UDAAN Modern History 2021

UDAAN
Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series

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Modern History
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“UDAAN” - Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series MODERN HISTORY

INDEX

Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No
1 INDIA DURING ADVENT OF EUROPEANS 1
2 CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA 7
3 PEOPLE’S RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITISH BEFORE 1857 13
4 THE REVOLT OF 1857 16
5 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS 20
6 THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 26
7 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: FOUNDATION AND THE MODERATE PHASE 28
(1885- 1905)
8 ERA OF MILITANT NATIONALISM (1905-1918) 33
9 REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES (1907-17) 37
10 FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1919) AND NATIONALIST RESPONSE 40
11 NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT AND KHILAFAT AANDOLAN 44
12 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-31) AND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 46
13 EMERGENCE OF SWARAJISTS, SOCIALIST IDEAS, REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES 51
AND OTHER NEW FORCES
14 NATIONAL MOVEMENT: TOWARDS FREEDOM & PARTITION (1939-47) 56
15 SURVEY OF BRITISH POLICIES IN INDIA 66
16 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 68
17 THE MOVEMENT OF THE WORKING CLASS 70
18 CONSTITUTIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS 72
19 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS 80
20 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION 84
21 IMPORTANT BRITISH COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS 88
22 PERSONALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC MOVEMENTS 89
23 GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS OF INDIA: CONTRIBUTIONS AND 96
IMPORTANCE

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1. INDIA DURING ADVENT OF EUROPEANS

Factors Responsible for European advent in India:
• Advancement of Europeans in art of ship building and navigation
• Economic development of Europeans.
• Demand for luxuries Indian commodities like spices, calicoes, silk, various precious stones, porcelain, etc.
• Immense wealth of India.

CHRONOLOGY OF EUROPEAN CONQUEST OF ASIA:
The Portuguese (1498) à the English (1600) à the Dutch (1602) à the French (1664)

PORTUGUESE
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)- between Portugal and Spain divided non - Christian world by an imaginary
line in the Atlantic east for Portugal and west for Spain.
• Vasco-de-Gama reached Calicut via cape of good hope in 1498 and

was warmly welcomed by Zamorin (Ruler of Calicut).
Vasco-de-Gama • By 1502, Vasco’s second visit led to the establishment of trading stations
at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore and fortification of the same.
• Portugal unlike other traders wanted to monopolize trade in India.
Pedro Alvarez Cabral • Established first factory at Calicut, in 1500
• Embarked the era of European rule on Indian subcontinent.
• 1st Portuguese governor in India, initiated “Blue water policy”
Francis – De – Almeida (cartaze system) - was to be powerful at the sea instead of building
(1505-1509) fortresses on Indian land.
• Cartaze system: Naval trade license or pass issued by Portugese in the
Indian ocean.
• Considered to be the founder of the Portuguese power in India:
captured Goa from Bijapur; persecuted Muslims; captured Bhatkal from
Alfonso de Albuquerque Sri Krishna Deva Rai (1510) of Vijayanagara;
(1509- 1515) • Initiated the policy of marrying with the natives of India.
• Banned the practice of sati in his area of influence.
• Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving Portuguese as strongest Naval
power in India.
• Shifted the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. Goa became capital of
Portuguese settlements in India.
• In his rule, Diu and Bassein came under the Portuguese occupation from
Nino da Cunha (1529-38) Gujarat King Bahadur Shah.
• Bahadur Shah got killed in 1537 at Diu while negotiating with the
Portuguese.
• Pragmatic leader who expanded territory beyond Western coastal region.
Portuguese power expanded to eastern coast during his time.

Religious Policy of the Portuguese: Initially, hostile only towards Muslims, later towards Hindus also. In 1579
missionaries were sent to convert the emperor Akbar to Christianity.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DECLINE OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA:
• Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and north India and the appearance of the Marathas as
neighbours;
• Political fears aroused by the activities of Jesuit missionaries, and hatred of persecution (such as inquisition)
that caused reaction against Portuguese spiritual pressure;
• Rise of the English and Dutch commercial ambitions challenging the Portuguese supremacy;
• Rampant corruption, greed and selfishness along with piracy and clandestine trade practices of the
Portuguese administration in India;
1

• Diversion of Portuguese colonising ambitions towards the West due to the discovery of Brazil.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PORTUGUESE:
• Portuguese not only initiated what might be called the European era, it marked the emergence of naval
power.
• Introduction of cannon on ship
• The Portuguese were masters of improved techniques at sea. Their multi-decked ships were heavily
constructed.
• Missionaries and the Church were also teachers and patrons in India of the arts of the painter, carver, and
sculptor.
• The Portuguese skill at organisation—as in the creation of royal arsenals and dockyards and the
maintenance of a regular system of pilots and mapping and pitting state forces against private merchant
shipping—was even more noteworthy.
• Introduced European art of warfare
• The art of the silversmith and goldsmith flourished at Goa.

Note: Portuguese were first to come in india and last one to leave India.

Why a Sea Route to India?
• Spirit of renaissance in the 15th-century Europe.
• European economy growing rapidly, leading to prosperity and demand for luxury goods; increase in the
supply of meat requiring spices for preservation.
• Capture of Constantinople in 1453, and Syria and Egypt later by the Ottoman Turks calling for a new route
to reach India without dealing with Arabs and Turks.
• Venice and Genoa too small to stand up to the Turks.
• Spain and Portugal aided with money and men by the North Europeans and by ships and technical
knowledge by the Genoese.
• The Portuguese the pioneers followed by the Dutch, English, Danes and the French respectively to reach
India.
DUTCH (NETHERLANDS)
• Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596.
• United East India Company of the Netherlands, formed in March 1605 by the Charter of Dutch Parliament,
had the powers to wage wars, make treaty and build forts.
• Founded their first factory in Masaulipatam in Andhra in 1605.
• Subsequently they won over Portuguese & emerged as most dominant European trade power.
• Pulicat was their main center in India, later replaced by Nagapattinam.
• Dutch carried indigo manufactured in the Yamuna valley and Central India, textiles and silk from Bengal,
Gujarat and the Coromandel, saltpetre from Bihar and opium and rice from the Ganga valley.
• In 1623, a treaty between British and Dutch → Dutch withdrew their claim from India and British from
Indonesia
• 1650 (17th century), English began to emerge as big colonial power in India.
• Anglo Dutch rivalry lasted for 70 years, during which Dutch lost their settlements to British one by one.
• The Dutch were not much interested in empire building in India; their concerns were trade. In any case,
their main commercial interest lay in the Spice Islands of Indonesia from where they earned a huge profit
through business.
• Decline in India- The defeat of the Dutch in the Anglo-Dutch rivalry and the shifting of Dutch attention
towards the Malay Archipelago. In Battle of Bedara (1759), the English defeated the Dutch.
• After prolonged warfare, both the parties compromised by which the British agreed to withdraw all their
claims on Indonesia, and the Dutch retired from India.


2

Dutch established factories in: Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatnam (1641),
Karikal (1645), Chinsurah (1653), Cassimbazar (Kasimbazar), Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatnam
(1658) and Cochin (1663). (It covered both Eastern and western Coasts).

BRITISH
• On December 31, 1600 the charter was issued by Queen Elizabeth I of England which gives trade monopoly
for 15 years. English east India Company was established in 1600.
• Captain Hawkins of England arrived at royal court of Jahangir in 1609 seeking permission to establish
England trade center at Surat, but was refused by Jahangir due to Portuguese pressure
• With captain Thomas Best’s victory over Portuguese est. first factory in Surat
• Later in 1613, Jahangir issued a Farman (permission letter) to English (Sir Thomas Roe) to establish
their trade center in Agra Ahmedabad and Baruch, hence British established their 1st trading factory at
Surat in 1613.
• In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James 1 (King of England) & obtained permission
from Jahangir to settle English trading factories in different parts of India
• Bombay’s Control → Charles II received as dowry from Portuguese.
• Madras → Fort St. George replaced Masulipatnam.
• Bombay, Madras & Calcutta became 3 presidency towns of English settlements in India by 1700 with
capital Calcutta.

WHY THE ENGLISH SUCCEEDED AGAINST OTHER EUROPEAN?
• Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies: English East India Company, formed through
amalgamation of several rival companies at home, was controlled by a board of directors whose members
were elected annually.
• Naval Superiority: Royal Navy of Britain was not only the largest; it was the most advanced of its times.
• Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution reached other European nations late and this helped
England to maintain its hegemony. The Industrial Revolution started in England in the early 18th century.
• Military Skill and Discipline: The British soldiers were a disciplined lot and well trained. The British
commanders were strategists who tried new tactics in warfare.
• Stable Government: Britain witnessed stable government with efficient monarchs.
• Lesser Zeal for Religion: Britain was less zealous about religion and less interested in spreading
Christianity, as compared to Spain, Portugal or the Dutch.
• Use of Debt Market: Britain used the debt markets to fund its wars.

FRENCH
• French east India Company was formed in 1664 establishing their 1st factory at Surat → by Francis Caron
• Francis Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673 & became 1st governor of Pondicherry. Henceforth
Pondicherry became headquarter of French possessions in India.
• In beginning of 18th century, English & French were competing for their supremacy in India, Mainly in
carnatic & Bengal region.
• After 3 Carnatic wars, finally French were crushed & limited to Pondicherry
• First Carnatic war (1740-48) → extension of rivalry, ended in 1748 by treaty of Aix-La Chapelle
• Second Carnatic War (1749-54) → inconclusive, undermined the French and English power in south India
• Third Carnatic War (1758-63) → decisive war, treaty of Paris (1763)

DANE (DENMARK SETTLEMENTS)
• The Danish East India Company was established in 1616 and, in 1620, they founded a factory at
Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the eastern coast of India.
• Their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta. The Danish factories, which were not important
at any time, were sold to the British government in 1845.
• The Danes are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.

CHALLENGES BEFORE THE MUGHALS
• End of Mughals began with the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) with formal ending on November1, 1858
i.e., declaration of Queen Victoria.
3

• Aurangzeb’s misguided policies weakened the stability of the state and the decline gained momentum after
his death due to wars of succession and weak rulers.
• Muhammad Shah ruled for 29 years (1719-48) but could not revive the imperial fortunes.
• New states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh and Punjab established and the Marathas began to make their
bid to inherit the imperial mantle.

• Bahadur Shah (Shah-i-Bekhabar) [1709- March 1712]
Ø Eldest son of Aurangzeb, Emperor at 63.
Ø Pacifist policy towards Marathas (released Shahu), Jats, Rajputs.
Ø Attack of Sikh leader Shah Bahadur.
• Jahandar Shah [Feb 1712-Feb 1713]
Ø Introduced Izara
Ø Abolished Jizya
• Farruk siyar [1713-1719]
Ø Killed Jahandar Shah with the help of Sayyid Brothers, The King Makers (Abdulllah
Khan and Hussain Ali).
Ø Religious tolerance: abolished Jizya and Pilgrimage tax.
Ø First emperor to be killed by Nobles.
Ø Issues three Farmans in 1715 to English (Magna Carta of the Company).
• Rafi-ud-Darajat [Feb 28-June 4, 1717]:
Ø Ruled for the shortest period.
• Rafi-ud-Daula (Shah Jahan II) [June 6- Sept 17, 1719]:
INTERNAL: Ø Opium addict
• Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) [1719-48]:
Weak Rulers Ø Killed Sayyid Brothers with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
after Ø 1724: Independent state of Hyderabad by Nizam-ul-Mulk.
Aurangzeb: Ø 1737: Invasion of Baji Rao I in Delhi.
Ø 1739: Battle of Karnal: Nadir Shah defeated Mughals.
• Ahmad Shah (1748-54):
Ø Incompetent, left throne at the hands of Udham Bai (Queen Mother/ Qibla-i-Alam).
• Alamgir II (1754-58):
Ø Battle of Plassey (1757).
• Shah Jahan II (1738-1759)
• Shah Alam II (1759-1806):
Ø Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Ø Battle of Buxar (1765): Treaty of Allahabad.
Ø Issues farmans to Company granting them Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Akbar II (1806-37):
Ø Gave the title of Rai to Raja Ram Mohan Rai.
• Bahadur Shah II/ Zafar:
Ø Last Mughal Emperor
Ø Revolt of 1857.
EXTERNAL: • Nadir Shah (Persian) Invasion [1738-1739]
Ø Battle of Karnal (1739): Defeated Mughals.
Lack of Ø Captured Lahore and Emperor Mohammad Shah.
Internal Ø Annexed areas west of Indus.
Strength and Ø Looted Peacock throne, Kohinoor.
Unity against
Invasions • Ahmad Shah Abdali invasion (1748-1764)
from North- Ø Successor of Nadir Shah.
West. Ø Third Battle of Panipat (1761): defeated Marathas.

CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE OF MUGHALS

• Despotic Rule with weak rulers after Aurangzeb.
4

• No definite law of succession.
• Degeneration of the army.
Empire Related • Too vast to be ruled by a Central authority.
• Aurangzeb’s Deccan and religious policy.
• Invasion of Irani and Durrani Kingdoms.
• Rise in power and influence of the Zamindars (hereditary landowners).
• Issue of Jagirdari (Lands assigned to the Nobles, yielding low income).
Region Related • Economic and Administrative Issues (war expenses, reduced Khalisa land, luxurious
lifestyles of rulers, lack of technological advancement).
• Rise of regional aspirations and states.

RISE OF REGIONAL STATES
• Regional and independent political system; constantly at war with each other.
• Functioned with the support of the local zamindars, merchants, local nobles, and chieftains.
• Maintained ties and acknowledged supremacy of the Mughal Emperor.
• Lacked advanced and sound military, financial and administrative system. Lacked scientific and
technological advancement.
• Classified into three categories:

Mughal provinces that turned into states, established their own independent and
Successor States: autonomous polity. Example: Awadh (Saadat Khan/Burhan-ul-Mulk); Hyderabad
(Kilich Khan/Nizam-ul-Mulk); Bengal (Murshid Kuli Khan).
Independent Formed due to destabilization of the Mughal control over their provinces. Example:
Kingdoms: Rajput, Mysore, Kerala (founded by Martanda Verma).
Established by the rebels under the Mughal Rule. Example: Jats (Churaman and
The New States: Badan Singh founded the Jat state in Bharatpur); Sikhs; Marathas; Rohilakhand
(founded by Ali Mohammad Khan; comprised Himalayan foothills between Kumaon
and Ganga) and Farukhabad (Mohammad Khan Bangash, in the east of Delhi).

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Agriculture • Technically backward.
• Miserable conditions of peasants.
• Exports >> Imports
Trade and • Exports: Cotton textiles, raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice,
Industry wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones, and drugs.
• Imports:
Ø Persian Gulf: Pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water.
Ø Arabia: coffee, gold, drugs, and honey.
Ø China: tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk.
Ø Tibet: gold, musk, and woolen cloth.
Ø Africa: ivory and drugs.
Ø Europe: woolen cloth, copper, iron, lead, and paper.
• Textile centres: Dacca, Murshidabad, Patna, Surat, Ahmadabad, Broach, Chanderi,
Burhanpur, Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Agra, Multan, Lahore, Masulipatnam,
Aurangabad, Chicacole, Vishakhapatnam, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai.
• Shipbuilding: Maharashtra, Andhra Region, Bengal, Calicut and Quilon.
• Traditional with over-reliance on ancient learning.
• Widespread elementary education among Hindus (Pathshalas) and Muslims (maktabs).
• Rare female education.
Education • Higher education: Chatuspathis (Bihar) or Tols (Bengal).
• Sanskrit education in Kasi (Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila), Nadia, and Utkal.
• Madrasahs: institutions of higher learning in Persian and Arabic.
• Famous center of Persian learning: Azimabad (Patna).

5

• Traditional and stagnant.
• Hindus: Patriarchy and rigid caste system.
Society • Muslims: Shia-Sunni; Sharif (nobles, scholars,etc.) and alif(lower class) divisions.
• Women: Purdah, Sati, Child marriage, polygamy, dowry.
• Slavery: treated as hereditary servants rather than as menials.
• Asaf-ud-Daula: Bada Imambara (1784) in Lucknow.
• Sawai Jai Singh: Pink city, Jaipur; five astronomical observatories (Delhi, Ujjain, Jaipur,
Benares, Mathura); Jij Muhammad-shahi timetable for astronomical studies.
Art, • Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kerala famous for architecture and mural paintings.
Architecture • Rajputana and Kangra School developed.
and Culture • Urdu: famous poets Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and Mirza Ghalib.
• Tamil: Sittar poetry by Tayumanavar.
• Malayalam: enriched by Kanchan Nambiar.
• Punjabi: Heer Ranjha by Warris Shah.
• Sindhi: Risalo (collection of poems) by Shah Abdul Latif.

STUDENT NOTE:

6

2. CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER IN

INDIA
• Post conquest of Asia Minor by Ottoman Empire and capturing of Constantinople in 1453, trade routes came
under control of Turkish Empire rule.
• Venice and Genoa also monopolized the trade routes. Hence the European traders had to search for new sea
routes to Asia and the Spice island of Indonesia; also the East Indies à Discovered Cape of Good Hope.
• Post Renaissance, Columbus of Spain in 1492 discovered America.
• Vasco Da Gama of Spain in 1498 discovered all new sea routes to India.
• English conquest started with conquering Ireland in 16th century.
• Dutch had factories in Gujarat, Kerala, Madras, Bengal, Bihar, UP. Their main interest lay in Indonesia
Island of Java and Sumatra and Spice Islands.

