can produce a Pb characteristic X-ray (Kα1= 75 keV). The
detector can then observe this X-ray.
7.23 Both can lead to lower-energy gamma rays that can escape the detector.
Compton scattering produces a lower-energy scattered gamma after transferring
some of its energy to a valence electron. Pair production produces a positron,
which immediately annihilates inside the detector, producing two 511 keV
gamma photons. Either way, it means that only part of the energy of the incident
gamma ray is depositedTinESthe
TBdetector,
ANKSELandLERa.count
COM is registered at an energy
below the photopeak.
Detectors are made with high Z material (I–) which has a higher probability of the
photoelectric effect. Detectors are also made large enough that photons
scattered or produced inside have a harder time getting out.
7.24 1) It undergoes Compton scattering in the detector and the scattered photon
escapes. 2) It fails to interact and passes all the way through the detector. 3) It
interacts via the photoelectric effect, but an iodine X-ray escapes. 4) It interacts
via pair production and an annihilation photon escapes. 5) It enters the detector
at almost the same time as another and ends up a count under a sum peak
7.25 The differences are due to Compton (object) scattering by the patient. The
patient is a lot denser than air, and therefore there’s more matter for the
photons to travel through before they get to the detector. More matter means
more opportunities for interactions, like Compton scattering. The patient is
made up mostly of low Z atoms, which will predominately interact with all
gamma photons via Compton scattering. The net effect is counts are shifted
from the photopeaks to their Compton continua. Peak-to-total ratios decrease.

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57
8.1 ALARA is followed because it is conservative. There’s no real scientific basis for
it; it is simply prudent to be cautious. Unfortunately, ALARA (and the LNT) are
applied to public exposures where they exaggerate the risks.
8.2 If there is a health benefit to exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation, then
health professionals like RTs and NMTs could be expected to live longer than
most. If you work in a radiology department (or plan to), don’t get too excited, it
could also be that RTs and NMTs are better educated and more disciplined than
the general population resulting in greater self-health consciousness and greater
longevity.
8.3 Radiography uses X-rays to see inside patients to help diagnose potential
problems. Radiation therapy uses X-rays (and implant sources) primarily to treat
cancer. Nuclear medicine technologists use nuclides or chemicals with
radioactive nuclides to diagnose (and sometimes treat) disease.
8.4 TLDs are made of low Z materials, just like humans. X-rays illuminate differences
in density (basically Z), so a TLD would not be any different from most soft
tissue.
8.5 CT scans are collected by moving the X-ray source and detector around the
patient while conventional X-rays are taken with the source and detector
stationary. CT scans produce three-dimensional images while regular X-rays are
2-D.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
8.6 CT scans can help RTs see the tumor volume as well as any critical organs
nearby. This helps them develop a treatment plan that maximizes dose to the
tumor and minimizes it to the surrounding (healthy) tissue. The CT scans also
help RTs see how much X-rays are attenuated by the tissue it will have to travel
through, again facilitating their dose calculations. NMTs use CT scans to add
detailed anatomical information to the physiological information from the
nuclear medicine imaging.
8.7 It’s all about maximizing dose to the tumor and minimizing dose to healthy
tissue. Higher energy photon (as well as electron and proton) beams deliver
more dose deeper inside a patient. Isocentric treatment moves the beam around
the patient, but keeps it passing through the tumor. Changing the beam shape
(IMRT) and imaging during treatment (tomotherapy) also help.
8.8 Gas production is a bad idea as pressure can build up, and possibly rupturing
the source’s container. The gas is likely due to alpha decay – makes helium gas.
8.9 Assume exactly one gram of 192
Ir.
ln2 mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms

A = kN = × 1.00 g × ×
24 h 60 m 192 g mol
73.83 d × ×
d h
= 2.04 × 10 dpm
16

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58
2.04 × 1016 dpm dpm

SA = = 2.04 × 1016
1.00 g g
Implant sources need to be small, especially if they have to travel through a

catheter – a higher specific activity means a smaller source can deliver the dose.
8.10 Electrons are more likely to be scattered through larger angles in their
interactions with matter. Remember inelastic scattering by nuclei?
8.11 Figure 6.9a tells us that Compton scattering is most likely between 10 MeV
photons and low Z matter, like water.
8.12 When photons interact with matter, they tend to kick up electrons. These
secondary electrons often have enough energy to deliver additional dose.
8.13 Well, we could cut the patients open and install radiation detectors throughout
their body, but that might defeat the point of being noninvasive. The next best
thing would be to place a human surrogate under the beam, and move a detector
around to determine the doses at various depths. This is actually common
practice for radiation therapists. The human surrogate can be as simple as a
tank of water. Since humans are mostly water, it attenuates the photon beam to
just about the same extent.
8.14 Electrons would be best. The tumor is relatively shallow, which means the
electrons would get to it, and their energy can be adjusted so the spine receives
virtually no dose. If photons were used, the spine is sure to get some dose.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
8.15 Just a simple mathematics of decay problem.
⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ ln2 ⎞
( )
−⎜ ⎟t −⎜
⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎟ ×200 d
⎝ 73.83 d ⎠
A2 = A1e 1/2
= 3.50 × 10 MBq × e
5
= 5.35 × 104 MBq
8.16 We are getting better at designing molecules with excellent bio-distributions in

patients. If we can design molecules to deliver radioactive nuclides specifically to
diseased tissue, then we can image it (NMT) and treat it (RT) simply by changing
the radiolabel.
8.17 They are both interested in killing bad stuff (tumor, bacteria, bugs), while leaving
the good stuff unharmed (healthy tissue, food). Both typically use high-energy
photons to accomplish this goal.
8.18 It kills bugs (micro and macro!) making food safer to eat and extending its shelf
life. The dark side is that is sometimes affects the flavor, and may also make
very subtle changes to the chemical make-up of the food.
8.19 Reactors produce radioactive nuclides through fission or by adding a neutron to
a target nuclide. Adding a neutron is going to make it more neutron-rich.
Fission produces neutron-rich nuclides because the nuclide undergoing fission
starts with a relatively high N/Z ratio. Accelerators toss protons or deuterons at
heavier nuclides, reducing their N/Z ratio, making them more proton-rich.

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59
8.20 Cyclotron-produced nuclides tend to be proton-rich and carrier-free. Reactor-

produced nuclides are neutron-rich and less expensive. The choice depends on
which decay mode is preferred, whether you mind a little carrier, and how much
you’d like to pay.
8.21 The activity can easily be converted to atoms and mass.
Ci 3.7 × 1010 dps 60 min 60 s

28 mCi × × × 6.01 h × ×
A 3
10 mCi Ci h min
N= =
λ ln2
= 3.2 × 10 atoms
13
mol 99 g
3.2 × 1013 atoms × × = 5.3 × 10−9 g
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
Not much! We’ll have to dredge up some more stoichiometry to calculate the
mole ratio.
g mol SnCl2 i2H2O 1 mol Sn

0.050 mg SnCl2 i2H2O × × ×
1000 mg 225.6 g SnCl2 i2H2O 1 mol SnCl2 i2H2O
mol Tc
3.2 × 1013 atoms Tc ×
6.022 × 1023atoms Tc
mol Sn
= 4.1× 103
mol Tc
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
Just a slight excess…
8.22 Just like the 99Mo/99mTc example in the chapter.
⎡1.44 × 65.942 h × 1.658 h ⎤ 65.942 h
t max = ⎢ ⎥ × ln
⎣ 65.942 h − 1.658 h ⎦ 1.658 h
= 22.8 h
8.23 Gamma spectroscopy would work well. 99Mo emits a 739.5 keV photon, which is
well separated from the 140.5 keV 99mTc gamma emission.
8.24 A radionuclide generator is designed to separate parent and daughter nuclides.
It has a strong analogy to dairy farming. Cows fill up with milk on a regular
schedule, just like daughter activity grows until it reaches a maximum after a
certain amount of time. When the cow is full, it is milked, just like the daughter
is eluted out of the generator. Makes you wonder if these things were invented in
Wisconsin.
8.25 No. 60mCo has a high conversion coefficient. In fact it is 41x more likely to emit a
conversion electron than a gamma photon as it decays to the ground state of
60
Co. Conversion electrons would generally cause a great deal of local ionization,
causing tissue damage in the patient. It also has a relatively short half-life and it
decays to a radioactive nuclide (a particularly nasty one!).

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60
8.26 Yes. It decays via positron or IT. When it decays via IT, it forms 34Cl, which also
decays via positron. It can be made in a cyclotron and has relatively short, but
workable, half-life. It decays to stable, benign 34S. The only downside is that is
also emits some relatively high-energy (> 1 MeV) gamma photons as part of its
decay. These photons may not be efficiently counted by the detectors and could
represent an increased dose to the NMTs working with it.
8.27 Diagnostics emit gamma photons because they are less likely to interact on their
way out of the body. Therapeutics emit beta particles and/or low-energy gamma
photons, which are more likely to interact locally. While good biodistribution is
important for both, it is critical for therapeutics – maximize dose to target,
minimize to healthy tissue.
8.28 They both behave like K+ in the human body, which tends to concentrate in the
heart.
8.29 Contrary to popular belief, positrons do not annihilate as soon as they are
emitted. They typically travel some distance, transferring energy to the matter
they are traveling through before crashing into an electron and forming the two
photons observed by the PET scanner. As a result, some of these photons will be
created outside of the organ where the positron decay took place, making the
resulting image a little fuzzy.
8.30 It would be carrier-free. The only isotope of iodine produced this way is 131
I, and
it decays to stable, inert, 131Xe.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
8.31 If a gamma photon interacts with a lead collimator via the photoelectric effect
(likely!) a Pb Kα X-ray could be produced. If this X-ray deposits all of its energy in
the detector, a signal of 45 keV will be recorded. These signals should be
discarded by the PHA and will not be used to construct the image.
8.32 They have a higher “average Z” than NaI(Tl).

