【논 문】 한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월

허프변환과 YOLO 기반의 골프공 궤적 추적

Tracking The Trajectory of a Golf Ball Based on Hough Transform
and YOLO

1)
런자이 바이다, 이상웅
Ranjai Baidya, Sang-Woong Lee

(13120) 경기도 성남시 수정구 성남대로 1342 가천대학교 IT융합공학과, AI ‧ 소프트웨어학부

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ranjai123baidya@gmail.com, slee@gachon.ac.kr

요 약

드라이브나 티샷을 할 때 육안을 통해 수동적으로 골프공의 궤적을 시각화하는 것은 어려운 작업이 될 수 있는데,
그 이유는 공의 크기가 작고 공이 이동하는 속도가 빠르기 때문이다. 이러한 작업의 특성으로 인해 값비싼 센서 및
구성 요소를 사용하여 제조된 복잡한 장치가 항상 요구되어 왔습니다. 본 논문에서는 골프 티샷중 골프공의 궤적을
추적하는 시스템을 제안한다. 제안하는 시스템은 기존의 컴퓨터 비전 기술과 현대적인 심층 신경망을 결합하여 모노
스테레오 비디오에 궤적을 추적한다. 골프 볼 추적에 앞서, 골프공과 플레이어의 위치를 특정 짓기 위해
YOLO(You Only Look Once) V3 딥 신경망 모델을 사용한다. 우리는 클럽과 공 사이의 초기 충격 지점을 추적
하기 위해 허프 변환을 사용한다. 또한 볼을 추적하기 위해 차영상을 이용하여 비디오의 모션 정보를 추출한다. 제
안하는 시스템의 효과를 검증하기 위해 다수의 비디오에서 테스트되었으며 각각의 결과를 보여준다.
www.earticle.net
Abstract

Manually visualizing the golf ball's trajectories during a drive or a tee shot could be an unsettling
task for viewers, the reason being the small size of the ball and the high speed at which it travels.
This nature of the job has always required intricate systems manufactured using an expensive set of
sensors and components. In this paper, we propose a system to draw the trajectory of a golf ball
during a drive. The proposed system combines the classical computer vision techniques and a modern
deep neural network to project the trajectories over videos taken from monocular cameras. Before
starting to track the ball, the system uses YOLO(You Only Look Once) V3, deep neural network
model to perform localization of the golf ball and the player. To track the initial point of impact
between the club and the ball the system uses Hough transform. Finally to track the ball, the system
extracts motion information of the video by using frame differencing. Unto the information received
from frame differencing, the system applies filters based on a few assumptions, size and direction of
movement to obtain the detections of the golf ball. The proposed system was tested on a multitude of
videos to verify its effectiveness and the respective results are presented.

1) corresponding author

42

논문투고일자 : 2021. 03. 28 심사일자 : 2021. 03. 29 게재확정일자 : 2021. 04. 23

 【논 문】 한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월

키워드: 골프 공, 추적, 차영상, 임계값, 허프 변환, 욜로-V3

Keyword: Golf ball, Tracking, Frame Differencing, Threshold, Hough Transform, YOLO-V3

1. Introduction case. Firstly, the golf balls' size is so small

that the field of view of a camera will not even
Golf is a sport adored by an abundance of
be able to capture the ball in half of the entire
people. Along with having a vast magnitude in
time the ball is in flight. Secondly, the high
terms of the number of players worldwide, the
velocity of the ball may make it look blurry in
sports viewers' numerical figure is more
the video captured. Furthermore, there are
comprehensive. However, even if it is popular
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high chances of occlusion of the ball. Considering