THE GROWTH OF EAST INDIA COMPANY’S TRADE AND INFLUENCE: 1600 -1714
• 1608: first factory in Surat. Set up as ‘Trading Depot’.
• Hawkins in Jahangir’s court à received Royal Farman for trade in west coast.
• 1615: Thomas Roe à Imperial Farman: to trade in all parts of Mughal Dynasty.
• South India: After Vijayanagar Empire declined;
• First factory in South India: Masulipatnam 1611.
• Centre shifted from Masulipatnam to Madras à fortification at Fort St. George.
• Island of Bombay occupied in 1668.
• Major Rivals: Marathas
• Eastern India: first factory in Orissa in 1633.

TIMELINE:

1600 •The East India Company was established.
1609 •William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court but failed to secure permission due to opposition
by Portuguese.
1611 • Captain Middleton obtained the permission of the Mughal governor of Surat to trade there,
also started trade in Masulipatnam.
1613 • A factory of East India Company was established at Surat.
1615 • The Company established its first factory in the south in Masulipatnam.
1618 • Thomas Roe succeeded in obtaining two farman confirming free trade with exemption from
inland tolls and permission to establish factories at Agra, Ahmedabad and Baroach.
1632 • The Company got the golden farman from the Sultan of Golconda which ensured safety and
prosperity of their trade.
1633 • The Company established its first factory in east India in Hariharpur, Balasore, Odisha
1639 • Madras was given by the Chandragiri chief to the English and soon Madras with the Fort St.
George replaced Masulipatnam as the English headquarters on the east coast.
1651 • The Company was given permission to trade at Hooghly (Bengal), Kasimbazar, Patna and
Rajmahal.
1662 • The British King, Charles II, was given Bombay as dowry for marrying a Portuguese princess
(Catherine of Braganza)
1667 • Aurangzeb gave the English a farman for trade in Bengal
1687 • Bombay was made the headquarters by shifting the seat of the Western Presidency from
Surat to Bombay.
1691 • Due to some conflict, Mughals raided Hoogly. Then Job Charnock, negotiated with Mughals
for return to Sutanuti in 1691.
• The Company got the imperial order to continue their trade in Bengal in lieu of payment of
Rs 3,000 a year.
• The city of Calcutta grew from the development of three villages Sutanuti, Gobindapur and
1700 Kalikata secured from the Mughal governor of Bengal.
• The fortified settlement was named Fort William (1700) and it became the seat of British
7

power in India till 1911.
• The Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a farman, called Magna Carta of the
Company, giving the Company a large number of trade concessions in Bengal, Gujarat and
1717 Hyderabad. It included:
1. Company’s import and export were exempted from duties.
2. Permission to issue Dastaks for transportation of goods
3. Duty free trade in Hyderabad.
4. Company minted coins to act as currency throughout Mughal Empire.

BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL
• British exports from Bengal: Saltpetre, Rice, Indigo, Pepper, Sugar and Silk, Cotton Textiles. (Bengal
comprised 60% of EIC trade with India.)
• Factories were set up in Balasore, Hooghly, Kasim bazar, Patna and Dacca.
• 1717: British secured royal Farman for Emperor Farrukh Siyar for trade (export import) in Bengal à right
to issue Dastaks (free passes for trading) for movement of such goods issued. (Dastaks were cause of
perpetual conflict).
• Alivardi Khan was engaged in wars with Maratha for 15 years.
• British strengthened their entrenchment in Fort Williams.
• Alivardi Khan died in 1756à succeeded by Siraj-ud-Daula.
• Internal tussle and opposition of Siraj ud daulah in the court.

Important Rulers: Murshid Quli Khan (first Diwan of Bengal) à Shujauddin à Alivardi Khan (stopped paying
tributes to The Mughals)

TREATY OF ALLAHABAD:
• Robert Clive signed treaty with Shuja ud din and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
• First Treaty of Allahabad: Shuja ud din surrendered Allahabad to the emperor Shah Alam II. He gave the
zamindar full possession of estate.
• Second Treaty of Allahabad: Shah Alam II in Allahabad under company’s protection. He issued a Farmaan
which gave Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to EIC. Provision of Nizamat functions were also given
to the company.

BATTLE OF PLASSEY (1757) BATTLE OF BUXAR (1764)
• Nawab seized fort Williams. Killed • Misuse of Dastaks by company servants.
foreigners inside (black hole tragedy) • Imperial Farman gave right to trade in
• Nawab was opposed by dominant Bengal without paying transit dues or tolls.
group in his court of Rai Durlabh, Jagat • Servants sold Dastaks to friendly merchants.
singh, Omichand. • Hence, Mir Kasim abolished all duties.
REASONS • Tussle led to war between company and Mir
Kasim in 1763. He fled to Awadh.
• Formed an alliance with Nawab of Awadh;
Shuja-ud-daula and the Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II.
BATTLE Alliance: Mir Jafar (husband of Alivardi English army led by Hector Munro.
COURSE: khan’s sister) + Robert Clive with Rai Durlabh
Omichand and Jagat Singh v/s Siraj-ud-daulah
RESULTS Won by the trio. Mir Jafar became the new Short and decisive battle won by the English
Nawab army under Hector Munro.
• 1760: Mir Jafar rebelled. • Mir Jafar placed in throne as a mere puppet.
• Treaty of 1760 • British supremacy was established in
OTHER • Replaced by Mir Kasim. Northern India.
• Mir Kasim shifted capital from
Murshidabad to Munger (Bihar) for safe
distance from company.

DUAL GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL (1765-1772)
8

• Imposed by Robert Clive.
• Dual system of government à Rule of the Two (Company and the Nawab) à Diwani (Right of
administration) and Nizamat (Police, Judiciary etc.) came under company control.
• Right to nominate deputy Subahdar and Diwan given to company.
• Mohammad Reza khan (Bengal) and Raja Sitab Roy (Bihar) were appointed deputy Diwans.
• It was done away by Warren Hastings on account of administrative breakdown in 1772.

THE ANGLO-MYSORE WAR AND FALL OF TIPU SULTAN
• Krishna raja Wodeyar II ruled from 1734-66.
• Haider Ali came to power in 1761 (de facto ruler, Sarvadhikari) à Had proximity with French.
• Haider Ali set up arms factory in Dindigul.
• Defeated by Maratha under Madhav Rao à In between 1774-76 he recovered all lost territories by multiple
invasions of Marathas.
WARS REASONS
• Treaty of Madras
• Inconclusive war à treaty for exchange of prisoners and help of British
First War in case of attack on Haider Ali
(1767-69): • British treaty with Nizam of Hyderabad (1766) for protection from Haider
Ali in lieu of Northern Circars.
• Marathas, Nawab of Arcot and English.
• Latter was duped by the former two on persuasion of Haider Ali
• Treaty of Mangalore
• Inconclusive war.
• Violation of Treaty by British. British didn’t come to Mysore’s aid when
Second War Maratha attacked Mysore.
(1780-84): • Ali’s growing proximity with French.
• British occupied Mahe, which was under Haider Ali’s possession.
• War Course: Sir Eyre Coot defeated Haider Ali in Port Novo à Haider Ali
died of cancer in 1782 à war continued by son Tipu Sultan.
• Treaty of Seringapatam
Third Anglo Mysore War • Heavy indemnity paid by Tipu.
(1790-92): • 1790: Meadows defeated by Tipu.
• 1791: Cornwallis with Maratha and Nizam won in second attempt
• Mysore conquered by British.
Fourth Anglo Mysore War • Tipu died à Mysore came under Subsidiary Alliance in 1799.
(April 1799-May 1799) • Tipu’s friendship with French worried English.
• Accused him of plotting against them.
• Arthur Wellesley; brother of Lord Wellesley participated in the war.

ANGLO-MARATHA STRUGGLE

Prominent Maratha Families after Third Battle of Panipat (1761) are given below:

• Treaty of Surat: between Raghunath Rao and the English à Gave up
First Anglo Maratha War Salsette and Bassein in return of English army.
(1775-1782) • Treaty of Purandhar: above treaty was cancelled by Calcutta Council.
The Regency renounced Raghunath Rao à kept him under Pension. Nana
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Phadnavis defied this treaty. The British retaliated. Treaty of Wadgaon
was signed.
• Treaty of Salbai: Treaty of Wadgaon rejected by Warren Hastings. He
defeated Sindhias. Peace was signed for 20 years.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar defeated forces of Bajirao II (Peshwa) and the Scindia
• Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed between the British and the
Second Anglo Maratha War Peshwa in return of Poona’s throne.
(1803-1805) • Peshwa accepted Subsidiary Alliance.
• Scindia and Bhosle tried to save Maratha independence.
• They were defeated by Arthur Wellesley and signed Subsidiary treaty.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar was defeated in 1804.
• Treaty of Bassein surrendered Maratha’s independence.
• In 1817, Peshwa attacked British Residency at Poona.
Third Anglo Maratha War • It was the last bid to save Maratha kingdom. He rallied all Maratha chiefs
(1817-1819) against the British. They were defeated.
• Treaty of Poona: with Peshwa
• Treaty of Gwalior: Sindhias

CONQUEST OF SINDH AND PUNJAB
From 1818-1857 all territories except Punjab and Sindh came under British control. These both territories were
conquered.
• SINDH: Anglo Russian rivalry and fear of conquest made British sign treaties with Chiefs of Sindh;
Amirs.
Subsidiary Treaty signed in 1839 à Sindh annexed in 1843
• PUNJAB: The British had Treaty of Perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh: Treaty of Amritsar (1809).

• Treaty of Lahore signed after Sikhs loss at war.
• War indemnity of a crore à Jalandhar Doab annexed à resident under
First Anglo Sikh War Henry Lawrence established in Lahore.
(1845-46) • On failure of paying war indemnity, Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh.
• Treaty of Bhairowal: Rani Jindan removed as Regent.
• The council of 8 Sikh sardars formed à presided by British resident.
• Mulraj (Governor of Multan) revolted à Sher Singh sent to suppress
revolt joined Mulraj.
Second Anglo Sikh War • This was the pretext of annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie.
(1848-49) • Sher Shah lost. Sikh army and Sher shah surrendered in 1849.
• Punjab came under Chief Commander. John Lawrence became the first
Chief Commander.

RELATIONS OF BRITISH INDIA WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES

Anglo Bhutanese Relations:
• In 1816, British occupied Assam from Bhutanese. There were frequent raids in adjoining territories and bad
treatment was meted out to Elgin’s envoy in 1863-64. British were forced to surrender passes leading to
Assam. In 1865 Bhutanese were forced to surrender.

Anglo Nepal Relation:
• Gorkhas were in control of Nepal. In 1801, the British annexed Gorakhpur bringing the Gorkha and the British
boundary closer. War started with capture of Butwal and Sheoraj by the Gorkhas. It ended with Treaty of
Sagauli.

Anglo-Burma Relations:
• Vast resources of Burmese forest, Market for British manufacture, and to contain the French expansion
British fought three Anglo Burmese wars.
• First Anglo Burmese War (1824-26): It resulted in annexation of Rangoon by the British. Treaty of Yandabo

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was signed in 1826.
• Second Anglo Burmese war (1852): it was a result of imperialistic policies of Lord Dalhousie. British
wanted access to Burmese market and the timber resources. The British occupied Pegu (Lower Burma).
• Third Anglo Burmese war (1885): Close ties of Thibaw; Burmese king with British rivals; the French,
Germans, Italians and fine imposed on British Timber Company led to annexation of Upper Burma in 1885.

Anglo-Tibetan Relations:
• Reports of Russian arms and ammunitions coming in Tibet alarmed Lord Curzon. He sent Gorkha contingent
under colonel Young husband. The Lamas of Tibet offered nonviolent resistance to which British responded
by occupying Lhasa. Treaty of Lhasa was signed in 1904.
• Significance: Anglo- Russian Convention of 1907 provided that Russia and Britain would not negotiate on
Tibet except through mediation with China, leading to only Chinese gain in the end of war. It also resulted
into counteracting Russia’s policies by lord Curzon.

Anglo-Afghan Relations:
• To counter Russian plans to India, scientific frontiers of North West served British interest. There was a need
of a British friendly ruler in Afghan.
• First Anglo Afghan War (1839-42): It concluded with British recognizing Dost Mohammad as the
independent ruler of Afghanistan.
• Second Anglo Afghan War (1870-80): Lytton decided to invade Afghan from Sher Ali. After Sher Ali fled,
Treaty of Gandhamak was signed between Yakub Ali and the British. After Yakub Ali’s abdication, Abdur
Rehman was appointed new Amir. In the end, Lytton’s Plan of Dismemberment of Afghanistan couldn’t be
carried out and Ripon decided to keep Afghan as a buffer state.

Forward policy of Auckland: It was to protect Indian boundaries from Russian attack either through treaty
or annexing neighbouring countries. Tripartite Treaty with Sikh and Shah Shuja was signed by the British
after Dost Mohammad of Afghan sided with Russia and Prussia.

Durand Line was drawn between Afghan and British territories. North West Frontier Province was later
created under the Government of India. It was as a result of consensus between Tribal’s and the British.
Curzon (1899-1905) followed policy of Withdrawal and Concentration.

EXTENSION OF BRITISH PARAMOUNTACY THROUGH ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY (1772-1869)

Ring Fence •
Defending of one’s own territory by creating buffer zones outside other surrounding
Policy by Warren territory.
Hastings • Awadh acted as a buffer zone against Afghan invasion and Maratha’s attack on the
(1773-85) British territory of Bengal.
• Allying Indian states maintained British army at its frontier and paid for their
maintenance.
• Ruler had to post British official at their court.
• Ruler couldn’t employ Europeans without British’s permission.
Subsidiary • Couldn’t contact enemies for making peace.
Alliance by • Maintenance asked was high à Ruler’s couldn’t pay à asked to cede away part of
Wellesley their territory.
(1798-1805) • Awadh was first to come under it.
• Signed by: Nawab of Awadh, Nizam of Hyderabad, Ruler of Mysore, Ruler of Tanjore,
Peshwa, Bhonsle of Berar, The Sindhias, The Rajput states, The ruler of Bharatpur,
Holkars
• Policy was extended version of “Ring and Fence”.
• Adopted son could be heir of ruler’s private property, but could not inherit the empire
of the ruler. Such states were annexed by the British.
Doctrine of • States Annexed: Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850),
Lapse/ Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854).
Policy of • In 1824, before the time of Dalhousie, the princely state of Kittur was acquired by the
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Annexation by East India Company by this doctrine.
Lord Dalhousie • It was as per this policy that Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Maratha Peshwa Baji
(1848-1856) Rao II was denied his titles and pension.
• The final moment straw came when Awadh was annexed to the English East India
Company under the terms of the Doctrine of Lapse on the grounds of internal
misrule on 7 February 1856 AD. This annexation was one of the reasons for the Revolt
of 1857.
Lytton and policy • For maintaining scientific frontiers and safeguarding “spheres of influence.”
of Proud Reserve
(1876-1880)
John Lawrence • It was a reaction to the First Afghan war. Due to the frontier problems and Afghan's
and Policy of passion for Independence. John Lawrence practiced no interference even in
Masterly Successive Wars.
inactivity • Conditions: Peace was maintained at the frontier + No party took foreign help in the
(1864-1869) Civil War.