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61
9.1 18
O(n,β–)19F 18
O + 1n → 19F + -1e
238
U(α,n)241Pu 238
U + 4He → 1n + 241
Pu
14
N(α,p) O
17 14
N + He → H + O
4 1 17
59
Fe(α,β ) Cu
– 63 59
Fe + 4He → -1e + 63Cu
141
Pr(γ,2n)139Pr 141
Pr + γ → 21n + 139
Pr
10
B(d,n) C
11 10
B+ H→ n+ C
2 1 11
9.2 20
Ne + 2H → 18F + 4He 20
Ne(d,α)18F 32
S + 1n → 32P + 1H 32
S(n,p)32P
14
N + 1H → 11C + 4He 14
N(p,α)11C 124
Te + 1H " 123
I + 21n 124
Te(p,2n)123I
9.3 191
Ir + 1n → 192
Ir + γ
⎣ (
Q = ⎡ 190.960594 u + 1.008665 u − 191.962602 u⎤ ×
⎦
931.5 Mev
u
)
= 6.20 MeV
9.4 Target: 191

Ir Projectile: 1n Product: 192
Ir
9.5 Compound nucleus: the transient nucleus formed by mashing together the
projectile and target. It’s usually very excited!
Endoergic: a process that requires energy. In the context of this chapter, it is a
nuclear reaction where the products have more mass than the reactants.
TESTBthat
Cross Section: the probability ANKaSnuclear
ELLERreaction
.COM will proceed.
Resonance integral: The enhanced probability that a reaction will occur at a
particular particle energy
*
9.6 12
6
C + 42He → ⎡⎣ 168 O⎤⎦ → 11H + 15
7
N
⎛ 4⎞
E KC = 7.69 MeV × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.92 MeV
⎝ 16 ⎠
To determine the excitation energy for the compound nucleus, we’ll need to
know how much energy is produced in forming it:
*
12
6
C + 42He → ⎡⎣ 168 O⎤⎦
(
Q = 12.000000 u + 4.002603 u − 15.994915 u × ) 931.5 MeV
u
= 7.16MeV
Excitation energy of the compound nucleus is the kinetic energy of the projectile
plus the energy of the reaction minus the kinetic energy of the compound
nucleus.
7.69 MeV + 7.16 MeV – 1.92 MeV = 12.93 MeV

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62
9.7 First, calculate Q for the entire reaction (not just formation of the compound
nucleus).
(
Q = 12.000000 u + 4.002603 u − 15.000109 u − 1.007825 u ×
931.5 MeV
u
)
= −4.96 MeV
Since Q is negative, we need to calculate threshold energy and the effective
Coulomb barrier.
⎛ 12 + 4 ⎞
E tr = 4.96MeV × ⎜ = 6.62MeV
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
⎛ 12 + 4 ⎞ ⎛ 6 × 2 ⎞
E ecb = 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 4.58 MeV
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 12 + 3 4 ⎠
Threshold energy is higher, for a change. At least 6.62 MeV will be required.
The excitation + kinetic energy of the products is the sum of EKX and Q.
7.69 MeV – 4.96 MeV = 2.73 MeV
9.8 Thermal neutrons have an energy of 0.0253 eV. Let’s convert it to joules.
1.60 × 10−19 J
0.0253 eV × = 4.05 × 10−21 J
eV
Since 1 J = kg·m2/s2, and KE = ½mv2
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
kg ⋅ m2
4.05 × 10−21
s2 m
v = = 2200
1 s
× (1.67 × 10−27kg)
2
Pretty slow for a subatomic particle. Wavelength can be calculated using the
deBroglie equation:
kg ⋅ m2
6.63 × 10−34
h s
λ= = = 1.80 × 10−10m=0.180 nm
mv m
(1.67 × 10-27kg) × 2200
s
⎛ 124 + 3⎞ ⎛ 50 × 1 ⎞
9.9 E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 8.84 MeV
⎝ 124 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 124 + 3 3 ⎠
3
H 3.016049 u 1
n 1.008665 u
124
Sn +123.905274 u 126
Sb +125.90725 u
126.921323 u 126.91592 u
Q=
931.5MeV
u
(
× 126.921323 u − 126.91592 u = 5.04 MeV )

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63
Since the Q value is positive, calculation of the threshold energy is meaningless.

The minimum energy of the tritium projectile must be greater than Eecb.
109
9.10 The reaction is: 47
Ag + 42He → In + 201n
111
49
4
He 4.002603 u 2 × 1n 2.017330 u
109
Ag +108.904752 u 111
In +110.905111 u
112.907355 u 112.922441 u
Q=
931.5MeV
u
(
× 112.907355 u − 112.922441u = −14.05 MeV )
⎛ 109 + 4 ⎞
E tr = 14.05 MeV × ⎜ = 14.57 MeV
⎝ 109 ⎟⎠
⎛ 109 + 4 ⎞ ⎛ 47 × 2 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 17.00 MeV
⎝ 109 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 109 + 3 4 ⎠
17.00 MeV is required to make the reaction proceed in good yield. Yes, a
cyclotron could be used to accelerate this alpha particle since cyclotrons can
generally accelerate them to 25-50 MeV.
9
9.11 4
Be + 11H → 01n + 95B
Mass of reactants Be 9
9.012182 u
TESTBANHKSELLER.COM
1
+1.007825 u
10.020007 u
Mass of products 9
B 9.013329 u
1
n +1.008665 u
10.021994 u
Q=
931.5 MeV
u
(
× 10.020007 u − 10.021994 u = −1.85 MeV )
⎛ 9 + 1⎞
E tr = 1.85 MeV × ⎜ = 2.06 MeV
⎝ 9 ⎟⎠
⎛ 9 + 1⎞ ⎛ 4 × 1 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 1.60 MeV
⎝ 9 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 9 + 3 1⎠
The minimum energy required for this reaction to proceed in good yield is 2.06
MeV. 9B decay is quite interesting as it splits into three:
9
5
B → 242He + 11H
9.12 They both try to determine the minimum projectile energy required to get a
nuclear reaction to proceed in good yield. They also both account for
conservation of momentum. Threshold energy is unique in that it accounts for
mass made, and therefore only applies to endoergic reactions. Effective Coulomb
barrier is distinct because it accounts for the electrostatic repulsion of the

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
64
projectile by the nucleus, and therefore only applies when the projectile has a
positive charge.
6
9.13 3
Li + 01n → [ 73Li]* → 31H + 42He
3
H + 168 O →
1
18
9
F + 01n
First, calculate the kinetic energy of the compound nucleus:
⎛ 1⎞
E KC ≈ 2 MeV × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3 MeV
⎝ 7⎠
Next calculate the Q value of the formation of 7Li from 6Li and a neutron:
Q=
931.5 MeV
u
(
× 6.015123 u + 1.008665 u − 7.016004 u = 7.25 MeV )
Excitation energy of the compound nucleus is:
7.25 MeV + 2 MeV – 0.3 MeV = 9 MeV!!

9.14 Flux: how much flow – specifically, how many particles pass through a square
centimeter each second.
Saturation: so full, it can’t take any more – specifically the point where the rate
production of a radioactive nuclide equals the rate of its decay. Typically this
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
occurs after 7-10 product half-lives of irradiation.
Dee: An electrode used in cyclotrons to accelerate charged particles.
Synchrotron: A large, circular particle accelerator. It uses oscillating magnetic
and electrical fields to accelerate particles on a fixed radius.
9.15 Mg is a stable nuclide that is formed from 24Mg (78.99% of naturally occurring
25
Mg) via an n,γ reaction. The cross-section for this reaction is 0.053 b with
reactor neutrons.
mol 6.02 × 1023 atoms 78.99 atoms 24Mg

N A = 0.100g Mg × × ×
24.30g Mg mol 100 atoms Mg
= 1.96 × 1021 atoms of 24
Mg
NB = σΦN At
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 3600 s ⎞
( ⎝
)
= 0.053 × 10−24 cm2 × ⎜ 5.82 × 106
cm2 ⋅ s ⎟⎠
× 1.96 × 1021
(
atoms × ⎜⎝ )
24.0h ×
h ⎟⎠
= 5.2 × 107 atoms of 25
Mg formed

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65
9.16 Since Mn is 100% 55Mn, which has a cross section for n,γ reactions of 13.3 b, the
reaction is most likely:
55
25
Mn + 01n → 56
25
Mn + γ
mol 6.022 × 1023atoms

N A = 0.549 g × × = 6.02 × 1021atoms
54.94 g mol
(
A0 = σΦN A 1− e − λt )
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 5.00h ⎞
ln2
( ) ( )
−
−24
= 13.3 × 10 cm × ⎜1.50 × 104
2
× 6.02 × 1021
atoms × ⎜ 1− e 2.578h
⎟
⎝ cm2 ⋅ s ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 888 dps
= 5.33 × 104 dpm
σΦN A
NB =
λ
(1− e ) = Aλ
− λt 0
=
5.33 × 104 dpm
ln2
= 1.19 × 107 atoms
60 min
2.578 h ×
h
mol 55.94 g 1000 mg

1.19 × 107 atoms × × × = 1.10 × 10−12mg 56
Mn
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol g
TESTonBAa Nbalance!
That’d be tough to measure KSELLER.COM
Au + 4He → 198
Au + 3He
A0
σ=
(
ΦN A 1− e − λt )
97 dps
=
6.02 × 1023 atoms ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ln2 ⎞
⎛ α ⎞ ⎡ mol −⎜ ⎟ 2.79 d
⎝ 2.6949 d ⎠
⎜⎝ 1.03 × 104
× ⎢ 0.486 g × × ×
⎥ ⎜ 1− e ⎟
cm2 ⋅ s ⎟⎠ ⎣ 197.0 g mol ⎦ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
= 1.2 × 10−23 cm2 = 12 b
We also need to determine the total number of 198Au atoms formed throughout
irradiation. To do this, we can use the equation for production of a stable
nuclide.
NB = σΦN At
⎛ α ⎞
(
= 1.2 × 10−23cm2 × ⎜1.03 × 104
⎝
) ⎟
cm ⋅ s ⎠
2
× 1.49 × 1021 atoms × 67 h ×
3600 s
h
= 4.6 × 107 198
Au atoms
Au(n,γ)198Au would probably be a lot easier. Neutrons have no charge and do
197
not need acceleration to make this reaction work.

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66
9.18 There are 5 possible (stable) starting nuclides: 12C, 13C, 14N, 15N, and 16O. From
these five nuclides, at least 11 low-energy transmutations are possible to 15O. By
far, the most popular (based on student work) are:
Q Etr Eecb
a) 14
N(d,n) O
15 14
N+ H→ O+ n
2 15 1
5.07 – 2.42
b) C(α,n) O
12 15 12
C + He → O + n
4 15 1
-8.50 11.3 4.58
c) 15
N(p,n)15O 15
N + 1H → 15O + 1n -3.54 3.77 2.39
d) N(p,γ) O
14 15 14
N+ H→ O+γ
1 15
7.30 – 2.44
e) O(p,pn) O
16 15 16
O+ H→ O+ H+ n
1 15 1 1
-15.7 16.6 2.68
All values are given in MeV. The best reaction to use is would appear to be the
first one because it will require the lowest projectile energy. Additionally, 14N
99.6% abundant, making it an easy target. Knowing the cross sections of all of
the above would also facilitate this choice, but is assumed to be beyond the
scope of most students using this text.
9.19 Ignoring the chemical composition, we’re looking at production of a stable
nuclide here:
1
H + 1n → 2H + γ
So we’ll use Equation 9.5. This assumes a constant neutron flux throughout the
shielding container. This is certainly incorrect, as the flux should decrease
further away from the source. Fortunately, we don’t need to compensate for this
decrease as the problemTE STBfor
asks ANaKmaximum
SELLER.percentage.
COM
NB = σΦN At
3785 mL 1.0 g mol H2O 2 mol H 99.9885 mol 1H

