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A large hydrothermal reservoir beneath Taal Volcano (Philippines) revealed by

magnetotelluric resistivity survey: 2D resistivity modeling

Article  in  Bulletin of Volcanology · July 2013

DOI: 10.1007/s00445-013-0729-y

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Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729
DOI 10.1007/s00445-013-0729-y
RESEARCH ARTICLE
A large hydrothermal reservoir beneath Taal Volcano (Philippines)
revealed by magnetotelluric resistivity survey:
2D resistivity modeling
Y. Yamaya & P. K. B. Alanis & A. Takeuchi & J. M. Cordon Jr. &
T. Mogi & T. Hashimoto & Y. Sasai & T. Nagao
Received: 26 December 2012 / Accepted: 17 May 2013
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract Taal Volcano, located in the southwestern part of
Luzon Island, Philippines, has frequently experienced cata-
strophic eruptions from both the Main Crater on Volcano
Island and flank eruptions. These eruptions have been mag-
matic, phreatomagmatic, and hydrothermal, with the latter
implying the existence of a large-scale hydrothermal system
beneath the volcano. We conducted an electrical resistivity
survey using the magnetotelluric method in order to identify
the location and geometry of the hydrothermal reservoir and
sealing cap rock. Two-dimensional inversion using the ob-
served data indicates four similar resistivity sections. The
structure at shallow depths corresponds to volcanic deposits
and an aquifer. Below 1 km, the structure features a relatively
resistive zone beneath the main crater surrounded by a con-
ductive shell. We interpreted these to be a large hydrothermal
reservoir with an impermeable cap rock sealing it. Recent
Editorial responsibility: G. Giordano
Y. Yamaya (*)
Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1, Higashi,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8567, Japan
e-mail: y.yamaya@aist.go.jp
Y. Yamaya
Earthquake Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1
Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
P. K. B. Alanis : A. Takeuchi : Y. Sasai : T. Nagao
Earthquake Prediction Research Center, Tokai University, 3-20-1,
Orido, Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka 424-8610, Japan
T. Mogi : T. Hashimoto
Institute of Seismology and Volcanology, Faculty of Science,
Hokkaido University, N10W8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
P. K. B. Alanis : J. M. Cordon Jr.
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, C.P. Garcia
Avenue, U.P. Campus, Diliman, Quezon City 1100, Philippines
ground deformation detected by GPS measurements suggests
that the hydrothermal reservoir is active. The interpreted cap
rock thins just beneath the main crater and could easily be
destroyed by an imbalance in the hydrothermal system. We
conclude that this hydrothermal reservoir plays a significant
role in driving catastrophic eruptions that begin with a hydro-
thermal explosion at the main crater.
Keywords Magnetotellurics . Resistivity structure .
Hydrothermal reservoir . Taal Volcano
Introduction
Taal Volcano, located in the southwestern part of Luzon
Island, Philippines (Fig. 1a), has frequently experienced
explosive eruptions, including catastrophic hydrothermal
and magmatic–hydrothermal eruptions (Torres et al. 1995;
Catane et al. 2005). The 1911 eruption was a destructive and
violent one from the Main Crater (MC) in the center of
Volcano Island (Fig. 1c). The last eruptions in 1965–1977
emanated from Mt. Tabaro on the southwestern flank.
Although there has been no significant activity since then,
seismic, ground deformation, and geothermal activities have
been observed since 1992. On Taal Volcano Island, geother-
mal areas around the northern part of MC and the northern
flank are active (hatched areas in Fig. 1c), where ground
deformation, high geothermal temperature, fumarolic activ-
ities, self-potential, and geomagnetic anomalies have been
observed (Lowry et al. 2001; Bartel et al. 2003; Harada et al.
2005, 2008; Zlotnicki et al. 2009a, b). In turn, long period
earthquakes, which are possibly associated with heat trans-
fer into the hydrothermal system, were observed at a shal-
low depth beneath MC (Maeda et al. 2013). Given these, a
large hydrothermal system has been suggested to exist
729, Page 2 of 13 Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729

Fig. 1 a, b Location of Taal

Volcano. Black rectangle
(a) (b)
14˚10'
indicates the study area. c Map

0
a

Ph

20
500

Se
of Volcano Island showing the

ilip
18˚

ina
various eruption centers. White
60

p
0 100

in
squares show the locations of

Ch

e
Se
MT measurement stations.

uth
200

a
Yellow lines correspond to the

So
2D sections (Fig. 8). Hatched 16˚ Luzon 400

r
Volcano Island

do
areas at the northeastern part 14˚00' 300 0
30

rri
of Main Crater and northern

Co
Manila 20
0
flank (Daang Kastila) show

lad
active geothermal areas Taal Lake
14˚ Taal

co
300

Mo
100
km km
0 100 200 Balayan Bay 200
0 10
12˚ 13˚50'
118˚ 120˚ 122˚ 124˚ 120˚50' 121˚00' 121˚10'

(c)
Mt.Pira-Piraso
Mt.Bignay
Mt. Binintiang Malaki
200 Li
ne 150
310 20
14˚02' 0
230 Mt. Tibag 160
320
Li 240 170

