Tribological Investigation on Automotive

Disc Brakes
MANE – 6960 Friction Wear and Lubrication

12/09/2013

Research by Jared Feist

Abstract
The purpose of this research paper will focus on giving the reader the basic macroscopic description of
automotive disc brake systems in order to provide an in-depth examination into the tribological contact
between brake pad and rotor on a microscopic level. This investigation will involve a comprehensive
study of the formation, mechanical properties, and tribological surfaces of the pad-rotor contact during
braking. All findings presented will be linked to the basic mechanisms of friction. The friction
mechanisms responsible in automotive breaking are difficult to study. These mechanisms depend on
the design of the brake system, the materials in contact, and the friction characteristics. Variations in
pad-rotor contact and friction mechanisms on the micro level occur rapidly and at random making the
braking phenomenon difficult to quantify. Regardless, studies of the friction behavior are necessary to
increase the understanding of these contact characteristics. This information is important in any model
of a braking system focused on explaining these complex contact friction events. Variations in braking
are associated with both the different pad-rotor material, as well as the environment these systems are
intended to operate within. In order to study friction behavior, many modern techniques are used
including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), white light optical interferometry, energy dispersive x-ray
analysis, pin on disc tribometer, and nanoindentation. The friction behavior between pad and rotor is
closely related to the formation of contact plateaus during braking. The number of plateaus formed on
during pad-rotor interaction is on the order of 105 based an average pad area of 5000 mm2. These
plateaus are sub-characterized into primary and secondary plateaus. The primary plateaus are
constituted by the wear resistant components of the pad and support the development of secondary
plateaus. The secondary plateaus are formed by wear debris, compacted by the normal and frictional
loads against the primary plateaus. Within a thin layer on top of the secondary plateaus, a tribofilm of
very dense and sintered debris forms. This tribofilm has hardness close to that of the structural fibers of
the pad; while the rest of the secondary plateau below this film is much softer. The plateaus distribute
the load evenly over what is the real contact area. Formation and deterioration of the contact plateaus
are important mechanisms influencing the friction between pad and rotor. Formation and shape of
these plateaus are believed to explain some of the friction characteristics for pad-rotor contact.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 3
List of Figures................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Fundamentals of Friction .................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Automotive Brake System ................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Material ............................................................................................................................................... 6
2.0 Tribological Study of Brakes .................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Contact Plateaus.................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Load Effects ......................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Temperature Effects ..........................................................................................................................10
3.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................11
References ...................................................................................................................................................13

List of Figures
Figure 1 – Basic Systematic Representation of Friction ................................................................................ 4
Figure 2 – Schematic of Apparent Area of Contact vs. Real Area of contact ................................................ 5
Figure 3 – Simplified Schematic of a Disc Brake ............................................................................................ 6
Figure 4 – Systematic Representation of Contact Plateaus .......................................................................... 8
Figure 5 – SEM Cross-section of Secondary Plateau ..................................................................................... 8
Figure 6 – SEM Image of Primary and Secondary Contact Plateaus ............................................................. 9
Figure 7 – Variations in Contact Area ............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 8 – Hot Pad Convex Surface Contact ................................................................................................10
Figure 9 – Cool Pad after Convex Wear.......................................................................................................10
Figure 10 – Specific Wear Rate vs. Temperature for Brake Pads ................................................................11

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1.0 Introduction
Brakes dissipate energy by converting rotational motion into heat. Disc brakes slow the rotational
motion of automobile wheels with friction caused by a brake pad pushing against a brake disc or rotor.
This force is typically applied by a piston and cylinder which is hydraulically powered and controlled by
the vehicle operator. This system is mechanically linked to the wheel or drive train and used to stop the
vehicle; friction causes the rotor and attached wheel to slow and/or stop.

Modern automotive disc brake systems experience a wide range of contact scenarios, which continue to
remain a perplexing subject for researchers. The primary focus on the interaction of the two main
components the disk or rotor and brake pad. The wide variety and complex make up of these
components along with changing environmental conditions make understanding the exact mechanics
beyond the basic idea of friction difficult. In general the tribological contacts present in automotive
brakes involve dry sliding contact at varying speeds and contact forces.

