The Kasierreich 1890-1918

How was Germany governed and how did political authority change and develop?

1890-1918
The 1871

Control of Reichstag constitution

some historians have argued that Wilhelm was merely a

Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ failed to weaken

continued Prussian dominance of the

‘shadow emperor’ in this period. They argue that the

traditional right-wing elites held far greater influence over

support for the SPD, which was the Kaiser’s

Bundesrat ensured that the 1871 constitution

aim in 1890. The SPD gained seats in the

remained unchanged after 1890.
government policy than the Kaiser, and he acted simply as

1893 election
a public face and mouthpiece for their interests This meant that only the Kaiser’s government
Hohenlohe was unable to pass a Subversion

the Kaiser appointed Caprivi as someone who he could

Bill in 1894 or an Anti-Union Bill in 1899

could propose new legislation thus ensuring

control. Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ was launched in response to

the Kaiser’s desire to be the ‘people’s Kaiser’ and ‘kill

due to opposition in the Reichstag. The

their political authority was maintained
government had to abandon such plans to

socialism with kindness’. The Kaiser changed his mind over

eliminate the ‘left-wing threat

the strategy to undermine socialism in 1894 and dismissed

Caprivi when the two disagreed over the issue

in 1909, Bülow’s finance bill was defeated
Scandals
by the Reichstag. Subsequent attempts to

 the Kaiser appointed Hohenlohe as someone he could

deal with the spiralling budget deficit

dominate. The ineffective policy of ‘concentration’ pursued

by Hohenlohe against the socialists was the result of the

foundered on opposition from the left-

in 1913, the Kaiser
in the face of a public outcry in

wing parties to increases in taxes on

response to the Daily Telegraph Affair
Kaiser’s wishes. In 1897, the Kaiser became frustrated with
ignored a vote of no-

consumer goods, and from opposition from

this approach and began to appoint his own ministers,

confidence in
in 1908, the Kaiser was forced to give

Conservatives to property and inheritance

bypassing the chancellor, in pursuit of the new priority of

assurances that he would respect the
taxation Bethmann-Hollweg,
Weltpolitik
 Bülow was known as the ‘Eel’ for his sycophantic

in the 1912 election, the SPD became the

which came as a result
constitution in the future and not

largest party and, together with the

of the Zabern Affair.
act unilaterally on matters of foreign

approach to the Kaiser, thus indicating that the Kaiser

Progressives, controlled a majority for

policy
maintained his political authority over the chancellor from
The Kaiser’s

left-wing parties in the Reichstag. The

1900 to 1909. Bülow’s difficulties in securing Reichstag

Kaiser’s government found it increasingly

constitutional authority
some historians have argued that

approval for military funding stemmed from the Kaiser’s

demands
difficult to have legislation approved by
to appoint and dismiss
after 1908 the Kaiser stood back from

the parties in the Reichstag. the chancellor

his previous role as the ‘personal ruler’

War/ The army regardless of the

of Germany. Shaken by the scandals

Reichstag remained
that engulfed his inner circle, such as

the government aimed to expand the army and navy to complement

unaltered Eulenburg, Von Moltke and Bülow, and

the aims of Weltpolitik. By 1914, the size of Germany’s military had

by The Daily Telegraph Affair, he grew

increased significantly indicating that the government had been

less interested in domestic affairs.
successful.
in 1914, even the SPD voted in favour of the war budget and military
from 1897, the Kaiser’s government pursued the policy of Weltpolitik.

credits, demonstrating that the unifying force of patriotism had won

Bülow was able to manipulate support for Weltpolitik from the Centre

support for the Kaiser and the government. Party in 1902, and from the Progressives in 1907, demonstrating that

the government was successful in implementing its policies

How was Germany governed and how did political authority change and develop?

Caprivi 1890-1894 1890-1918 Hohenlohe 1894 -1900

Appointed 1890 as Wilhelm believed he could control
Elderly Bavarian - a prince.
him - actually he was quite independent. He represented industrialists and anti socialists and much of

Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ to reconcile political groups to

his time was spent trying to get through anti socialist

achieve a workable majority in the Reichstag legislation.