N A = 25 gal × × × × ×
gal mL 18.02 g 1 mol H2O 100 mol H
= 1.0 × 104mol 1H
⎛ n ⎞
( ⎝
)
NB = 0.332 × 10−24 cm2 × ⎜ 4.9 × 104
s ⋅ cm2 ⎟⎠
× 1.0 × 104
(
mol × 1.0 a )
×
3.155 × 107 s
a
= 5.4 × 10−9 mol D formed
With relatively few 1H atoms converting to 2H, it is very unlikely both hydrogen
atoms on a single water molecule will be transmuted. We shouldn’t forget that
2
H has a 0.0115% natural abundance. Therefore in our original 25 gallons of
water we already had:
0.0115 mol 2H
1.0 × 104mol H × = 1.2 mol 2H
100 mol H
before it was put in the howitzer tank! The amount of 2H present naturally is
much, much larger than the amount formed. Assuming only 1 2H per water
molecule the percentage of DOH present will be the same as when the water
went into the tank:

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
67
1.2 mol 2H
× 100% = 0.023%
3785 mL 1.0 g mol H2O
25 gal × × ×
gal mL 18.02 g
With only 0.023% of the water deuterated, it seems pretty safe to say there will
not be a significant amount of D2O present.
2
H has a very low cross-section toward an n,γ reaction, and a very low percent
natural abundance. Therefore, it’ll be very unlikely that significant amounts of
TOH will form.
9.20 This requires some cross sectional data available on some of the printed charts
and the internet. KAPL’s chart tells us the n,p reaction is most likely.
14
7
N + 01n → 14
6
C + 11H
NB
= σΦt
NA
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 24 h 3600 s ⎞
( )
= 1.93 × 10−24 cm2 × ⎜1.50 × 104
⎝ ⎟ × ⎜ 5.0 d ×
cm ⋅ s ⎠ ⎝
2
d
×
h ⎟⎠
= 1.2 × 10−14 = 1.2 × 10−12 %
Astonishingly low!
9.21 This is just like the example
TESTproblem
BANKSEinvolving
LLER.Cthe OMproduction of a nuclide with a
long half-life. First calculate the number of target atoms.
204
82
Pb + 01n → 205
82
Pb + γ
mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms

5.43 g × × 0.014 × = 2.2 × 1020 atoms
207.2 g mol
120 decays min

× =
min 60 s
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
( ⎝
)
0.70 × 10−24 cm2 ⎜ 4.74 × 1013 ⎟
cm ⋅ s ⎠
2 (
2.2 × 1020 atoms ⎜
ln2
)
⎝ 1.5 × 10 a ⎟⎠
7
t
t = 5.9 × 10−3 a = 2.2 d

60
Ni + 21H → 61
29
Cu + 1n
g mol Ni 26.2231 mol 60Ni 6.022 × 1023 atoms

N A = 17.3 mg Ni × × × ×
1000 mg 58.69 g Ni 100 mol Ni mol
= 4.65 × 1019 atoms 60
Ni
Cu decays via positron only 61.44% of the time. Activity can be calculated
61
taking this, the detector efficiency, and the fact that positron annihilation
produces two photons per decay, into account.

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68
100 dpm
1653 cpm ×
10.8 cpm min
A0 = × = 208 dps
2 × .6144 60 s
A0 208 dps
Φ= =
(
σN A 1− e −kt
) (78 × 10 −27
)
cm × 4.65 × 10
2 19
atoms 60
⎛
Ni × ⎜1− e
−
ln2
3.35 h
×95 min×
h
60 min
⎞
⎟
⎝ ⎠
d
= 2.0 × 108
cm2 is
9.23 A cyclotron is a machine that accelerates charged particles. Two hollow, D-
shaped electrodes (dees) are placed face-to-face, defining a circle. The particles
are introduced in the center of this circle, which is kept under vacuum. The
particles are accelerated by alternating the charges of the dees as the particle
passes between them. Magnets are placed above and below the dees to keep
the particles moving in a spiral path through the circle, until they are deflected
out of the cyclotron.
133
Cs + 21H → 135
56
Ba + γ
Let’s calculate Q:
Mass of reactants 133
Cs 132.905452 u
2
H +2.014102 u
TESTBANKSELLER.COM 134.919554 u
Mass of product 135

Ba –134.905689 u
0.013865 u
Q=
931.5 MeV
u
(
× 0.013865 u = 12.92 MeV )
Q is positive, therefore the reaction is exoergic – a good sign if we want to get
energy out of this reaction!
Now let’s calculate the effective Coulomb barrier:
⎛ 133 + 2⎞ ⎛ 55 × 1 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 9.74MeV
⎝ 133 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 133 + 3 2 ⎠
Pretty substantial. Since we know that neutrons have 0.0253 eV at room

temperature, we could guess that a deuteron (1 neutron + 1 proton) might have
about the same energy. This is well below the minimum energy required for the
reaction above to proceed in good yield. While tunneling is a possibility, it would
appear that these researchers are a little out to lunch. This paper should not be
published unless there is overwhelming physical evidence to support the claims
made, and if the results can be duplicated elsewhere.
9.25 Maximum activity will be achieved after seven product half-lives.
3.8 h x 7 = 26.6 h.

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69
9.26 40
Mg is a little on the neutron-rich side, so this reaction is a bit of a surprise.
48 186
20
Ca + 74
W → 40
12
Mg + 194
82
Pb
Mg has a magic number of neutrons (N = 28) and lead has a magic number of
48
protons (Z = 82). The extra stability associated with these closed shells of
nucleons undoubtedly facilitates their formation.
9.27 As mentioned in the text, tritium is formed from the reaction of fast neutrons
with nitrogen-14:
14
7
N + 01n → 3
1
H+ 12
6
C
Let’s calculate Q:
Δm = (14.003074 u + 1.008665 u) − (12.000000 u + 3.016049 u) = −0.004310 u
931.5 MeV
Q = −0.004310 u × = −4.014 MeV
u
Since neutrons have no charge, the Coulomb barrier does not exist. Threshold
energy will therefore determine the energy required for this reaction to proceed
in good yield.
⎛ 14 + 1⎞
E tr = −4.014 MeV × ⎜ = 4.30 MeV
⎝ 14 ⎟⎠
TESTBANKSELLER.COM

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70
10.1 As mentioned in the text, 238U undergoes spontaneous fission in only (0.00005 % of
all its decays. It therefore undergoes alpha decay the remaining 99.99995% of the
time.
4.468 × 109 a
alpha decay: = 4.468 × 109 a
0.9999995
4.468 × 109 a
spontaneous fission: = 8.936 × 1015 a
0.0000005
To calculate how many of each are taking place inside a 100 g block of 238U, we can
use A = kN, inputting the partial half-lives. First, we need to calculate N.
mol 238U 6.022 × 1023 atoms

N = 100 g 238
U× × = 2.53 × 1023 atoms
238 g 238U mol
ln2
Aα = × 2.53 × 1023atoms = 7.46 × 107 dpm
( ) × 5
5.259 10 min
4.468 × 109 a ×
a
ln2
ASF = × 2.53 × 1023atoms = 37 dpm
( )
5.259 × 10 min
5
8.936 × 1015a ×
TESTBANaKSELLER.COM
10.2 Generally speaking the bigger the nuclide the more likely it is to undergo
spontaneous fission, so 256Fm looks like a good guess. However, it’s always good
to back up such vague generalities with some cold hard facts. The branch ratio for
spontaneous fission for 256Fm is 91.90%, while it is only 0.25% for 254No (looked up
online). However, the half-life for 256Fm is 2.63 h, while it is only 55 s for 254No. The
only way to compare the likelihood of SF decay for two nuclides is to compare their
partial half-lives:
256 2.63 h 60 min 55 s min

Fm: × = 172 min 254
No: × = 3.7 × 102 min
0.9190 h 0.0025 60 s
Holy cats! It ended up being a lot closer than we thought. 256Fm has a shorter
partial half-life for spontaneous fission and is therefore more likely to undergo SF—
BUT, the partial half-life for 254No isn’t really that much longer. Phew, good thing
we did the math …
10.3 Just like the previous problem, bigger usually means more likely to undergo
spontaneous fission. However, 258Md is oo while 256Fm is ee. Since ee nuclides are
much more likely to undergo fission, let’s go with 256Fm. A quick check of decay
modes supports this decision—spontaneous fission is the main decay mode for
256
Fm, but is not a decay mode for 258Md.

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71
10.4 The decay equation is remarkably concise:

256
100
Fm→2128
50
Sn
Mass lost by SF = 256.09177 u – 2(127.91054 u) = 0.27069 u

931.5 MeV
total energy of decay = 0.27069 u × = 252.1 MeV
u
Z1Z 2 50 × 50
KT = 0.80 × = 0.80 × = 198 Mev
3
3 A1 + 3 A2 128 + 3 128
Since the fission is symmetric, the energy will be divided equally between the two
fragments, i.e., 99 MeV.
Symmetric fission of 256
Fm is possible because the product has Z = 50, a magic
number.

240
94
Pu → 103
42
Mo + Te + 31n
134
52
42 × 52
K T =0.80 × = 178 MeV
3
103 + 3 134
⎛ 134 TE⎞STBANKSELLER.COM ⎛ 103 ⎞

KMo = 178 MeV × ⎜ ⎟ = 101 MeV K Te = 178MeV × ⎜ = 77MeV
⎝ 134 + 103⎠ ⎝ 134 + 103⎟⎠
Fission yield for these products would be favored because 134

Te has a magic number
(82) of neutrons.
10.6 These numbers are magic and therefore these nuclides have extra stability.
10.7 It is not fissile because it cannot undergo fission with thermal neutrons. It is
fissionable because it can undergo fission with fast neutrons. It is fertile because it
produces fissile 239Pu in a nuclear reactor.
10.8 Alpha decay is quite similar to fission in that a nucleus is splitting into two
fragments. Therefore the nature of the barrier must be the same—the strong force
is still trying to hold the nucleus together as it is splitting. Like spontaneous
fission, this energy barrier should be enough to inhibit all alpha decays, but they
can occur via tunneling. One reason why alpha decay is such a popular method for
a large nuclide to blow chunks is that the alpha particle has such high binding
energy per nucleon—i.e., lots of energy can be released by spitting out an alpha
particle. It turns out that the greater the energy of the emitted alpha particle, the
more likely it will be emitted, i.e., the shorter the half-life. Pretty cool, eh? Also,
the alpha particle is a relatively small chunk, meaning the barrier to emitting it is
relatively low.