50
ne
100

250
30 10
0
0
330 340 Daang Kastila 265
260
430 270
14˚01' Li 350
ne
40 370 280
0 440 Main
360
Crater
0
375
510 15
520 450 50 390
Li 380
ne 300 400
50 200
0
14˚00' Mt. Tabaro 150 470
530 1 00
550 490
50
560

650
670 570
km
13˚59'
0 1 2
Binintiang Munti

120˚58' 120˚59' 121˚00' 121˚01'

5 100 200 300 400 500

Topography [m]
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729
within the volcano (Zlotnicki et al. 2009a, b; Fikos et al.
2012). A pressurized hydrothermal reservoir, sealed by cap
rock, is considered to be the source of hydrothermal explo-
sions. When the cap rock fails, as the result of magma intru-
sion or earthquakes, an explosion occurs and the system is
destroyed. Therefore, determination of the size and position of
the hydrothermal reservoir and the state of the cap rock is
important for assessing the hydrothermal or magmatic–hydro-
thermal eruption hazards. However, the geometry of this
hydrothermal reservoir within Taal Volcano has not been
identified. It is absolutely essential to obtain such information
on Taal Volcano because it has significant potential to erupt
within the next decade given its recurring activity in the past.
Electrical resistivity is one of the most useful parameters
for investigation of the likely subsurface structure of volca-
noes and geothermal areas because resistivity varies so
drastically with the types of rocks, temperature, and exis-
tence of water and clay minerals. Especially, the presence of
pore water and its connectivity and some kinds of clay
within rocks effectively contribute to vary the resistivity.
Many studies have suggested that hydrothermal fluids and
altered clay caps are indicated by high conductivity, while
gas reservoirs and cooled magma are indicated by lower
conductivity (e.g., Aizawa et al. 2009; Kanda et al. 2008;
Mastushima et al. 2001; Nurhasan et al. 2006; Jones et al.
2008; Yamaya et al. 2009). Therefore, resistivity sounding
can effectively identify hydrothermal and magma plumbing
systems, and one method that provides reliable data is
magnetotellurics (MT). The MT method is one of the pas-
sive electromagnetic sounding techniques that use natural
variations in the magnetic field. A MT survey is relatively
easy to conduct because there is no need to set up a trans-
mitter. In addition, analyzing a wide frequency range allows
us to estimate a resistivity structure at depths from 100 m to
a few tens of kilometers. Thus, we can expect to identify
structures associated with a sealing cap, a shallow aquifer, a
hydrothermal reservoir, and a magma reservoir.
In this study, we conducted a resistivity survey on Volcano
Island of Taal using the MT method to identify specific
structures related to the hydrothermal and magma plumbing
systems. MT surveys were performed in March 2011 and
March 2012 as part of the PHIVOLCS-SATREPS project
(2010–2014) supported by JICA-JST. Two-dimensional in-
version using the measured data yields four resistivity sections
beneath Volcano Island. We propose the existence of a large
hydrothermal reservoir beneath Taal Volcano.
Background
Taal Volcano is located about 60 km south of Metro Manila,
Philippines (Fig. 1a). The volcano lies at the intersection of
the north-trending West Luzon Volcanic Arc and a
Page 3 of 13, 729
northeast/southwest-trending, cross-arc rift zone called the
“Macolod Corridor.” A freshwater lake called Taal Lake,
about 25 km in diameter, fills Taal Caldera (Fig. 1b). The
island at the center of this lake is called Volcano Island and
is currently an active volcanic area (Figs. 1b, c). Volcano
Island is about 5–8 km in diameter and 311 m in height. Its
Main Crater Lake (MCL; Fig. 1c) is filled with acidic water.
Historical eruptions on Taal Volcano were summarized
by Torres et al. (1995) and Catane et al. (2005). According
to these studies, 33 eruptions were recorded, including vio-
lent catastrophic eruptions in 1749, 1754, and 1911. Most of
these eruptions were classified as phreatic to phreatomagmatic,
which were accompanied by base surges and volcanic tsunami
in some cases. The latest eruption from MC, in 1911, was one
of the most violent and destructive eruptions. The eruption was
associated with the development of base surges at the base of
the eruption column that rapidly expanded and swept down the
MC and out across Taal Lake. The volume of ejecta was
estimated at 8×107 m3 (Catane et al. 2005). The ejected mate-
rial observed on Volcano Island consists of hydrothermally
altered angular lithics and is devoid of juvenile magmatic
pyroclasts (M.A.V. Bornas, personal communication). In
1965 and 1966, phreatomagmatic eruptions occurred at the
southwestern flank at Mt. Tabaro (Fig. 1c). Lava flows associ-
ated with Strombolian eruptions from Mt. Tabaro followed in
1968 and 1969. The last eruptive activity was characterized by
hydrothermal explosions from Mt. Tabaro in 1976–1977. Some
of the breccia fragments ejected by the 1977 eruption were
completely altered and replaced by pyrite, implying that the
deposits had been steeped in hydrothermal water for a long
period (Wolfe 1980). Eruptions have generated 47 craters on
Volcano Island (Catane et al. 2005), forming crater chains in the
NE–SW and partially NW/SE-trending (Fig. 1c). No eruptions
occurred following the activity in 1977. However, since 1992,
several seismic swarms have taken place beneath Volcano
Island, fumarolic activities appeared at the northeastern part
of the MC, and fissures were generated at the northern flank of
Volcano Island (e.g., Zlotnicki et al. 2009a; hatched areas in
Fig. 1c).