To do this he brought in a number of social
His subversion bill was not passed in 1895/ anti union bill 1899
welfare measures including limiting child and
From 1897 Hohenlohe was no longer at the heart of policy

female labour and working on Sundays making - Wilhelm appointed Bulow as foreign secretary,

He also did trade treaties which offered lower

Tirpitz as naval secretary and Wehner as interior minister.

food duties to Germany's trading partners in

This demonstrated the Kaiser's focus on foreign policy.
exchange for easier access to foreign markets for
Weltpolitik emerged from 1897 - the plan was to
manufactured goods acquire land (colonies)
Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ failed to weaken support for
create a German dominated economic zone
the SPD, which was the Kaiser’s aim in 1890. The SPD
expand navy
gained seats in the 1893 election. socialists also
This was very popular with the nationalist pressure groups

unsatisfied - led to deadlock in Reichstag such as the pan German league and was also popular with

He alienated the elites with social welfare and his

industrialists who saw promise of new sources of raw

tariff act - left the Junkers more vulnerable to

materials and markets.
cheap foreign food imports - led to creation of
Navy expansion massively changed Germany
Agrarian League in 1893. the navy league was founded in 1898 to drum up support

Gave up post of minister of Prussia - given to

which succeeded.
Eulenberg - Junker and favourite of the Kaiser - he
expanding navy was popular as the army was dominated

encouraged Wilhelm to ignore Caprivi by Prussia.

Eulenberg pressed Wilhelm to bring in an anti
Naval bills passed in 1898 and 1900 with support of

socialist law in response to growth of SPD - Caprivi

centre party.
presented with subversion bill but refused to support
also brought problems - the cost was high and was

it - Kaiser threatened to rule without Reichstag but

causing problems with Britain
Caprivi convinced him to drop it. There was also an attempt to to achieve a 'marriage of

Caprivi had lost too much elite support and was

steel and rye' - it wasn't stable and only based on

dismissed supressing socialism.

The alliance of conservatives and national liberals

was only briefly of use in 1898 the centre and SPD

gained more seats

 How was Germany governed and how did political authority change and develop?

Bulow 1900-1909 1890-1918

Hohenlohe resigned in 1900 and Bulow, who had been foreign
Eulenberg affair - 1906
minister filled his place. A Journalist published articles exposing members of German

He had 2 main problems: government and army as homosexuals.

Problem 1: his attempts to introduce tariffs did not go far enough
Eulenberg is accused – who was Wilhelm's best friend and advisor or

to please conservatives in 1902 his tariff law did bring in higher

having homosexual parties it his castle.
Trial followed
duties - but made food prices higher and upset the socialists who

Wilhelm not accused nut Eulenberg boasted they shared rooms and

were growing were close.

This also alienated the socialists and left liberals who disliked
Bulow was a homosexual and Eulenberg had helped him get his job –

the higher food prices. was worried.

SPD gained seats in 1903 elections 1907 Wilhelm broke of relations with Eulenberg – the whole thing

Free conservatives, centre party and National liberals finally

embarrassed him and made him depressed.
supported tariff changes - the Black-Blue alliance - it damaged

Daily Telegraph affair - 1908

the "marriage of iron and steel"
Problem 2: How to finance Weltpolitik 1908 a conversation took place between the Kaiser and a friend

government finance was in a deficit and the biggest demands

which was written up as an interview for the Daily Telegraph.
from army and navy had not yet been made. The Kaiser claimed Germans didn't like Britain and that the England

1905 - he proposed to raise indirect taxes and introduce an

were "mad" in believing he wanted anything but peace
inheritance tax. This led to demands from German press and Reichstag for more

Socialists and centre voted against the indirect tax which

control over the Kaiser's actions.
would increase prices of goods Bulow claimed not to have read the article - however, the Kaiser had

Inheritance tax was opposed by conservatives - who

sent it him before to check. Bulow sided with critics and tried to

weakened the bill to nothing. persuade the Kaiser to agree to more constitutional constraints on his

Bulow was facing stalemate in the Reichstag behaviour.

Centre party critical of Germany's treatment of native people of
No changes were made - showing Reichstag divisions and weakness.
German south west Africa. It undermined Bulows relationship with the Kaiser
Uprising in 1904-5 had been crushed.
Fall
They denied Bulow more money there. Wilhelm didn’t trust Bulow after Daily telegraph affair- he wanted rid.
Bulow broke with centre party - he was helped by election of
As the government ran out of money from military spend9ing, Bulow

1907 where a nationalist appeal led to a drop in SPD seats and

introduced a finance bill increasing indirect taxation (opposed by

increase for right wing parties. SPOD) and inheritance tax (opposed by conservatives)
Bulow proceeded to form the Bulow bloc - consisting of
The centre party, wanting revenage on Bulow supported the

conservatives and liberals - this was an uneasy alliance with the

consevatives. In 1909 the budget proposals were rejected and Bulow

left liberals demanding reform which the conservatives hated. resigned

How was Germany governed and how did political authority change and develop?