1.1 Fundamentals of Friction

The most important physical phenomena related to braking is friction. Friction is a resistive force acting
on a body which prevents or slows the slipping of the body relative to a second body or surface. This
relative motion can be expressed as a combination of sliding, rolling, and spin. The force is acting
tangent to the surface at points of contact and is directed to oppose relative motion as seen in Figure 1.
There are several types of friction, but this study will focus on dry friction which is sometimes referred
to as Coulomb friction. Dry friction is the resistance of relative motion between two solid surfaces in
contact at rest or in motion.

Figure 1 – Basic Systematic Representation of Friction

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Friction is directly proportional to the applied load and independent of the apparent area. Friction is
often quantified as a ratio of normal force (FN) to lateral or tangential force (Ft), by the friction
coefficient (μ).





Eq. 1

To clearly understand one has to take a closer look at the basic mechanisms of friction. All surfaces have
roughness, if two rough surfaces are pressed against each other only small parts will contact each other.
This real area of contact will be very small and in fact can be defined by the normal force and hardness
of the two materials rather than the measured apparent area. A decreased hardness or increased load
will increase the real contact area. For example, a given combination of materials in contact, if the
normal force is doubled the area of contact will double. To gain a perspective on real contact area
consider a 100 mm steel cube, with hardness of 3 GPa resting on a steel plate, the apparent contact area
is 10,000 mm2, however, the real contact area is on the order of 0.03 mm2.

Figure 2 – Schematic of Apparent Area of Contact vs. Real Area of contact

Although the basic idea of friction can be easily described by two simple bodies in relative motion, the
complexity of microscopic interactions takes the calculation of friction from basic mathematical formula
and necessitates the use of experimental analysis and the development of theory.

1.2 Automotive Brake System

An automotive brake system is a hydro-mechanical system used by the operator to control stopping.
This system can be broken down into four main areas:
1. Hydraulics (operator, piston, and caliper)
2. Wheels/Tires
3. Pads
4. Rotors

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Hydraulics are used to transfer and amplify operator input to the brake pedal to a hydraulic piston
pressing the pad against the rotor, which control automobile tire rotation. Brake rotors rotate with the
wheel/tire; it is the first part of the brake friction couple with the brake pads making up the stationary
portion of the brake friction couple. The friction forces between the pads and rotors will convert kinetic
energy into heat slowing and/or stopping the rotation of a vehicle’s wheels/tires to ultimately stop the
automobile.

Hydraulic
system

Wheel
Pads
attachment
point
Rotor

Figure 3 – Simplified Schematic of a Disc Brake

1.3 Material

There is a vast array of material combinations being used for both brake pads and rotors with a constant
focus on balancing performance and cost. In general most production automobiles on the road today
utilize pearlitic gray cast iron rotors with 3-4% carbon and vary performance with different pad material.
Gray cast iron has sufficient mechanical strength, wear resistance, good damping properties, low cost
and is easily manufactured. With a typical hardness of 3 GPa, it sufficiently resists the clamping force of
the brake pads. Research has shown typical clamping force during normal braking is between 6 kN and
10 kN; when these forces are applied to a brake pad with an area of 5000 mm2 the corresponding
normal pressure is 2 MPa.

Modern brake pads come in many different varieties and are categorized as: metallic, semi-metallic,
carbon, and organic. Organic pads are metal fiber reinforced organic matrix. They are generally a
compound of a number of different materials broken down into four different categories:

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 1. Binder – a type of thermo resin used to hold all other components together in order to form a
thermally stable matrix.
2. Structural materials – typically fibers of metal, carbon, glass, Kevlar, and/or ceramic fibers are
utilized to proved mechanical strength.
3. Fillers – such as mica, vermiculite, and barium sulphate are used mainly to reduce cost of pads.
4. Frictional additives – solid lubricants like graphite and metal sulphides are utilized to ensure
stable frictional properties and control wear primarily at elevated temperatures.