among huge masses, the viewing experience,
these factors using just the modern deep
the overall process of analyzing the player's
learning-based tracking algorithm is out of
performance, and visualizing the trajectories
the question. If we were to use just those
can be tedious and daunting. To nullify this,
state-of-the-art deep learning-based tracking
tools like launch monitors have been fabricated
algorithms, likely, whatever tiny details the
and made available for the public. They assist
video could offer regarding the moving ball
in keeping track of a golf ball's motion
would be lost, and the model would perform
parameters like velocity, spin, launch angle,
poorly.
travel distance, and maximum elevation during
Mathematical modeling of the golf ball
its drive. Some of these products also have
trajectory is another alternative that could be
features that can help visualize the golf ball's
used in our application. An accurate model can
drive's clear trajectory. All of this has been
deliver the desired result. But the aerodyna-
www.earticle.net
possible with the use of complex and expensive
mics of golf balls is a highly complex subject
components within these devices. The commercially
matter. Unlike most of the other objects
available tools are primarily based on multiple
globally, a golf ball's trajectory does not
sensors like dual cameras, a radar camera, and a
simply follow a standard parabolic path. The
camera laser. While these costly multi-sensor
golf ball's dimples bring in factors like lift and
types of equipment tend to be highly accurate,
drag to its aerodynamics, and the trajectories
they are also mostly out of the general public's
are complicated to predict. A precise mathe-
reach as they come at an extreme price that
matical model of golf ball aerodynamics that
not everyone can afford. We aim to develop a
factors in all the possible parameters that
simpler inexpensive system that can be a
affect its trajectory is yet to be designed. It
cheaper alternative to picturing the golf ball
may not come to fruition shortly[1, 2].
drives and tee shots trajectories.
Nonetheless, even if we were to use a
In an ideal world scenario, just a high-
mathematical model that is as close as possible
resolution camera would have been sufficient
to reality, measuring all the parameters like
to capture the entirety of a golf ball drive
ball velocity, spin, and launch angle, which
trajectory; however, in reality, that is not the

43
 【논 문】
shall be used in the model, is a difficult task.
This task would require equally complex
systems as previously discussed and will defy
the purpose of our work.
In the current digital era, the most easily
accessible resources for any topic are the
images and videos available on the internet. It
is no exception in terms of golf as well. Golf
drive videos are abundant on the web that can
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be useful for analyzing golf shots' trajectories
are videos of the golf shots. To make the
visualization of the course simple, we use the
videos of golf shots taken from monocular
camera. The decision to use 2D videos
captured using a single camera system
restrains us from much information. Unlike
methods using multiple cameras or even the
systems with additional sensors like radar or
laser, our system will not have access to the
information like velocity, spin, and launch
angle of the ball. Hence, to make the most of
the tiny amount of information available to our
system, we have implemented a www.earticle.net
combination parameters
of old fashioned computer vision techniques
like frame-wise differencing and currently
trending deep neural network-based tracking
algorithm YOLO V3 [3]. We also make few
scenario-specific assumptions that will help
us in obtaining a more robust and efficient
system.
2. Related Works
There have been quite a few attempts to
track a golf ball's flight and plot it into a graph
for visualization. Systems are using classical
object tracking methods, modern computer vision
approach, and also sensor-based techniques.
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한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
Lots of effort have also been put into
mathematically modeling the aerodynamic
properties of a golf ball. While systems are
using videos from monocular camera to track
other sports, not many have attempted to do
the same with golf.
2.1 Mathematical Modeling and Experimen-
tation with Physical Parameters
In the past, there have been attempts to
define a golf ball's aerodynamics using mathe-
matical models and experimentation. Previously,
there was an investigation regarding simulation
of a golf ball's trajectory using the initial
speed, rotation of the ball, and wind speed,
assuming linear impact of the velocity on the
drag force and independence of motion along
each axis with each other [4]. Another study
proposed an even better model by including
the law for spin rate decay and non-linear
dependence of drag on Reynolds number [5].
There was some niche study related to the
of motion of golf. A wind tunnel
technique was developed to quantify the
aerodynamic forces affecting golf balls while
varying the Reynolds number and the spin
rate. The measured aerodynamic data was
then used to calculate the trajectories and
compare them to real-world data [6]. After
measuring the drag coefficients of variety of
commercially available balls under varying
wind speeds, a study found out experimentally
that the drag coefficients varied significantly
due to the variation of number and sizes of
dimples on the ball [1]. The flow pattern of a
golf ball with rotation was studied computationally
in a Large-eddy simulation [7]. The effect of
wind on aerodynamics has been reviewed and
 【논 문】
presented accordingly [8]. A new golf flight
model was also suggested to be used in a golf
game simulation in another approach [9].
2.2 Sensors-Based Approaches
Implementation of systems using sensors on
the golf equipment or measuring the club's
movement parameters and the ball are also
interesting. A sensor-integrated golf club was
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suggested. Two orthogonal affixed train gage
sensors, a 3-axis gyroscope, and an accelero-
meter were used to monitor the club's
movement during a golf swing [9].
A traditional computer vision embracing
system was designed using two calibrated stereo
cameras, where a frame differencing approach
was implemented in a video with an unchanged
background [10]. Studies have also been done
for creating virtual golf games using multiple
sensors. A technique was suggested to auto-
matically detect high-speed flying ball from
multi-exposure images under varying light
conditions [11]. A new type of www.earticle.net
marker was For prediction,
defined to be used motion capture system
[12], a concept similar to this can be imple-
mented using this, however our system shall
use just the features that can be obtained from
videos captured from monocular cameras.
2.3 Approaches Based on Machine Learning
In a recent approach, an online golf ball
detection and tracking system was suggested,
which used the combination of Kalman filter
and convolutional neural networks like YOLO
v3 and its tiny version, YOLO v4, Faster
R-CNN, SSD, and RefineDet. [13]. A study
was used track people in surveillance images,
a similar idea can be used to detect golf
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한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
players [14]. An extended short-term memory
network(LSTM) based recurrent neural network
system was used to perform extrapolation of
a golf ball's remaining trajectory. The golf ball's
three-dimensional position is known for most
of the duration the ball is in flight [15]. A
database containing many 3D trajectories of
golf balls captured using a dual-camera system
was used to match and construct a 3D course
of the golf ball. Many models were tried to
help in the scenarios when one of the cameras
in a dual-camera system failed [16]. The golf
club's movement-related information was
used to distinguish the golf shot trajectories
into one of nine predefined shot patterns using
neural network and support vector machine
models [17].
2.4 Other Sports-Related Works
A system using a camera was devised to
track a tennis ball and predict the part of the
trajectories where the ball could not be tracked.
the system used a simple
physical model considering a parabolic arc and
factoring just the gravity [18]. A similar approach
was also suggested to track a volleyball from
a single camera volleyball sequence and
create a 3D trajectory approximation [19].
Another system was devised to study basketballs'
trajectories using monocular video sequence
by assimilating some basketball-related domain
knowledge and real-world physical attributes
of the ball motion [20]. A different ball
tracking algorithm was used to track a baseball
using a Kalman filter in a 2D video sequence
[21].
 【논 문】 한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월

