Photodiodes &

Phototransistors
 Session Meta Data

Author Dr. R.Kalidoss

Reviewer

Version Number 1.1

Release Date 11 January 2021

2 v 1.1
 Revision History

Revision Date Details Version

no.
11 January 2021 1. New SSN template applied 1.1
2. Student notes in slides

3 v 1.1
 Session Objectives
To study the following optical sensors
 Photodiodes
 Phototransistors

4 v 1.1
 Session Outcomes
• At the end of this session, participants will be able to
learn and understand the principle of working of optical
sensors such as
– Photodiodes
– Phototransistors

5 v 1.1
 Agenda

• Photodiodes
• Phototransistors

6 v 1.1
 Photodiodes
• Structure of Photodiode

7 v 1.1
 Contd..

 Because non-depleted p and n regions are conductive, any

applied voltage is applied to the depletion region, where it
creates an electric field.
 Any incident radiation absorbed produces electron-hole pairs,
which accumulate in the p and n regions because of the
electric field, thus resulting in a voltage (photovoltaic effect).
 In order to collect the output current, charges have to migrate
to the diode surface, which slows the response time.
 This results in a higher recombination probability, which
reduces the responsivity (sensitivity).

8 v 1.1
 Contd..
 Figure shows the response of a photodiode to a square pulse
of radiation.
 When there is no polarization (0V), the response is slow
because of the slow charge migration toward the surface.
 But when a small inverse voltage is applied (5V), charges
generated in the depletion region are quickly collected and
are responsible for the fast initial response.
 Charges produced outside the depletion region migrate very
slowly and are responsible for the slow part of the response.
 For a larger applied voltage (30V) the depletion region
extends to the entire device depth, which results in a single
fast rising edge.

9 v 1.1
 Contd..

Speed of response for a photodiode as a function of reverse bias voltage

amplitude (courtesy of Centronic).

10 v 1.1
 Contd..
 A method to increase the sensitivity and spectral bandwidth for
photodiodes consists of placing a region of intrinsic semiconductor
between the p and n regions, thus forming a p-i-n diode.
 Then most of the incident photons are absorbed in this intrinsic
region where there is a lower recombination rate.
 The increased separation between doped zones also results in a
reduced internal capacitance.
 A bias voltage large enough to bring the photodiode near
breakdown yields a chain reaction- termed avalanche multiplication-
which amplifies the basic photodiode current by up to 100.
 This permits low-light measurement and also high-speed
measurement.
 However, avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are so sensitive to
tolerances in bias voltage and diode characteristics that they may
need individual circuit adjustment
11 v 1.1
 Equivalent circuit

12 v 1.1
 Contd..
• Some color sensors use a red, a blue, and a green filter
preceding the photodiode.
• The color is determined by measuring the current generated
by the light transmitted through each filter.
• A shortcoming is that filters also attenuate the intensity of
light of the desired wavelength.
• An alternative method uses a transparent window and two
stacked (back-to-back) p-i-n photodiodes.
• The photodiodes' spectral response depends on the voltage
difference applied to them.
• By sequentially applying three different bias voltages we can
detect the intensity of the three basic colors.

13 v 1.1
 Contd..
• As in other electronic devices, noise limits the minimal
detectable signal.
• If noise is considered as a signal due to an incident radiation,
the power for the radiation necessary to yield that signal is
called noise equivalent power (NEP).
• For a biased diode, the major noise source is the shot current
associated with the average leakage or dark current ID (as
low as 100 pA).
• The noise current is

• where q=0.169 aC is the electron charge and B the noise

bandwidth.
• If the detector flux responsivity at the working wavelength is S
[A/W], we have

14 v 1.1
 Contd..
The resulting noise is equal to the thermal noise associated with the dynamic
resistance Rp,

15 v 1.1
 Contd..
• We assume that both current sources are independent
and, hence, add their powers.
• Because 17 pA is more than three times 4 pA, the
overall current power is about (17 pA)2.
• Therefore, we have

16 v 1.1
 Photodiodes

 A photodiode is a type of photo-sensor in which the incident light

falls on a semiconductor junction,
 and the separation of electrons and holes caused by the action of
light will allow the junction to conduct even when it is reverse
biased.
 Photodiodes are constructed like any other diodes, using silicon, but
without the opaque coating that is normally used on signal and
rectifier diodes.
 In the absence of this opaque coating, the material is transparent
enough to permit light to affect the junction conductivity and so alter
the amount of reverse current that flows when the diode is reverse-
biased.