Several geophysical investigations have so far been
performed to explore the subsurface structure beneath Taal
Volcano. Nishigami et al. (1994) found a seismic low-
velocity and low-Q region below 1.5 km (its bottom was
unknown) beneath Volcano Island by seismic explosion
survey. They interpreted this anomaly to correspond to a
hydrothermally altered zone because low-velocity and low-
Q suggest a water-saturated zone. Nishigami et al. (1994)
also estimated a seismic reflector at 6-km depth below the
eastern part of Volcano Island, which suggested to corre-
spond to the top of the magma reservoir. A resistivity survey
targeting a shallow structure was also performed. Fikos et al.
(2012) determined resistivity cross-sections down to a few
hundred meters beneath the northeastern MC and
729, Page 4 of 13
geothermal fissure area on the northern flank (hatched areas
in Fig. 1c) from a controlled-source resistivity tomography
experiment. They found conductive zones beneath these
geothermal areas. These conductors connect beneath the
bottom of MCL and suggest the supply of hydrothermal
fluids from there (Fikos et al. 2012). However, the depth
and geometry of the hydrothermal reservoir could not be
detected because the resistivity tomography targeted a struc-
ture shallower than a few hundred meters.
MT measurements and obtained data
Magnetotelluric surveys set up four profile lines across
Volcano Island in a NW–SE direction (Fig. 1c). Both the
audio frequency (AMT; 10,400–0.35 Hz) and wideband MT
(WMT; 320–0.00034 Hz) methods were applied. AMT data
were obtained for 2–21 h at 34 stations, while WMT mea-
surements were also conducted for 16–22 h at 19 of the 34
stations. Two components of the horizontal electric field and
three components of the magnetic field were measured using
two orthogonal dipoles (30 m long) with Pb–PbCl2 elec-
trodes and three orthogonal induction coils, respectively.
MTU-5 and MTU-5/A instruments manufactured by
Phoenix Geophysics (Canada) recorded five components
of time series. The reason why we applied not only AMT
but also WMT is that, in many cases, a substantial conduc-
tive layer had been encountered in the shallow subsurface of
volcanic and geothermal areas. This prevents the detection
of the bottom of a conductive layer because the sounding
depth (skin depth) depends on the resistivity and frequency.
Responses of the impedance tensor and induction vector
in a frequency band of 10,400–0.00034 Hz were calculated
from the time series data through frequency analysis. They
showed generally good data quality with short error bars in
spite of the short measurement time because there are no
commercial power lines on Volcano Island (Fig. 2).
However, the data obtained on geomagnetic quiet days are
shown to be of low quality in the frequency band around
0.1 Hz. This is called “dead band,” which is due to weak
Station 340
Phase [deg] App. Resistivity
4 XY
YX
3
log[Ωm]
2
1
0
180
90
0
-90
-180 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
Frequency log[Hz]
Fig. 2 Observed apparent resistivity and impedance phase at the represented stations. Refer to Fig. 9 for the overall features along the survey lines
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729
natural source signals. Apparent resistivity curves, which
were calculated from the impedance, at most stations
showed a common feature that indicated a high–low–high
apparent resistivity from a higher to a lower frequency
(Figs. 2 and 9). This fact demonstrates the effectiveness of
hybrid survey combining the AMT and WMT surveys be-
cause the AMT band (>0.35 Hz) could not detect the in-
creasing apparent resistivity at the lower frequency.
The real part of induction vectors (Fig. 3), which gener-
ally points toward the conductive side of a resistivity bound-
ary while its magnitude depends on the resistivity contrast,
showed very small magnitudes and random orientations in
the frequency band above 0.1 Hz. This is probably
influenced by very local topography and structure at quite
a shallow depth. In the frequency band below 0.01 Hz, the
vectors are large and point toward the southwest, i.e., toward
the nearest seashore which is just 15 km away (Fig. 1b).
This suggests a strong effect due to induced electric currents
in the seawater. Electric currents induced in the sea flow into
the target area and strongly modify the apparent resistivity
and impedance phase. This causes a serious problem with
2D modeling because the 2D assumption does not allow for
the existence of the sea in the extension of strike direction.
Evaluation of the sea effect
Given the trend of induction vectors in the low-frequency
bands, it is assumed that the MT impedance is affected by
the surrounding sea structure. The regional structure surround-
ing such volcanic regions and nearby conductive seawater can
cause misinterpretation of the structure using MT data (Pous
et al. 2002; Manzella et al. 2004; Monteiro Santos et al. 2006;
Yamaya 2008; Nam et al. 2009). This is apparently true for
Taal Volcano since the induction vector analysis suggests that
the data are strongly influenced by electric currents induced in
seawater about 15 km to the SW of Taal Volcano. This implies
that the impedance tensor, which is used in a 2D structural
estimation, is also affected. For example, Nam et al. (2009)
simulated a 3D model at the Jeju Island, Korea, surrounded by
Station 400 Station 560
XY XY
YX YX
-3 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
Frequency log[Hz] Frequency log[Hz]
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729 Page 5 of 13, 729