Bethmann-Hollwegg 1909-1917 1890-1914

Hollweg was an experienced administrator who supported Weltpolitik and disliked democracy
He lacked freedom to act due to previous chancellors policies and growing tension in Europe.
He relied on the court, army and civil service to support him due to opposition from Reichstag.
He was only able to pass anything due to patriotism from the military expansion

Prussian constitution
One reform put forward was reform of the Prussian Landtag – in the state parliament the conservatives held power.
Elected by 3 class system based on class
e.g. 1908- SPD won23% = 7 seats conservatives 16% = 212 seats.
Led to demands for reform from left - and no support from conservatives.
Forced to withdraw bill
Opposition grew further in 1912 - SPD won 110 seats - largest party
1912 - navy and war ministry need money - resorted to a tax on spirits to avoid row over inheritance tax - but they asked for more money.
The inheritance tax passed after a second army bill even though conservatives opposed.
The new tax didn’t fix the crisis and by 1914 – 5 billion marks in debt

Zabern affair - 1913

Relations between Alsace-Lorraine and Germany were bad - showing divisions in German society and split

between government and people

Friction broke out between locals and soldiers.
in town of Zabern an officer made men clear the streets – 28 were arrested and mistreated.
The Kaiser did not dismiss the officers but moved them
This led to protest over the army being above the law.
Shows that the German people did not see the status of the army the same as the Kaiser.
Bethmann-Hollweg stated the Kasier was in his right to do this.
December 1913 – vote of no confidence in here but Chancellor ignored it
Showed the Reichstag was weak and the chancellors authority only came from Kaiser
How successful was the Kaiser’s government in asserting its political authority within Germany in the

years 1890 to 1914

continued Prussian dominance of the Bundesrat ensured that the 1871

Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ failed to weaken support for the SPD, which was the
constitution remained unchanged after 1890. This meant that only
Kaiser’s aim in 1890. The SPD gained seats in the 1893 election
the Kaiser’s government could propose new legislation thus ensuring
Hohenlohe was unable to pass a Subversion Bill in 1894 or an Anti-Union Bill
their political authority was maintained in 1899 due to opposition in the Reichstag. The government had to abandon
from 1897, the Kaiser’s government pursued the policy of Weltpolitik.
such plans to eliminate the ‘left-wing threat’
Bülow was able to manipulate support for Weltpolitik from the Centre
•in the face of a public outcry in response to the Daily Telegraph Affair in
Party in 1902, and from the Progressives in 1907, demonstrating that
1908, the Kaiser was forced to give assurances that he would respect the
the government was successful in implementing its policies constitution in the future and not act unilaterally on matters of foreign
the government aimed to expand the army and navy to complement
policy
the aims of Weltpolitik. By 1914, the size of Germany’s military had
in 1909, Bülow’s finance bill was defeated by the Reichstag. Subsequent
increased significantly indicating that the government had been
attempts to deal with the spiralling budget deficit foundered on opposition
successful from the left-wing parties to increases in taxes on consumer goods, and from
in 1913, the Kaiser ignored a vote of no-confidence in Bethmann-
opposition from Conservatives to property and inheritance taxation
Hollweg, which came as a result of the Zabern Affair. The Kaiser’s
in the 1912 election, the SPD became the largest party and, together with the
constitutional authority to appoint and dismiss the chancellor
Progressives, controlled a majority for left-wing parties in the Reichstag. The
regardless of the Reichstag remained unaltered Kaiser’s government found it increasingly difficult to have legislation
in 1914, even the SPD voted in favour of the war budget and military
approved by the parties in the Reichstag.
credits, demonstrating that the unifying force of patriotism had won

support for the Kaiser and the government.

In reaching an overall judgement, students might argue that the Kaiser’s government found it increasingly difficult to assert its political

authority in the context of the growth of support for socialism and the difficulties it encountered in managing the Reichstag. However, the

constitutional powers of the Kaiser and his ministers remained intact, and the government was able to achieve its main aims of pursuing

Weltpolitik coupled with the expansion of the armed forces. From the patriotic perspective of 1914 it could be argued that the government’s

political authority remained strong, however, the underlying weaknesses would soon be exposed by the harsh realities of war.
 Kaiser Wilhelm II successfully maintained his political authority in the years 1890 to 1914.’

the Kaiser appointed Caprivi as someone who he could control.

Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ was launched in response to the Kaiser’s desire

the rise of the SPD and the increasing opposition to the government

to be the ‘people’s Kaiser’ and ‘kill socialism with kindness’. The Kaiser
from the Reichstag undermined the Kaiser’s political authority. By

changed his mind over the strategy to undermine socialism in 1894

1914, there was almost a constitutional deadlock between a Reichstag

and dismissed Caprivi when the two disagreed over the issue unwilling to support government policy and the Kaiser’s government

the Kaiser appointed Hohenlohe as someone he could dominate. The

unwilling to listen to opposition views
ineffective policy of ‘concentration’ pursued by Hohenlohe against the
some historians have argued that Wilhelm was merely a ‘shadow

socialists was the result of the Kaiser’s wishes. In 1897, the Kaiser
emperor’ in this period. They argue that the traditional right-wing

became frustrated with this approach and began to appoint his own
elites held far greater influence over government policy than the

ministers, bypassing the chancellor, in pursuit of the new priority of

Kaiser, and he acted simply as a public face and mouthpiece for their

Weltpolitik interests
Bülow was known as the ‘Eel’ for his sycophantic approach to the
the Daily Telegraph Affair in 1908 undermined the Kaiser’s political

Kaiser, thus indicating that the Kaiser maintained his political

authority. He was roundly criticised in the press and in the Reichstag

authority over the chancellor from 1900 to 1909. Bülow’s difficulties

for his clumsy, unilateral approach to foreign policy and was forced to

in securing Reichstag approval for military funding stemmed from the

give undertakings to respect the constitution in future
Kaiser’s demands some historians have argued that after 1908 the Kaiser stood back

in 1913, the Kaiser publicly backed the army over their actions in
from his previous role as the ‘personal ruler’ of Germany. Shaken by the

Zabern and was able to ignore the outcry and opposition from the
scandals that engulfed his inner circle, such as Eulenburg, Von Moltke

press and in the Reichstag. His constitutional authority to appoint

and Bülow, and by The Daily Telegraph Affair, he grew less interested

and dismiss ministers and determine government policy remained

in domestic affairs.
intact by 1914.

Overall, students may conclude that the Kaiser thought of himself as a ‘personal ruler’ in this period and he certainly had the constitutional authority to

influence the conduct of German politics, such as through the appointment and dismissal of the chancellors and his role as head of the armed forces. However,

there were many other power blocs within Germany in these years which sought to influence government policy and the Kaiser, and it may be the case that he wa
increasingly influenced by the powerful elites who had strong vested interests in pursuing policies such as Weltpolitik. In addition, this was a period of dramatic

social and economic change in Germany leading to the rise of the SPD. As a result, opposition to the Kaiser and his government, both within and outwith the

Reichstag, made it increasingly difficult for him to maintain his political authority.
 How effective was opposition? 1890-1918
Reichstag opposition
Centre party opposition in 1913, the Kaiser publicly backed the

Centre party critical of Germany's

army over their actions in Zabern and

treatment of native people of German

was able to ignore the outcry and

Socialist opposition south west Africa. opposition from the press and in the

Uprising in 1904-5 had been crushed. Reichstag. His constitutional authority

the government responded to opposition demands by

They denied Bulow more money there. to appoint and dismiss ministers and

introducing social welfare reforms, notably during Caprivi’s

However in the 1907 election Bulow got
determine government policy

‘New Course’ (1890–94) a brief support from Bulow bloc as

remained intact by 1914
Under Bülow between 1900 and 1903 saw further social
socialist lost seats - this was only

reforms. temporary. the war

Further liberal and socialist pressure resulted in the
the patriotic fervour of the years up to

introduction of the secret ballot in 1904 and payment for

Conservative opposition 1914 undermined the strength of

Reichstag deputies in 1906 opposition in the Reichstag, enabling

opposition in the Reichstag defeated the proposed Subversion

the Kaiser to pursue his policy of

Bill in 1894 and the Anti-Union Bill of 1899. This represented

1905 - Bulow proposed to raise indirect
preparing for war. In 1913, the SPD

a defeat for the government’s policy of ‘concentration’ taxes and introduce an inheritance tax. voted for the increased army budget

opposition in the Reichstag defeated several finance bills put

Inheritance tax was opposed by
and in 1914 voted for war credits
forward by both Bülow and Bethmann Hollweg between 1906
conservatives - who weakened the bill
during the war, increasing socialist

and 1912 to nothing. opposition failed to have much impact

in the 1912 election the SPD became the largest party in the
Bethmann Hollweg failed to pass 3
on the government. In response, the

