IES / CEE / FOR / GLE 301

Introduction to Aerial
Photographic Systems

Professor Thomas Lillesand

Teaching Assistant Jamon Van Den Hoek

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Shoreline Erosion, Lake Michigan

1962 bluff
edge

1962 1992

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IKONOS image: Stockton Island,
Apostle Islands National Lakeshore,
Lake Superior
July 8, 2001
1 m enhanced resolution, true-color

Figure 1.1 Electromagnetic remote sensing of earth resources.

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 Fundamental Principles of

Electromagnetic Radiation

Wave Theory
c = ν λ where: c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m s-1
ν = frequency (s-1, cycles/s, or Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)

Figure 1.2 An electromagnetic wave.

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 Finding Frequency from Wavelength

Given: λ = 0.55 μm [green light]

Find: ν
Solution: c = νλ
ν=c/λ
ν = (3 x 108 m s-1) / (0.55 x 10-6 m)
ν = 5.45 x 1014 s-1

Finding Wavelength from Frequency

Given: ν = 6000 MHz = 6000 x 106 s-1

Find: λ
Solution: c = νλ
λ=c/ν
λ = (3 x 108 m s-1) / (6 x 109 s-1)
λ = 0.05 m = 5 cm
[microwave, or radar wavelength]

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 Particle Theory

Q = hν

where Q = energy of a quantum, Joules (J)

h = Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10-34 J s
ν = frequency (s-1)

Relating Wave and Particle Theory

Q = hν and c = νλ ;

ν=c/λ

therefore, Q = hc / λ

The longer the wavelength, the lower the

energy content.

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

earth during
near-IR = 0.7 – 1.3 μm daytime:
mid-IR = 1.3 – 3.0 μm more reflected sunlight
thermal IR = 3.0 – 14 μm more emitted energy

Figure 1.3 The electromagnetic spectrum.

Visible Light

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Wavelength (μm)
UV “Blue” “Green” “Red” Near IR

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Nominal Regions of the Spectrum

Ultraviolet: 0.3 - 0.4 μm

Visible: 0.4 - 0.7 μm
Blue: 0.4 - 0.5 μm
Green: 0.5 - 0.6 μm
Red: 0.6 - 0.7 μm

Near Infrared: 0.7 - 1.3 μm

Photographic Infrared: 0.7 - 0.9 μm

Mid Infrared: 1.3 - 3 μm

Thermal Infrared: 3 - 14 μm
Microwave (Radar): 1 mm - 1 m

Unit Prefix Notation

Multiplier Prefix Example

103 kilo (k) kilometer

10-3 milli (m) millimeter

10-6 micro (μ) micrometer

10-9 nano (n) nanometer

Note: one “micron” = one “micrometer”

See also inside back cover of textbook

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 Sources of

Electromagnetic Radiation
Spectral radiant exitance, Mλ (W m-2 μm-1)

Wavelength (μm)
Figure 1.4 Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various
temperatures.

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 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

M = σT4

Where: M = total radiant exitance, or emitted

energy (W m-2)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.6697 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4)
T = temperature (K)

Note: All temperatures must be expressed in

degrees Kelvin (“kelvins”)

K = °C + 273.15

Wien’s Displacement Law

λM = A / T

Where: λM = wavelength of maximum radiant

exitance (μm)
A = constant (2898 μm K)
T = temperature (K)

Note: All temperatures must be expressed in

degrees Kelvin (“kelvins”)

K = °C + 273.15

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 Spectral radiant exitance, Mλ (W m-2 μm-1)
λm(sun)
= 2898 μm K / 6000 K
= 0.48 μm
(sense with camera & film)

λm(earth)
= 2898 μm K / 300 K
= 9.67 μm
(sense with thermal sensor)

Wavelength (μm)
Figure 1.4 Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various
temperatures.

Atmospheric Effects on

Electromagnetic Radiation

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Figure 1.1 Electromagnetic remote sensing of earth resources.

Atmospheric Effects

Scattering
• Rayleigh scatter
• Mie scatter
• Nonselective scatter

Absorption

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 Rayleigh Scatter

• Scattering by tiny particles (e.g., atmospheric

molecules) with diameters much smaller than the
wavelength involved.

• Effects are inversely proportional to the fourth

power of wavelength (scatter ∝ 1/λ4).