3. Methods video generally means there is a difference

between corresponding pixel values in the
The proposed system to track the trajectory
consecutive frames. This concept is the basis
of a moving golf ball comprises applying
of the frame differencing approach adapted to
frame-wise differencing and thresholding
distinguish the moving parts in captured videos.
along with a deep learning based detection
The values of each corresponding pixel of the
algorithm YOLO V3. The system utilizes video
consecutive frames are subtracted from one
sequences of golf shots captured from any
another, and the result is compared to a
monocular camera setup.
threshold value to get a binary image. Ideally,
The system, initially, applies frame differencing
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this would return an image that highlights the

and thresholding to frame by frame obtain the
pixels that are moving in the video. Never-
coordinates of the pixels that are changing in
theless, noise is prevalent in this approach and
the video. The coordinates of these changing
hence extracting the objects of interest may
pixels in turn can be processed by the system
not be as straight forward as in theory.
to obtain necessary information, using a series
of hypothesis and also techniques like Hough 3.2 YOLO-V3
transform[22] and YOLO V3. The information
YOLO discarded the previously favored
obtained by the system are position of the
approach of using classifiers for performing
moving golf club, the position of initially static
detections. It represented frame object detection
golf ball, the ideal beginning frame to start
as a regression problem, where spatially distant
tracking the ball and then later on the overall
bounding boxes are related to the probability
positions of the golf ball throughout its
of belonging to a particular class. In YOLO, a
trajectory. www.earticle.net
single neural network predicts both the bounding
In this section, the techniques, hypothesis
boxes and the class probabilities directly from
and the step wise explanation of processes
the whole of the images in a single go. The use
used in this system have been explained. At
of a single network for the whole pipeline
first the techniques like frame differencing and
enabled the optimization of detection performance
thresholding, YOLO V3 and Hough transform
[22]. YOLO-V3 is an improvement on the
are described in the sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3
original YOLO. The YOLO-V3 model features
respectively. The detailed process of obtaining
multi-scale detection, a more robust feature
the required informations and tracking the
extractor network, and a slightly different loss
trajectory of the golf have been described in
function. As compared to the previous model,
sections 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.
the YOLO-V3 model can detect more variation
3.1 Frame-wise Differencing and thresholding of targets from big to small [3].