Reichstag. Together with the liberals, they could now block stage voting reform due to opposition
Kaiser handed more power to the

any proposed legislation put forward by the chancellor. In

from conservatives military under Hindenburg and

order to get their approval for the increased army budget in

Ludendorff. The Reichstag’s ‘peace

1913, Bethmann Hollweg introduced a special defence tax on

resolution’ of July 1917 had little impact
property
the initial stages of the revolution of October 1918 involved

General Reichstag opposition

representatives of the opposition parties in the Reichstag

forming a new constitutional government under Prince Max

the Daily Telegraph Affair in 1908 undermined the Kaiser’s political authority
von Baden. He was roundly criticised in the press and in the Reichstag for his clumsy,

October to November 1918 saw strikes, mutinies and the

unilateral approach to foreign policy and was forced to give undertakings to

setting up of workers councils all over Germany - prince Max

respect the constitution in future
hands over power to socialist leader Ebert
 How effective was opposition? 1890-1918
Elites Pressure groups
Caprivi upset elites and was forced out due to his

Conservative groups Agrarian League

socialist policies. Formed in 1893 by Junkers keen to see the restoration of

Bulow also struggled to appease elites protectionist measures to project them from foreign

the ‘revolution from below’, which forced the Kaiser

navy league competition.
to abdicate in November 1918, was not based on
one of the most significant
It became a major influence in the German conservative

opposition from the Reichstag but rather on extra-

nationalist groups, had about 200,000
party.
parliamentary opposition from within the armed
members by 1900. Attempts to secure the support of peasants made some

forces, the ‘Spartacists’ and trade unions. Formed in response to Weltpolitik headway in the north, but in the south, the peasantry

Successful as led to passing of 1898

made their own pressure groups- the peasant leagues.
and 1900 naval laws Their influence was particularly marked in Bavaria and

the centre party, worried about the loss of the peasant

trade unions vote, began to form its own Catholic peasants

Increased their membership

associations and became more supportive of protectionist

policies.
considerably after 1890 and by

1914, membership was at around

Central administration of German Industrialists
3.3 million. Created in 1886 to protect industrial interests and that

They wanted to work with

meant tariffs.
In 1912 it funded 120 candidates from the conservative

government rather than

and liberal parties at a cost of 1 million marks. It was seen

confront it and focused on

as the most powerful pressure group.
practical matters like working

hours, wages, conditions. Pan German league – founded in 1890 – wanted colonies

Those workers who did not

and also German dominance in Europe. It had over 60

members in the Reichstag who supported it (mostly

belong to an official trade union

National liberals).
sometimes made more direct The German colonial league was founded in 1882 and

challenges to the government

wanted more colonies. It also took control of German

through spontaneous strikes. south west Africa in 1884.

They were not supported by
Anti-semitic groups also grew in number and contested

elections, although their impact on German politics was

official trade unions or the SPD.

small.
 Opposition in the Reichstag had little influence on the Kaiser’s government in the years 1890 to 1918.’
Assess the validity of this view.

the Reichstag had no constitutional power to introduce or amend

the government responded to opposition demands by introducing social

legislation. As a result, government policy was largely at the

welfare reforms, notably during Caprivi’s ‘New Course’ (1890–94) and under

direction of the Kaiser and the ruling elites who pursued aims such
Bülow between 1900 and 1903. Further liberal and socialist pressure resulted

as naval expansion despite some opposition in the Reichstag in the introduction of the secret ballot in 1904 and payment for Reichstag

the Reichstag passed a vote of no confidence in the chancellor as a

deputies in 1906
result of the Zabern Affair in 1913, however, the Kaiser simply
opposition in the Reichstag defeated the proposed Subversion Bill in 1894

ignored this and continued to support Bethmann Hollweg as

and the Anti-Union Bill of 1899. This represented a defeat for the

chancellor government’s policy of ‘concentration’

the patriotic fervour of the years up to 1914 undermined the
opposition in the Reichstag defeated several finance bills put forward by

strength of opposition in the Reichstag, enabling the Kaiser to

both Bülow and Bethmann Hollweg between 1906 and 1912
pursue his policy of preparing for war. In 1913, the SPD voted for
in the 1912 election the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag.