1000 Hz 100 Hz 10 Hz

Unit vector Unit vector Unit vector

0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
km km km

1 Hz 0.1 Hz 0.01 Hz

Unit vector Unit vector Unit vector

0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
km km km

−30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 5 100 200 300 400 500

phase tensor skew angle [deg] Topography [m]
Fig. 3 Observed induction vectors (real part) and phase tensor ellipses at each frequency. Data with large observed errors were removed

ocean and concluded that the splitting in the MT sounding
curves at the low-frequency band was caused by the sea effect.
Therefore, by means of 3D forward modeling with surround-
ing bathymetry and seawater, we evaluated the sea effect
which could be contaminated in 2D inversions.
Prior to a 3D modeling, we estimated an appropriate strike
direction from the phase tensor (Caldwell et al. 2004) in order
to compare the response on the same coordinates in the 2D
and 3D cases. Summarized rose diagrams of the principal axis
of the phase tensor indicated some distinct directions (Fig. 4).
However, it is difficult to select a 2D strike because the tensor
ellipse shows an almost true circle in the frequency band
above 1 Hz (Fig. 3). Taking account of the NE–SW crater
chain, we selected N35°E as the 2D strike direction because
the principal axes of the phase tensor concentrated in this
direction at a frequency band of 10–100 Hz with the most
number of data. This direction is reasonable because it ap-
proximately corresponds to the regional trend, which is
formed by the “Macolod Corridor” rift zone (Fig. 1b). We
rotated the impedance tensor to N35°E. The off-diagonal
components of the rotated impedance tensor, whose electric
fields are parallel and perpendicular to the strike, are called TE
and TM modes, respectively.
The coordinates for a 3D modeling were set so that the X-
and Y-axes corresponded to N35°E and E35°S, respectively.
Note that the TE and TM modes correspond to the XY and
YX components, respectively. The 3D bathymetry model
based on ETOPO1 (Amante and Eakins 2009) was
729, Page 6 of 13 Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729

Fig. 4 Rose histograms 1000−10000 Hz 100−1000 Hz 10−100 Hz 1−10 Hz

indicating the principal axis N35ºE
of the phase tensor at all sites.
Arrow shows the strike
direction assumed in the 2D
analysis

0.1−1 Hz 0.01−0.1 Hz 0.001−0.01 Hz All freqencies

N35°E

constructed as shown in Fig. 5. In the sea area, the resistivity
of the seawater was assumed as 0.3 Ωm, while in the land
area the resistivity was assumed to be a layered structure.
This was simplified from the results of OCCAM 1D inver-
sion (Constable et al. 1987) at the WMT stations (Fig. 6).
We did not take into account the surface topography. Nam et
al. (2009) evaluated the effect due to the 3D topography of
Jeju Island (slope angle, <9°) and concluded that the topog-
raphy effect, which appeared in a high-frequency band, was
small enough so as not to cause misinterpretation. The
topographic effect at Volcano Island is expected to be small
because the greatest elevation is only 311 m and its slope is
25˚
20˚
gentle (almost <10°). The 3D finite difference code using
the staggered grid (Fomenko and Mogi 2002) was applied to
compute the apparent resistivity and impedance phase in
three cases as follows:
Case 1. Layered structure only (i.e., 1D structure without
the sea)
Case 2. Layered structure with the 2D sea (which is com-
monly assumed in the 2D inversion)
Case 3. Layered structure with the 3D sea (most similar to
the actual situation)
where the 2D sea means that the bathymetry on the profile
across the center of Volcano Island is extended to the strike
direction. Figure 7 shows the rate changes of the calculated
responses with respect to case 1 at station 340. The other
stations showed an almost similar tendency because the
distances between the stations were sufficiently short com-
pared to that between the study area and the coast. The

15˚ 5
Models
Resistivity log[ohm-m]

Average
4
10˚
3

2
5˚
1

0˚ 0
0 1000 [km]
-1
105˚ 110˚ 115˚ 120˚ 125˚ 130˚ 135˚ 1 2 3 4
Depth [m] Depth log[m]
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Fig. 6 One-dimensional resistivity structure model estimated by
Fig. 5 Assumed bathymetry in 3D modeling. Dashed line shows the OCCAM 1-D inversion at each site. “Average” model was assumed
profile of bathymetry in the 2D sea case (case 2) in the 3D modeling
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729 Page 7 of 13, 729

Station 340 and 500 (Fig. 1c) by using the code developed by Ogawa and
50
App. Res. variation [%]
Uchida (1996). The input data were the apparent resistivity
40 Case 2 (2D sea) and impedance phase of the TM and TE modes above
XY (TE)
30 YX (TM) 0.01 Hz. The static shift of the apparent resistivity due to
20 Case 3 (3D sea) heterogeneity at the surface was treated as one of the model
XY
10 YX parameters assuming a Gaussian distribution (Ogawa and
0 Uchida 1996). The error floor of 10 % of the observed data
-10 was allowed during the inversion analysis, taking account of
-20 the above ambiguity. The initial model was assumed to be a
uniform half-space of 100 Ωm without the sea structure. The
-30
best-fit models estimated by the inversion with the static shift
50 value are shown in Fig. 8. The pseudosections of the measured
Phase variation [%]

40 and calculated responses are consistent (Fig. 9).