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72
- - -
140 β β β
10.9 55
Cs ⎯⎯⎯⎯
1.06 min
→ 140
56
Ba ⎯⎯⎯⎯
12.75 d
→ 140
57
La ⎯⎯⎯⎯
1.678 d
→ 140
58
Ce
1.55 1.50 1.46 1.41
10.10 It’s because of the fission barrier. This is an energy barrier that can prevent a
compound nucleus from splitting in two. It is due to the string force, which holds
the nucleons together in the nucleus.
10.11 The two “reactions” are:

239
Pu + 1n → [240Pu]* 240
Pu+ 1n → [241Pu]*
Let’s assume that the excitation energy is entirely made up from the loss of mass
in the reactions above, i.e., that the KE of the neutron supplies an insignificant
portion of the excitation energy of the complex nucleus, and, therefore, the
compound nucleus has negligible KE. These are valid assumptions because the
energy of a thermal neutron is so small (0.025 eV).
239
Pu + 1n → [240Pu]*
⎣( )
⎡ 239.052163 u + 1.008665 u − 240.053814 u⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 6.53 MeV
⎦ u
240
Pu+ 1n → [241Pu]*
⎣( )
⎡ 240.053814 u + 1.008665 u − 241.056845 u⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 5.25 MeV
⎦ u
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
10.12 Note that the fission barrier for 239Pu is given in table 10.1 as 5.0 MeV. 239Pu gets
more energy from binding an additional neutron, so it will fission. 240Pu comes up
short energetically and will not fission. The neutron will need to provide an
additional 0.25 MeV toward the excitation energy of the compound nucleus in
order for fission to take place.
10.13 First, let’s calculate the amount of energy released on forming the compound
nucleus. For the moment, we aren’t considering the KE of the compound nucleus
or the energy of the incident neutron.
238
U + 1n → [239U]*
⎣( )
⎡ 238.050788 u + 1.008665 u − 239.054288 u⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 4.81 MeV
⎦ u
We know from table 10.1, that the fission barrier for 238U is 5.8 MeV. Therefore,
we’ll need an extra 1.0 MeV of energy in the compound nucleus. Since the neutron
will now have a significant amount of energy, we’ll need to take kinetic energy of
the compound nucleus into account. Assuming the neutron is packing a 1.0 MeV
punch, here’s how much kinetic energy the compound nucleus will have:
⎛A ⎞ 1
E KC ≈ E KX × ⎜ X ⎟ = 1.0 MeV × = 0.0042 MeV = 4.2 keV
⎝ AC ⎠ 239

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
73
This is still a small amount of energy compared to the excitation energy of the
compound nucleus. It looks like a neutron with at least 1.0 MeV of energy should
be enough to cause 238U to fission.
10.14 The odds of fission (σf) are a little lower for 233U than for 235U (table 10.1). Based
solely on this information, one might expect 233U to have a larger critical mass—
with a lower probability of fission, it’d be necessary to have more 233U around to
keep the chain reaction going. The problem tells us that 233U has a smaller critical
mass; therefore it must produce more neutrons per fission (on average) than 235U.
10.15 The reaction is:

239
94
Pu + 1n → Te +
134
52
103
42
Mo + 31n
Mass of the products 134

Te 133.91154 u
Mo
103
102.91320 u
21n +2.01733 u
238.84207 u
Mass of reactants – mass of products = 239.052163 – 238.84207 = 0.21009 u
Energy produced by this reaction:
931.5 MeV
Q= × 0.21009 u = 195.7 MeV
u
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
42 × 52
K T =0.80 × = 178 MeV
3
103 + 3 134
⎛ 134 ⎞ ⎛ 103 ⎞
KMo = 178 MeV × ⎜ = 101 MeV K Te = 178MeV × ⎜ = 77MeV
⎝ 134 + 103⎟⎠ ⎝ 134 + 103⎟⎠
10.16 The numbers are tabulated below:
Pu-239 Te-134 Mo-103 Reaction

Z 94 52 42
N 145 82 61
Expected mass (u) 240.991967 135.117425 103.857212
Actual mass (u) 239.052163 133.91154 102.91320
Mass Defect (u) 1.939804 1.20589 0.94401
Binding Energy
(MeV) 1807 1123 879 196
The difference in binding energy between the products and the reactants is
basically equal to the Q value calculated in the previous problem. This is expected
as both values are based on the masses of the nuclides involved, and reflect the

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
74
loss of mass during the course of the reaction. Remember that binding energy is a
measure of stability of the nucleus, i.e., it is the amount of energy required to
separate a nucleus into its component nucleons. Therefore, it’s not surprising that
the products have more binding energy than the reactants. The difference in
binding energies between products and reactants is a measure of how much energy
is produced by the reaction.
10.17 Only neutron-rich nuclides with mass numbers that are formed in relatively high
yield, and have half-lives greater than a couple years will be left. Only 90Sr, 137Cs,
135
Cs, 99Tc fit the bill.
10.18 Yes. The products in all three reactions should be formed in relatively high yield.
Mass numbers 99, 100, 102, 131, 133, and 135, are all near the peaks in the
fission product distribution graph for 235U (fig. 10.2). An added bonus for the first
reaction is the fact that 135Sn contains a magic number of protons.
10.19 Fission products: nuclides formed after a nucleus splits into two (or more) roughly
equally sized fragments.
Fission yield: the relative amount that a particular nuclide (independent yield) or a
set of isobars (cumulative yield) is formed after a whole lot of particular nuclide
splits into two (or more) roughly equal fragments.
Thermonuclear reaction: another name for nuclear fusion reactions. The fusion of
two relatively light nuclides
TEatSrather
TBANK high
SELtemperature.
LER.COM
Cold fusion: fusion reactions performed below the effective Coulomb barrier.
Typically used in the formation of super-heavy nuclides (beyond the actinides).
Also used to describe the largely discredited processes that were thought to involve
fusion occurring near room temperature.
10.20 Because the nucleons in the products have less mass than they did before the
reaction. OR Because the nucleons in the products have more binding energy
per nucleon than they did before the reaction.
10.21 Notice that the electrons don’t balance between the four 1H nuclei on the left and
the 4He nucleus on the right. In a situation like this it is better to go with nuclear
rather than atomic masses.
Q=
931.5 MeV
u
(( ) ( (
× 4 × 1.007276 u − 4.001506 u + 2 × 5.486 × 10−4u )))
= 24.68 MeV
A typical fission reaction will crank out ~200 MeV, making this fusion reaction look
like peanuts! But, if we compare how much energy is produced per nucleon of
reactant, we see that fusion gives us 25MeV/4 u ~6 MeV/nucleon, while fission
would provide ~200 MeV/240 u ~ 0.8 MeV/nucleon.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
75
10.22 The effective Coulomb barrier is:
⎛ A + AX ⎞ ⎛ Z A Z X ⎞ ⎛ 2 + 2⎞ ⎛ 1× 1 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ A ⎟ × ⎜ 1/3 1/3 ⎟
= 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.881 MeV
⎝ AA ⎠ ⎝ AA + AX ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 2 + 3 2 ⎠
The enthusiasts’ claims would seem to be in jeopardy. The effective Coulomb

barrier is 881 keV, substantially higher than the energy the deuterons are
accelerated to. It is possible that some (very few, at most) fusion reactions are
taking place through tunneling.
If fusion is taking place, then high-energy neutrons are being produced. As a form
of ionizing radiation, these neutrons are hazardous to living systems such as the
builder of the reactor. They can cause nuclear reactions to occur in surrounding
materials creating radioactive contamination.
We can use atomic masses for the energy produced by this reaction (there are equal
numbers of electrons on either side of the arrow).
( ) ( )
⎡ 2 × 2.014102 u − 3.016029 u + 1.008665 u ⎤ × 931.5 MeV = 3.27 MeV
⎣ ⎦ u
Probably not going to even set the garage on fire as very few (if any) of these
reactions are taking place.
10.23 The electrons (which aren’t part of the reaction) on either side of the arrow don’t
always cancel each other out.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
10.24 It could just be an n,γ reaction.
2
1
H + 01n → 31H + γ
10.25 132
Xe can be formed through the s-process:
131
54
Xe + 01n → 132
54
Xe + γ
132
Ba needs to be made through the p-process.
131
54
Xe + 11H → 132
55
Cs + γ
132
55
Cs → 132
56
Ba + −10e
Ba has a much lower natural abundance (0.101%) than

132 132
Xe (26.9086%). This is
due to a number of reasons:
a. the p-process is much less probable than the s-process
b. the branch ratio for 132
Cs undergoing β– is only 1.87%, the rest of the time
it decays to 132Xe.
10.26 Pm has an odd number of protons (Z = 61), so any stable isotopes will need to have
an even number of neutrons. Of the oe isotopes, 145Pm has the longest half-life and

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
76
a good N/Z ratio (1.38), but has a neighboring, stable isobar, and cannot be stable
without violating Mattauch’s rule. Additionally, since A is odd, there can only be
one stable isobar when A = 145. Similar arguments can be made for 149Pm and
143
Pm, two other promethium isotopes with decent N/Z ratios. Our last hope is
147
Pm (N/Z = 1.41), but it has a half-life of 2.6234 years. It decays to 147Sm, which in
turn decays via alpha emission! There are no stable isobars for A = 147.
10.27 Elements up to iron are relatively common because they are formed by fusion. The
longer a star lives the more elements with Z ≤ 26 are formed. Since Fe is the end of
this road, you might expect some to build up before the star goes nova.
Elements past iron tend to be less common, however gold is unusually rare. This is
because it is formed near the end of the s-process (n,γ and beta decay), and the
sole stable isotope of gold (197Au) has a high cross section toward n,γ reactions
(98.7 b). Much of what little is eventually formed by the s-process then reacts to
form heavier elements.
Lead is common because it terminates all of the naturally occurring decay series.
Therefore, any elements with Z ≥ 84 that were formed through the r-process, will
eventually end up as lead.
10.28 The formation of 244Pu during the Eniwetok explosion likely took place by the rapid
addition of neutrons until A = 244, then beta decay.
TEST92BUA+NK
238 1
n→ U+ γ
0 SEL92
239
LER.COM
239
92
U + 01n → 240
92
U+ γ
240
92
U + 01n → 241
92
U+ γ
241
92
U + 01n → 242
92
U+ γ
242
92
U + 01n → 243
92
U+ γ
243
92
U + 01n → 244
92
U+ γ
244
92
U→ 244
93
Np + −10e
244
92
Np → 244
94
Pu + −10e
The formation of 235U from 209Bi in supernovae could follow a similar path. This
time, however, we get to add all the individual reactions and decays into one.
209
83
Bi + 26 01n → 235
92
U + 9 −10e
10.29 Only a neutron is missing from the reaction:

209 58
83
Bi + 26
Fe → 266
109
Mt + 01n

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77
To determine the projectile energy necessary for this reaction to proceed in good
yield, we first need to calculate Q.
(208.980399 u + 57.933276 u) − (266.1373 u + 1.008665 u) = −0.2323 u

931.5 MeV
−0.2323 u × = −216.4 MeV
u
Since Q is negative, we’ll have to calculate threshold energy in addition to the
effective Coulomb barrier.
⎛ A + AX ⎞ ⎛ 209 + 58 ⎞
E tr = −Q × ⎜ A ⎟ = 216.4 MeV × ⎜ = 276 MeV
⎝ AA ⎠ ⎝ 209 ⎟⎠
⎛ A + AX ⎞ ⎛ Z A Z X ⎞ ⎛ 209 + 58 ⎞ ⎛ 83 × 26 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ A ⎟ × ⎜ 1/3 1/3 ⎟
= 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 312 MeV
⎝ AA ⎠ ⎝ AA + AX ⎠ ⎝ 209 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 209 + 3 58 ⎠
Both the threshold energy and the effective Coulomb barrier are ridiculously high,
but this is to be expected for a reaction like this. Eecb is higher; therefore the
minimum projectile energy necessary for this reaction to proceed in good yield is
312 MeV. Based on this fantasy, let’s calculate the excitation energy of the
compound nucleus. First, we’ll have to calculate Q for the formation of the
compound nucleus:
209
Fe → ⎡⎣ 267
Bi + 58
Mt ⎤ *
TESTBANKSELLE109R.C⎦OM
83 26
(208.980399 u + 57.933276 u − 267.1375 u) × 931.5u MeV = −208.5 MeV

and the kinetic energy of the compound nucleus:
⎛A ⎞ ⎛ 58 ⎞
E KC ≈ E KX × ⎜ X ⎟ = 312 MeV × ⎜ = 68 MeV
⎝ AC ⎠ ⎝ 267 ⎟⎠
Finally, we can calculate the excitation energy of the compound nucleus:

312 MeV – 208 MeV – 68 MeV = 36 MeV
If the excitation energy of the compound nucleus is limited to 13 MeV, we’ll need
to dial down the energy of the projectile (we may not be able to dial it up that far
anyway!).
⎛A ⎞ ⎛ 267 ⎞
E KX ≈ E KC × ⎜ C ⎟ = 13 MeV × ⎜ = 60 MeV
⎝ AX ⎠ ⎝ 58 ⎟⎠
Still bookin’! If this limit is real, this reaction will have to be an example of cold
fusion.