the increased army budget and in 1914 voted for war credits Together with the liberals, they could now block any proposed legislation

during the war, increasing socialist opposition failed to have much

put forward by the chancellor. In order to get their approval for the

impact on the government. In response, the Kaiser handed more

increased army budget in 1913, Bethmann Hollweg introduced a special

power to the military under Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The

defence tax on property
Reichstag’s ‘peace resolution’ of July 1917 had little impact the initial stages of the revolution of October 1918 involved representatives

the ‘revolution from below’, which forced the Kaiser to abdicate in

of the opposition parties in the Reichstag forming a new constitutional

November 1918, was not based on opposition from the Reichstag but
government under Prince Max von Baden.
rather on extra-parliamentary opposition from within the armed

forces, the ‘Spartacists’ and trade unions.

Overall, students may conclude that, as much as they would have liked to, the Kaiser and his government could not ignore the views of the parties in the

Reichstag which opposed his policies. In order to win over, or reduce the level of this opposition, some concessions were made such as social welfare reforms and

the defence tax of 1913. However, the Kaiser’s government also undermined the strength of opposition by successfully, at times, portraying opposition parties as

unpatriotic and continued to pursue military expansion. This tactic succeeded in the run up to 1914 as the increasingly left-wing Reichstag approved an

increased military budget and war credits.

 How and with what results did the economy develop and change?
what caused economic change?
Geography
Growth of industries Germany enjoyed a range of geographical

advantages – it was rich in raw materials which

THE GOVERNMENT technological revolution due to petroleum

provided cheap access for German industry to

and electricity.
essential resources such as coal and iron ore. It
between 1890 and 1918, the elites -
Led to new way to make steel -Thomas

had several navigable rivers and the broad, flat

industrialists and Junkers pushed for
Gilchrist process - using the Iron Ore in

plains of the North were well-suited to railway

tariffs - with some limited success -

Lorraine - made steel creation faster - by

development
tariff reform was passed by Bulow -
1910 - Germany was making double Britain's

and the naval laws of 1898 and 1900

amount of steel. People
kept industrialists happy with ships to
Growth in steel led to growth in railways

significant population growth provided both

build (steel) and new markets and armaments - Prussian railways

the labour force and the market for Germa

Weltpolitik cost money - by 1914 5
expanded from 5000 km in 1878 to 37,000

growing industrial sector

billion marsk in debt leading to Bulow
in 1914.
1871 - 41 mill to 65 million in 1910
- to fial to pass an indirect and

inheritance tax.
Bethmann-Hollweg sucessfully passed
Education
the inheritance tax and a tax on

spirits but this didnt solve the problem

the education system was focused on the

Urbanisation development of technical and scientific skills,

which supported the expansion of industry

the growth of industries led to a population

boom moving people from countryside to cities to

work - this did lead to hygiene problems

Banking
although these quickly improved.
the banking sector enjoyed great

Real wages rose

freedom and invested heavily in

industrial and economic development.

Business Links between banks and businesses

the cartelisation of German business removed

were very close.
wasteful competition and maintained profit

levels, which could then be reinvested into

further expansion
 How and with what results did the economy develop and change?
What was the extent of economic change 1890-1918?
Industry Trade
government
WW1 Germany became one of the leading trading nations across

the world. The value of German exports increased threefold

Negative - have to

in the 1880s, agriculture made up a

in this period. Germany was a significant overseas investor

import around 30%

greater proportion of Germany’s

in Latin America, southern Africa and the Ottoman Empire.
food - run out -

economy (40%) than industry (30%).