30
20
10
0
-10
-20
3 2 1 0 -1 -2
Frequency log[Hz]
Fig. 7 Change rate of apparent resistivity and impedance phase with
respect to the 1D case (case 1) at station 340. Synthetic responses were
calculated in cases without the sea under a 1D layered structure (case 1)
and with the 2D (case 2) and 3D (case 3) seas. XY and YX mean off-
diagonal components of the impedance tensor when the X- and Y-axes
correspond to the directions N35°E and E35°S, respectively
calculated responses in all the cases agreed well in a high-
frequency band above 0.3 Hz. The result of case 2 showed a
significant change for the impedance phase in frequency
bands below 0.3 Hz and for the apparent resistivity below
0.01 Hz. The rate changes were 53 % (phase) and 33 %
(apparent resistivity) at the maximum. Conversely, case 3
showed 15 % change at the maximum.
This result shows that the assumption of the 2D sea can
cause an overestimation of the sea effect. It is probably caused
by the assumption that the 2D sea extends to the strike direc-
tion even in the area actually occupied by land. This means that
we should not assume the 2D sea in the 2D inversion. Another
insight is that the realistic 3D sea also causes a measurable
effect below 0.01 Hz. Therefore, in order to avoid the sea effect
as much as possible, we used the data above 0.01 Hz, which
indicated the small rate of change below 10 % in case 3 and did
“not” assume the seawater in a 2D inversion analysis.
Two-dimensional inversion
After rotating the impedance tensors to the N35°E direction,
which was estimated using phase tensor analysis, we inverted
them into the 2D resistivity sections along lines 200, 300, 400,
Detailed analysis of Fig. 8 indicates that an upper resis-
tive layer (R1 in Fig. 8) above 1,000 Ωm that is a few
hundred meters thick covers the surface above sea level.
This layer corresponds to pyroclastic deposits of basalt to
basaltic–andesite compositions (Miklius et al. 1991), which
were emplaced during past eruptions. The second layer (C1
in Fig. 8) of a few tens of Ohm-meters underlies the R1
-3 layer down to 500 m b.s.l., except just beneath MCL. C1
probably corresponds to the surface aquifer originating from
Taal Lake, meteoric water, and seawater (Delmelle et al.
1998). In fact, the conductivity of Taal Lake water was
measured to be 1,000–1,850 μS/cm (∼5–10 Ωm), according
to Papa and Mamaril (2011), who summarized the previous
reports. Taking into account Archie’s law (Archie 1942), the
resistivity of the C1 layer is explained by the penetration of
the lake and meteoric waters through high-porosity rocks.
The conductive zone (C2 in Fig. 8) below 10 Ωm is
widely distributed at a shallow depth beneath MCL and
below 500 m b.s.l. beneath the side flanks. The C2 layer
surrounds the relatively resistive body (R2 in Fig. 8) and is
thinned just beneath MCL in lines 300 and 400. The exis-
tence of the crater lake means that its bottom is likely
impermeable in order to retain water. Such a conductive
zone beneath the crater lake was also found at the first crater
of Aso Volcano, Japan (Kanda et al. 2008). This was
interpreted as an impermeable layer consisting of altered
clay, which acts as a cap rock between the lake water and
hydrothermal reservoir developed in the deeper part (Kanda
et al. 2008). Also in Taal’s case, it is likely that the upper
part of C2 plays a similar role.
Below 1 km, the estimated models are characterized by a
relatively resistive body (∼100 Ωm, R2) beneath MCL and the
surrounding conductor (<10 Ωm, C2). Since the R2 is a target
structure of importance, the sensitivity to the existence of R2
was examined. The response was calculated by replacing the
resistivity of R2 with that of C2 (10 Ωm). Figure 10 shows the
responses of the apparent resistivity and impedance phase at
station 360. The calculated responses of the TE mode are not
so different from the one by the best-fit model, while the TM
mode curve below a few hertz shows significant difference
729, Page 8 of 13 Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729

a) Line 500 b) Line 400 c) Line 300 d) Line 200

static shift (decade)

static shift (decade)

1 TE TE TE TE 1
TM TM TM TM
0 0

−1 −1

Mt. Tabaro MC

26650
385
350

390
470

270
250
450

330
340

380

240
440

230
320
550

400
520

280
530

490

310
360
430

360

370
560
510

570

2
R1 R1 R1 R1 0
0 C1
C1 C1 C1 C1 C1
C2 C2
C2 C2 C2 C2
R2 R2
2 R2 2

Depth [km]
Depth [km]

R2

4 4

R3
R3
6 6
−2 0 2 −2 0 2
Distance [km] Distance [km]
R3

−2 0 2 R3
Distance [km] 0 1 2 3 4
Resistivity log[Ωm]

−2 0 2
Distance [km]