2.0 Tribological Study of Brakes

The analysis of pad-rotor interaction is proven difficult to perform because of the composition of brake
pads, rough surface structure, and the difference in mechanical properties. These different elements
create many different obstacles for consistent and repeatable measurement. The microscopic
examination herein will include a look at contact geometry, surface composition, and mechanical
properties of the contact areas.

Direct insights into the dynamic activities occurring between two rubbing surfaces, in this case pad-
rotor, is difficult to achieve, mainly because the two surfaces can only be studied before and after any
interactions occur. This difficult before and after comparisons lend itself only to educated speculation
as to what exactly happened during contact. Many researchers believe that a large portion of contact
friction in braking relies on contact plateaus and the creation of a friction film in which wear debris helps
to form these microscopic interactions. The formation of friction layers is believed to act as a protective
coating against brake wear, but is very hard to quantify because the dynamic environments brakes are
subjected to. Not only do these coatings tend to flake off between breaking applications, their
formation is somewhat random due to the microscopic variations present in the pad-rotor contact
surfaces.

2.1 Contact Plateaus

As discussed earlier, contact between the pads and rotors are not two ideal flat surfaces but each
component has roughness with peaks and valleys with the resulting contact between these two surfaces
occurring at these peaks or plateaus. There are two types of contact plateaus, primary and secondary.
The primary plateaus form due to the low removal rate of the mechanically stable and wear resistant
ingredients in the pad. The primary plateaus form a network of channels created between pad and
rotor debris become caught in these channels, compacted by the normal braking pressure forming
secondary plateaus. These contact plateaus form the real contact area in developing friction forces.
The size and composition of these plateaus has a critical influence on the frictional behavior of the brake
pad. These imperfect contact areas allow smaller particles to pass between plateaus; this phenomenon
can be seen in Figure 4.

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 Figure 4 – Systematic Representation of Contact Plateaus

The buildup of these plateaus is believed to be based on a combination of supply of wear debris, spacing
between the pad and rotor, friction energy, and normal load. The formation and growth of secondary
plateaus can occur under a second with favorable conditions. Within a thin layer on top of the
secondary plateaus, a tribofilm of very dense and sintered debris forms. This tribofilm has hardness
close to that of the structural fibers of the pad; while the rest of the secondary plateau below this film is
much softer, as seen if Figure 5. The ability to form secondary plateaus leads to increased friction
between the pad and rotor resulting in more stopping potential.

Surface of densely packed tribofilm

Underlying softer structural layer

Figure 5 – SEM Cross-section of Secondary Plateau

The lower areas between plateaus are filled with more wear-prone material such as resins, pad fillers,
and friction modifiers. This presents a paradox as to why the topography remains in a relatively steady
state, as these plateaus are always present. The lower areas are never in direct contact, but the steady
state topography suggests that these areas have abrasion. Secondary plateaus wear due to both direct
contact and third body abrasion due to wear particles; this may explain why wear is observed in lower
areas. Wear debris that is larger than the space between the pad and rotor are unable to escape the

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contact area, resulting in tumbling which in turn mills down the lower areas of the pad. These particles
become smaller and smaller until they either escape the contact or become part of a secondary plateau.
Secondary plateaus need relatively stable conditions and normal force to exist; when brake pressure is
reduced large portions of these compacted areas peel off in flakes. This deterioration of secondary
plateaus makes it impossible to evaluate a completely formed secondary plateau.

Figure 6, shows the composition and topography of two contact plateaus that support the formation of
the secondary plateau using a SEM. Both images show the same area: (a) shows an enhanced
topographical contrast, while (b) shows an enhanced composition contrast.

Figure 6 – SEM Image of Primary and Secondary Contact Plateaus

2.2 Load Effects

Studies of contact plateaus have show that the size of these plateaus varies with the brake pressure.
Under low pressure braking, the average size of plateaus have been recorded on the order of 50 to 500
μm constituting 10-30% of the nominal pad area. Under high pressure and temperature, these plateaus
can grow to millimeters in size to cover the majority of the pad.

Rotor Rotor

Low Pressure Pad High Pressure Pad

Figure 7 – Variations in Contact Area

Two theories have been postulated to explain this phenomenon:

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 1. The increased load will reduce the space between the pad and rotor; when the height of the
narrow passages between the primary plateaus is reduced, more debris will clog these
passageways thus forming more secondary plateaus.