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78
11.1 There are many paths. Those below appear to be most likely based on half-lives
and cross sections. For example, if a nuclide has a long half-life and a large n,ɣ
cross section, neutron capture is more likely. If it has a short half-life and a low
cross section, decay is more likely. In a few cases, formation of a meta state
must be compared to formation of the ground state.
11.2 235U has a thermal neutron cross section toward fission that is significantly
higher than for an n,γ reaction. The opposite is true for 238U, therefore 235U is
likely to undergo fission when hit by a neutron, and 238U is not.
The compound nucleus formed by the addition of a neutron to 235U has about
1.7 MeV more energy thanTESthe
TBAcompound
NKSELLEnucleus
R.COMformed by a neutron and 238U
(Table 10.1). This stems from the fact that 235U has an odd number of neutrons
and 238U has an even number. Since an even number of neutrons means more
stability, the formation of a compound nucleus with an even N is energetically
favored.
About all 238U has going for it is that it is fertile, i.e., some 238U is converted to
239Pu in nuclear reactors, and 239Pu is fissile.
11.3 Assuming the same overall shape for the material, the nuclide with the highest
values for fission cross section (σf) and average number of neutrons produced
per fission (ν) should have the lowest critical mass. 239Pu has the highest fission
cross section (750 b), but 233U produces the most neutrons per fission (3.1).
239Pu produces 2.9 neutrons per fission (a close second) and 233U has a fission
cross section of 531 b (a distant third). Taken together, it looks like 239Pu would
have the smaller critical mass.
11.4 Be would be best as a moderator. Scattering will slow the neutrons down, which
is exactly what a good moderator should do.
11.5 Be is much more likely to scatter neutrons than absorb them. Some will be
scattered back (more or less) the way they came, and thereby Be acts as a
neutron reflector. The process isn’t quite like a mirror however, as only a few
neutrons are backscattered, while a mirror reflects pretty much all photons that
strike it.

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
79
11.6 They are neutrons emitted by fission products (or their daughters) as part of a
beta plus neutron decay. They are “delayed” because they are emitted some
time after fission has taken place. They are helpful because they allow reactors
operators extra time to adjust the overall rate of fission reactions taking place.
11.7 Naturally occurring uranium has a much lower percent abundance than the
enriched uranium typically used in power reactors. As a result, the Canadians
need to make sure they don’t lose too many neutrons; otherwise they’ll have a
tough time keeping the chain reaction going. Deuterium (2H) has a much
smaller neutron absorption cross section than 1H, therefore using heavy water
(D2O) is a necessity for the Canadian reactors.
11.8 The neutron flux is not consistent throughout the reactor. This is true for any
nuclear reactor. The fuel bundles in the center of the reactor will see higher
fluxes than those on the periphery because they are surrounded by more
nuclides undergoing fission. Therefore fission rates will be higher in bundles in
the center—this is called faster burnup. Shuffling the bundles will even out the
burnup between bundles.
11.9 Light water is how almost all water molecules occur naturally, therefore it is
cheap and easy to come by. Heavy water is D2O, which is much better at
scattering neutrons than absorbing them. Therefore, heavy water is a superior
moderator.
11.10 Light water reactors use naturally occurring hydrogen in the water, meaning that
it is almost all 1H—onlyT~0.01%
ESTBAisNK2H.
SETritium
LLER.C isOformed
M in nuclear reactors from
the reaction of a neutron with deuterium.
2H + 1n → 3H + ɣ
In heavy water reactors, almost all of the hydrogen present is 2H—a whole lot
more target to shoot at.
11.11 Calandria: A large tank filled with D2O that surrounds all of the pressure tubes
in a CANDU reactor.
Fuel bundle: a group of short fuel rods in the shape of a log.
Void coefficient: When the density of coolant/moderator around nuclear fuel
decreases, what happens to the overall rate of fission reactions? For most
reactors, the rate decreases – a negative void coefficient. For a few, most
notably RBMKs, the rate increases. They have a positive void coefficient.
Reactor poison: Fission products with high neutron absorption cross sections.
Soak up too many neutrons and the fission chain reaction will shut down.
11.12 Because they use light water as a coolant, and light water (namely 1H) is too
likely to absorb a neutron—therefore the neutron flux would be too low to
support a chain reaction.
11.13 Because they separate the coolant and moderator (just like RBMK reactors),
CANDU reactors have a positive void coefficient, albeit a small one. Remember
that the neutrons are moderated in the calandria, and as they travel through the

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
80
coolant to get to the fissile material, they could be absorbed. This is less likely
if the coolant is in the vapor, rather than the liquid state. Remember also that
CANDU reactors use heavy water as a coolant (instead of light water used by
RBMK reactors). This lowers the magnitude of the void coefficient. As Canadian
nuclear engineers will tell you, it’s the magnitude of the coefficient that gives
you trouble (instability).
11.14 This problem is similar to #1 above. Again,
the pathway shown here is based on
considerations of half-lives and cross
sections.
11.15 Because 232Th is fertile, it needs all the
neutrons it can get its hands on. Of the two
fissile nuclides commonly burned in almost
all nuclear reactors today, 239Pu produces
more neutrons per fission.
11.16 A good coolant will be relatively transparent
to neutrons and have good thermal
properties like heat capacity. This is a nuke book, so we’ll neglect the
thermodynamics. The thermal neutron cross sections (σa) for these three
elements are: 7 mb (He), 0.171 b (Pb), and 0.034 b (Bi). All pretty low.
11.17 Because subcritical amounts of fissionable material are used. To shut down the
fission chain reaction, just
TESpull
TBAthe
NKplug
SELLon
ERthe
.Caccelerator.
OM
11.18 A scram is when the fission chain reaction is terminated, quickly. This can be
accomplished many ways, but is typically done by the insertion of control rods.
After the scram, the fuel rods still give off significant heat from fission product
decay. Continuous cooling of the fuel rods is still required for years afterwards.
11.19 Passive:
a. Lowering of the density of water when light water is used as a moderator and
coolant
b. Using only gravity to drop control rods that are automatically released
because a loss of power
Active:
a. Inserting control rods (reactors that require power and/or human
intervention)
b. Injecting a reactor poison into the reactor coolant and/or moderator.
11.20 First calculate the number of 133Xe atoms. Table 11.2 provides the activity.
1 dps 8.64 × 104 s

1× 1012 Bq × × 5.243 d ×
A 1 Bq d
N= = = 6 × 1017 atoms
λ ln2

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81
Hopefully you remember that one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L at standard
temperature and pressure (STP).
mol 22.4 L
6 × 1017 atoms × × = 2 × 10−5 L = 20 µL
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol
A pretty small volume! To answer the second question, we just need to make
the activity units consistent.
1 dps 1 Ci
1× 1012 Bq × ×
1 Bq 3.7 × 1010 dps
= 2000 scans
12.5 mCi 1 Ci
×
scan 1000 mCi
11.21 This is a lot like Question 4.12. As indicated in Table 11.2, roughly 5 × 1017 Bq
was released. Assuming it all to be 131I:
(5 × 10 17
Bq × ) 1 dps 60 s
×
1 Bq min
= 3 × 1019 dpm
24h 60min
(3 × 1019 dpm) × 8.023 d × ×
A d h
N= = = 5 × 1023atoms
λ ln2
mol 131 g
5 × 1023atoms
TES× TBANKSE23LLER.×COmol
M = 100 g
6.022 × 10 atoms
The activity after three months will be:
ln2 30.4 d
− ×3 mo ×
A2 = 5 × 10 Bq × e
17 8.023 d mo
= 2 × 1014 Bq
11.22 The percent abundance of 3He on Earth is extremely low at 0.000134%! This is
to be expected. He is a Noble gas (chemically inert) and is very light. So light it
can easily escape the Earth’s atmosphere, therefore it is not an element
commonly found on the planet’s surface. It is typically found trapped below the
surface—produced from alpha particles emitted by members of the naturally
occurring decay series. Note that alpha particles will always produce 4He, not
3He. 3He comes from the decay of 3H.
The moon does have ample supplies of 3He, as it is one of many nuclides
produced and spewed out by the Sun. 3He atoms colliding with the moon can
become trapped in the rocks at or near the surface. These same 3He particles
launched out of the Sun are generally deflected around the Earth by its magnetic
field. Mining the moon for 3He was the premise for the 2009 movie Moon. Pretty
good science for a movie!
11.23 You may have already noticed that fusion reactions that produce 4He tend to
produce more energy—this is due to the fact that 4He is unusually stable. 4He is
doubly magic and has a relatively high binding energy per nucleon. Let’s do the

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82
math and see if this is also an exoergic reaction. We can use atomic masses here
because the electrons balance.
Mass of reactants 2H 2.014102 u
3He +3.016029 u
5.030131 u
Mass of products 4He 4.002603 u

1H +1.007825 u
5.010428 u
Q=
931.5 MeV
u
( )
× 5.030131u − 5.010428 u = 18.4 MeV
Sure looks good! Now let’s calculate the effective Coulomb barrier.
⎛ 3 + 2⎞ ⎛ 1× 2 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ = 1.4 MeV
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 3 + 3 2 ⎠
Looks like a petty good candidate for fusion power production, too bad our
supply of 3He is a little out of reach.
11.24 Assume that the 4.4 MeV alpha particles react with 9Be to form a neutron.
9
Be + He → 6 C + 0 n
4 TBA2
4 12 1
TES NKSELLER.COM
Now let’s see if this alpha particle has enough energy to make this reaction
happen.
(
Q = 9.012182 u + 4.002603 u − 12.000000 u − 1.008665 u × ) 931.5 MeV
u
= 5.70 MeV
The reaction is exoergic, so we don’t calculate Etr, only Eecb.
⎛ 9 + 4⎞ ⎛ 4 × 2 ⎞
E ecb ≈ 1.11× ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ = 3.50 MeV
⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 3 9 + 3 4⎠
Yeah, the 235U alpha particles have enough sisu to make this reaction happen,
so 9Be (100% naturally occurring) is a good neutron initiator for gun-type fission
weapons.
11.25 According to Chapter 4 the 239Pu (Fat Man) weapon was 17% efficient, while only
1.3% of the 235U underwent fission in Little Boy. Table 11.1 gives us two good
reasons for this. 1) 239Pu has a higher cross section for neutron induced fission
(750 b vs. 585 b). 2) 239Pu produces more neutrons per fission (2.9 vs. 2.4).
Both of these factors will cause more fission reactions to take place in 239Pu
weapon than in a 235U weapon with the same number of nuclides.