The movement of objects captured in a video
or the camera's movement while capturing a
video or the presence of noise in the captured
3.3 Lines Detection using Hough transform
Hough transform is an alternative repre-
sentation of the coordinate system that can d

46
 【논 문】
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Fig. 1 General System Overview
etect lines in an edge image. In the original
Hough space, the two axes are the slope and
the x-intercept of a line represented by the
equation of the form, y = mx + c. A line from
www.earticle.net
an edge image can be described as a point in (ρ, θ) pairs
the Hough space, while a single edge point in
the standard coordinate system is a whole set
of lines passing through the point. However,
the Hough space cannot detect vertical lines
due to the infinite value of slope in such cases.
To avoid this, a straight line is represented by
a line called the normal line that passes
through the origin and perpendicular to that
straight line. The equation representing this
normal line is ρ= x cos(θ) + y sin(θ) where
ρ is the length of the normal line, and θ is the
angle between the normal line and the x-axis.
Now the Hough space's axes shall be ρ and
θ, and an edge point produces a cosine curve
in the Hough Space. If all the edge points are
47
한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
mapped in this new space, a lot of cosine
curves will be generated. The curves from the
closer edge points shall intersect one another
on a specific value of (ρ, θ) pair. Finding the
having several intersections
greater than a threshold line can be detected
using Hough's transform [22, 24]. It is
necessary to note that the image passed on to
Hough's transform needs to be an edge image.
So, in our system, we apply the canny edge
detection algorithm before performing Hough
transform over it.
3.4 Determination of the ideal frame number
to start tracking the ball
Naturally, a golf player takes up three
different positions before driving the golf ball.
In the proposed system, an assumption has
been made that the three positions are always
taken up by the player in the video. These
 【논 문】
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Fig. 2 Different positions taken up by a golf player before hitting the golf ball and result of image
differencing on consecutive frames of images in the corresponding time.
three positions can be observed in fig 2. The
first position is when the player aims the club
to get the job right for suitable contact. The
second position is assumed when the player
lifts the club to get enough momentum to drive
the golf ball. The final position is when the
club is just about to hit the ball. So, we look
for frames where the player takes www.earticle.net
up these the inclination of the lines, we look at the
three positions and mark the frame occurring
exactly after the final position as the ideal
frame to start tracking the ball.
Throughout the time that the player takes
up the afore mentioned positions, the golf club
is constantly moving, and it appears as a line
in the differrenced frames. These lines on the
differenced image guide us to decide whether
the conditions have occurred in any particular
frame or not. The first and the last state is
indicated by a line at an inclination of 30-60º
with the x-axis(anti-clockwise direction) and
appearing nearer to the bottom half of the
player's body. The second condition is denoted
by a line at an inclination of 120-150°
48
한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
degrees with the x-axis(anti-clockwise direction)
and appearing nearer to the top half of the
player's body. The golf player is detected
using YOLO V3.
To find the lines in the images, we apply
Hough's line algorithm described in section 3.3
is used in the differenced pictures, and to find
slopes of the lines. The slope of these lines
can be found out using equation 1, where (x1,
y1) and (x2, y2) are the coordinates of two
end points lying on the lines found out using
the Hough transform.
  
     (1)
 