STUDENT NOTES:

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3. People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857

• Area – Bengal
• Leaders- Mir Nathar Ali and Titu Mir
Titu Mir’s Movement • Reason - Against Hindu land lords who imposed beard tax on farizis.
(1782-1831) • Syed Mir Nisar Ali, or Titu Mir is a peasant leader who led the Narkelberia
Uprising in 1831 against zamindars and British colonial authorities. The
Narkelberia uprising is often considered as the first armed peasant uprising
against the British. The movement protected the rights of tenants.
• Area –Bengal
• Leaders- Karam Shah and Tipu Shah
Pagal Panthis • Reason –hike in rent
(1825-1835) • Karam shah and his son Tipu shah lead these people to uphold their religious
right and peasant right. He captured Sherpur in 1825, after standing up against
oppressive taxes and laws imposed by the Zamindars and the British, this
movement was violently suppressed.
• Area –Bengal
• Leaders - Bishnu Biswas and Diagambar Biswas
• Reason- They started losing their land due to poor output and they started fall
into debt trap
• First peasant strike in India, forced indigo cultivation as trade in indigo was
Strike of Bengal Indigo lucrative due to the demand of blue dye.
Cultivators • Peasant went on strike, refused to cultivate indigo and enter contracts. the
(1860) strike spread other part of Bengal, the revolts also received support from
many zamindars, a commission was set up and it’s in favor of peasants
• Intelligentsia helped to make it a powerful campaign
• Harsh Chandra Mukherjee (editor Hindu patriot), Deen Bhandhu Mitra play:
Neel Darpan.
• Area- Bengal
• Leaders - Khoodi Mullah, Shambhu Pal
• Reason- Against the landlords and rent, illegal rent beyond legal limits.
Pabna Riots • Zamindars policies- prevent occupants from acquiring occupancy rights
(1873) • Led the passage of Bengal Tenancy Act 1885, legal resistance only
(nonviolent)
• Peasants of Yusufshahi pargana organized an agrarian league which raised
funds to meet litigation expenses, held mass meetings
• Area- Pune, Satara, Ahmednagar
• Leaders- Traditional Headman Patel
• Reason- Fall in cotton price, manipulation of bond by money lenders
• Increase in revenue demand by 50%.
Deccan Riots • Peasant entered money lenders-burnt houses and bonds.
(1875) • Helped by Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: Justice Ranade Deccan Riots
commission was appointed to investigate lead to – ‘Agriculturists’ Relief Act of
1879, facilitated the peasants in loan payment, could not be arrested for non-
payment of loans.
• Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 and pacified peasants of Punjab to some
extent.
• Area- Punjab
Punjab peasant revolts • Reason - Against prospects of losing their land.
(1885) • Punjab land alienation act was passed in 1900.
• Regulation of sale and mortgage of land and revenue demand.
Ramosi Upraising • Area –Maharashtra
(1877-87) • Leaders- Vasudev Balwant Phadke

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• Reason - Deccan Famine (British failure to take up Anti Famine Measure.
• Organized Ramosi peasants and through of establishing Hindu Raj.
• It was protested in a violent manner.
• Area – Champaran (Bihar)
• Leaders- Gandhi
Champaran Movement • Reason – Tinkathiya - 3/20 indigo plantation.
(1917) • Due to Competition with German synthesis the price collapse, high taxation
and illegal dues from peasant.
• Gandhiji opposed and protest, his protest led to abolishing the exploitative
Tinkathiya system.
• Area-Kheda (Gujrat)
• Leaders- Gandhi & Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Reason - People of Kheda were unable to pay the high taxes levied by the
British due to crop failure and a plague epidemic.
Kheda Satyagraha • If yield less than 25%: entitled for remission, ignored remission of land
(1918) revenue appeal- finally fulfilled, farmers were denied to paying revenue
collection.
• It was a 1st non corporation movement
• Impact of success was also realized among the peasant of Gujrat and
neighboring states.
• Area – Hardoi, Bahriach United provinces
• Leaders –Madari Pasi
• Reason - Demand for rent 50% higher than the recorded rent (tenant against
Eka Movement landlords).
(1921) • Initially started by Congress and the Khalifat movement, it was later headed
by Madari Pasi, Madari Pasi opposed non-violent method (grass root level).
• Many demands Ponds usage, cattle grazing, fixed rent, stopped force labour,
conversion of produce(batai)into cash
• Area –Malabar
• Leaders – Sayyed Aiwi and Sayyid Fazi
• Reason - increase in land tax, security of tenure and exploitation of the poor
peasantry by the landlords.
Mopillah Rebellion or • Upper caste Namboodris and Nairs Hindu landlords (Jenmi)-Muslim peasants,
Malabar Rebellion • Initially it was only against landlords but after it received help from Non-
(1921) Cooperation Movement.
• The Malabar rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial
rule, the prevailing feudal system, and in favour of the Khilafat Movement in
South Malabar but ended in communal violence against Hindus.
• British applied martial law
• Area –Guntur
• Leaders – N.V. Rama Naidu, N.G. Ranga
Palnad Satyagraha or • Reason - Heavy tax for permission to graze their cattle in forests.
forest Satyagraha • During NCM, Crop failed- peasant sent cattle into the forest without paying tax
(1921) fee are penalized. Kannuganti Hanumanth was killed, Gandhiji called NCM,
Palnad Satyagraha also came to an end.
Sarabandi Campaign • Area - Gujrat
(1921) • Leaders – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
• Reason – against high taxes.
• Peasant decided to do not pay taxes, became model for peasant of rest of India
• Area- Rajasthan
Bijolia Movement • Leaders – Sitaram Das, Vijay Singh Pathik, and Manikyalal Verma.
(1916-27) • Reason - Land revenue and other taxes.
• Due to imposition of 86 different types of cesses on farmers. In 1927 peasant
adopted satyagraha method to fight fresh cess and begar
• Area –all over the India.
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• Leaders – Sahajanand Saraswati who was the pioneer of Bihar Kisan Sabha
Movement, Awadh Kisan Sabha – 1920 by Baba Ramachandra
The Kisan Sabhas • UP Kisan Sabha – Gauri Shankar Mishra, Indra Narayan Dwivedi with support
(1918-28) from Madan Mohan Malviya in 1918.
• Against the threat of bedakhil eviction and the Jajmani system
• The Restoration of Bengal Land Act and Bihar Tenancy Act 1938.
• Finally culminated in formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936.
• Area –Punjab
• Leaders- Bhai Santokh Singh –Ghadar party leader
Kirti Kisan Sabha • Reason - It was organizing small agriculturist +industrial worker +urban
Movement (1928) labour for revolutionary activity and also addressing their plight. The Sabha
owed its origin to the Kirti Kisan movement started by Bhai santokh Singh and
Ghadar leader.
• Area – Bardoli (Gujrat)
• Leaders – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
• Reason - against the unjust raising of taxes.
• Patel called for no tax campaign-become a model peasant movement 1925,
Bardoli Satyagraha because of floods and famine crop production suffered and government raised
(1928) tax rate by 30% that year-petitions failed.
• Patel consulted Gandhi, Gandhi agreed but decided not to participate, as a
result government agreed to restore the confiscated lands and cancel revenue
payment revoked 30% next year.
• Given title of ‘Sardar’ by women of Bardoli.
• Area – Amritsar, Harsha Chhina area
• Leaders – Achhar Singh Chhina, Sohan Singh Josh
• Reason - In response to a decision taken by the British Government to
Harsha Chhina Mogha decrease the supply of irrigation water to farmers by remodeling the moghas
Morcha (canal outlets)
(1946) • Agrarian revolt was under leadership of the Communist Party.
• British decision- decrease the supply of irrigation by remodeling moghas
(canal outlets). During this movement 950 freedom fighters were arrested by
police and detained in Lahore jail for three months, in the end British accepted
demands
• Area- Worli (Maharashtra)
• Reason - exploitation from the landlords and money-lenders
Worli Revolt • Post-world war 2, the revolt was organized by peasant and tribal of Worli, a
(1945) large scale of tribal women participated in the revolt.
• The involvement of the women was supported by the Kisan Sabha leader,
Godaveri Parulekar, also known as Godutai (elder sister) by the Adivasis.
• Area – Travancore
The Punnapra-Vayalar • Leaders- T K Varghese Vaidyan
Uprising (1946) • Reason - Led by communist uprising – against the PM, sir C. P. Ramaswami
lyer and state, over 800 rebels were killed, also a movement for the right of
the depressed Ezhava community.
• Area –Hyderabad
• Leaders – Ravi Narayana Reddy, Maddikayala Omkar, Maddikayala Lakshmi
Omkar, Puchalapalli Sundarayya, Pillaipalli Papireddy, Makhdoom Mohiuddin,
Sulaiman Areeb, Hassan Nasir, Manthrala Adi Reddy, Bhimreddy Narasimha
Telangana Revolt Reddy, Nandyala Srinivasa Reddy, Aruthula Kamaladevi and Bikumalla
(1946-50) Sathyam
• Reason - Against Nizam exploitations (by Deshmukh and Jagirdars).
• It’s a communist led upraising.
• Nizam trained military known as Razakars.
• After independence GOI intervene and Nizam defeated, hundreds of peasants
died;, biggest peasant guerrilla war in the Indian history
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4. THE REVOLT OF 1857

CAUSES OF REVOLT:

• Destruction of traditional Indian Economy
• land revenue policy: peasants were highly suffered, result in decline of
agriculture
• Industrial policy: affected Indian traders and merchants (charter act of 1813
ECONOMIC: and 1833)
• Ruin of agriculture by draconian land reforms
• Annexation of princely states: no patronage for artisans à destruction of
Indian handicrafts
• Loss of status for Zamindars: ashamed to work à anger against British
• Interference in socio religious affair of Indian public.
• British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse, Subsidiary
alliance and direct annexation.
• The introduction of unfair policies like the policy of Trade and Commerce, the
POLITICAL: policy of indirect subordination, the policy of war and annexation, the policy
of direct subordination, the policy of misgovernance.
• Absentee sovereignty character of British.
• Denial of certain rights to Mughal rulers.
ADMINISTRATIVE: • Rampant corruption and exploitation especially at lower levels of
administration (police, local courts etc.)
• Racial discrimination towards native Indians (Theory of White Man’s Burden)
• Religious propagation by the Christian Missionaries
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS: • Reforms like Abolition of Sati, Widow-Remarriage Act, and Women’s
Education were seen as interference in the traditional Indian Society
• Taxation on musques, temples etc.
• Crimean Wars 1854-56
INFLUENCE OF OUTSIDE • Punjab Wars 1845-49
EVENTS: • First Afghan War 1838-42
• The British suffered serious losses in these wars = psychological boost for
Indians
• Restriction on wearing caste specific clothing and items, E.g., Turban
DISCONTENT AMONG • Forced to travel overseas, which was forbidden in Hindu tradition
SEPOYS: • Unequal pay for Indian sepoys + racial discrimination and subordination
• Newly introduced Enfield rifles had beef fat coatings (trigger point)

MAIN EVENTS OF THE REVOLT
Soon there was a rebellion in the Meerut Cantonment. The Meerut Mutiny (May 9, 1857) marked the beginning
of the Revolt of 1857. The Indian sepoys in Meerut murdered their British officers and broke open the jail. On
May 10, they marched to Delhi.

CAPTURE OF DELHI:
• In Delhi the mutineers were joined by the Delhi sepoys and the city came under their control. Next day, on
11th May, the sepoys proclaimed the ageing Bahadur Shah Zafar the Emperor of Hindustan. But Bahadur
Shah was old and he could not give able leadership to the sepoys. The occupation of Delhi was short-lived.

FALL OF DELHI:
• The British finally attacked Delhi in September. For six days there was desperate fighting. But by September
1857, the British reoccupied Delhi. Thousands of innocent people were massacred and hundreds were
hanged. The old king was captured and later deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. His sons were shot
dead. Thus ended the imperial dynasty of the Mughals.

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CENTERS OF THE REVOLT: -
The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the borders of Rajasthan. There were
six main centres of revolt in these regions namely Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.

Lucknow: • Lucknow was the capital of Awadh.
• There the mutinous sepoys were joined by the disbanded soldiers from the old
Awadh army.
• Leadership- Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-king of
Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt. Finally the British forces captured
Lucknow. The queen escaped to Nepal.
• Led by- Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He joined the
revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the British. He
captured Kanpur and proclaimed himself the Peshwa. The victory was short-
lived.
Kanpur: • Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh reinforcements arrived. The
revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance. The rebels were either hanged
or blown to pieces by canons. Nana Saheb escaped. But his brilliant
commander Tantya Tope continued the struggle was finally defeated, arrested
and hanged.
• Led By- Rani Lakshmi Bai, when the British refused to accept the claim of her
adopted son to the throne of Jhansi. She fought gallantly against the British
forces. But she was ultimately defeated by the English.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai escaped. Later on, the Rani was joined by Tantia Tope and
Jhansi: together they marched to Gwalior and captured it. Sindhia, a loyal ally of the
British, was driven out. Fierce fighting followed. The Rani of Jhansi fought like
a tigress. She died, fighting to the very end. Gwalior was recaptured by the
British.
Bihar: • In Bihar the revolt was led by- Kunwar Singh, 80 years old jamadar of Aarah .

CENTRE LEADER BRITISH OFFICIAL
Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan John Nicholson
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadir, Ahmadullah Henry Lawrence
Kanpur Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib, Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi & Gwalior Rani Laxmi bai ,Tantya Tope General Hugh Rose
Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah
Farrukhabad Tufzal Hasan Khan
Barrackpore Mangal pandey
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Allahabad And Banaras Maulvi Liyakat Ali Colonel Oncell
Baghpat (UP) Shah Mahal
Rajasthan Jaidayal Singh and Hardayal Singh
Assam Kandapareshwar Singh, Maniram Dutta Baruah
Orissa Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi
Bihar (Jagdishpur) Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh William Taylor and Eye
Kullu Raja Pratap Singh

SUPPRESSION OF THE REVOLT:
The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858. On July 8, 1858, fourteen months
after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Lord Canning.
BRITISH OFFICIALS ASSOCIATED WITH REVOLT

General John Captured Delhi on 20th September 1857 (Nicholson died soon due to a mortal wound
Nicholson received during the fighting).
Major Hudson Killed Bahadur Shah's sons and grandsons in Delhi.

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Sir Hugh Wheeler Defense against Nana Sahib's forces till 26th June 1857. British forces surrendered on
27th on the promised of safe conduct to Allahabad.
Recaptured Banaras and Allahabad in June 1857. At Kanpur, he killed Indians as revenge
General Neil against the killing of English by Nana Sahib's forces. Died at Lucknow while fighting
against the rebels.
Sir Colin Final recovery of Kanpur on 6th December, 1857. Final reoccupation of Lucknow on 21st
Campbell March, 1858. Recapture of Bareilly on 5th May, 1858.
Henry Lawrence Chief Commissioner of Awadh. Who died during the seizure of British residency by rebels
at Lucknow on 2nd July, 1857!
Major General Defeated the rebels (Nana Sahib's force) on 17th July, 1857. Died at Lucknow in
Havelock December 1857.
William Taylor Suppressed the revolt at Arrah in August 1857.
and Eye
Hugh Rose Suppressed the revolt at Jhansi and recaptured Gwalior on 20th June, 1858. The whole
of Central India and Bundelkhand was brought under British control by him.
Colonel Oncell Captured Banaras.

CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF THE REVOLT:
1. Limited Uprising: Although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained unaffected
by it. The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region. Sind, Rajputana, Kashmir, most parts of Punjab. The
southern provinces did not take part in it. It failed to have the character of an all-India struggle. Important
rulers like Sindhia, Holkar, Rana of Jodhpur and others did not support the rebels.
2. No Effective Leaders: lacked an effective leader. Nana Saheb, Tatya Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave
leaders, no doubt, but they could not offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
3. Limited Resources: lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other hand, received
a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
4. No Participation of the Middle Class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders and
zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

RESULTS OF THE REVOLT:
• Government of India Act, 1858 (Good governance Act 1858) was passed to end the rule of company and
transferred it to the British crown which was the outcome of 1857 revolt.
• The British Governor-General of India was given the title of viceroy who became the representative of
the monarch. It ended the system of double government by abolishing the Board of Control and Court of
Directors.
• It created a new office, Secretary of State for India, vested with complete authority and control over Indian
administration. The secretary of state was a member of the British cabinet and was responsible ultimately to
the British Parliament.
• The 1857 revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India. India now came under the
direct rule of the British Crown. This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a
proclamation issued on 1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen. Thus, Indian administration was taken
over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British Parliament. The Governor General’s office was
replaced by that of the Viceroy.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished. The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVOLT
• The significance of the Revolt of 1857 lies in the fact that it voiced, through violently, the grievances of various
classes of people.
• The British were made to realize that all was not under control in British India.
• Modern Nationalism was unknown in India, yet the revolt of 1857 played an important role in bringing the
Indian people together and imparting to them the consciousness of belonging to one country. It had seeds
of nationalism and anti- imperialism, but the concept of common nationality and nationhood was not
inherent to the revolt of 1857. One may say that the revolt of 1857 was the first great struggle of Indians
to throw off British Rule. It established traditions of local resistance to British rule which were to pave
the way for the modern national movement.
• Hindu Muslim Unity Factor- During the entire revolt, there was complete cooperation between Hindus and
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Muslims at all levels- people, soldiers, leaders. All rebels acknowledged Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as the
emperor and the first impulse of the Hindu sepoys at Meerut was to march to Delhi, the Mughal imperial
Capital. Rebel and sepoys, both Hindu and Muslims, respected each other’s sentiments. Immediate banning
of cow slaughter was ordered once the revolt was successful in a particular area. Both Hindus and Muslims
were well represented in leadership, for instance Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim and an expert in
political propaganda, as an aide, while Laxmibai had the solid support of Afghan Soldiers. Thus, the events
of 1857 demonstrated that the people and politics of India were not basically communal before 1858.

CHANGES MADE IN THE BRITISH ADMINISTRATION AFTER THE REVOLT
The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its reorganization inevitable.
The Government of India’s structure and policies underwent significant changes in the decades following the
Revolt.

• By the Act of Parliament of 1858 (Also called as Good Governance act 1858), the
Changes in power to govern India was transferred from the East India Company to the British
Administration: Crown.
• The authority over India, wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of
Control, was now to be exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
• The British had divided India for administrative convenience into provinces, three of
which – Bengal Bombay and Madras - were known as Presidencies.
Provincial • The Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive Council of
Administration: three, who were appointed by the Crown.
• The other provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governor and Chief
Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General.
• Financial difficulties led the Government to further decentralize administration by
Local Bodies: promoting local government through municipalities and district boards.
• Local bodies like education, health, sanitation and water supply were transferred to
local bodies that would finance them through local taxes.
• The Indian army was carefully re-organised after 1858, most of all to prevent the
recurrence of another revolt.
• Firstly, the domination of the army by its European branch was carefully
guaranteed. The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised. The
Changes in the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial
army: branches of artillery, tanks and armoured corps were put exclusively in European
hands. The Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts. Till 1814, no Indian
could rise higher than the rank of a subedar.
• Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy
of ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent its chance of uniting again in an anti-British
uprising. A new section of army like Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans were recruited
in large numbers.

VIEWS ON REVOLT:
• V.D. Savarkar argues that it was the “first war of Indian independence.”
• Tara Chand described it as “War of Nation’s Independence”
• R.C. Majumdar concludes that 1857 war of independence of 1857 is neither the first, nor national, nor a
war of independence.
• Surender Nath Sen is of the view that what began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence.