2. The effects of the increased pressure and temperature will make wear debris more prone to
sinter forming more clusters of secondary plateaus.

Load variation has also shown to affect the coefficient of friction. Studies have shown the friction
coefficient to fluctuate between 0.3 and 0.5 through a pressure range of 1 to 2 MPa, but will decrease if
the load is increased over 2 MPa because of thermal effects and the strength of the pad materials used.
Researchers have suggested that steel fibers play an important role in the quantification of the
coefficient of friction. Steel fibers act as asperity junctions; inter-atomic interactions lead to adhesion
bonding of the materials. As load/pressure increase, so does the real area of contact and for relative
motion to occur shearing must take place at these junctions. For a given load yielding requires less
compressive stress when shear stresses are present, therefore, pad-rotor contact loaded in compression
will grow under combined compression and shear. Since this type of growth is limited by the strength of
materials in contact, it can be assumed that the real area of contact will eventually reach a maximum
effective area and friction forces will be highest prior to more external load being applied.

2.3 Temperature Effects

Almost all braking energy is dissipated in the form of heat. Temperature effects on braking are studied
at both the system and material levels. During long braking cycles pad-rotor friction creates large
amounts of heat; the pad contact surface will be hotter than the outer pad surface. This will result in
convex bending of the pad creating an uneven pressure distribution as seen in Figure 8.

Figure 8 – Hot Pad Convex Surface Contact

This uneven wear distribution during elevated temperatures will be reversed when the system returns
to a lower temperature as seen in Figure 9 due to the uneven wearing of the convex pad.

Figure 9 – Cool Pad after Convex Wear

The above thermally induced pad shape variations further add to the complexity and reduce the real
contact area during braking.

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Local high temperature on the pad contact surface can reach flash temperature that is hundreds of
degrees higher than that of the bulk of the material. This results in softening of the pad materials
leading to a weakened fiber matrix and an overall decrease in the strength of the materials. As
temperature increases material shear strength decreases resulting in a decrease in the coefficient of
friction. Increased temperatures can also lead to the formation of oxides at the contact interfaces.
Certain oxides have lubricating characteristics and may act to aid the lubricating materials already
present in the pad. Some rotors are prone to large variations due to heat cycles. As previously
mentioned the increase in temperature weakens the materials in contact. This leads to increased
thermal stress and increased wear. Pad bonding materials are usually suspected of a high rate of
degradation under elevated temperatures. Figure 10, depicts the specific wear rate of pad materials
significantly increases with increased temperature.

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Specific Wear Rate (x10-4 mm3 N-1 m-1)

30

20

10

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Temperature (°C)

Figure 10 – Specific Wear Rate vs. Temperature for Brake Pads

3.0 Conclusion
There is a large amount of published literature suggesting there is an existence of a friction layer that
plays a large role in contact interaction of pad and rotor. The majority of literature referenced mentions
the effects contact plateaus and friction layers play in braking friction. This suggests that braking
materials must not only be chosen based on their mechanical properties, but that oxidation effects must
also be considered. The complex nature of pad-rotor contact makes relationships difficult to comment
on. Variation in loads at low pressure initially acts to prevent wear due to the debris forming a tribofilm,
but at higher pressure it acts to increase wear because of the materials used for brakes. Temperature is
thought to have the largest effect on wear and frictional behaviors. Increased temperature affects the
mechanical properties as well as acting to more rapidly form oxidation layers, thus greatly reducing
contact.

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Research into the complexities of pad-rotor contact further illustrates much is unknown about the exact
modes of contact during automotive braking. Many of the literatures referenced only offer suggestions
and insights into what may be happening and very few are willing to confidently conclude what they
believe to be the explanation behind experimental results. The references suggested there is still a
substantial amount of research to be done to understand the mechanism of braking friction and further
develop new pad rotor materials.

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References
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c. A Comprehensive Microscopic Study of Third Body Formation at the Interface between Brake Pad and Rotor
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