 
The proposed system marks the frame as
suggested by the output of this step and starts
tracking the ball only after the marked frame.
3.5 Determination of the precise location
of the ball when on the ground
 【논 문】
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Fig. 3 Obtained Results
When the golf player aims the club before
hitting the ball, the golf club held by the player
hovers around the periphery of the ball. We
exploit this information and use the YOLO V3
network to find the ball's precise location
before the club hits it. Just as in section 3.4,
the club position is found out using Hough
transform around the lower area of the golf
player and the slope of those lines.
3.6 Tracking the golf ball trajectory
This process is implemented onlywww.earticle.net
on the
video's initial few frames. To be more specific,
the frames used are the ones occurring
between the time the player starts aiming the
ball(position 1 as mentioned in section 3.4)
and the time the player lifts the club to gain
some momentum(position 2 as mentioned in
section 3.4). Throughout these frames, the
club positions are averaged to estimate the
coordinate where the ball could be present.
This estimated coordinate acts as a guide for
us to look for the pinpoint location of the ball.
Then a small 100 pixels x 100 pixels area
around the estimated coordinate is passed to
a pretrained YOLO V3 network to find the pin
point location of the golf ball.
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한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
It can be debated that using only one of the
two steps mentioned can be used to find the
ball's position. However, using only the golf
club's average position would not be accurate
enough for our application. Also, using only
the YOLO V3 would hinder our system when
there are multiple golf balls present in the
video frame.
After the completion of the steps mentioned
in sections 3.4 and 3.5, the system would have
the necessary information to start the process
of tracking the trajectory of the ball. First the
initial position of the ball is initialized to the
position given by the output of the steps in
section 3.4. The tracking process is initiated
from the frame marked after the processes of
section 3.5. The consecutive frames from then
on are differenced and thresholding is
performed till the occurance of the last frame
of the video. As mentioned in the section 3.1,
the differencing and thresholding gives us the
pixel positions of the moving object as well as
the noise in the video. To find the ball among
 【논 문】
those moving objects, we first filter the
detections based on the area. The size of the
ball could be anywhere from 2 to 20 pixels
large. However, filtering only based on the
size is not enough. There are high possibilities
of noise and other moving objects of size
similar to the ball. Hence to further filter the
exact ball detections we use the fact that there
is only single moving ball in each frame and
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while in upward or in downward motion of the
trajectory the ball needs to be moving in a
similar direction when observed frame after
frame. Since the videos used in this system
are taken from behind the players, the golf
balls are insignificantly small when
downward motion of the trajectory. So we try
only to track the ball when it is moving in
upward direction.
To filter the detections based on direction,
the system uses detection from three
consecutive frames throughout the tracking
period. First the line equation are found out
between the initialized ball position and www.earticle.net
detection
points of the consecutive frames. Given (x1,
y1) and (x2, y2) are the detections of two
consecutive frames, the equation of the line
joining these points is given by:
          (2)
where, m is the slope of the line, can be
computed using equation 1.
Then the distance from detections of the
third consecutive frame and the lines are
calculated. If any of the distances is less than
50 pixels, all three points related to these
distance are stored. The step is then repeated
throughout the end, however now along with
한국차세대컴퓨팅학회 논문지 2021년 4월
the initialized golf ball position, the stored
detections are also used to find the initial
equation of the lines joining those points to the
detections of the consecutive frame. The new
points satifying the threshold of 50 pixels are
stacked upon previously stored detection if
they belong to the same direction, otherwise
new stacks are created if they don't belong to
any of the previous stacks. At the end the
length of each of these stacks are check. The
stacks created by the noises and other
detections tend to be very short. The largest
of those stacks is then chosen as the set of
detections of the golf ball.
in
4. Experiments and Results
In this section, we show the details of the
videos and images used for the system and the
experimental results of the overall process.
To train the YOLO v3 and test the overall
processes, 10707 images were extracted from
different golf shot videos from YouTube. The
YOLO-V3 model was trained based on the
transfer learning approach to distinguish just
the two classes, golf_player, and golf_ball.
After training the YOLO-V3 model, the
network was implemented as a part of the
overall system.
The overall system performed well, and the
results obtained on a few of the videos have
been presented in fig 3. The gray lines on the
images represent the path taken by the golf
ball during its flight. As can be seen from the
output results, the system tracks the portion
of the trajectory where the ball is moving in
upward direction.
50
 【논 문】
5. Conclusion
We proposed a system to track the trajectory
of the golf ball tee shots. Using techniques like
frame differencing, thresholding, Hough transform
along with deep neural network model YOLO-V3
and some case-specific assumptions, the
proposed system performed successfully in
tracking the golf ball to the point where it is
visible to the human eye. The system can
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further be improved to predict the rest of the
trajectory of the ball.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the GRRC
program of Gyeonggi province. [GRRC-Gachon
2020 (B02), AI-based Medical Information
Analysis].
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