STUDENT NOTES:

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5. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

Witnessed in the beginning of the nineteenth century with the efforts of some enlightened sections of the society.
Along with reforms it gave birth to some undesirable impacts too.

REASONS FOR REFORM MOVEMENTS
• Impact of British Rule
• Social Conditions for reforms
• Opposition to Western Culture
• Awareness among Enlightened Indians

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES OF THE REFORM MOVEMENTS

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833):
• Father of Indian Renaissance.
• Maker of Modern India.
• Believed in scientific temper, human dignity, monotheism, and Upanishads.
• Opposed idolatry and meaningless rituals.
• Books: Gift to Monotheism (1809) + Percepts of Jesus (1820).
• Translated Vedas and Upanishads into Bengali.
• Atmiya Sabha (Society of Friends) in Calcutta in 1814.
• Started Brahmo Samaj (1828) [ formerly called as Brahmo Sabha]
• Established Vedanta College (1825).
• Supported the revolutions of Naples and Spanish America.
• Supported David Hare in establishing Hindu College (1817).
• Crusader against Sati.
• Efforts resulted in Government Regulation against Sati in 1829.

Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905)
• Headed Tattavabodhini Sabha, formed in 1839, and its organ Tattavabodhini Patrika.
• Joined Brahmo Samaj in 1842.
• Favored Widow remarriage, Women education, abolition of Polygamy.

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884)
• Appointed as Acharya of the Brahmo Samaj in 1858.
• Spread the ideas of the Samaj outside Bengal (in United Provinces, Bombay, Punjab, etc.).
• Showed radical views against caste system, favored inter-caste marriage.
• Expelled from Acharya’s position in 1865.
• Founded Brahmo Samaj of India (1866).
• Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb and Umesh Chandra Datta) founded in
opposition to his views.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891)
• Man of high moral standards, humanist, and proponent of modern education.
• Appointed Principal of Sanskrit college in 1850 in Bengal.
• Opened Sanskrit College to non-Brahmins.
• Ardent supporter of Widow remarriage. Helped legalized it.
• One of the pioneers of higher education for women.
• Appointed as the secretary of Bethune College (est. 1849).

Balshastri Jambedkar (1812-1846)
• Pioneer of social reform through Journalism in Bombay.
• Against Brahminical domination.
• Father of Marathi Journalism.
• Newspaper: Darpan (1832), Digdarshan (1840).
• Founded Bombay Native General Library.

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• Started the Native Improvement Society.
• First professor of Hindi at the Elphinston College.
• Director of the Colaba Observatory.

Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitwadi’ (1823-1892):
• Belonged to Maharashtra.
• Against Hindu orthodoxy and caste system.
• Believed in rational, modern, and secular principles.
• Wrote for weekly Prabhakar under the pen name ‘Lokahitwadi’.
• Started weekly Hitechu.
• Helped in founding periodicals like Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash, Lokahitwadi.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)
• A liberal leader of the Indian National Congress.
• Formed Servants of India society (1905) with the help of M. G. Ranade.
• Aimed at mobilizing a cadre of selfless workers for the service of the country in a religious spirit.
• Published Hitavadi (1911).

Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890):
• Born to Mali(gardener) community in Maharashtra.
• Fought against upper caste and Brahmanical domination, caste system, and socio-economic
inequalities.
• Founded the Satyasodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social service and education among the lower caste
and women.
• Books: Sarvajanik Satyadharma
• Gulamgiri
• Fought for the cause of widow remarriage and opened a home for widows in 1854.
• Given the title of Mahatma for his social service work.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895)
• Belonged to Maharashtra.
• Favored human reason and discarded the false glorification of the past.
• Co-founder of the New English School, the Deccan Education Society, and the Fergusson College.
• First editor of Kesari (Marathi newspaper started by Lokmanya Tilak).
• Periodical: Sudharak.

Swami Vivekananda (1862-1902)
• Also known by the name Narendra Dutta.
• Preached Neo-Hinduism and believed in Vedanta, considering it to be the most rational system of
knowledge.
• Inspired by the lives of Ramkrishna, Buddha, Jesus and the teachings of the Gita and Upanishads.
• He was against the religious domination by the Hindus.
• Participated at the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 where he emphasized on the balance
between materialism and spiritualism.
• Founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 for promoting social service and humanitarian relief works.
• He advocated the doctrine of service to all living beings. According to him, the service to mankind is the
service to God.

Dayananda Saraswati (1824-1883)
• Also known by the name Moolshanker.
• Born in old Morvi state (Gujarat) to a Brahmin household.
• Started Arya Samaj in 1875.
• Book: Satyarath Prakash.
• Gave the slogan of “Back to the Vedas”.
• Believed in the theory of Karma, reincarnation, and Chaturavarna system of the Vedas.
• He was against the theory of niyati or destiny and criticized the concept of Moksha.

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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898)
• British loyalist and the member of the Judicial service.
• Member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878.
• Earned Knighthood in 1888.
• Advocated to reconcile the modern education with the teachings of the Quran.
• Founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (now Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875.
• Fought for the cause of women and the education and reform among the Muslims.
• Magazine- Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq.

Reformism vs Revivalism

• Social reform
• Help of British colonial state
Reformism • Influenced by western enlightenment
• Not critical of colonial state
• Moderates
• Against social reform
• Brought against colonial state
Revivalism • Ancient Indian religion revival, Indian spirituality superior
• Self-confidence to Indian by declaration
• Extremist

IMPORTANT REFORM MOVEMENTS

HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS:

NAME FOUNDER AIM
• Favored: Human reason and conscience; Political upliftment of the
Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan masses, widow remarriage.
(1828) Roy in Bengal. • Against: Polytheism; Idol worship; Incarnations; Scriptural
authority; Caste system, Purdah system, Untouchability, Sati, child
marriage.
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• No definite view on Karma and transmigration of the soul.
• Punjab: Dayal Singh College at Lahore (1910) started by Dayal
Singh Trust, popularized the ideas of the Samaj.
• Popularized liberal ideas of women education, widow remarriage,

Prarthana Atmaram raising age of marriage for boys and girls and against caste and
Samaj Pandurang in communal barriers.
(1867) Bombay. • Joined by M. G. Ranade in 1870, gained all India character.
• Associated with the Bhakti cult in Maharashtra.
• Other Prominent leaders: R. G. Bhandarkar, N. G. Chandavarkar.
• Also known as the “Young Bengal Movement”.
Young Bengal Henry Vivian • Inspired from the French Revolution which favored free thinking
Movement Derozio in and rationality.
(1820-30) Bengal. • It was too radical for the contemporary time with no effect on the
masses.
• Derozio is regarded as the First nationalist poet of modern India.
Paramhansa Dadoba • In Maharashtra.
Mandali Pandurang and • Fought against Caste system and favored worship of one God.
(1849) Mehtaji • Real religion based on moral, love, and good conduct.
Durgaram
Satyasodhak Jyotirao Phule • In Maharashtra.
Samaj (1873) • Social service and education among the lower castes and women.
Servants of Gopal Krishna • In Maharashtra
India Society Gokhale and M.G. • Mobilize a cadre of selfless workers for the service of the country
(1905) Ranade in a religious spirit.
Social Service Narayan Malhar • In Bombay
League Joshi • To help the poor and the masses to achieve the better conditions
of life and work.
• In Calcutta
• To organize a group of persons to work for the spread of the
Ramkrishna Ramakrishna message of Vedanta, which inspired the life of Ramkrishna
Movement Paramahamsa Paramhansa.
• To carry on the philanthropic work in conjunction with the
followers of the mission.
• In Bombay.
• It believed in God being the primary source of true knowledge.
• Considered Vedas to be the main book of knowledge.
• Faith in Dharma (right or wrong)
Arya Samaj Dayananda • Promote well-being of all individuals and foster love and justice.
(1875) Saraswati • Encouraged inter-caste and widow remarriage.
• Undertook social service during the times of natural calamities like
earthquake and droughts, etc.
• Started Shuddhi (purification) Movement to reconvert back to
Hinduism to those who have converted to Christianity or Islam.
Behramji M. • Opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage.
Seva Sadan Malabari and • B. M. Malabari’s (Newspaper: Indian Spectator) efforts led to the
(1908) Diwan Dayaram Age of Consent Act.
Gidumal • It took care of the deserted, exploited, and destitute women and
fostered education and medical services.
• In Lahore
Dev Samaj Shiv Narayan • Aimed at societal reform through religion by focusing on eternity of
(1887) Agnihotri the soul, supremacy of the guru and need for good action.
• Book: Deva Shastra.
Dharma Sabha Radhakant Deb • Favored orthodox Hinduism by maintaining status quo.
(1830) • Advocated western education among girls.

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Bharat Madan Mohan • To defend the orthodox Hindu religion.
Dharma Malaviya in • Other similar organizations that merged into it:
Mahamandal Varanasi. 1. Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895).
(1902) 2. Dharma Maha Parishad in South India.
3. Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal.
Sree Narayan Sree Narayana • Among the Ezhavas (caste of toddy-tappers and untouchables) of
Guru Dharma Guru Swamy in Kerala.
Paripalana Kerala. • Also called as the Aravippuram Movement.
Movement • Opposed the oppression of the depressed classes, animal sacrifices,
(SNDP) dividing tendencies of the castes, creeds, etc.
• Famous poet Kumaran Asan is associated with it.
Radha Swami Tulsi Ram aka • In Agra.
Movement Shiv Dayal Saheb • Believe in supremacy of guru, satsang (pious people) and simple
(1861) life with worldly existence.
• Did not believe in temple and other related symbols.
Vokkalinga Mysore • Opposed Brahminical domination.
Sangha (1905)
Justice C. N. Mudaliar, T. • In Madras Presidency.
Movement M. Nair, P. • Fought for attaining the representation of the lower castes in the
Tyagaraja legislatures.
Self-Respect E. V. Ramaswamy • Against Brahminical domination.
Movement Naicker.
(mid 1920)
Temple Entry T. K. Madhavan • To allow the entry of lower castes in temples.
Movement in Travancore. • Other similar movement: Vaikom Satyagraha (1924, K. P. Kesava,
Kerala).
Indian Social M. G. Ranade and • Social reform organ of the Indian National Congress.
Conference Raghunath Rao • Advocated inter-caste marriage, opposed polygamy and kulinism.
(1887) in Madras. • Launched “Pledge Movement to pledge against Child Marriage”

MUSLIMS REFORM MOVEMENTS:

• Founded by Syed Ahmed Barelvi inspired by Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah
Walliullah
Wahabi/Walliullah • Response against western influences.
Movement • Establish harmony among the four schools of Muslims.
• Importance of individual conscience in religion.
• Transform India from dar-ul-Harb (land of kafirs) to dar-ul-Islam (land of
Islam).
Titu Mir’s • Mir Nithar Ali, disciple of Syed Ahmed Barelvi.
Movement • Adopted Wahabism and Sharia.
• Organized Muslim peasant against the Hindu landlords.
• Based on Islamic pillars of faith as established by Haji Sharitat ullah.
Faraizi Movement • Elimination of un-Islamic practices from the Islam.
• Revolutionary tone under Dudu Mian.
• Targeted Hindu landlords.
• By Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.
• Originated in India.
• Based on liberal principles like Brahmo Samaj.
Ahmadiyya • Opposed Jihad, favored separation of religion from state, promoted tolerance and
Movement protection of human rights.
• Suffered from mysticism.
• Like Baha’ism of the West Asian countries.
• By Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875.
Aligarh Movement • Liberal and modern in nature.
• Promotion of modern education among the Muslims.
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• Social reforms among the Muslims like abolition of purdah, polygamy, widow
remarriage, women’s education, etc.
• Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi in 1866 in Saharanpur,
United Provinces.
Deoband School • Moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.
(Darul Uloom) • Imparted instruction in Islamic religion.
• Supported the formation of Indian National Congress.
• Issued fatwa against Syed Ahmed Khan’s Aligarh School.

OTHER IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS

COMMUNITY MOVEMENT AIM
• Organized to improve the social conditions of the Parsis.
Rahnumai • Purification of the Zoroastrian religion.
Parsi Mazdayasnan • Newspaper: Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller).
Sabha (1851) • Prominent leaders: Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K. R.
Cama, and S. S. Bengalee.
The Singh Sabha • Modern education among the Sikhs through Khalsa schools at
Movement Punjab.
(1873, Amritsar) • To counter the proselytizing activities of the Christian
missionaries.
Sikh The Akali • Offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement.
Movement • Aimed at liberating the Sikh Gurudwaras from the corrupt
(Gurudwara mahants.
Reform • Sikh Gurudwaras Act, 1922 passed to give control of the
Movement) gurudwaras to the masses through Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).
• Formed by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott in
New York, United States.
• Shifted headquarters to Adyar, Madras in 1882.
• Inspired from Upanishads, Samkhya, yoga, and Vedanta schools
Theosophical The Theosophical of thought.
Movement Society (1875) • Aimed at establishing universal brotherhood.
• Prominent leader: Annie Beasant (1847-1933)
Ø Arrived in India in 1893.
Ø Elected its president in 1907.
Ø Founded the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898
(later became Benares Hindu University in 1916).

STUDENT NOTES:


25

6. The Struggle Begins

FACTORS IN THE GROWTH OF MODERN NATIONALISM
• Political, Administrative and Economic unification of the country.
• Growth of Western thought and Education.
• Role of Literature and Press & Contemporary movement worldwide.
• Rediscovery of rich past and heritage of India.
• Rise of middle class intelligentsia.
• Progressive character of Socio-Religious reform movement.
• Reactionary policies and racial arrogance of rulers.
• Understanding the contradictions in Indian and colonial interests

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (i.e. Before 1885)

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN BENGAL:

Bangabhasha Prakasika • Founded in 1836 by Associates of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Sabha: • The objective of the organization was to promote Bengali education by
means of polemics and build up public opinion.
• It marked beginning of mass movement in India.
Zamindari Association: • It was formed for protection of Landlords. Famously came to be known
as “Landholder’s Society
• Founded in 1843 in Calcutta for collection of information regarding
Bengal British India Society: actual conditions of people in India.
• It was an Anti-Zamindar organization. It sent petitions for employment
of Indians in public offices and judicial reforms.
• Resulted from the merger of Zamindari Association and Bengal British
India Association.
• It sent suggestions for Charter Act of 1853:
1. Separate Legislature of popular character.
British India Association: 2. Separation of Judicial and Executive.
3. Reduction in Salaries of higher officers
4. Abolition of Salt Duty, Akbari etc.
• Resulted into addition of six new members in Governor General’s Council
for legislative purpose.
• It was organized by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London.
The East India Association: • To influence public figures of England for promotion of Indian welfare
and discuss Indian Question. Its branches were later organized in
prominent Indian cities.
The Indian League: • Started by Sisir Kumar Ghosh in 1875.
• For stimulating nationalism and encouraging political education.
• It was founded in 1876 superseding Indian League by Surendranath
Banerjee & Anandmohan Bose
The Indian Association of • Objective:
Calcutta: 1. Create strong public opinion on political question
2. Unification of Indians on common political ground.
3. Formed due to pro-landlord and conservative policies of British India
Association.

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS OF BOMBAY:

The Poona Sarvajanik • It was founded by M. G. Ranade in 1870.
Sabha:

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• The other key members who helped in its formation were Bhawanrao
Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi (ruler of the Aundh State who was also the
organisation’s first president), Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi and S H Chiplunkar.
• Objective: It meant to serve as a link between people and the
government.
• Formed in 1885 by Pherozshah Mehta, Badruddin Tayabji and K.T.
The Bombay Presidency Telang
Association: • It pioneered in Indian interests and hosted the first meeting of the Indian
National Congress in Bombay in 1885.
Madras Mahajan Sabha: • Founded in 1884 by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya Aiyer and
P. Anandacharlu.

PRE-CONGRESS CAMPAIGN
• Campaigns were organized since 1875 for the imposition of Cotton Import Duty to protect the interests of
indigenous cotton textiles industry.
• For Indianisation of Government Services (1878-1879)
• The Indians had opposed the Afghan adventure of Lord Lytton and then compelled the British Government
to contribute towards the cost of the Second Afghan War.
• In 1878, major campaigns started against Arms Act (1878) which tried disarming Indians and against
Vernacular Press Act (1878) which tried to control Indian Press. Vernacular Press act was later repealed
by Lord Ripon in 1881.
• Indians agitated for Right to join semi-military volunteer corps in 1885 which was restricted to
Europeans. They also organized campaigns in Britain appealing voters to vote for pro India Leaders.
• In 1881-82 they had organized a protest against the Plantation Labour and the Inland Emigration Act
which condemned reducing plantation labourers to serfdom.
• All India Fund for Political Association: agitations were raised in 1883 for that as it would have allowed
funding Indian campaigns in India as well as England.
• In support of Ilbert Bill by Lord Ripon as it would have allowed the Indian magistrates to try Europeans in
the court of Law. This bill was repealed by the legislature.
• Against reduction in maximum age in Civil Services (promulgated reduction of age under Lord Lytton),
Indian Civil Service agitation was led by the Indian Association under S. N. Benerjee.


27

7. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: FOUNDATION AND THE

MODERATE PHASE (1885- 1905)

FOUNDATION OF INC:
• Solid ground for an establishment with an all-India nature was already established in late 1870s. The final
shape to such an organisation was given by a retired civil servant A.O Hume.
• The first session of INC was held at “Gokul Dham Tejpal Sanskrit college” in Bombay- 1885
• It was attended by 72 delegates and presided over by W.C Banerjee.