17 v 1.1
 Contd..
 Because this is a reverse current diode, its amplitude is not large,
and the sensitivity of photodiodes is quoted in terms of µA of current
per mW/cm2 of incident power.
 For the normal range of illuminations, this corresponds to currents
of l nA to l mA at a reverse bias of 20 V.
 The lower figure is the dark current, the amount of current that flows
with no perceptible illumination.
 As with all semiconductor devices, the dark current of a photo-diode
will increase considerably as the temperature is increased, doubling
for each l0◦C rise in temperature.
 The characteristics of a typical silicon general-purpose photodiode
from the RS Components catalogue.
 The peak spectral response is at 750 nm, which is in the near
infrared, and the sensitivity is quoted as 0.7 µA/mW/cm2.
 The typical dark current at a bias of 20 V is l.4 nA, which means
that the minimum detectable power input is of the order of
 2 µW/cm2.
18 v 1.1
 Contd..
• The current plotted against the illumination gives a reasonably linear
graph, and the response time is around 250 ns, making the device
suitable for modulated light beams that carry modulation into the
video signal region.
• Figure shows the suggested circuit for using this type of photo-
diode along with an operational amplifier for a voltage output.
• The feedback resistor R will determine the output voltage, which will
be RxI, where I is the diode current.
• Note that when an operational amplifier is used in this way, the
frequency response of the system is determined more by the
operational amplifier and the stray capacitance across the feedback
resistor than by the photodiode.

19 v 1.1
 A circuit making use of the silicon photodiode
(courtesy of RS Components Ltd).

20 v 1.1
 Phototransistor

• A phototransistor is an integrated combination of photodiode and

n-p-n transistor where the optical radiation illuminates the base

• where (signal current) ip and (leakage or dark current) iD are given, and
β is the current gain for the transistor in the common emitter configuration
(from 100 to 1000).
• This gain is not constant but depends on the current and therefore
on the illumination level.
• This lack of linearity and also their lower bandwidth as compared to
photodiodes (due to the large base-collector capacitance) makes
them less suitable for measurement.
• Phototransistors, however, suit switching applications because of
their current gain.
21 v 1.1
 Contd..
• For applications requiring gains
up to 100,000, photo-Darlingtons are
available that consist of a phototransistor feeding the base
of a second transistor.
• Phototransistors work in the wavelength range from 0.4
mm to 1.1 mm.
• Phototransistors are extensively used in photoelectric
sensing for industrial applications.
• Photoelectric sensing uses a light source (LED or
incandescent lamp for color applications) and a
• Photoelectric sensor –phototransistor that responds to a
change in the intensity of the light falling upon it.
• Applications requiring high sensitivity to visible light use
22
photoconductors. v 1.1
 Contd..
• Applications requiring a very fast response or a linear
response over a broad range of irradiance use photodiodes.
• The emitted light is modulated by turning the LED on and off
at several kilohertz
• Phototransistors have maximal sensitivity to infrared LEDs,
but red, green, yellow, and blue LEDs are also used.
• Sensing ranges are from about 20 cm to more than 50 m.
• There are three basic photoelectric sensing modes:
– opposed,
– retroreflective,
– and proximity

23 v 1.1
 Opposed sensing mode
• This is referred to as through-beam, beam-break, or
direct scanning, the light from the emitter is directly
aimed at the receiver (Figure 9.10a). .
• Any object interrupting the light path is detected.
• To detect small parts or inspect small profiles, or for very
accurate position sensing, the diameter of the light beam
can be reduced by placing an aperture at the emitter or
receiver side, or at both.

24 v 1.1
 Retroreflective sensing mode
• In the retroreflective sensing mode, also termed reflex,
or retro for short, the emitter aims the light beam at the
retroreflective target,
• which bounces it back to the receiver as shown in
(Figure 9.10b). An object is sensed when it interrupts
the beam, provided that it is not highly reflective

25 v 1.1
 proximity mode sensing
• In proximity mode sensing the object establishes a light beam
rather than interrupts it.
• The emitter and the receiver are on the same side of the
object.
• The emitter sends energy and the receiver detects the energy
reflected from the object (Figure 9.10c).
• Bright white surfaces are sensed at a greater range than dull
black surfaces.
• Also, large objects return more energy than small objects.
• Lens systems focus the emitted light to an exact point in front
of the sensor, and they also focus the receiver at the same
point.
• This determines a well-define sensing area. Shiny objects,
however, are not detected unless they remain parallel to the
sensor lens
26 v 1.1
27 v 1.1
 Summary
The following sensors have been studied.
• Photodiodes
• Phototransistors

28 v 1.1
 Test your understanding
1. List out the applications of Photodiodes and
Phototransistors and discuss the same

29 v 1.1
 References
1. Ian R Sinclair, Sensors and Transducers, Newnes publishers, Third Edition,
2001.

30 v 1.1