blockade
By 1914, the balance had changed as
Ersatz - substitute -

Tariffs
agriculture’s share of the economy
coffee made of tree

(25%) fell below that of industry

bark the importance of protective tariffs remained significant within

(45%) Run out of potatoes -

the German economy. Although they were lowered by Caprivi in

in 1890, German production of raw

feed their grain to
the early 1890s, higher levels of tariffs were restored due to the

materials such as coal, iron and steel, was

pigs - turnips for life! continuing influence of pressure groups such as the Agrarian

roughly half that of Britain. By 1914,

Everything - war
League and the Industrialists League
Germany had caught up Britain in the
economy - not enough
Agriculture
production of coal and iron, and was
people to farm
producing more than double the amount of
Luddendorf/

steel Hindenburg - gets

within agriculture, the significance of the large Junker estates in

Germany was already experiencing an

worse - strikes of 1918 the east continued. Rising demand from the industrial cities and

industrial revolution in the decades before

improved transport meant that large landowners, as well as

1890 and, it could be argued, the period

smallholders, found ready markets for their produce

after 1890 was merely a continuation of this

long-term process, e.g. the railway network

New industry
expanded by roughly the same amount
in the 1890s, a ‘second industrial revolution’

between 1871– 90 as it did 1890–1914 took place in Germany based on the rapid

expansion of new industries and technologies,

including electrical, chemicals and motor

Cartels transport
the industrial economy was already heavily
Rudolf Diesel oil engine - 1897
controlled by cartels of large companies by 1890.
Daimler - first high speed petrol engine
The influence of cartels was maintained and
Zepplin - 1st rigid airship
strengthened within the economy up to 1914
 ‘The German economy was completely transformed in the years 1890 to 1914.’
Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.

in the 1880s, agriculture made up a greater proportion of Germany’s

the importance of protective tariffs remained significant within the

economy (40%) than industry (30%). By 1914, the balance had

German economy. Although they were lowered by Caprivi in the early

changed as agriculture’s share of the economy (25%) fell below that

1890s, higher levels of tariffs were restored due to the continuing

of industry (45%) influence of pressure groups such as the Agrarian League and the

in the 1890s, a ‘second industrial revolution’ took place in Germany

Industrialists League
based on the rapid expansion of new industries and technologies,
Germany was already experiencing an industrial revolution in the

including electrical, chemicals and motor transport decades before 1890 and, it could be argued, the period after 1890 was

in 1890, German production of raw materials such as coal, iron and

merely a continuation of this long-term process, e.g. the railway network

steel, was roughly half that of Britain. By 1914, Germany had caught
expanded by roughly the same amount between 1871– 90 as it did

up Britain in the production of coal and iron, and was producing

1890–1914
more than double the amount of steel the industrial economy was already heavily controlled by cartels of large

Germany became one of the leading trading nations across the

companies by 1890. The influence of cartels was maintained and

world. The value of German exports increased threefold in this

strengthened within the economy up to 1914
period. Germany was a significant overseas investor in Latin America,
within agriculture, the significance of the large Junker estates in the east

southern Africa and the Ottoman Empire. continued. Rising demand from the industrial cities and improved

transport meant that large landowners, as well as smallholders, found

ready markets for their produce.

In arriving at an overall judgement, students may argue that the mid-1890s do represent something of a turning point for the German

economy. The pre-1890 economic growth had been steady but relatively modest, however, after 1896 the economy expanded at an

unprecedented rate due to the ‘second industrial revolution’. The balance between industry and agriculture was reversed and Germany

became a major world economic power, and the world leader in newer technologies. Therefore, although there are clear examples of continuity

within the German economy, the aspects of transformation are stronger for the period 1890–1914 overall.
What was the extent of social and cultural change? 1890-1914
 What was the extent of social and cultural change? 1890-1914

The aristocratic elites successfully maintained their dominance in Germany in the years 1871 to 1900.’ A-Level 2018

the Junkers and other aristocratic landowners were able to persuade Bismarck to

in the 1870s, Bismarck’s political alliance with the National Liberals caused

introduce protective tariffs in 1878 to defend their economic interests. When

some disquiet amongst the aristocratic elite who were uneasy with the

Caprivi reduced these tariffs in 1893, the Agrarian League successfully lobbied

Kulturkampf and with concessions to the Reichstag such as the Septennial Law

for his dismissal

of 1874 which gave the Reichstag some influence over the military budget




the aristocratic elites were represented politically by the conservative parties.

economically, many landed estates were struggling in this period as

They were staunch supporters of the government throughout most of the period,

agricultural prices fell. A number of prominent Junker families had to sell up.

winning a majority of seats in 1887 and increasingly influencing government

The share of Germany’s GNP made up by agriculture fell from 40% to nearer

policy after 1894, especially through the emergence of pressure groups such as
25% in this period
the Navy League and Pan-German League




the rapid industrialisation of Germany in this period gave rise to a significant

the officer class of the Army was dominated by men of an aristocratic

number of rich industrialists and businessmen who could be seen as a threat to

background. The military continued to exert a huge influence on German society.