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC): 1885
• Allan Octavian Hume was a retired civil servant who organized first session on Indian National Congress
in Bombay (1885).
• Indian National Conference Session in 1883 and 1885 was organized by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand
Mohan Bose.
• First Session of INC was presided over by Womesh Chandra Bannerjea.

REMEMBER:
1887 Syed Badruddin Tyabji was first Muslim President of session held at Madras.
1888 George Yule was first English President of INC at Allahabad session.
1890 Kadambini Ganguly was First Women (Undergraduate of Calcutta University) to addressed
congress. However, Sarojini Naidu was first Indian women president of congress in 1925 at
Kanpur Session.
1917 Annie Besant was first woman president of Congress at Calcutta session.
1924 Only Session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi was Belgaum Session of INC.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF INC:
• To form a secular and Democratic national movement.
• To Politicize and publicly educate people.
• Establish Headquarter of the movement, an All-India Leadership Group.
• Develop and propagate anticolonial nationalist ideology.
• Formulate and present popular demands before the government.
• Develop and consolidate the feeling of national unity and Promote Indian nationhood.

WAS INC A SAFETY VALVE?
• This theory suggested that INC was deliberately founded by the British to allow the Indians to release
discontent. And thus, Hume convinced Lord Dufferin to not obstruct the formation of INC.
• Extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai believed in this theory. But modern Indian historians dispute this
idea.
• If Indians themselves initiated INC, the British government would have killed the idea in its tracks.
• Thus, it was beneficial that a British civil servant started this organisation.
• It is said early moderates used Hume as a “lightning conductor” i.e., as a catalyst to bring together
nationalist forces.

SAFETY VALVE THEORY: Modern historians believe: If Hume used congress as “Safety Valve” to contain
growing discontent for British rule amongst Indians, Indian Leaders used A. O. Hume as a Lightning

IMPORTANT SESSIONS OF INC

Session PRESIDENT SIGNIFICANCE
1885 Bombay W C Banerjee 1st session attended by 72 delegates
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji ---

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1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji Appeal to Muslims to join INC
1888 Allahabad George Yule 1st non-Indian to be President of INC
1905 Benaras Gopal Krishna • Expressed resentment against Bengal partition boycott of
Gokhale foreign goods
• Promotion of swadeshi goods and Indian industries- Public
meetings and processions
• Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’- Swadesh Bandhab Samiti
of Ashwini Kumar Dutta
• Use of Traditional Popular Festivals and Melas-Ganpati
festival, traditional folk theatre
• Nationalist song- Amar Sonar Bangla, Sudesha Geetham-
Subramania Bharati
• Painting- Abanindranath Tagore
• Scientific research- Jadish Chandra Bose
• National Education in vernacular medium. Bengal National
College, National Council of Education.
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji • Word “swaraj” mentioned for the first time
1907 Surat Rash Behari • Congress split between moderates and extremists
Ghosh
1908 Madras Rash Behari • Constitution of INC drawn
Ghosh
1909 Lahore Madan Mohan • Expressed disapproval over formation of separate electorates
Malviya based on religion (Indian Councils Act, 1909)
1916 Lucknow A C Majumdar • Reunification of the two factions in INC i.e., moderates and
extremists.
• Death of Gokhale and Pherozshah Mehta
• Lucknow pact between Muslim league and INC
• INC accepted Muslim league demand of separate electorate
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant • First women to preside the congress session
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru • New constitution of INC framed
• Condemned the Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Approved the Khilafat movement
1920 (Special Lala Lajpat Rai • NCM moved and adopted
Session) Calcutta
1920 Nagpur Viraraghvachari • Reconstitution of congress committees on linguistic grounds.
• Jinnah left the INC
1922 Gaya C R Das • CR Das & other leaders broke away from INC and formed
Swaraj party. C R Das presided session when he was in Jail.
1924 Belgaum M K Gandhi • Only session where Gandhi ji presided
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu • First Indian women president of INC
1927 Madras M A Ansari • Resolution against using Indian troops in Mesopotamia, Iran,
and China
• Resolution passed to boycott Simon commission
• Adopted resolution for Purna Swaraj
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru • 1ST All India Youth Congress Formed
1929 Lahore J L Nehru • Passed Purna Swaraj Resolution
• 26th Jan observed as Independence Day

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• Civil disobedience to be launched
1931 Karachi Vallabh Bhai • Endorsed Gandhi Irwin pact
Patel • Resolution of Fundamental rights and National Economic
Programme
• Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the 2nd RTC
1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad • INC constitution amended
1936 Lucknow Jawahar Lal • Push towards socialist ideas by Nehru
Nehru
1937 Faizpur J L Nehru • 1st session in a village
1938 Haripura S C Bose • National Planning Committee set under Nehru
1939 Tripuri Rajendra Prasad • Bose was re-elected as president but had to resign when
Gandhi supporters (in favour of P. Sitarammaiah) protested
• Rajendra Prasad was made president of the session
• All India Forward Bloc a faction within the Congress in
Bengal was formed by Bose in 1939.
1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad • Decision to launch Civil Disobedience Movement
1946 Meerut J B Kriplani • Last session before independence

ERA OF MODERATES (1885-1905) AND APPROACH
• Moderates were staunch believers in liberalism, constitutional agitation within law.
• Moderates believed the British were not aware of real situation of Indians. They resorted to Petition,
Resolutions, and Meetings.
• British Committee of INC was formed in 1899 in London. Dadabhai Naoroji spent his life campaigning
abroad for India’s cause.
• Two-pronged approach:
1. Create a strong public opinion to arouse consciousness and national spirit and then educate and unite
people.
2. To persuade the British government and the public to introduce reforms in India on the lines laid by
nationalists.

Important Moderate leaders were: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D. E Wacha, W. C Banerjee S. N
Banerjee. They believed political connections with Britain was in India’s interests and that time was not ripe
for a direct challenge to the British Raj.

Demands by Moderates Limitations
• Additional members in Imperial Legislative • Additional members in Imperial Legislative
Councils and Provincial Legislative Council Councils and Provincial Legislative Council
increased. increased.
• Election element introduced after some members • Election element introduced after some members
were indirectly elected. were indirectly elected.
• Budget could be discussed; Questions could be • Budget could be discussed; Questions could be
asked. asked.
• Non official had no voice with Official Majority in
the council.
• Budget could not be voted upon, amendments
could not be made
• No supplementary, No answers to be asked.
• Council met only 13 days a year.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MODERATES AND NATIONALISTS


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• Early nationalists led by Dadabhai Naoroji, RC Dutt and others
carefully analysed the political economy and put forward “drain of
wealth theory” to explain the exploitation of India.

• They opposed the transformation of a self-sufficient Indian economy

Economic Critique of into colonial economy.
Imperialism: • They wanted to create an opinion that the British were the major
cause of Indian poverty.
• They demanded independent economy and involvement of
Indian capital, abolition of salt tax, reduced land revenues,
reduced military expenditure and encouragement to modern
industry through tariff protection and direct government aid.
• Legislative councils in India had no real power till 1920.
• The Imperial Legislative council constituted by the India Councils
Act 1861 was an impotent body designed to disguise official

measures as having been passed by representative body.

• From 1885-1892 the nationalist demands for constitutional reforms
were centered around:
1. Expansion of councils and greater Indian participation
2. Reform of the councils- greater say and financial powers
• The constitutional reforms through the India Councils Act 1892
were criticised heavily by the nationalists. The nationalists now
Constitutional Reforms and demanded:
Propaganda in Legislature
1. Majority of Indians in Council

2. Control of the budget
• They gave the slogan of “no taxation without representation” just
like the one given during American war of Independence against the
British.
• The British had intended the councils to be a place where
nationalists could be brought and allowed to complain directly. But
the councils were turned by the moderates into forums to raise
national grievances.
• The early nationalists however failed to widen the democratic base
by not including the masses and not demanding the right to vote for
all.
• Indianization of government services
• Call to separate judicial and administrative functions
• Criticism of oppressive and tyrannical bureaucracy and judiciary
Campaign for General
Administrative Reforms Such as: • Criticism of aggressive foreign policy
• Call to increase welfare expenditure
• Demand for better treatment for Indian labour abroad in other
colonies.
• Through constant campaigning, the right to speech, thought and
association and free press became an integral part of freedom
Protection of Civil Rights struggle.
• Due to this consciousness, when Tilak was arrested for his speeches,
there was a huge outrage in 1897.

Role of Masses:
• Moderate phase had narrow social base and passive role of masses.
• Early nationalists lacked political faith in the masses.
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• Masses were generally ignorant and conservative.
• Moderates felt that the masses had to be welded into a nation.
• Lack of support meant open stand against could not be taken regularly.
Government’s Response
• It was hostile to the INC from the beginning. The official attitude stiffened after 1887 when INC became overly
critical of colonial rule.
• The government now openly condemned INC calling them “seditious brahmins”, “disloyal babus” etc.
• The government later adopted “divide and rule” policy where reactionary elements like Sir Syed Ahmed khan
and Raja Shiv Prasad of Benares were encouraged to form “United Indian Patriotic Association” to counter
congress propaganda.

EVALUATION:
National awakening + Political ideas were popularized + Strong base created + Most progressive forces of the
time + Political work based on ground realities + India to be ruled by Indian’s idea propagated +Failed to widen
their democratic base and scope of demands.

STUDENT NOTES:


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8. ERA OF MILITANT NATIONALISM (1905-1918)

REASONS FOR GROWTH OF MILITANT NATIONALISM:
• Growth of confidence and self-respect of the masses under leaders like Tilak, Aurobindo and Bipin
Chandra Pal.
• Growth of education- among the masses led to increased awareness about the country unemployment,
poverty and underdevelopment under the British Rule.
• Reaction to increasing Westernization- as it was leading to subordination of Indian identity and culture.
Leaders like Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee urged
nationalists to take pride in the Indian civilization.
• Dissatisfaction with achievements of Moderates and their methods of struggle (3 Ps - petition, prayer, and
protest).
• Curzon’s Reactionary policies - Curzon’s refusal to recognize India as a nation, his insulting of nationalists,
his administrative measures like Indian Universities Act, Official Secrets Act, Calcutta Corporation Act
invoked strong criticism from nationalists.
• Existence of a Militant school of thought- Raj Narain Bose, A K Dutta, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandra Pal
in Bengal; Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai. Basic tenets of this school
were: Swaraj- goal of national movement through Direct political action + Belief in masses and Personal
sacrifices required.
• Emergence of a trained leadership- it could channelize the energy of the masses during movements like
for Swadeshi and against Bengal partition etc.
• International Influences demolished the myths of European invincibility.

After 1868 Industrial development by Japan- an Asian country.
1896 the defeat of many European nations like Italy by Ethiopians
1899-1902 the British facing reverses in Boer wars
1905 Defeat of Russia by Japan

• Recognition of the exploitative nature of British rule - Famines of 1896,1900 and Bubonic plague in the
Deccan, the suppression of the spread of education, exposed the economic exploitation of the British. So, a
need for an Indian government was felt. Nationalists noticed the British were imposing several restrictions
on the Indians as follows:

YEAR BRITISH ACTS/POLICIES AND THEIR IMPACT
1892 • Indian Councils Act was passed, it failed to satisfy the nationalists as their demands of
representative government etc. were not fully met.
1897 • The Natu brothers deported without trial and Tilak imprisoned for sedition under section
124A.
• Sedition, under Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code, is defined as any action that brings or
attempts to bring hatred or contempt towards the government of India.
1898 • The repressive laws under section 124A were further strengthened.
1899 • Number of Indian members in Calcutta Corporation were reduced.
1904 • Official Secrets Act enacted when Lord Curzon was Viceroy of India from 1899-1905, curbed
freedom of press.
1904 • Indian Universities Act ensured greater government control over universities, which it
described as factories producing political revolutionaries

PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)
• British Govt. made the decision public to divide Bengal in 1903 and partition came into force in October
1905.
• Reasons given by British- Bengal is too big to be administered and this division of Bengal into eastern
and western Bengal would develop Assam.
• Moderates started anti partition campaigns:
Ø Leaders associated- Surendranath Banerjee, K.K Mitra and Prithwishchandra Ray.
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Ø Newspaper associated- Hitabadi, Sanjibani, Bengalee.

SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENTS
They were mass movements to oppose the Bengal partition. The movement later spread to other parts of the
country:
• Formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement: 7th August 1905 at the Calcutta Town Hall with the passage
of Boycott Resolution.
• Partition came into force: October 16, 1905

AREA LEADERS
Poona and Bombay Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh
Delhi Syed Haider Raza
Madras Chidambaram Pillai

INC PRESIDENT STANCE
Gokhale (moderates and extremists • Condemned Partition, Supported anti-
1905, differences came up. Extremists wanted to partition and Swadeshi Movement
Benaras extend the movement outside Bengal and
include all forms of associations within
boycott. Moderates didn’t want that.)
Dadabhai Naoroji (Extremists wanted either • Goal of the INC was “self-government/
1906, tilak or Lajpat rai as president. Moderates swaraj like the United Kingdom or the
Calcutta proposed Dadabhai Naoroji.) colonies” of Australia or Canada.
• The word swaraj was mentioned for the
first time.
1907, SURAT SPLIT- Rash Bihari Ghosh • Extremists wanted either Tilak or Lajpat
Surat rai as President. Moderates proposed
Rashbehari Ghosh and wanted the session
to be in Surat in order to exclude Tilak
from the presidency, since a leader from
the host province could not be session
president, they also sought to drop
resolutions on swadeshi, boycott and
national education.

MOVEMENT UNDER EXTREMIST LEADERSHIP
• New forms of struggle were introduced such as-Boycott of foreign goods, Public meetings and processions.
• Imaginative use of Traditional Festivals, Melas- Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals became a medium
of swadeshi propaganda.
• Importance to Self-Reliance (Atma Shakti)- Emphasis was placed on honour, social and economic
regeneration of the villages.
• Swadeshi programme or National Education:
Ø Bengal National College - Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal - inspired by Tagore’s Shantiniketan.
Ø National Council of Education (1906) was set up to organise national education in vernacular medium.
Ø Bengal Institute of Technology was set up for technical education.
• Swadeshi enterprises- Swadeshi textile mills, banks, etc, were setup. V.O. Chidambaram Pillai set up the
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at Tuticorin.
• Cultural Impact- Rabindranath Tagore wrote Amar Sonar Bangla, Subramania Bharati wrote Swadesha
Geetham.
• Corps of volunteers or ‘Samitis’- they generated political consciousness among the masses.

SAMITIS ORGANISED BY
Barisal Swadeshi Bandhab Samiti by Ashwini Kumar Dutta
Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu) Swadeshi Sangam by V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva etc.

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• Mass Participation:

Students • Participated in large numbers, especially in Bengal, Maharashtra, South India.
Muslims • Led by Nawab Salim Ullah of Dacca, most of the upper and middle-class Muslims did not
participate.
• Couldn’t get support of Muslim peasantry.
• All India Muslim League came up in December 30, 1905 as an anti-Congress front.
Women • Took active part in procession and picketing
Labour • Strikes were organized in Bengal, Punjab, Tamil Nadu.

GOVERNMENT REPRESSION
• British government followed the “carrot and stick policy”. It is a 3-way approach of repression - conciliation
and suppression.
• 5 new laws were brought to curb anti-government activity:
1. Seditious Meetings Act,1907
2. Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908
3. Indian Newspapers Act,1908
4. Explosives Substances Act,1908
5. Indian Press Act,1910
• Tilak was tried for sedition in 1909 for his writings in “Kesari” about bomb thrown by Bengal
revolutionaries in Muzzafarpur - sent to Mandalay jail for 6 yrs- released in 1914.
• Aurobindo and B.C Pal retired from politics and Lala Lajpat rai left for abroad.

MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS 1909
The Indian Councils Act 1909 or Morley-Minto reforms named after the Secretary of State for India John Morley
and the Viceroy of India- Minto.

• Introduced separate electorates for the Muslims to divide people in
communal lines.
• One Indian to be appointed to viceroy executive council- Satyendra Sinha.
• Central Legislative Council increased from 16 to 60 members. Not uniform in
Indian Councils Act case of province.
1909 • Can discuss the budget, matters of public interest and move resolutions.
• They could also ask supplementary questions.
• Indians were given membership to the Imperial Legislative Council for the first
time.