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83
11.26 Q is calculated in the usual way:
(
Q = 6.015123 u + 1.008665 u − 4.002603 u − 3.016049 u × ) 931.5 MeV
u
= 4.784 MeV
A similar reaction with 7Li is unlikely. The compound nucleus formed is [8Li]*,
which will most likely fall apart into two alpha particles.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM

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84
12.1 Exposure: The amount of radiation striking an object. or The amount of charge
delivered to a mass (or volume) of air. Exposure has units of C/kg.
Dose: The amount of energy absorbed by an object exposed to radiation. SI
units are Gy or J/kg.
Dose equivalent:The damage done to biological organisms by radiation. SI
units are Sv.
12.2 Cosmic rays are mostly high-energy photons, which have a low probability of
interacting with biological entities such as humans, especially since we are made
up of mostly low Z elements. In other words, cosmic radiation mostly passes
right through us without depositing any of its energy. Radon is present in air
and water, so we ingest it all the time. It decays via alpha particle emission,
which has a high probability of interacting with matter, and will therefore
deposit all of its energy inside of us, giving us a higher dose.
12.3 First calculate the total charge dumped into the air:
2.58 × 10−4C kg 1.29 g L
1.00R= × × × × 1.00 cm3 = 3.33 × 10−10 C
kg 1000 g L 1000 cm3
How many ion pairs does this represent? All we need to do is divide by the
charge of an electron (the “cost” of creating an ion pair):
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
IP
3.33 × 10−10 C × = 2.08 × 109 IP
1.602 × 10−19C
12.4 Convert röntgen to J/kg, and you’ve got gray.
2.58 × 10−4C 33.85 J J

1.00R= × = 8.73 × 10−3 = 8.73 × 10−3 Gy
kg C kg
rad
8.73 × 10−3 Gy × = 0.873 rad
10−2Gy
12.5 Since this problem involves alpha particles, be careful when converting dose
equivalent (mSv) to dose (mGy) using Equation 12.1.
dose equivalent 2.28 mSv
= dose = 0.114 mGy
Q 20
J
1
Gy kg
0.114 mGy × × × 100 kg = 0.0114 J = 7.13 × 1010 MeV
1000 mGy 1 Gy
Your answer will vary depending on your mass. The solution above assumes a
mass of 100 kg – to check your answer, replace the 100 kg in the equation
above with your mass in kg.

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85
The number of decays can be estimated by assuming that all of each alpha
particle’s 5.49 MeV is deposited in the body (a pretty safe assumption!).
decay
7.13 × 1010 MeV × = 1.30 × 1010 decays
5.49 MeV
12.6 Convert cGy to MeV/kg, then multiply by mass:
10−2 J
kg MeV
0.055 cGy × × × 75 kg = 2.6 × 1011 MeV
cGy 1.60 × 10−13 J
Now use W for air to determine the total number of ion pairs that could be
created:
IP 106 eV
2.6 × 1011 MeV × × = 7.6 × 1015 IP
33.85 eV MeV
12.7 Remember that alpha particles have a quality factor of 20.
0.055 cGy × 20 = 1.1 cSv = 11 mSv
Sv rem
11mSv × × −2 = 1.1 rem
1000 mSv 10 Sv
X-rays have a quality factor of 1.

0.055TE ST×B1AN
cGy =K0.055
SELLcSv
ER.=C
0.55
OM mSv
Sv rem
0.55 mSv × × −2 = 0.055 rem
1000 mSv 10 Sv
12.8 Wow, this town is hot! A global average of 0.9 mSv/a is given in a footnote in
the chapter. Therefore, this part of Ramsar is almost 300 times toastier!
mSv
260
a = 300 ×
mSv
0.9
a
Since no health effects were reported by this paper, it supports the threshold
hypothesis, and indicates that 300 mSv/a is below the threshold.
It also suggests that the values set in Table 12.1 are ridiculously low, and
should perhaps be revised to higher values. It also says that the people living in
areas contaminated by Chernobyl and Fukushima should feel safe because they
are getting a lower annual dose than some of the folks in Ramsar.
12.9 Rate multiplied by time will give exposure:
8.0 × 10−5 C h C
× 4.0 min × = 5.3 × 10−6
kg ⋅ h 60 min kg

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86
Decreasing distance from the source should increase exposure, while

decreasing time will decrease exposure.
C 1 1.5 min C
5.3 × 10−6 × × = 4.4 × 10−6
kg ⎛ 0.61 m⎞ 2
4.0 min kg
⎜⎝ 0.91 m⎟⎠
Decreasing time ended up being more significant as her exposure was lowered
by 0.9 × 10–6 C/kg.
12.10 First, let’s adjust the dose rate for distance.
µSv 1 µSv
10 × = 1.5 × 10−5
h ⎛ 1000 m ⎞
2
h
⎜ 0.5 km ×
km ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0.61 m ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Looks pretty pathetic. Let’s see what living ½ time with this does for a year.
1.5 × 10−5 µSv 8.77 × 103 h µSv
× × 0.50 = 0.065
h a a
Wow, that is weak! It turns out that this dose is less than what you get from
eating a banana.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
12.11 Give the lowest dose needed to get the job done, whether it is imaging or
therapy. If an external radiation source is being used, reasonable efforts should
be made to minimize unnecessary exposure to that source. When the source is
being used inside the patient, it should have a good biodistribution, and be
metabolized by the patient soon after completion of the procedure.
12.12 Natural: 2.28 + 0.33 + 0.29 + 0.21 = 3.11 mSv/a
Anthropogenic: 1.47 + 0.77 + 0.43 + 0.33 + 0.13 + 0.003 = 3.13 mSv/a
Total: 6.24 mSv/a
mSv
3.13
a × 100% = 50% anthropogenic
mSv
6.24
a
The NCRP recommended doses for the public are 1 mSv for frequent exposure
and 5 mSv for infrequent exposure. The latter value is roughly equal to the
annual dose, so they are clearly being conservative in not allowing public doses
that would much more than double their typical annual dose.
12.13 The limit is higher for skin, hands, and feet because they have a much greater
capacity to repair or replace radiation-damaged cells.
12.14 Doubling the distance will decrease dose by a factor of 4, and halving the time
decreases dose by a factor of 2. Overall the dose will decrease by a factor of 4 ×
2 = 8.

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87
12.15 We can use Equation 12.3 after dividing both sides by time (t) to get exposure
rate. But first, we should convert the exposure units from mR to C/kg.
0.31 mR R 2.58 × 10−4 C C
× × = 8.0 × 10−8
h 1000 mR kg kg ⋅ h
C ⋅ m2 3600 s
6.64 × 10−13 × 925MBq ×
X Γ⋅A Γ⋅A kg ⋅ MBq ⋅ s h
= 2 d2 = = = 28m2
t d X C
8.0 × 10−8
t kg ⋅ h
d = 5.2 m
12.16 First calculate the number of 60Co atoms:
60 g mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms

1.14 mg Co × × × = 1.14 × 1019 atoms
1000 mg 59.93 g mol
Now activity, in MBq:

ln2
A= × 1.14 × 1019 atoms = 1.51× 1018 dpa
5.271 a
1.51× 1018 decays a min MBq

× × × 6 = 4.77 × 104 MBq
a 5.259 × 10 min 60 s 10 dps
5
Finally, we can calculate

TEdose:
STBANKSELLER.COM
⎛ 40.0 h 50 wk ⎞
3.38 × 10−4
mSv ⋅ m2
MBq ⋅ h
(
× 4.77 × 104 MBq × ⎜
⎝ wk
×) a
× 1 a⎟
⎠
D= = 602 mSv
(7.32 m)
2
Yeah, that’s not gonna happen.

Now we need to figure out how much lead to put between human and 60Co…
but first we need the attenuation coefficient:

ln10
4.53 cm= µ = 0.508 cm−1
µ
602 mSv
ln = 0.508 cm−1 × x x = 8.1 cm
10 mSv
She could also move further away from the source or spend less time so close to
such a toasty source.
12.17 Listen to the patient. The patient’s apprehensions are real, even if they have no
basis in fact. If you think the patient might be reassured by some stats, you
could talk about how we’re exposed to 2.4 mSv each year from natural sources,
and that some people in the world see 10-40 times that with no ill effect. You
could also talk about how this dose is abut the same as getting a couple of

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88
chest X-rays. You could also talk about the benefits the patient will receive as a
result of this dose both in terms of diagnosis, but also potentially from the
radiation. My favorite story is to tell about how a chest X-ray “cured” a nasty
cough I had one winter – I’m sure it was the ionizing radiation!
12.18 First figure out how much the patient’s body is shielding the radiation.
I −1
B= = e −µx = e −0.11 cm ×15 cm = 0.19
I0
Now figure the dose to the patient’s wife.

5.65 × 10−5 mSv ⋅ m2 1000 MBq
× 570 kBq × × 8.33 h
MBq ⋅ h kBq
Dose = × 0.19 = 2.2 × 10−4 mSv
(0.48 m)
2
= 0.22µSv
12.19 Since both time and distance are being varied, it might be convenient to use a
more general equation; even through we don’t know all of the variables. First we
need to calculate Γ⋅A for the initial set of conditions, and then use it to
determine X under the new set.
C
( )
2
5.4 × 10−6 × 182 cm
X ⋅d2
kg C ⋅ cm2
Γ⋅A = = = 0.036
t 5.0 min kg ⋅ min
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
⎛ C ⋅ cm2 ⎞
Γ ⋅ A ⋅t ⎝ ⎠
(
⎜ 0.036 kg ⋅ min ⎟ 1.5 min ) C
X = = = 3.6 × 10−6
d2
(122 cm) kg
2
12.20 The approach can be the same as in Question 12.19.

D ⋅d2
Γ⋅A =
t
2.6 mSv × (0.91 m)2 mSv ⋅ m2
= = 0.54
4.0 h h
⎛ mSv ⋅ m2 ⎞
⎜ 0.54 ⎟ (1.7 h)
⎝ h ⎠
D=
(0.33 m)2
= 8.4 mSv
Another approach would be to account for the change in distance and change in
time separately.