Fig. 8 Two-dimensional inverted resistivity sections (see Fig. 1c for MC (for Main Crater). The distribution of static shift values estimated
section lines). Numbered inverted black triangles are MT stations. by the inversion is indicated above the resistivity sections
Major topographic structures are indicated, such as Mt. Tabaro and

from the observed one. Such tendency was found at most we propose that the large hydrothermal reservoir and its
stations, except for 310 and 320. Thus, R2 is confirmed as sealing cap both affect the volcanic style of Taal Volcano.
an essential structure to explain the observed data. We discuss A schematic model based on the section along line 300 is
interpretations for this structure in the next section. shown as Fig. 11 to visualize our interpretations.
We first introduce recent volcanic activities and their
interpretations according to previous studies. Since 1992,
Discussion some crustal inflation and deflation episodes associated with
seismic, geothermal, and fumarolic activities have been
The resistivity structure beneath Taal Volcano is character- reported on Taal Volcano (Lowry et al. 2001; Bartel et al.
ized by the relatively resistive structure (R2 in Fig. 8) 2003). A typical deformation episode on Taal begins with an
surrounded by the conductive zone (C2). Similar structures, inflation for a few weeks to a few months and a following
which have also been found beneath other volcanoes and deflation that lasts for several months. Increasing seismicity
geothermal areas, are mostly interpreted as clay caps and beneath Volcano Island and geysering events at the north-
high-temperature reservoirs (e.g., Meju 2002; Oskooi et al. eastern MC were observed during the deflation periods
2005; Heise et al. 2008; Spichak and Manzella 2009; (Bartel et al. 2003). The estimated deformation sources were
Aizawa 2010). In addition, the 1911 deposits imply a hy- located beneath Volcano Island and were common to both
drothermal reservoir and a sealing cap beneath MC. The inflating and deflating sequences. Regarding the 1998–2000
ejected material from the 1911 eruption generally consists of activity, the sources were estimated at 2–5 km (Lowry et al.
hydrothermally altered angular lithics that are devoid of 2001) and 4–6 km (Bartel et al. 2003), applying the Mogi
pyroclasts from juvenile magma (M.A.V. Bornas, personal point source to GPS data. Lowry et al. (2001) mentioned the
communication). They are most likely to be the fragmented possibility that the deformation was caused by the migration
sealing rock broken and ejected by a vigorous explosion. of hydrothermal water in a hydrothermal system between 2
Based on the above, we interpret R2 and internal C2 (C2b in and 5 km deep, considering temporally associated seismic
Fig. 11) as a large reservoir accumulating hydrothermal activities. They suggested that an altered hydrothermal res-
fluids (gas and water) while the outer C2 (C2a in Fig. 11) ervoir corresponded to a seismic low-velocity and low-Q
as a cap sealing the reservoir. In the following discussion, (high-attenuation) zone, previously detected by Nishigami
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729 Page 9 of 13, 729

Line 200 Line 300

TM Rho Obs.TM Rho Cal. TE Rho Obs.TE Rho Cal. TM Rho Obs. TM Rho Cal. TE Rho Obs. TE Rho Cal.

230
240
250
260
265
270
280

310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
385
390
400

310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
385
390
400
230
240
250
260
265
270
280
4 4
Freq. log[Hz]

Freq. log[Hz]
2 2
0 0
−2 −2
TM Phs Obs.TM Phs Cal. TE Phs Obs. TE Phs Cal. TM Phs Obs. TM Phs Cal. TE Phs Obs. TE Phs Cal.
4 4
Freq. log[Hz]

Freq. log[Hz]
2 2
0 0
−2 −2
−2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2
D is t a n c e [ k m ] Distance [km]

Apparent Resistivity
Line 400 Line 500

3
TM Rho Obs. TM Rho Cal. TE Rho Obs. TE Rho Cal. TM Rho Obs. TM Rho Cal. TE Rho Obs. TE Rho Cal.

log[ m]
510
530
520

550
560
570

510
520
530
550
560
570
430
440
450
360
470
490

430
440
450
360
470
490

4 4

2
Freq. log[Hz]

Freq. log[Hz]
2 2

1
0 0

0
−2 −2
TM Phs Obs. TM Phs Cal. TE Phs Obs. TE Phs Cal. TM Phs Obs. TM Phs Cal. TE Phs Obs. TE Phs Cal.

Impedance Phase
80
4 4
Freq. log[Hz]

Freq. log[Hz]

40 60

[deg.]
2 2
0 0

20
−2 −2
−2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2 −2 0 2

0
Distance [km] Distance [km]

Fig. 9 Pseudosection of apparent resistivity (rho) and impedance phase (phs) along lines 200, 300, 400 and 500. “Obs.” and “Cal.” denote the
observed and calculated responses, respectively