ANNULMENT OF PARTITION (1911)
• It was done mainly to curb the rising revolutionary extremism/terrorism. Muslim political elite were
disappointed with this move. To make them happy:
Ø The capital was shifted to Delhi in 1911,
Ø Assam was made a separate province,
Ø Bihar and Orissa were separated from Bengal.
• After swadeshi and Boycott Movements it became clear that Moderates had outlived their utility and their
politics of petitions and speeches had become obsolete. There were following differences between them:

BASIS MODERATES EXTREMISTS
Social base • Zamindars and upper middle class. • Educated middle and lower middle class.
Ideology • Western liberal thought and European • Indian history, culture, heritage.
history
Belief • Believed in England’s providential • Did not believe in England’s providential
mission in india. mission in india.
• great faith in the British sense of justice • Believed in self-reliance as a weapon
and fair play. against domination.
• Connections with British beneficial and • Recognised the exploitative nature of

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were loyal to the crown British, unworthy of loyalty.
• Movement should be limited to middle • Believed in masses
class intelligentsia
• Didn’t believe in masses
Demands • Constitutional reforms/self-government. • Swaraj
Methods • Use of constitutional methods only. • Did not hesitate to use extra constitutional
Prayers, Petitions, persuasion etc. methods like- boycott, passive resistance.
• Economic Critique of British Imperialism • Demand of Swaraj
like Theory of wealth drain, Poverty and • Contributing to mass movements
un-British rule in India. • spread of nationalist education
• Constitutional Reforms-Repealing the • Support for evolutionary movements
Contribution Arms Act of 1878, Increasing spending • Encouraged Cooperative Organisations
on education of Indians etc. • Setting relief fund for famines etc.
• Campaign for General Administrative
Reforms
• Defence of Civil Rights
Leaders • A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Dadabhai • Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh


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9. Revolutionary Activities (1907-17)

Revolutionary Activities Within India:
• The revolutionaries did not find it practical at that stage to create a violent mass revolution throughout the
country or to subvert the loyalties of the Army
• Instead, they opted to follow in the footsteps of Russian nihilists or the Irish nationalists.
• Organising assassinations of unpopular officials and of traitors and informers among the revolutionaries
• themselves;
• Conducting swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities; (during the First World War)
organising military conspiracies with expectation of help from the enemies of Britain
• The idea was to strike terror in the hearts of the rulers, arouse people and remove the fear of authority
from their minds. The revolutionaries intended to inspire the people by appealing to their patriotism,
especially the idealistic youth.

Year Personality Work
Vasudev Balwant Phadke, Ramosi Peasant Force aimed to rid the country of the
1879 Maharashtra British by instigating an armed revolt by disrupting
communication lines.
It hoped to raise funds for its activities through dacoities but
it was suppressed prematurely.
Tilak, Maharashtra. He propagated militant nationalism through his journals
1890s Kesari and Maharatta (1881) and through Shivaji (1894)
and Ganapati (1893) festivals.
1897 Chapekar brothers, Damodar Murdered the Plague Commissioner of Poona, Rand, and Lt.
and Balkrishna, Maharashtra. Ayerst.
Savarkar and his brother, Organised Mitra Mela, a secret society which merged with
1899 Maharashtra Abhinav Bharat (after Mazzini's ‘Young Italy’)
in1904.Soon Nasik, Poona and Bombay emerged as centre
of bomb manufacture
Jnanendra Nath Basu. Revolutionary group under in Midnapore
1902 Promotha Mitter Jatindra Nath Anushilan Samiti was founded in Calcutta
Banerjee, Barindra Kumar
Ghosh and others.
Barindra Kumar Ghosh, ‘Yugantar’ weekly. The Yugantar wrote: “The remedy lies
Bhupendranath Dutta with the people. The 30crore people inhabiting India must
1906 raise their 60 crore hands to stop this curse of oppression.
Force must be stopped by force.”
Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Organised a secret society covering Punjab, Delhi and
Sanyal United Provinces. Hemachandra Kanungo went abroad for
military and political training
The Yugantar group An abortive attempt was made them on the life of a very
1907 unpopular British official, Sir Fuller (the first Lt. Governor
of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam; attempts
to derail the train on which the lieutenant-governor, Sri
Andrew Fraser, wastravelling.
Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Threw a bomb at a carriage supposed to be carrying a white
Bose. judge, Kingsford, in Muzaffarpur.
Ghosh brothers, Aurobindo The whole Anushilan group was arrested in Alipore
and Barindra conspiracy case /Manicktolla bomb conspiracy or
1908 Muraripukur conspiracy. Aurobindo was acquitted of all
charges but Barindra Ghosh and Ullaskar Dut were found
guilty.
Dacca Anushilan under Pulin Barrah dacoity to raise funds for revolutionary activities.
Das
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1909 Anant Lakshman Kanhere, He was a member of Abhinav Bharat and killed A.M.T.
Maharashtra Jackson, the Collector of Nashik.
Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Staged a bomb attack on Viceroy Hardinge in a procession
1912 Sanyal. Basant Kumar biswas, through Chandni Chowk, Delhi, all were convicted but
Amir Chand and Avadh Behari Rashbehari Bose, known as the person behind the plan,
escaped donning a disguise.

• The western Anushilan Samiti was led by Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin and emerged as the Jugantar
(or Yugantar).
• During the First World War, the Jugantar party arranged to import German arms and ammunition through
sympathisers and revolutionaries abroad, as a part of the German plot (Zimmerman Plan).
• The Jugantar party raised funds through a series of dacoities known as taxi cab dacoities and boat
dacoities, so as to work out the Indo-German conspiracy.

Revolutionary Activities in Punjab:
• Lala Lajpat Rai brought out ‘Punjabee’ (motto – self-help at any cost)
• Ajit Singh organised ‘Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan’ in Lahore with its journal, Bharat Mata
• Other leaders included Aga Haidar, Syed Haider Raza, Bhai Parmanand and the radical Urdu poet, Lalchand
‘Falak’.
• Extremism in the Punjab died down quickly after the government struck in May 1907 with a ban on political
meetings and the deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.
• Sufi Amba Prasad, Lalchand, Bhai Parmanand, Lala Hardayal developed in to full-scale revolutionaries.
• Rashbehari Bose was involved in the Ghadr Revolution. In 1913, he met Jatin to discuss the possibilities
of an all-India armed rising of 1857 type. Then, they worked in cooperation, in extending the Bengal plan to
Punjab and the upper provinces. As the plan for revolution did not succeed, he escaped to Japan in 1915. He
played an important part in the founding of the Indian National Army.

Revolutionary Activities Abroad:

The need for shelter, the possibility of bringing out revolutionary literature that would be immune from the Press
Acts and the quest for arms took Indian revolutionaries abroad.

• Started India House (a home rule league society) in 1905 in London, a
scholarship scheme for Indian students and journal ‘The Indian
Shyamji Krishnavarma Sociologist’.
• Revolutionaries such as Savarkar and Hardayal became the members of
India House.
Madanlal Dhingra • Assassinated India office bureaucrat Curzon- Wylie in 1909
Madame Bhikaji Cama • A Parsi lady, operated from Paris, brought out ‘Bande Mataram’ (operated
by Ajit Singh)
Virendranath • Operated from Berlin since 1909
Chattopadhyaya

The Ghadr:
• The Ghadr Party was a revolutionary group organised around a weekly newspaper The Ghadr with its
headquarters at San Francisco and branches along the US coast and in the Far East.
• These revolutionaries included mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who had migrated from the Punjab to the
USA and Canada in search of better employment opportunities.
• Pre-Ghadr revolutionary activity had been carried on by Ramdas Puri, G.D. Kumar, Taraknath Das,
Sohan Singh Bhakna and Lala Hardayal who reached there in 1911.
• To carry out revolutionary activities, the earlier activists had set up a ‘Swadesh Sevak Home’ at Vancouver
and ‘United India House’ at Seattle. Finally, in 1913, the Ghadr was established.
• The Ghadr programme was to organise assassinations of officials, publish revolutionary and anti-
imperialist literature, work among Indian troops stationed abroad, procure arms and bring about a
simultaneous revolt in all British colonies.
• The moving spirits behind the Ghadr Party were Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra, Bhagwan Singh, Kartar
38

Singh Saraba, Barkatullah, and Bhai Parmanand.
• The Ghadrites intended to bring about a revolt in India. Their plans were encouraged by two events in 1914
- the Komagata Maru incident and the outbreak of the First World War.

Komagata Maru Incident
• Komagata Maru - a ship chartered from Singapore carrying Sikh and Punjabi Muslims were denied entry
into Canada and forced to return to India.
• The British government tried to detain the immigrants at Calcutta, in order to transport them to Punjab.
The immigrants refused to give in. A tussle ensued in which 22 immigrants lost lives.
• The Ghadr leaders were inflamed by this incident. They planned to launch a violent attack to expel the
British. Kartar Singh Saraba, Raghubar Dayal Gupta, Rashbehari Bose, and Sachin Sanyal were the
prominent leaders involved.
• February 21, 1915 was fixed as the date of attack.
• However, the British got to know about the attack, made preemptive arrests, and suppressed the
movement.
• Defence of India Act, 1915 was the primary and most draconian tool used by the British to counter the
Ghadr movement.

Revolutionaries in Europe:
• The Berlin Committee for Indian Independence was established in 1915 by Virendranath
Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, Lala Hardayal and others with the help of the German foreign
office under ‘Zimmerman Plan’
• The Indian revolutionaries in Europe sent missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey and Kabul to work among
Indian troops and the Indian prisoners of war (POWs) and to incite anti-British feelings among the people of
these countries.
• One mission under Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh, Barkatullah and Obaidullah Sindhi went to Kabul to organise
a ‘provisional Indian government’ there with the help of the crown prince, Amanullah.

Mutiny in Singapore:
• Among the scattered mutinies during this period, the most notable was in Singapore on February 15, 1915
by Punjabi Muslim 5th Light Infantry and the 36th Sikh battalion under Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul
Gani and Subedar Daud Khan.
• It was crushed after a fierce battle in which many were killed. Later, 37 persons were executed and 41
transported for life.

39

10. FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1919) AND NATIONALIST

RESPONSE

NATIONALIST RESPONSE TO BRITISH PARTICIPATION IN THE WW- I

Moderates Supported the empire in the war
Extremists Also supports as they believed British would repay India’s loyalty with self- government.
Revolutionaries Decided to wage war on British and free the country.

HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT (1916)
• It was Indian response to First World War, inspired by Irish Home Rule Leagues. The aim of the
movement was self-rule through political education and discussion, public meetings etc.
• The Russian revolution 1917 gave boost to the movement.
• The government responded with severe repression, but it prepared masses for Gandhian style of
politics.
• Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.
• Annie Besant launched the Home Rule League in September 1916 at Madras.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR LAUNCHING HOME RULE LEAGUE:
• Nationalists believed that people involvement was necessary to get concessions from the government.
• Moderates were disillusioned with the Morley-Minto reforms
• People were burdened by the wartime miseries -high taxation, prices rise, and were ready to participate in
any aggressive movement of protest.
• It was an imperialist war that exposed the myth of white supremacy
• Tilak, after his release in 1914, was ready to assume nationalist leadership and was inspired by the Irish
home rule league. Annie Besant took part to enlarge the scope of home rule.

NOTE: Anglo-Indians, most of the Muslims and Non brahmins from south did not join as they felt it would mean
home rule of the Hindu majority.

• Tilak’s league was set up in April 1916 in areas of Maharashtra
(excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces, and Berar.
• Its demands included Swarajya, formation of linguistic states and
League Branches education in the vernacular.
• Tilak advocated passive resistance.
• Annie Besant League- September 1916 in Madras and covered the rest of
India (including Bombay city).
• It was loosely organized as compared to Tilak’s League.

• Leaders: Motilal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Chittaranjan Das, Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru.
• George Arundale., B.W. Wadia and C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar were associates of Annie Besant.
• Sir S. Subramanian Aiyar renounced his knighthood.

HOME RULE LEAGUE FADED OUT BY 1919 DUE TO THE FOLLOWING REASONS-
• Lack of effective organization
• Communal riots during1917-18
• The Moderates were pacified by talk of reforms- the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms
• Talk of passive resistance by the Extremists kept the Moderates away from September 1918 onwards
• Tilak had to go abroad in 1918 while Annie Besant didn’t agree to the passive resistance and reforms in the
movement.

PERSONALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH HOME RULE LEAGUE-
40

• She fought for the freedom of thought, secularism, women’s rights, birth control,
workers’ rights and Fabian socialism.
• Besant converted to Theosophy after meeting Helena Blavatsky in 1889.
• She came to India for the first time in 1893 as part of the Theosophical Society.
• She founded the Theosophical Society – Adyar along with Henry Steel Olcott. Its
Annie Besant headquarters is in Adyar, Chennai.
• She was the society’s president from 1907 to 1933.

• Besant set up the Central Hindu College (CHC) at Benares.
• She joined the Indian National Congress (INC) and demanded government action
towards self-rule.
• Besant launched the All-India Home Rule League in 1916 along with Bal
Gangadhar Tilak.
• In 1933, Annie Besant died aged 85 in Adyar.
• Also known as Lokmanya Tilak.
• Founder of the Deccan Education Society (1884) along with his associate
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and others.
• One of the founders of the Fergusson College (1885) in Pune through the
Deccan Education Society.
• Stressed on the need for self-rule and believed that without self-rule or Swarajya,
no progress was possible.
• Tilak celebrated ‘Ganesh Chaturthi’ and ‘Shivaji Jayanti’. He envisioned these
Bal Gangadhar Tilak celebrations inciting a sense of unity and inspiring nationalist sentiment among
Indians.
• “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!” was his Slogan.
• Along with Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal, he was part of the Lal-Bal-Pal
trio of leaders with extremist outlooks.
• Joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1890.
• Newspapers- Weeklies Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English)
• Books- Gita Rhasya and Arctic Home of the Vedas.
• He died on 1st August 1920.

LUCKNOW PACT: LUCKNOW SESSSION OF INC (1916):

Presided by • A. C Majumdar
Led to • Readmission of extremists to the congress.
• Lucknow Pact between congress and Muslim League and the presentation of common
constitutional demands by them to the government.
Reasons of • Death of moderates like Gokhale, Pherozshah Mehta facilitated the reunion.
readmission of • Efforts of Annie Besant and Tilak (also denounced acts of violence).
extremists • Both Moderates and Extremists realized the split led to political inactivity.
• Britain’s refusal to help Turkey during World War I.
Reasons of • Annulment of Bengal’s partition in 1911.
Muslim League • Rise of younger members in the League - Maulana Azad (his work ‘Al Hilal’),
pact with Mohammad Ali (his work ‘Comrade’)
Congress • Congress agreed to the League’s demand of separate electorate. Muslims were
granted a fixed proportion of seats at all-India and provincial levels.

MONTAGUE STATEMENT OF AUGUST (1917)
• Secretary of State between 1917 and 1922 and Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy between 1916 and 1921 -
Montague made August Declaration of 1917 for Responsible Government.
• It consisted of broadly:
Ø Demands for self-government or home rule by nationalists can't be called seditious. Attainment of self-
government for Indians became a government policy.
Ø The government will decide the timing and nature of progress toward responsible government.
41

REASONS FOR NATIONALIST RESURGENCE AFTER FIRST WORLD WAR
• Post-war economic hardships in various sectors, and misery among people.
• High expectation of political gains for cooperation in the war.
• Imperialism worldwide with imperialist powers having no intention to establish in democracy.
• October/Russian Revolution showed people possess huge power and can challenge the imperialist powers.

MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS: GOI ACT, 1919
Features of Government of India Act 1919:
• For Provincial Government- Governor was the executive head of the province.
• Dyarchy was introduced- two classes of administrators – Executive councilors and ministers.
• The subjects were divided into two lists – reserved (governor-in charge along with his executive councilors
-law and order, irrigation, finance, land revenue, etc.) and transferred (ministers in charge -education, local
government, health, excise, industry, etc.)
• The Secretary of State and the Governor-General could interfere in matters under the reserved list but this
interference was restricted for the transferred list.
• The size of the provincial legislative assemblies was increased. Now about 70% of the members were elected.
• Some women could also vote.
• The governor’s assent was required to pass any bill. He also had veto power and could issue ordinances
also.
• Central Government- The chief executive authority was the Governor-General.
• There were two lists for administration – central and provincial.
• Out of the 8 members of the Viceroy’s executive council, 3 were to be Indian members.
• The governor-general could issue ordinances. He could also certify bills that were rejected by the central
legislature.
• A bicameral legislature was set up with two houses – Legislative Assembly (forerunner of the Lok Sabha)
and the Council of State (forerunner of the Rajya Sabha).
• Legislative Assembly (Lower House)- tenure of 3 years.
• Council of State (Upper House)- Only male members with a tenure of 5 years.
• The legislators could ask questions and also vote a part of the budget.
• Only 25% of the budget was subject to vote.
• Provided for the first time- the establishment of a public service commission in India.
• Provided that after 10 years, a statutory commission would be set up to study the working of the
government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927.
• The secretary of the state for India to be paid out of British exchequer.

GANDHI IN SOUTH AFRICA: 1894-1914
• Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906): He relied on sending petitions and memorials to authorities in
South Africa and British. He set up “Natal Indian Congress” and started “Indian Opinion”, to unite different
sections of population
• Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906- 1914): Indians under Gandhi started satyagraha for
the following:

• In 1915, Gandhi returned to India. During his initial days, he spent his time at the Sabarmati Ashram in
Ahmedabad, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale became his political guru.