the aristocrats’ traditional dominance of Germany

Wilhelm II’s enthusiasm for the military merely served to deepen their influence as


shown in the pursuit of Weltpolitik after 1897
the rise of socialism and left-wing political groups came to present a


significant challenge to the conservatives’ dominance of politics. In 1894 a

when members of the new, emerging class of rich industrialists wanted to

‘Subversion Bill’ was rejected by the Reichstag, and in 1899 an ‘Anti-Union Bill’

enhance their social status they tried to copy the lifestyle of the aristocratic

suffered the same fate. These were serious blows to the ability of the right-

elite, for example through buying landed estates. In this way, the social

wing to resist the rise of social democracy.

dominance of the aristocrats, in a period of economic change, was not challenged
but merely copied.
Overall, students may conclude that the aristocratic elites were able to maintain their social dominance of Germany fairly easily in this period as the social

influence of the military continued and the newly enriched industrialists wanted to ape the aristocracy rather than usurp them. Economically, this was a

tougher period for the aristocratic elites as their wealth largely depended on agriculture on their great landed estates. German agriculture struggled in this

period in the face of foreign competition and the shift towards industrialisation within Germany. Politically, the aristocratic elites were still hugely

influential and Kaiser Wilhelm's policies were largely framed in their interests, especially after 1894. However, the Kaiser and the aristocratic elites were

both struggling to come to terms with the emergence of new forces in German politics such as socialism and parliamentary democracy, which were

challenging their traditional dominance.

 What was the extent of social and cultural change? 1890-1914
‘German society was transformed in the years 1890 to 1914.’ Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.

many more women entered the workforce during the war and levels of female

employment remained higher in the 1920s. Women were given formal equality
tension between the industrial elites and the working classes was ever

under the Weimar Republic, including the vote. Contraception was more widely
present throughout the period. In the 1920s, the rich employers resented

available the higher taxation needed to fund the welfare state and they resisted

 some of the changes to working hours and industrial arbitration

unions gained greater influence during the war and workers enjoyed above


the aristocracy maintained its hold on the land and retained an elite social

average pay rises, which continued into the post-war period. After 1918, unions
status through education, marriage and leadership of the military
were given greater recognition and some control over pay and conditions. In


the Weimar years, the welfare state expanded significantly, e.g. generous
there were limitations to the ‘emancipation’ of women in Germany in the

benefits for war victims, widows and orphans 1920s. There remained a social expectation that women stopped working

 when they got married. Many peasant women were largely unaffected by

the war weakened the strength of the middle-classes as inflation eroded the
their supposed ‘emancipation’
value of their salaries and their standard of living declined. The continuing


inflation in the post-war period, most notably the hyper-inflation of 1923,
pre-war anti-Semitism did not disappear despite the contribution made by

further damaged the financial position of many middle-class Germans German Jews to the war effort. The anti-Semitic prejudice of the Pan-

 German League, the Nazis and the DNVP remained a constant feature of

the downfall of the monarchy and the creation of a republic due to the war
the right-wing of politics
changed the status of the aristocracy. All titles and legal privileges were


removed and the demilitarisation following the Treaty of Versailles reduced the other factors could be identified as more significant in the development of

social influence of the Prussian Junker aristocracy German society in this period other than the war, for example the degree

 of industrialisation which led to significant urbanisation and greater

the Treaty of Versailles contributed to the economic problems of the early

tension between workers and employers.
Weimar years, which had significant consequences on society, not least the

hyper-inflation of 1923. However, this ultimately led to greater assistance from

the Allies through the Dawes Plan and helped to stimulate greater prosperity

in German society from 1924.

In reaching an overall judgement, students might argue that in many respects German society was largely unaltered by the impact of the First World War.

The traditional aristocracy, the army and the wealthy industrial elite all effectively maintained their social dominance. In contrast, successive Weimar

governments sought to improve the social and economic conditions of the working classes through an extensive welfare state and generous pay

settlements; however, this often led to tension and conflict with the privileged classes who resented having to fund these changes. Therefore, by 1929

German
How important were ideas and ideology? 1890-1914
 How important were ideas and ideology? 1890-1914

‘In the years 1890-1914, a culture of militarism dominated Germany.’ Assess the validity of this view A-level 2022