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89
1
2.6 mSv × 2
= 19.8 mSv
⎛ 0.33 m⎞
⎜⎝ 0.91 m⎟⎠
1.7 h
19.8 mSv × = 8.4 mSv
4.0 h
12.21 The approach is similar to Example 12.7.
⎛ −4 mSv ⋅ m
2
⎞
⎜ 1.19 × 10 × 1900 MBq
Γ⋅A ⎝ MBq ⋅ h ⎟⎠ mSv µSv
DR = = = 0.025 = 25
d2
(3.00 m) h h
2
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90
13.1 If the current is turned up high enough, the filament will melt from the heat that
is generated. Its melting point is high, but not infinite!
13.2 Focal spot: The area on the anode, in an X-ray tube, where electrons hit and X-
rays are generated.
Tube current: A measure of the number of electrons flowing from the filament
(cathode) to the target (anode) in an X-ray tube.
Transmission target: An X-ray target used with electron beams in excess of 1
MeV. X-rays tend to be produced traveling in the same direction as the electron
beam.
13.3 Draw two concentric circles. If each circle is made up of points (all the same
size), which has more points? The larger circle, of course!If each point in each
circle has equal probability of being hit by a photon, which circle gets more hits?
The larger one again.
13.4 Increasing the voltage will increase the velocity (energy) of the electrons striking
the anode. This will increase the maximum photon energy observed, as well as
the average energy of the photons produced. An increase in overall (all photons
of all energies) intensity will be observed as higher energy electrons produce X-
rays with higher efficiencies. Note the energies of the characteristic X-rays do
not change as they depend solely on the target material.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
13.5 It has a high melting point, so we can really crank up the tube current! It is a
metal, so it can conduct electricity. It has a relatively high atomic number which
means it will be more efficient in producing X-rays, produce X-rays with a higher
average energy, and produce higher energy characteristic X-rays.
13.6 Since efficiency is:
f = 3.5 × 10–4 ZE
We can plug in 1.00 for efficiency, then solve for energy, varying Z:

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91
W 1.00 = 3.5 × 10–4 × 74 × E E = 39 MeV

Mo 1.00 = 3.5 × 10–4 × 42 × E E = 68 MeV
Cu 1.00 = 3.5 × 10–4 × 29 × E E = 98 MeV
106eV 1.60 × 10−19 J

98 MeV × × = 1.6 × 10−11 J
MeV eV
2
v ⎛ mc 2 ⎞
= 1− ⎜ 2⎟
c ⎝ KE + mc ⎠
2
⎛ ⎛
2
⎞
−31 8 m⎞
⎜ 9.11× 10 kg × ⎜ 3.00 × 10 ⎟
⎜ ⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎟
= 1− ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 1.6 × 10−11 J + 9.11× 10−31kg × ⎛ 3.00 × 108 m⎞ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
= 1.00
It does not seem reasonable—it will be pretty difficult to accelerate an electron
this close to the speed of light in a clinical setting.
13.7 First calculate a, then area.
a = A × sinθ = 3.4 mm × sin 17° = 0.99 mm
TE
area = STBmm
0.99 ANK×S1.0
ELmm
LER=.C OM mm2
0.99
13.8 The rest makes heat.
13.9 A broad spectrum of energies is produced up to a maximum of just below 350
keV.
13.10 The gamma rays emitted by 60Co are much higher in energy than the X-rays
produced by a 400 kV machine.
1) Higher energy means that more dose will be delivered at a greater depth
inside the patient. If the volume to be treated is anywhere below the surface
60Co would be preferable. 60Co produces gamma rays only at 1.3 and 1.2 MeV,
whereas X-rays produced in a 400 kV tube have a broad continuum of energy—

from 400 keV and down. This means the tube is producing a lot of relatively
low-energy photons that will deliver more of a dose at the surface.
2) Higher energy photons from 60Co will allow isocentric techniques to be used,
increasing the therapeutic ratio.
13.11 As X-ray energy increases, so does penetration because the photons have a
lower probability of interacting with matter. Higher doses are delivered deeper
inside the patient. Peak doses for higher energy photon beams results from
dose build-up. High-energy photons tend to interact with low Z matter via the
Compton effect, which scatters the photon, and knocks loose an electron. High-
energy photons tend to scatter both in a forward direction. The electron has a

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92
much higher probability of interacting with matter, and does so as it travels

deeper into the patient. Dose peaks inside the patient where the electrons
deposit the maximum amount of energy (electron equilibrium).
13.12 1) Orthovoltage machines crank out lower energy photons. Lower energy means
a higher probability of interacting with matter—therefore they are less
penetrating. Too much of their energy gets dumped into the first cm or so of
tissue. Megavoltage machines deliver the highest doses below the skin.
2) Because of their larger focal spot, orthovoltage machines have a larger
penumbra (beam inhomogeneity around its edges).
3) Can’t use isocentric techniques with orthovoltage machines. Because of their
lower voltage, orthovoltage machines produce X-rays much less efficiently. As a
result, their sources are larger and must be located very close to the patient,
preventing rotation of the source around the patient.
13.13 The figures appear below. The only difference between a and b is an increase in
SDD. The only difference between c and d is a decrease in SSD. In both cases
penumbra is decreased. In case you’re wondering, drawings a and c are
identical. Drawing d has a smaller penumbra than drawing c.
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93
13.14 The main similarity is that higher-energy generally means that the Bragg peak or
the maximum dose will be delivered deeper inside the matter. Another
similarity, albeit less significant, is that both particles and photons lose energy
as they travel through matter—as they lose energy the probability of
interactions increase.
The major difference is that once particles hit their Bragg peak, that’s it.
Photons continue to deliver a significant dose beyond their maximum dose.
They also differ in that photons do not slow down as they lose energy, but
particles do. Another difference with high-energy photons is that the dose is
delivered by both the photons and secondary electrons.
13.15 RT patients are most likely to get exposed to electrons that come from high-
energy photons knocking electrons off of stuff like the collimator. There are
three ways this could happen, the photoelectric effect, pair production, and
Compton scattering. These are listed here in order of increasing probability
when ~4 MeV (and under) photons interact with high Z materials (what
collimators are made of). If you are distrustful, take a look at Figure 6.9.
With the photoelectric effect, there’s also a possibility of Auger electrons being
produced.
As some will point out, Compton scattering within the patient will also produce
electrons. Strictly speaking, these Compton electrons contribute only to the
patient’s dose—they are not part of the patient’s exposure, because they are not
produced outside the patient.
TESTBANKSELLER.COM
The minimum possible LET will come from the fastest moving electrons.
Simplistically, the fastest possible electron could come from a 4 MeV photon
interacting with the collimator via the photoelectric effect—improbable, but not
impossible. This would produce a 3.91 MeV electron, since the binding energy
of a K shell electron in lead is 88 keV.
106eV 1.60 × 10−19 J

3.91 MeV × × = 6.26 × 10−13 J
MeV eV
2
v ⎛ mc 2 ⎞
= 1− ⎜ 2⎟
c ⎝ KE + mc ⎠
2
⎛ ⎛
2
⎞
−31 8 m⎞
⎜ 9.11× 10 kg × ⎜ 3.00 × 10 ⎟
⎜ ⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎟
= 1− ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 6.26 × 10−13 J + 9.11× 10−31kg × ⎛ 3.00 × 108 m⎞ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
= 0.993

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94
IP IP
4500 4500
SI = m= m = 4561IP
v 2
(0.993)2 m
2
c
4561 IP 33.85 eV keV keV

LET = (SI)W = × × = 154
m IP 1000 eV m
13.16 1) The photons being generated typically have energies < 4 MeV.
2) It’s very unlikely that a high-energy photon will interact with a high Z material
via the photoelectric effect. Compton scattering and pair production both lead
to lower energy electrons.
13.17 They both generate microwaves via resonance. The microwaves are used to
accelerate electrons in linacs. Magnetrons are also used in microwave ovens to
transfer energy to water molecules in food. Magnetrons are used in 4-15 MV
accelerators while klystrons are generally used in higher energy machines.
Strictly speaking, klystrons are high-power amplifiers, increasing the power of
radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation.
13.18 The electrons slamming into them have more energy (are moving faster) and we
need to be sure the target is thick enough to get all of the electrons in the beam
to interact.
13.19 Look at Figure 13.14! TESTBANKSELLER.COM
13.20 Because they would significantly attenuate the beam. An ionization chamber is
used specifically because it is inefficient at detecting photons, and thereby does
not significantly attenuate the beam.
13.21 A flattening filter is a chunk o’ metal designed to broaden and smooth an X-ray
beam. Broadening is simply making the beam bigger; smoothing is insuring
that intensity is fairly consistent throughout the beam. Scattering foils do the
same thing, but to electron rather than photon beams. Scattering foils are thin
pieces of metal.
13.22 In terms of music, chromatic is defined as all the notes of a musical scale,
including the halftones (sharps and flats). Therefore, chromatic is a series of
sounds with varying wavelengths, frequencies, and energies.
The 90° bending (chromatic) magnet has the unfortunate side effect of
separating the electron beam according to the individual energies of the
electrons. Likewise a “chromatic musical separator” could distinguish individual
notes when played simultaneously.
The 270° (achromatic) bending magnet performs no net separation because the
electrons of different energies re-converge at the target. The net effect is the
same as our normal experience of simultaneously hearing all sounds that are
produced at the same time—be they dissonant or harmonious.

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95

14.1 We can use Equation 14.1 to solve this one.
Dn 250 cGy
Dmax = × 100 = × 100 = 354 cGy
%Dn 70.7
14.2 Through isocentric therapy! It keeps the tumor in the radiation field at all times,
but varying the healthy tissue in the field as the source rotates around the
patient. This maximizes dose to the tumor, while minimizing dose to
surrounding tissue.
14.3 For the 20 MV field the percent contribution of primary radiation is:
53.5%
× 100% = 97.3%
55.0%
The percent contribution of secondary radiation is what’s left over:
100.0% – 97.3% = 2.7%
Repeating for the 6 MV field:
39.2%
× 100% = 89.3% 100.0% – 89.3% = 10.7%
43.9%
The lower energy field has a greater percentage of secondary radiation because
TES
lower energy photons are TBAlikely
more NKSEto LLscatter,
ER.COandM a more likely to scatter
through larger angles.
14.4 First determine the changes that will take place in the maximum dose and then
in the dose at 7.0 cm.
1
change in D2.5 = 2
= 0.6463
⎛ 127.5 cm⎞
⎜⎝ 102.5 cm⎟⎠
1
change in D7.0 = 2
= 0.6571
⎛ 132.0 cm⎞
⎜⎝ 107.0 cm⎟⎠
In other words, the maximum dose (delivered at 2.5 cm depth) will be decreased
to 64.63% of its original value when the source is moved from 100.0 cm SSD to
125.0 cm SSD. Likewise, the dose at 7.0 cm below the skin will receive 65.71%
of its original dose. Assuming a dose of 100 (arbitrary units) at dmax and 100.0
cm SSD, we’d have a dose of 84.0 at 7.0 cm. Therefore the PDD at 125.0 cm
SSD will be:
84.0 × 0.6571
PDD = = 85.4%
100 × 0.6463

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96
14.5 To get the PDD at 5.5 cm depth, we’ll need to interpolate the data from Table
14.1. In this case, we can just average the values at 5.0 and 6.0 cm depth.
94.7% + 91.5%
%D5.5 = = 93.1%
2
We can now calculate the maximum dose.
Dn 215 cGy
Dmax = × 100 = × 100 = 231 cGy
%Dn 93.1
Now we need to interpolate (again!) for the PDD at 23 cm—unfortunately, it’s

not halfway between this time.
52.7% − 0.3 × (52.7% − 35.2%) = 47.4%
Finally, we can calculate exit dose.