GANDHI IN INDIA

42

CHAMPARAN • Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi to look into the problems of Indigo planters in
SATYAGRAHA Champaran, Bihar.
(1917)- • Peasants were forced to grow indigo on 3/ 20th part of the land. (Tinkathia System).
First Civil • European planters demanded high rents and illegal dues to maximize their profits.
Disobedience • After Gandhi intervention, only 25 percent of the money was given to farmers.
• Leaders associated-Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, J.B.
Kripalani etc.
AHMEDABAD • Discontinuation of plague bonus led to disputes between cotton mill owners and
MILL STRIKE workers.
(1918)- • Workers demanded for a rise of 50 percent in wages.
First Hunger • Gandhi demanded for a 35 percent hike and took a fast unto death.
Strike • Anusuya Sarabhai was a social worker who invited Gandhi to fight for workers. She was
the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association- founded in 1891.
KHEDA • Crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat because of drought.
SATYAGRAHA • The yield is less than 1/4th of normal produce so farmers were entitled to remission
(1918)- First according to revenue code
Non- • Government demanded taxes and ordered seizure of property, if not paid.
cooperation • Gandhi asked the farmers not to pay the taxes.
• Leaders: Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Narhari Parekh, Mohanlal Pandya etc.
• Government finally agreed to return all confiscated property, reduce the increase in tax,
suspend the tax for the year.
• Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act/ Rowlatt act - imprisonment of activists
ROWLATT without trial for two years, even possession of seditious newspapers is adequate
ACT,1919- evidence of guilt.
First All India • The law of Habeas Corpus was sought to be suspended.
Mass Strike • Gandhi called for a mass protest at all India level by organizing Satyagraha Sabhas.
• All the elected Indian members of the imperial legislative council – Jinnah, Madan Mohan
Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq resigned in protest.

JALLIANWALAH BAGH MASSACRE (APRIL 13, 1919)

What? • British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in an open space known as the
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab.
Why? • Gandhi called for a one-day Rowlatt Satyagraha throughout the country.
• In Amritsar leaders - Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew had been arrested.
• Brig. Gen. Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was given the task of restoring order. Among the
measures taken was a ban on public gatherings.
Consequence • Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood.
• Gandhi began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest
(satyagraha) campaign, the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22).
Committee • Hunter committee of inquiry/Disorders Inquiry Committee.
• 3 Indians were in the committee.
• The report condemned Dyer’s actions. However, didn’t impose any disciplinary actions
on him.
Congress View • INC appointed its own committee- Motilal Nehru, C. R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M. R. Jayakar,
and Gandhi.
• Criticized Dyer’s action.
Recent • 13th April, 2020 marks the 101 years of the incident.
• Jallianwala Bagh site in Amritsar is now a national monument.


43

11. NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT AND KHILAFAT

AANDOLAN
• Though emerged from separate issues, both were anti-imperialist movements
• During 1920-22, these two movements were united under Gandhi.

KHILAFAT ISSUE-
• The Khilafat Movement (1919-20) was a movement to express Muslim support for the Caliph of Turkey,
to protect the institution of the Khalifa in Turkey, against the allied powers particularly Britain.
• As Turkey was defeated in the First World War, the Allies imposed strict terms on it. Turkey was
dismembered and the Khalifa removed from power.
• Khilafat Committee was formed in 1919 under the leadership of Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali, Maulana
Azad, Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE KHILAFAT-NON-COOPERATION PROGRAMME-
• All India Khilafat Committee (1919) - Gandhi was elected president of the First All-India Khilafat
Conference.
• Tilak was opposed to having an alliance with leaders over a religious issue and he was not sure of satyagraha
as an instrument in politics.
• Congress was not united on this form of political action. However, it supported non-cooperation programme
on the khilafat movement because:
Ø Hindu-Muslim unity opportunity
Ø It can bring Muslim masses into the national movement.
Ø Constitution-al measures were proving inadequate.
Ø It was a way for the masses to express their discontent.
• Muslim League also supported this movement.

YEAR EVENT
May, 1920 Treaty of Sevres with turkey, completely dismembered Turkey.
August 1, 1920 Tilak passed away.
August 31,1920 Khilafat committee started a campaign of non-cooperation and the movement was
launched.
• Special session at Calcutta congress approved
• Non-cooperation programme that included the methodology of:
Ø Boycott of the Titles conferred by the Government
Sept,1920 Ø Boycott of civil services, army and police and all other Government offices.
Ø Non-payment of taxes to the government.
Ø Boycott of foreign clothes and use of swadeshi.
Ø Boycott of legislative councils (C.R. Das and some didn’t like this idea)
Ø Liquor prohibition etc.
Ø Nagpur session of Indian National Congress
Ø NCM movement endorsed.
Ø Attainment of swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means, thus committing for
extra constitutional mass struggle.
Ø Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members were set up to lead the congress.
December ,1920 Ø Provincial Committees on linguistic basis, ward committees were also formed.
Ø Many revolutionary groups pledged their support to congress.
Ø Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, G. S. Khaparde and B. C. Pal left the congress as
they believed in the constitutional and lawful struggle.
Ø Surendranath Banerjee founded the Indian National Liberal Federation. Some of
its prominent leaders were Tej Bahadur Sapru, S. Srinivasa Sastri and M. R. Jayakar.

Other Activities:
• Educational institutions were organized under Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain,
Subhas Bose. Like Jamia Millia at Aligarh, kasha Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth etc.
44

• Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed and one crore rupees was collected- Women offered their
ornaments to the fund.
• July, 1921- Ali brothers gave call to Muslims to resign from the army as it was unreligious.
• Assam tea plantations strike. J. M. Sengupta was a prominent leader in the strikes.
• Local struggles like Awadh Kisan Movement and Eka Movement in UP, Mappila Revolt in Malabar, and
Sikh agitation for removal of mahant in Punjab.
• May,1921- Talks between Gandhi and Reading, the viceroy broke down.
• Volunteer Corps were declared their declared, public meetings were banned

CHAURI CHAURA INCIDENT (5th FEB 1922)
Participants of the Non-cooperation movement clashed with police resulting in the deaths of few policemen and
Civilians at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district in the United Provinces.

1921 • Ahmedabad session- C. R. Das was the president while still in jail. Hakim Ajmal
Khan was the acting president- appointed Gandhi as the sole authority on this issue.
Feb 1, 1922 • Gandhi threatened to launch civil disobedience from Bardoli, Gujarat- if political
prisoners were not released and press controls were not released
Feb 5, 1922 • Agitated crowd torched the police station
• Congress leaders met at Bardoli.
Feb 12, 1922 • Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement as he felt people didn’t
understand the method of non-violence.
March 10 ,1922 • Gandhi was arrested on and trial led at Ahmadabad. A prison of 6 years was awarded
to him
• Motilal Nehru, C R Das, N C Kelkar, G S Khaparde and S Srinivas founded the Swaraj
party.
• They were in frustration due to sudden withdrawal of NCM by Gandhi.
• Khilafat Movement had lost its relevance as People of Turkey rose under Mustafa
Nov,1922 Kamal Pasha and deprived the sultan of the political power. Turkey was made a secular
state.
1924 • Caliphate was abolished.

STUDENT NOTES:

45

12. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-31) AND ROUND

TABLE CONFERENCES

EVENTS LEADING UPTO THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (CDM)

DEC,1928- President- Motilal • Formation of All India Youth Congress
Calcutta Session Nehru • Nehru Report was approved.
of Congress • One year ultimatum to government to accept dominion
status or else civil disobedience to be launched for complete
independence.
During 1929 • Gandhi travelled extensively, organized constructive work
on the lines of Bardoli Agitation, 1928.
October 31, 1929 Lord Irwin was the • Irwin’s Declaration- the intention of the British government
Viceroy was to facilitate India attaining dominion status in the future.
• However, there was no mention of any timeline.
• He also promised a Round Table Conference after the
Simon Commission (1927) submitted its report.
November 2, • Delhi Manifesto - National leaders put forward certain
1929 conditions for attending the round table conference
• Viceroy Irwin rejected the demands.
December, 1929 President- Jawaharlal • Round Table Conference was to be boycotted.
Lahore Session of Nehru (Gandhi • The Congress decided to boycott the First Round Table
Congress backing) Conference, because it wanted the summoning of a
Constituent Assembly to draft a Constitution for India which
the British Government refused.
• Passed the resolution on ‘Poorna Swaraj.’
• Civil Disobedience Movement for complete independence
to be launched.
• 26 January to be observed as ‘Independence Day’/
Swarajya Day.

1. Introduce total prohibition of intoxicants,
2. Change the ratio between the rupee and the sterling,
3. Reduce the rate of land revenue
GANDHI’S ELEVEN DEMANDS- 4. Abolition of salt tax,
to the government/ Lord Irwin 5. Reduce the military expenditure,
and gave an ultimatum of January 6. Reduce expenditure on civil administration,
31, 1930 to accept or reject these 7. Impose custom duty on foreign cloth,
demands: 8. Accept the Postal Reservation Bill,
9. Abolish the CID Department,
10. Release all Political prisoners, and
11. Issue licenses of arms to citizens for self-protection.

With no positive response from the government, Gandhi decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement,
making salt Satyagraha his central theme.

GROUPS/PARTIES AND RESPONSE TO THE SIMON COMMISSION

Groups Response
Congress Opposed the Commission.
Hindu Mahasabha Opposed the Commission, siding with the Congress.
Muslim League One faction under Jinnah (at Calcutta, 1927) opposed the Commission,
another faction under Muhammad Shafi (at Lahore, 1927) supported the

46

Government/ Commission.
Unionists (Punjab) Supported the Commission.
Justice Party Supported the Commission.
On behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha, he submitted a
Ambedkar memorandum on the rights and safeguards he felt were required for the
depressed classes. He argued for ‘universal adult franchise’ for both
male.

Simon Commission (1927):
• The Indian Statutory Commission, commonly referred to as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven
British Members of Parliament under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. The commission arrived in British
India in 1928
• Objective: the British government appointed the Simon Commission to report on India's constitutional
progress for introducing constitutional reforms.
• The Commission was strongly opposed by many in India for a number of reasons. The commission was seen
as racist and colonialist as it had seven British members of the British Parliament and no Indian members.
• Recommendations of Simon Commission:
Ø It proposed the abolition of dyarchy and the establishment of representative government in the
provinces.
Ø It rejected parliamentary responsibility at the centre.
Ø The governor-general was to have complete power to appoint the members of the cabinet.
Ø It recommended that separate communal electorates be retained.
Ø It accepted the idea of federalism but not in the near future.
Ø It suggested that a Consultative Council of Greater India should be established which should include
representatives of both the British provinces as well as princely states.
Ø It also suggested that the Indian army should be Indianized though British forces must be retained.

Nehru Report (1928):
An answer to Lord Birkenhead’s challenge, prepared by a committee headed by Motilal Nehru, the committee
included Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi and G.R. Pradhan
as its members

Recommendations:
• Dominion status on lines of self-governing dominions.
• Rejection of separate electorates. Joint electorates with reservation of seats for Muslims at the Centre and in
provinces where they were in minority.
• Linguistic provinces.
• Nineteen fundamental rights including equal rights for women, right to form unions, and universal adult
suffrage.
• Responsible government at the Centre and in provinces.
• Full protection to cultural and religious interests of Muslims.
• Complete dissociation of State from religion.
• The Nehru Report, along with that of the Simon Commission was available to participants in the three Indian
Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)
• Nehru and Subash bose rejected the congress goal and set up Independence for India league.

Muslim’s league reaction to the Report
In 1927, 4 proposals of Muslim league which was accepted by madras congress:
1. Joint electorate.
2. 1/3 rd representation to Muslims in central legislative assembly.
3. Formation of three Muslim majority provinces.
4. Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points-1929:
Federal constitution with residual powers to provinces, provincial autonomy, no constitutional amendment
without state concurrence, adequate representation in assembly and services, 1/3rd representation in central
47

legislative assembly, 1/3rd representation in cabinet, separate electorates, no bills without 3/4th minority
consideration, territorial distribution not to affect Muslim majority, full religious freedom, protection of Muslim
rights etc.

Calcutta Session of Congress (1928):
• Nehru report was approved at this session.
• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Satya Murthy expresses dissatisfaction at
the goal of dominion status
• The government was given one year period to accept this goal.
• If the government did not accept a constitution based on dominion status by the end of the year, the
Congress would not only demand complete independence but would also launch a civil disobedience
movement to attain its goal.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT- THE SALT SATYAGRAHA AND OTHER UPSURGES

• Salt Satyagraha began with the Dandi March on March 12, 1930 and was the
part of the first phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Dandi March (March 12- • Gandhi led the Dandi march from Sabarmati Ashram to the sea coast near
April 6, 1930): the village of Dandi.
• He reached Dandi on April 6, 1930, and broke the salt law by collecting salt

from the beach.
• Tamil Nadu- C Rajagopalachari organised march from thiruchinapalli to
Vedaranniyam on Tanjore coast.
• Malabar- K. Kelappan known for Vailkom Satyagraha organized salt
marches.
Satyagraha at Different • Orissa- Gopal Bandhu Chaudhuri organized in Balasore, Cuttack etc.
Places: • Bihar- Non chowkidari tax was imposed.
• Peshawar- Badshah khan/ khan Abdulgaffar khan who organized
Khudaikhidmatgars (red shirts) organized powerful march.
• Dharasana- Sarojini naidu led the campaign.
• Nagaland- Rani Gaidinliu at age of 13 years raised the banner against
British.
• Muslim participation was very less as compared to the 1920-22 level.
Extent of Participation: • Women and students participated, active participation of tribals, workers
and peasants.

• In August 1930 Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru were taken to Yeravada Jail to meet Gandhi and discuss the
possibility of a settlement. Their demands were-
Ø Right of secession from Britain.
Ø Complete national government with control over defence and finance.
Ø Independent tribunal to settle Britain’s financial claims.

GANDHI IRWIN PACT/ DELHI PACT- 1931
• Signed by Gandhi and the British Indian Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5 March 1931.
• The pact was signed before the start of second round table conference in London.
• Irwin declined two of Gandhi’s demands:
1. Public inquiry into police excesses,
2. Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrade’s death sentence to life sentence.
• Gandhi Agreed- To suspend the civil disobedience movement and to participate in the next Round Table
Conference

COMPARISION OF NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT WITH CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT –

BASIS NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
Objective Vaguely worded Swaraj Complete independence
Methods Non-cooperation with foreign rule. Violation of laws
48

Muslim There was large scale participation of Less participation from the Muslim community
Participation Muslim working class in the Non- due to the policy of divide and rule by the British
Cooperation movement and the communal propaganda of the Muslim
League and the Hindu Mahasabha
Coverage Confined to certain parts of India Widespread geographical coverage and mass
participation
Reason for Called off in 1922 due to the Chauri-Chaura Withdrawn after the signing of the Gandhi-
ending incident. Irwin pact.

KARACHI CONGRESS SESSION-1931
• President- Vallabhbhai Patel
• Resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme
• Goal of “Purna Swaraj” was reiterated.
• Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin pact
• Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the Second Round Table Conference to be held in London.

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES

• Held in London between November, 1930 to January, 1931.
• The Indian National Congress decided not to participate in the conference.
• Muslim League sent Aga Khan III, Maulana Mohammad Jinnah, etc.
• Some Indian princely states were also represented along with Hindu Mahasabha,
FIRST RTC Sikhs, Parsis.
• Depressed classes represented by B. R. Ambedkar etc.
• Women were represented by Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Radhabhai Subbaranyan.
• Lord Irwin was the viceroy of India
• No major outcome
• In London between September 7, 1931 to December 1, 1931.
• Result of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• Gandhi was the sole representor of the INC.
• Madan Mohan Malviya and A. Rangaswami Iyengar also there.
SECOND RTC • Muslim league represented by Aga Khan III, Maulana Mohammad Jinnah.
• Depressed classes by B. R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan, Sardar Sampuran Singh
etc.
• Sarojini Naidu participated to represent women.
• Lord Willingdon was the viceroy of India.
• A Communal Award for representing minorities in India by providing for separate
electorates for minority communities. Gandhi was against this.
• Government refused to Indian demands and talks failed.
• Between November, 1932 to December, 1932
• Was not attended by Indian National Congress and Gandhi.
THIRD RTC • In Britain, Labour Party decided not to attend it.
• Only 46 delegates in total took part in this conference.
• Lord Willingdon was the viceroy of India.
• Not much was achieved in this conference also.

Civil Disobedience was resumed after the failure of the Round Table Conferences. On January, 1932, Gandhi
was arrested.
• A series of repressive ordinances were issued like ‘Civil Martial Law’.
• Congress organisations at all levels were banned.
• Repression was particularly harsh on women.
• Press was gagged and nationalist literature, banned.


49

April 1934, Gandhi decided to withdraw the civil disobedience movement as:
• Gandhi and other leaders had no time to build up the tempo.
• The masses were not prepared.

COMMUNAL AWARD (1932)
• In 1932, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, announced the Communal Award-separate
electorates for the ‘Depressed Classes’, the Muslims, the Europeans, the Sikhs, the Anglo-Indians and
the Indian-based Christians.
• Congress decided neither to accept it nor reject it. But Ambedkar was in favour of the award, as according
to him political solutions like separate electorate would work for upliftment of depressed classes.
• Mahatma Gandhi was opposed to the communal award, as the award would divide Indians. He went on an
indefinite fast.

POONA PACT (1932)
• Was signed by B. R. Ambedkar on behalf of depressed classes and Madan Mohan Malviya signed it on
behalf of Gandhi.
• Abandoned the idea of separates electorate for depressed classes.
• But the seats reserved for them were increased to 147 in provincial legislatures and to 18% of the total in
Central Legislature.
• The Communal Award was based on the findings of the Indian Franchise Committee, called the Lothian
Committee.

To undo the divisive intentions of divide and rule of policy Gandhi started a campaign against untouchability in
September, 1932- All India Anti-Untouchability League/ Harijan Sevak Sangh was started. In January, 1933-
started weekly Harijan.