• Thus, blue wavelengths (0.4 to 0.5 μm) are

scattered more than near-infrared wavelengths
(0.7 to 0.9 μm).

• Occurs even on a “clear day” and is the primary

cause of “haze” in aerial photographs.

Mie Scatter

• Scattering by particles with diameters approximately

equal to the wavelength being sensed.

• Water vapor & dust are major causes of Mie scatter.

• Normally avoid taking aerial photographs when there

is significant Mie scatter.

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 Nonselective Scatter

• Scattering by particles whose diameters are

much larger than the wavelengths being sensed.

• Called “nonselective” because nearly equal

amounts of blue, green, and red light are scattered.

• Water droplets (clouds) cause nonselective scatter.

• Normally avoid taking aerial photographs when

there is significant nonselective scatter.

Rayleigh scatter

Mie scatter

Nonselective
scatter

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 Atmospheric Absorption

• Absorption of energy at specific wavelengths.

• Primary sources are water vapor, carbon dioxide,

and ozone.

• Wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is

particularly transmissive are referred to as
“atmospheric windows.”

Absorption Bands

2500
O3 H2O H2O and CO2

2000
Solar irradiance at top of atmosphere
Spectral irradiance

1500
Solar irradiance at earth surface

1000

500

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Wavelength (micrometers)

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 μ μ μ μ

μ μ μ μ

generally 3 – 5 μm and 8 – 14 μm
0.4 – 0.9 μm (atmos. windows)

μ μ μ μ

Figure 1.5 Spectral characteristics of (a) energy sources, (b) atmospheric

transmittance, and (c) common remote sensing systems.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Interactions with Surface Features

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Figure 1.1 Electromagnetic remote sensing of earth resources.

Figure 1.6 Basic interactions between electromagnetic energy and an earth

surface feature.

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 Energy Balance

Incident energy = Reflected + Absorbed + Transmitted

E I (λ ) = E R (λ ) + E A (λ ) + ET (λ )

E I (λ ) ER (λ ) E A (λ ) ET (λ )
= + +
E I (λ ) EI (λ ) E I (λ ) E I (λ )

Energy Balance

Reflectance: Absorptance: Transmittance:

E R (λ ) E A (λ ) ET (λ )
ρ (λ ) = α (λ ) = τ (λ ) =
E I (λ ) E I (λ ) E I (λ )

1 = ρ (λ ) + α (λ ) + τ (λ )

ρ (λ ) = 1 − [α (λ ) + τ (λ )]

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 Reflectance

ER (λ )
ρ (λ ) =
E I (λ )

Energy of wavelength (λ) reflected from object

ρλ (%) = x 100
Energy of wavelength (λ) incident upon object

Types of Reflectors

Figure 1.7 Specular versus diffuse reflectance.

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 Spectral Response Patterns

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Wavelength (μm)

Figure 1.8 Generalized spectral reflectance envelopes for deciduous

(broad-leaved) and coniferous (needle-bearing) species.

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 Figure 1.9a Low altitude oblique aerial photograph (panchromatic).

Figure 1.9b Low altitude oblique aerial photograph (black and white infrared).

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 Spectral Reflectance Curves

Figure 1.10 Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation, soil, and water.

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 Sources of Reflection over Water

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4. Atmospheric
path radiance.
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3. Surface
2. Volume of H2O and 2
suspended materials
1. Bottom 1

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 Components of Total Radiance

Figure 1.11 Atmospheric effects influencing the measurement of reflected

solar energy.

Components of Total Radiance

ρET
Ltot = + Lp
π
Where: Ltot = total radiance measured by sensor
ρ = reflectance of object
E = irradiance on object; incoming energy
T = transmission of atmosphere
Lp = path radiance; from the atmosphere and
not from the object

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 Variations in Solar Illumination

• Sunlight vs. skylight

• Seasonal changes:

- Solar elevation angle

- Earth-sun distance

100 sunl
ight

90
Energy level (% of maximum)

80

70
sk
ylig
ht

60

50

0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Wavelength (μm)

Relative spectral distribution of sunlight and skylight on a clear day.

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Relative irradiance ratios of sunlight to
skylight for different weather conditions.

Weather condition Solar/sky irradiance

Sunny, clear sky 7/1

Sunny, hazy sky 3/1
Sun through thin clouds 1/1

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