Dmax × %Dn 231 cGy × 47.3%
Dn = = = 110 cGy
100 100
The depth of maximum dose (dmax) is where PDD = 100%, which is 3.0 cm
according to Table 14.1.
14.6 Since most of the numbers given are good at 100 cm SSD, let’s start by
calculating treatment time (Nmu) at this distance.
Tumor Dose
TESTBANKSELLER.COM 200 cGy
Nmu = = = 289 mu
Dn cGy
C cal × × C fs × C attn 0.998 × 0.746 × 0.978 × 0.95
Dmax mu
We’ll now need to calculate the effect changing SSD to 150 cm will have on Nmu.
To do that, we’ll need to determine how PDD changes as well as apply the
inverse square law.
1 1
ΔDmax = 2
= 0.449 ΔD8 = 2
= 0.467
⎛ 151.5 cm ⎞ ⎛ 158 cm⎞
⎜⎝ 101.5 cm⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 108 cm⎟⎠
Note that the change in D8 also gives us the inverse square law factor. That’s
great, but we need to finish thinking about the change in PDD.
74.6 cGy × 0.467
@150 cm: PDD = × 100 = 77.6%
100 cGy × 0.449
So the effect the change in PDD will have on the number of monitor units is:
74.6%
= 0.961
77.6%
In other words, the increase in PDD will lower the treatment time by a factor of
0.961.

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97
We can now apply both effects. Remember that the increase in PDD lowers the
number of monitor units, while increasing SSD (inverse square law) increases it.
The latter is the dominant effect.
289 mu × 0.961
Nmu = = 594 mu
0.467
14.7 BSF and TAR are calculated in the same way. BSF is a special case of TAR, it is
when the dose in the phantom is measured at dmax..
TAR and TMR are similar in that all measurements are made at the same SAD—
therefore they are both independent of distances to the source (SSD). They differ
in how the measurements are made. TMR measurements are all made within
the phantom, whereas one of the TAR doses is measured in air.
14.8 So long as SAD and depth (n) remain constant, then nothing. TAR and TMR
values are not dependent on SSD.
14.9 The formula we need to use is:
2
Tumor Dose ⎛ SADtreat ⎞
Nmu = ×⎜
C cal × C fs × C attn × TMR ⎝ SADcal ⎟⎠
Tumor dose, Ccal, and Cfs are given in the problem. In this case SADtreat = SADcal
= 100 cm, so their ratio is one and it disappears from the calculation. No
mention of equipment T attenuation
ESTBANKisSEmade
LLER in.this
COMproblem, so we can assume
Cattn = 1, and it also disappears from the calculation. What remains gives us the
treatment time.
245 cGy
Nmu = = 249 mu
⎛ cGy ⎞
⎜⎝1.02 mu ⎟⎠ × 1.034 × 0.932
14.10 If this were a PDD problem, we could use Equation 14.1. As it is, it looks like we
are stuck with Equation 14.6. Solving for dose, and ignoring Cattn, we have:
2
⎛ SADcal ⎞
Dose = Nmu × C cal × C fs × TMR × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ SADtreat ⎠
We can now apply this to our doses at 2.5 cm and 15.0 cm depth. Remember
that SADcal is 100 cm (for purposes of significant figures, let’s assume this value
is good to ± 0.1 cm), which is the source to tumor distance, which is at a depth
of 6.5 cm. Therefore our two “SADtreat” values will be:
SAD @ dmax = 100 cm – 6.5 cm + 2.5 cm = 96.0 cm
SAD @ exit = 100 cm – 6.5 cm + 15.0 cm = 108.5 cm
We can now solve for dose. Note that you should know that the TMR value at
dmax is exactly one.

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98
2
1.02 cGy ⎛ 100 cm ⎞
Dose = 249 mu × × 1.034 × 1.00 × ⎜ = 285 cGy
mu ⎝ 96.0 cm⎟⎠
2
1.02 cGy ⎛ 100 cm ⎞
Dose = 249 mu × × 1.034 × 0.741× ⎜ = 165 cGy
mu ⎝ 108.5 cm⎟⎠
14.11 Once again, the formula we need to use is:

2
Tumor Dose ⎛ SADtreat ⎞
Nmu = ×⎜
C cal × C fs × C attn × TMR ⎝ SADcal ⎟⎠
Tumor dose, Ccal, Cfs, and SADcal are all given in the problem. From the example
problem in Section 14.3, Cattn is 0.97. The TMR value must be interpolated from
the values given in the problem.
TMR=0.871− 10
3
(0.871− 0.838) = 0.861
SADtreat is the sum of SSD and the tumor depth:

SADtreat = 110 cm + 7.3 cm = 117.3 cm
Finally, we are ready to calculate the number of monitor units.
2
225 cGy ⎛ 117.3⎞
Nmu = × M ⎟⎠ = 378 mu
cGyTESTBANKSELLER.C⎜⎝ O100
1.001 × 0.978 × 0.97 × 0.861
mu
14.12 Secondary radiation: Ionizing radiation, originally headed in another direction,
but is scattered into a target.
Field symmetry: The shape of the photon field. Or, a comparison of the overall
intensity between two halves of the beam.
SAD: Source to axis distance. The distance between the source and the target.
Tissue-air ratio: Dose in a human (or phantom) at a certain distance from the
source divided by the dose in air at the same distance from the source.
TMR: Tissue maximum ratio – the ratio of the dose at dmax to the dose at some
other depth inside the patient, keeping the source to point of measurement
(SAD) constant. TMR is a way of looking at patient attenuation.
14.13 High Z metals are used because they will also absorb most of the X-rays
produced (due to bremsstrahlung).
14.14 The electrons in these beams have a lot of energy (like a kid who eats too much
high-sugar cereal!). These electrons can interact with a nucleus (air, collimator,
cone, patient) via inelastic scattering, generating X-rays. Ja, das ist
bremsstrahlung.
14.15 The big reason is that electrons do not deliver much of a dose beyond the Bragg
peak, therefore electrons would be preferred when a relatively superficial (0-5

TESTBANKSELLER.COM
99
cm depth) treatment is needed where there is some deeper structure that should
not receive much of a dose.
Because of their inability to deliver significant doses below ~5 cm, electron
therapy would not be preferred when treating something that deep.
14.16 Electron isodose curves are much less penetrating because electrons are much
more likely to interact with matter—so they tend to be more bunched up. The
electron curves will also tend to bulge out at the sides (more penumbra!)
because electrons are much more likely to be scattered through larger angles
than photons.
In terms of energy, the fundamental difference is that all of the electrons have
an energy pretty close to that of the machine’s setting, whereas the photon
energies range from very low values up to a maximum of just below that value.
14.17 Start with Equation 6.10 to calculate range.
E0 12 MeV
Re− = = = 6.0 cm
2.0 MeV 2.0 MeV
cm cm
At 3.0 cm PDD will be 90%—we can prove it by using Equation 14.7.
E0 12 MeV
d90% = = = 3.0 cm
MeV MeV
TE4.0 ANKS4.0
STBcm ELLE R.COM
cm
Treatment time is calculated using Equation 14.9.
Tumor Dose 170 cGy

Nmu = = = 190 mu
Dn cGy
Of × × C fs 1.00 × 0.90 × 0.985
Dmax mu
14.18 Unlike photon treatment, there’s no real need to stick a plastic tray in an
electron beam. It doesn’t harden the beam like it does in photon treatments, it
would simply attenuate the beam and make treatment time unnecessarily
longer.
14.19 If the chunk removed is too wide (top and bottom on Figure 14.11), it would
cause extra dose to be delivered behind the tumor both above and below the
bone’s “shadow” (any part of the proton beam behind the bone structure. If the
chunk is too deep (i.e., the compensator is too thin in the space where the
chunk was removed), then too much dose will be delivered in the tissue beyond
the tumor within the bone’s shadow.
If the chunk missing is misaligned, too much dose will be delivered behind the
tumor where the compensator is now too thin, and not enough will be delivered
to the tumor where the compensator is too thick (over the bone).

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100
14.20 Pro-proton: Dose distributions are generally much better than photon
treatments, minimizing dose to nearby healthy tissue. This could make the
difference if a critical body part was near the tumor.
Anti-proton: It is darned expensive and relatively few facilities exist. Finally,
proton therapy cannot go very deep. If the tumor is too far inside the body,
proton therapy won’t work.
14.21 To maximize the therapeutic ratio—especially if there is something dense (bone)
in the beam’s way, or if there is something behind the tumor that should not be
exposed.
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TESTBANKSELLER.

Chapter 1 Answers to Questions

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This would be considered infrared radiation.

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Isobars: 16O and 16N

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positron decay nuclear reaction beta (minus) decay

1.19 The first four are unstable, here’s why:

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TESTBANKSELLER.COM #1 TEST BANKS WHOLESALER

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Chapter 2 Answers to Questions

12 mol 12 C 6.022 × 1023 12 C atoms 12.00 u 12 C

2.4 The percent abundance T

1 mol Br2 2 mol Br 6.022 × 1023 Br atoms 49.31 81Br atoms

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The A2’s cancel out, giving:

Divide both sides by half-life and you’ve got Eq. 2.3:

⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ 5718dpm⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞

2.10 Using a half-life of 2.7476 days for 99Mo:

2.11 We’ll use equation 2.1, solved for time.

2.22 × 106 dpm

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2.12 According to Appendix A, the half-life for 244

2.13 Using the percent efficiency equation:

Shelf efficiencies were therefore:

140 g K mol 6.022 × 1023ions

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How many are 40K?

0.0117 40K ions

Rinse and repeat with 12C and 40K.

1000 g K mol K 6.022 × 1023 atoms C 0.0117 atoms 40K

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We can now calculate specific activity.

1 mol NaTcO4 1 mol Tc 6.022 × 1023 atoms

Finally, calculate specific

The activity is then:

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Specific activity is:

mol K2O 2 mol K 0.0117 mol 40K 6.022 × 1023 atoms

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⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ ln2⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ ln2 ⎞

mol 40 Ar 1 mol 40K 100 decays (all) 40.0 g 40K

3.01× 105 a 3.01× 105 a

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8.35 × 104 dpm =

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ln2 mol 6.022 × 10−23 atoms

Atotal = 4.33 × 105 dpm ×T10

2.30 These two nuclides are formed in the 238

2.31 a and c are true.

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AMo-99 t1/2(Tc-99m ) AMo-99 3.66 × 1013 dpm

⎛ mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms ⎞

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2.36 No. With only 20 data collected,

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The RSD is:

2.38 Using Excel to do the math, the following can be obtained.

Run 1 (cpm) Run 2 (cpm)

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Chapter 3 Answers to Questions