et al. (1994). However, Lowry et al. (2001) could not We next discuss the possibility of the existence of a
specify the origin of hydrothermal water because of little magma reservoir. Nishigami et al. (1994) estimated a seis-
conclusive evidence. Conversely, Bartel et al. (2003) esti- mic reflector at a depth of 6 km beneath Volcano Island and
mated the source based on longer-term data and focused on suggested that the reflector indicated a top surface of a
the rate of deformation and depth of the source, taking into magma reservoir. We cannot find a conductor indicating a
account examples of other active volcanoes. They magma reservoir, although molten rock is expected to be
interpreted the rapid inflation as due to magma intrusion electrically conductive. This may mean that shallow magma
into a shallow reservoir (4–6 km deep). Because the subse- is actually absent or that the MT survey does not have
quent deflation source was detected at almost the same enough resolution to find a small magma reservoir.
position as the inflation source, Bartel et al. (2003) sug- Additionally, because cooling magma intruded during past
gested that the deformation pattern is related to the changes eruptions may be detected as a resistive body (e.g., Partzsch
within a single source as opposed to source migration. They et al. 2000), we cannot distinguish such intruded magma
speculated that the deflation was due to the exsolution of from basement rocks. According to the model structure that
water in a magma reservoir and the upward migration of the we obtained, the resistive basement (R3 in Fig. 8) is obvi-
gas phase into the overlying hydrothermal system and thus ously found below 4–6 km b.s.l. This resistivity contrast
concluded that the deformation was strongly related to a may reflect a difference in rock type and/or density, the
magmatic process. Here, the common interpretation by resistive layer implying a denser medium. The increasing
Lowry et al. (2001) and Bartel et al. (2003) is that the 1D seismic velocity with increasing depth, suggested by
hydrothermal system is developed approximately above 5- You et al. (2013), supports this idea. It is understandable
km depth. The R2 of the resistivity section (1–5 km; Figs. 8 that such density contrast brings buoyancy variation to a
and 11) spatially corresponds to the hydrothermal system magma system. An upwelling magma, losing its buoyancy
suggested by the geodetic studies. above this boundary, forms a magma reservoir there. This
729, Page 10 of 13 Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729

Fig. 10 Apparent resistivity 4 4

App. res. log[ohm-m]

and impedance phase at station Obs. Obs.
360. Black dots with error bar TM mode Best
TE mode Best
3 3
show measured data. Red solid Test Test
and blue dashed lines show the 2 2
responses calculated from the
inverted and hypothesis 1 1
models, respectively. Synthetic
response was calculated above 0 0
0.01 Hz
-1 -1
90 90
Phase [deg]
45 45

0 0
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
log [Hz] log [Hz]

depth (4–6 km) is also consistent with that of the deforma- exceeding 200 °C. In fact, Delmelle et al. (1998), analyzing
tion source detected by Bartel et al. (2003). Thus, addition- an isotope composite of water, assumed that the MCL and the
ally considering resistivity result contrast and other geo- hot springs originated from a mixture of magmatic fluids, Taal
physical evidence, it is a sufficiently possible situation that Lake, and seawater and that the hydrothermal reservoir
a shallow magma reservoir exists around 4–6 km deep, i.e., reached 300 °C. This is consistent with our hypothesis of the
at the top surface of R3. resistive zone (R2) resulting from high-temperature
Therefore, as proposed by Bartel et al. (2003), assuming
that the inflation is caused by intruding magma, the deflation MC
can be understood as an ejection of the magmatic volatile into volcanic deposits volcanic deposits
0 R1 R1
an overlying hydrothermal reservoir. Applying this to the d (impermea aquifer
aquifer C1 alt ere b
resistivity structure, the magmatic volatiles diffuse and/or

le)
C2a
dissolve into the hydrothermal reservoir corresponding to C2b
C)
0º

R2, whose bottom is comparable to the pressure source depth

(<
hydrothermal
20

20
reservoir
(<

indicated by geodetic studies. The C2 surrounding R2 is also

0°
2 (> 200°C)

C)
interpreted as the hydrothermal zone with low temperature, R2
which is occupied by altered clay that is probably rich in
smectite and whose outer surface (C2a) acts as a self-sealing
impermeable cap to trap hydrothermal fluids. Note that we
Depth [km]

cannot detect a precise boundary between C2a and C2b be- 4 degassing/dissolution
cause of their similar resistivity. C2b may be a thin shell of a
few hundred meters thick. In general, the hydrothermal zone
beneath volcanoes is found to be a conductive zone due to the Magma reservoir
De
nsi
existence of fluids, high temperature, and clay minerals. ty b
oun
Conversely, we interpret the relatively resistive zone as the 6 dar
y? Magma intrusion
hydrothermal zone, considering mainly two reasons. The first
reason is that there are differences in the alteration clay min- R3
eral association with differing fluid temperatures. Smectite Basement?

under moisture-rich conditions can be converted to chlorite

8
and illite at temperatures exceeding 200 °C (e.g., Hyndman et
NW −2 0 2 SE
al. 1997; Wersin et al. 2007; Lee et al. 2010). These clay
Distance [km]
minerals do not greatly reduce resistivity compared to smec-
tite. In contrast, for montmorillonite, a kind of smectite, a few
percent change in chemistry reduces the resistivity by one 0 1 2 3 4
order of magnitude (Takakura 1995). This leads to the possi- Resistivity log[Ωm]
bility that C2 is saturated with hydrothermal water below Fig. 11 Schematic model beneath Taal Volcano based on the resistiv-
200 °C, while R2 is a hydrothermal zone of temperatures ity section along line 300
Bull Volcanol (2013) 75:729
hydrothermal water. The second reason is that there is a
difference between the gas and liquid phases of hydrothermal
water. In general, bulk resistivity as detected by explorations
depends on the kind of medium that is filling pore in rocks. In
this instance, R2 can be occupied by gas phase (or two-phase)
hydrothermal water, while C2 can be liquid water. We imagine
that there are a lot of cracks in R2 from past volcanic activity
that are filled with vapor. Of the two above reasons, however,
we cannot identify which reason could be dominant in Taal
because currently there are no available data on geothermal
temperature, the porosity of rocks, or the clay mineral content
from borehole cores. It seems probable that this resistivity
difference results from the cumulative effect of the two rea-
sons; thus, R2 can conceivably be saturated by two-phase
water. Note also that R2 pierces C2 at 500-m depth directly
beneath MCL in lines 300 and 400 (Fig. 8). This could be
acting as a conduit for the release of hydrothermal fluids and
the source of geysers, solfataras, and steaming vents on the
northern shore of the MCL as well as the northern slopes of
Volcano Island. Long-period (LP) earthquakes were observed
at depths of 100–200 m beneath station 260 (Maeda et al.
2013; Figs. 1c and 8). This epicenter spatially corresponds to
the outer edge of the conduit zone. Maeda et al. (2013)
explained the Q value of the LP events, applying a fundamen-
tal mode oscillation of a crack filled with vapor using the
crack-wave model. The results suggest vapor migration from
the hydrothermal reservoir to the shallow LP source through
the conduit.
Summarizing the above discussion, we propose the mag-
matic scenario beneath Taal Volcano as follows. Magma
intruded from the deep sources (>5 km) forms the shallow
reservoir at the depth of the regional structural boundary
(∼5 km). During the intrusion period, inflation is observed at
the surface. Subsequent exsolution of water from a magma
reservoir and upward migration of the gas phase and partial
condensation into the overlying hydrothermal system (1–
4 km) cause deflation at the surface. The hydrothermal
reservoir is mainly occupied by two-phase water of high
temperatures (>200 °C) and is self-sealed by its outer part
forming an impermeable clay cap. The reservoir rising to-
ward the MCL acts as a conduit for transporting hydrother-
mal fluids to the surface geothermal area. The cap rock is
thinned above the conduit and mechanically weakened.
Events disturbing the balance of the hydrothermal system,
such as rapid magma intrusions or earthquakes, could trig-
ger a hydrothermal, or possibly magmatic–hydrothermal,
eruption that could blow off the cap rock on the Taal MC.
Conclusion
Magnetotelluric methods applied to Taal revealed specific
structures which indicate a conductive zone down to 4-km
Page 11 of 13, 729
depth and a relatively resistive body beneath the MCL.
Considering the past episodic activities associated with geo-
detic deformation and seismic swarms, the relatively resis-
tive body was interpreted as a hydrothermal reservoir satu-
rated by high-temperature (two-phase) water that originates
from magmatic volatiles. On the other hand, the conductive
zone was interpreted as being saturated by low-temperature
hydrothermal water and its outer part as an impermeable
zone that seals the hydrothermal system.
The hydrothermal reservoir supported by the results of
this investigation is of large size. Such a reservoir could
contribute to the potential for hydrothermal and magmatic–
hydrothermal eruptions, including catastrophic ones, which
have repeatedly originated from Taal MC in the past. The
thinned cap rock established beneath MC, which is dynam-
ically a weak zone, contributes to this potential. Events
disturbing the balance of the hydrothermal system, such as
rapid magma intrusions or earthquakes, could lead to a hydro-
thermal or magmatic–hydrothermal explosion destroying the
cap rock. Our results represent the “current” resistivity struc-
ture of Taal Volcano and, more importantly, a model of its
subsurface features. It is difficult to ascertain whether the
substructure beneath Volcano Island before the 1911 eruption
included a similar hydrothermal reservoir. If such a hydrother-
mal reservoir played a significant genetic role in the 1911
eruption, the hydrothermal system would have been destroyed
at that time. Nevertheless, the current large hydrothermal
reservoir could have probably developed after the 1911 erup-
tion and could also have been in existence at the same location
through many eruption cycles. In the final analysis, therefore,
we can postulate that recent episodic magmatic intrusions
associated with seismic, fumarolic, and geodetic activity can
function as preparatory processes for efficiently developing
this hydrothermal system. This increases the potential of a
catastrophic eruption triggered by a hydrothermal or magmat-
ic–hydrothermal explosion, similar to the 1911 eruption.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) for their considerable sup-
port in the fieldwork. This study was performed as a part of PHIVOLCS-
SATREPS project (2010–2014) supported by JICA (Japan International
Cooperation Agency) and JST (Japan Science and Technology Agency).
Ms. Ma. Antonia V. Bornas at VMEPD (PHIVOLCS) provided us with
invaluable information on volcano-geological aspects of Taal. The dis-
cussion with Prof. M. Uyeshima at Earthquake Research Institute,
University of Tokyo, Dr. H. Hase at Volcanic Fluid Research Center,
Tokyo Institute of Technology, and Prof. K. Aizawa at Institute of
Seismology and Volcanology, Kyushu University, was greatly valuable
for proceeding with our study. Dr. Y. Maeda at Graduate School of
Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, gave us helpful comments
regarding LP events beneath Taal Volcano. We thank the editors G.
Giordano and J. DL White and two anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments, which helped us improve the manuscript. Most
figures were created using the Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) software
(Wessel and Smith 1998).
729, Page 12 of 13
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