STUDENT NOTES:

50

13. EMERGENCE OF SWARAJISTS, SOCIALIST IDEAS,

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES AND OTHER NEW FORCES

SWARAJISTS AND NO-CHANGERS

Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya party:
After Gandhi’s arrest, there was disintegration, disorganisation, and demoralisation among nationalist ranks.

• Led by CR Das, Motilal Nehru and Amjad Khan wanted an end to the boycott
Swarajists of legislative councils to enable nationalists to enter them and use them for their
benefit.
• They wanted to “end or mend” these councils. Those advocating entry into the
legislative councils came to be known as SWARAJISTS.
• Led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and M A Ansari
No Changers came to be known as NO CHANGERS.
• They opposed council entry, advocated constructive work, continued non-
cooperation, and boycott, and quietly prepared for civil disobedience.

• The differences between the two groups led to the defeat of the Swarajist proposal of “ending or
mending” at the Gaya Session (1922).
• CR Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the post they held within INC and formed the Swarajist Party
with CR Das as President and M.L Nehru as one of the secretaries.

They wanted to enter the councils because:
• They thought doing so would not negate the movement but would only mean
Swarajist Argument opening a different front.
• In a time of political vacuum, the council work would enthuse the masses and
keep their moral up.
• The councils could be used as an arena of political struggle.
No Changers They thought that parliamentary work would lead to neglect of constructive work,
Argument loss of revolutionary zeal and to political corruption.

So Did the Swarajist Party Completely Parted with the INC?
• No, they didn’t cause a split in the INC like 1907. In fact. both the factions kept in touch with Gandhi who was
in jail.
• Both were aware of importance of putting up a united front to get the mass movement to force the
government to introduce reforms.
• A compromise was reached at a meeting in Delhi-1923.
• The swarajist could contest elections as a group within the INC.
• The swarajist accepted with only one difference- that they would join the legislative councils.

THE SWARAJISTS MANIFESTO FOR ELECTIONS:
Released in 1923, it took a strong anti-colonial stand:
• The motive of Britishers in India is led by selfish interest.
• The so-called reforms were only a blind to further the said interests.
• They presented a nationalist demand of self-government in councils.
• If rejected, they planned a uniform, continuous and consistent obstruction within the councils.

GANDHI’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS SWARAJISTS:
• Gandhi was initially opposed, but after his release in 1924, he gradually moved towards a reconciliation with
the swarajists.
• There was a crackdown towards extremists and swarajists by the government and Gandhi expressed his
solidarity.

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• Both sides came to an agreement in 1924 (endorsed at BELGAUM session-1924) over which GANDHI (only
time) presided over the session.
• It was agreed that the swarajists would work in the councils as an integral part of the INC.

SWARAJISTS ACTIVITY IN COUNCILS:
• Gradually their position weakened due to widespread riots and internal divisions on “Responsivist - non
Responsivist” lines. (A faction within the Swarajists broke away in form of Responsivist Cooperation
Party)
• The Swarajists lost the support of many Muslims when they did not support the tenets against the zamindars
in Bengal.
• The death of CR Das weakened it further.
• The RESPONSIVISTS among the Swarajists- Lala Lajpat Rai, MM Malviya and NC Kelkar advocated
cooperation with the government. They also wanted to protect the so-called Hindu interests.
• Thus, the main leadership of the swarajists party reiterated faith in mass civil disobedience and withdrew
from the legislatures in March 1926.
• The other faction fought the 1926 elections and did not do well.
• In 1930, the Swarajists finally walked out because of resolution for Purna Swaraj at the Lahore Session
(1929) and the resolution to begin of civil disobedience movement.

• With the help of coalition partners, they outvoted the government several
times even on budgetary grants.
• They agitated against government and made powerful speeches.
• Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker of central Assembly in 1925.
ACHIEVEMENTS • Public safety Bill of 1928 which was aimed at empowering the government
to deport undesirable and subversive foreigners; was defeated.
• They filled the political vacuum when the national movement was recouping.
• They exposed the hollowness of the Montford scheme.
• They demonstrated that the councils could be used creatively.
• They didn’t have the public outreach the INC had.
• They relied solely on newspaper and publications.
DRAWBACKS • An obstructionist strategy had its own limitations.
• They couldn’t carry on with their coalition partners due to conflicting ideas.
• They failed to resist perks and privileges of power and office.
• They failed to support peasant cause in Bengal and lost Muslim support.

CONSTRUCTIVE WORK BY NO CHANGERS:
They devoted themselves to work that connected them to the masses:
• Ashrams sprang up where young men and women worked among tribal and lower castes.
• They popularised the work of Charkha and Khadi.
• National school and colleges were set up where students were trained in a non-colonial ideological
framework.
• Significant work was done for Hindu-Muslim unity.
• They worked to boycott foreign clothes and liquor, removal of untouchability etc.
• They worked to boycott foreign clothes and liquor, removal of untouchability etc.
• They served as the backbone of civil disobedience.

DRAWBACKS OF CONSTRUCTIVE WORK:
• National education did not penetrate to the rural population or the poor urban dwellers.
• Khadi was costlier than the western clothing.
• While untouchability was talked about, the economic grievances of the landless and the agricultural
labourers (who were mostly harijans) were not talked about.

The Swarajist and the no-changers kept on best terms and were able to unite whenever the time was ripe for a
new political struggle.

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EMERGENCE OF NEW FORCES: SOCIALISTIC IDEAS, YOUTH POWER, TRADE UNIONISM
The 1930s was a watershed moment in modern Indian history in more than one way:
• Indian masses entered the national movement.
• There was portrayal of political ideas on the national level.
• The Gandhian philosophy of Satyagraha based on truth and non-violence gave confidence to the common
people.
• There was great influence of international political thinkers. More than that in any other time.

SPREAD OF MARXIST AND SOCIALIST IDEAS
These ideas led to rise of left wing within the INC represented by JL Nehru and SC Bose. They were inspired by
soviet revolution and dissatisfied by Gandhian ideas began advocating radical solutions. These young nationalists
were:
• Critical of both- swarajists and no-changers.
• Advocating a more consistent anti-imperialist line in the form of a slogan for Purna Swarajya.
• Influenced by an awareness of international happenings.
• Stressing the need to combine nationalism and anti-imperialism with social justice.
• The Communist Party of India (CPI) was formed in 1920 in Tashkent (Uzbekistan) by M N Roy, Abani
Mukherjee and others after the 2nd Congress of Commintern.
• In 1924 the following communists were jailed in “Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case”: SA Dange +
Muzaffar Ahmed + Shaukan Usmani + Nalini Gupta.
• In 1925, the Indian communist conference at Kanpur formalised the foundation of CPI.
• In 1929, at the famous “Meerut conspiracy case” government crackdown on communists occurred.
• Through workers and peasant parties that were organised across the countries, the ideologies of Marxism
and communism spread.

ACTIVISM OF YOUTH All over India, students league were established, and conferences held. In
1928, Pandit J L Nehru presided over the All-Bengal Students Conference.
In UP these were for revision of tenancy laws, lower rents, protection against
eviction and relief from indebtedness.
PEASANT AGITATION Similar movements were held in Rampa of Andhra, Rajasthan, on ryotwari
areas of Bombay and Madras. In Gujarat, the Bardoli satyagraha was led by
Vallabhbhai Patel.
GROWTH OF TRADE Led by AITUC founded in 1920. Lala Lajpat Rai was its first president and
UNIONISM Dewan Chaman Lal its general secretary. Tilak was also one of the moving
spirits.

CASTE MOVEMENTS
These were sometimes divisive, conservative and at times potentially radical and included:

Justice Party Madras
Self-Respect Movement By Periyar EV Ramaswamy Naicker (Madras)
Satyashodhak Activists Maharashtra
Bhaskar Rao Jadhav Maharashtra
Mahars Under Ambedkar In Maharashtra
Radical Ezhavas Under K. Aiyappan And C. Kesavan in Kerala
Yadavas In Bihar For Improvement In Social Status
Unionist Party Under Fazl-I-Hussain In Punjab

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY WITH SOCIALIST TENDENCIES
• The sudden withdrawal of the Non-cooperation movement made many nationalists to question the
strategy of nationalists and their emphasis on Non- violence.
• New communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism, socialism and proletariat.
• Inspired by the Russian Revolution (1917) and the success of the young soviet state.
• Influence by the extolling articles on self-sacrifice of revolutionaries, such as Atmashakti, Sarathi and
Bijoli.

53

• Formed by Ram Prasad Bismil in 1923 as a reaction to Gandhi calling off
Hindustan Republican the NCM.
Association (in Punjab-UP- • It had branches spread over UP and a bomb making facility at Calcutta
Bihar) and Deogarh.
• Other members were SN Sanyal, Lala Hardayal etc.
• Surya Sen, Aurbindo Ghosh, Barin Ghosh, Khudiram Bose etc were
Yugantar founding members.
• Revolutionary samiti was operating secretly in Bengal for Indian
independence.
• It operated from local gyms and body building institutions of Bengal
Anushilan Samitis • It made several attempts to assassinate British officials and even the
viceroy in 1912.
• Under Master Suryasen in Bengal, it raided and looted an armoury.
• He was trying to supply arms and ammo to the revolutionaries.
Chittagong Revolt group • They destroyed telephone and telegram lines and blew rail tracks.
• Even women were part of this armed robbery and most were later
hanged.

CONGRESS RULE IN THE PROVINCES
Provincial elections were organized in 1937 in accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act,
1935 (provided provincial autonomy).

WORK UNDER CONGRESS MINISTRIES

• Laws concerning Emergency powers removed.
• lifted ban on illegal organizations like Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues.
• lifting of Press restriction.
• Newspapers out of blacklist.
Civil Reforms • Confiscated arms and arms licenses revoked.
• Police and CID powers restricted.
• Release of political prisoners.
• Restoration of lands confiscated during CDM in Bombay.
• Pensions of officials associated with CDM restored.
• Lack of power and financial resources + Time constraints + War clouds
• Class conflicts to be resolved.
Agrarian • Complex agrarian structure
Reforms • Reactionary second chamber dominated by landlords, capitalists, etc.
• Affected mostly statutory tenets.
• Enacted laws on land relief, debt relief, forest grazing fees, arrears of rent, land tenures.
Labor Reforms • Promote workers interest and industrial peace.
• Proper arbitration and reconciliation machinery.
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• Improved conditions of work and proper wages.
• Reduce strikes in industries.
• Welfare of Harijans.
• Primary, technical, and higher education, public health, and sanitation.
• Prison reforms.
Social Welfare • Encouragement to Khadi and indigenous enterprises.
Reforms • National Planning Committee (1938, Under Congress President Subhash Chandra
Bose).
• Literacy mass campaigns.
• Congress police stations and panchayats.
• Congress Grievance Committee.

CHANGES INTRODUCED BY THE CONGRESS MINISTRIES

PROVINCE CHANGES
United • Release of Prisoners involved in Kakori and other conspiracies.
Provinces • U. P. Tenancy Act, 1939 gave the hereditary rights to all statutory tenants in Agra and
Oudh.
• Labor Enquiry Committee headed by Rajendra Prasad formed to investigate the major
strike held in 1938, Kanpur.
• Abolition of illegal exactions: Nazrana (forced gifts) and Begar (forced unpaid labor).
Central • Tenancy reforms extending the security of tenure in landlord areas.
Provinces • Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
Orissa • Tenancy Bill passed in 1938 allowing free transfer of holding, removal of illegal levies
and reduction in interest arrears.
• Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
Madras • Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
• Reduction of accumulated interests.
• Reduction of Grazing fees.
• Internal Settlement of Labor disputes.
Bombay • Land confiscated during CDM restored.
• Tenancy reforms providing secure of tenure.
• Reduction of accumulated interests.
• Abolition of Grazing fees.
• Textile Enquiry Committee recommending the increase in wages.
Bihar • Release of political prisoners.
• Tenancy legislations in 1937 and 1938.
NWFP • Tenancy reforms providing the secure of tenure.

STUDENT NOTES:

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14. National Movement: Towards Freedom & Partition

(1939-47)

World War II was fought between the Fascist forces of Nazi Germany and Axis Power. Britain needed support
from India in fighting the War. But the Congress had two demands:
1. To Form Constituent Assembly after War for deciding Political Structure of Free India.
2. Some form of Responsible Government to be established

Linlithgow was the Viceroy from 1936-1944. He out rightly rejected Congress’s above demands.

CWC RESOLUTION:
• India was denied freedom itself. Hence it could not be part of a war for Democratic Freedom
• Britain should end Imperialism and establish democracy in its own colonies
• Government should declare the method of applying principle of Democracy to India.

• Linlithgow tried to use Muslim League and the Princes against the
Congress.
• He declared that the Government aimed to resist aggression at present.
Government Response • Government will set up Consultative committee to seek advice whenever
required.
• A Promise was made to have consultations with representatives of several
communities, Princes for modification of Government of India Act 1935.
• It rejected the Viceregal's statement stating it as a repetition of Old
Imperialist Policy.
Reaction of Congress: • It decided not to support the war and called for congress Ministers to
resign
• Congress leadership was against Immediate and Anti Imperialistic mass
struggle.

Hidden agenda of the Government: to suppress any voices which rose against the Government and gain
support in war.
• Even before declaration of war emergency powers were acquired for centre by amending Government of
56

India Act 1935. This was done with respect to Provincial subjects.
• Defense of India Ordinance was enforced to restrict Civil Liberties.
• Draft Revolutionary Movement Ordinance was prepared to prevent Congress’s Movement.
• The Government could call Allied troops from India to support in War.

DEBATE ON MASS STRUGGLE
After Linlithgow’s statement, there was a discussion on immediate mass struggle.

Congress’s Resolution: It would resort to Mass struggle once Congress would
be organizationally fit or if the Circumstances be as such.
Ramgarh Session of Left Wing Group: Subhash Bose and Forward Bloc, CPI, CSP, the Royalists.
Congress- March 1940 They urged the Congress to take immediate measures for a mass movement.
Nehru’s Stand: He could see the Imperialist character of the Government. But
he would not contribute to Nazi Germany’s win. He went by Congress’s
majority opinion.

PAKISTAN RESOLUTION (23rd March 1940)
• On 23rd March 1940, All India Muslim League passed a Resolution for the Partition of the Country in Minto
Park. It Proposed Two Nation Theory. The Resolution did not have the name Pakistan.
• It was rejected by the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru calling it a ‘Mad idea’ and Gandhiji rejecting the ‘Two
Nation theory.’

AUGUST OFFER (1940)
After Hitler’s success and Fall of Belgium; Britain came into conciliatory mode. They wanted support of India in
the war. Hence August Offer was proposed in 1940.

The Offer: • Dominion Status as an Objective for India. It was discussed for the first time.
• Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Setting up of a Constituent Assembly after War in which mainly Indians would
decide the constitution based on Socio, Economic, and Political Situations.
• But Defense, minority Rights, Treaties with states, All India Services were to be
under Government’s Rule.
• No future Constitution to be adopted without consent of minorities.
Stand of Congress • Congress rejected the Dominion Status
Stand of Muslim • Muslim League welcomed the Veto assurance. It reiterated that Partition was the
League only solution.
Importance: • It was the first time the demand of Congress for Constituent Assembly was
admitted in-principle and Rights of Indians to Frame a Constitution was
recognized.
• Dominion Status was mentioned explicitly for the first time.
Result: • Viceroy Executive Council was expanded with 8 out of 12 members being
Indians.
• National Defense Council was set up with its role being advisory in nature.
• Defense, Finance, Home was in charge of the British.

INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (1941)
• To give another chance to the Government to accept demands of Congress peacefully.
• To show that they were not interested in the war and the Nationalist don’t differentiate between Nazism rule
and Double Autocracy.
• The nationalist patience was not due to weakness.
• Delhi Chalo Movement to march towards Delhi if the Government doesn’t stop the Satyagrahi.
• To seek Freedom of Press through propagation of Anti-War Declaration.
• Vinobha Bhave was the First one to start Individual Satyagraha from Panvar, near Wardha in Maharastra.
He was followed by Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru.
• Congress Working committee (CWC) members along with 25000 people were arrested in May 1941 and
arrested in December 1941. They wanted to defend Indian territories from Japanese aggression.
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• CWC had following demands for cooperation in the war:
Ø Full independence after the war
Ø Substance of Power to be transferred immediately.

NOTE: Gandhi ji declared Pt Nehru as his successor after this rather than the much-speculated C. Rajagopalachari.

CRIPP’S MISSION (1942)

Why? • CWC willing to support the Government subject to its above demands
• In May 1942 Japan invaded Rangoon and hence threat of invading India seemed
eminent.
• There was pressure on U.K from Allies like U.S.A, U.S.S.R, and China for India’s
cooperation.
• Indian union with a Dominion status would be set up and it would be free to
decide its relation with the UN and the Commonwealth.
• After the war Constituent Assembly would be formed with members from
Provisions: Provinces (elected through proportional representation) and Princely states
(nominated).
• Conditions of accepting New Constitution:
Ø Any Province not willing to join the Union can have a separate Constitution
and a form a Separate union.
Ø New Constitution making Body and the Government would negotiate a treaty
for Transfer of Power.

Reasons for failure of Cripps Mission: It was a mere Propaganda to satisfy Allies Power.

SIGNIFICANCE:

AUGUST OFFER 1940 CRIPP’S MISSION 1942
• First time demand for Constituent Assembly • After war Constituent Assembly with Members from
agreed upon. No talks upon provision of Provinces to be elected and Princely states to be
selecting members. nominated.
• First time Dominion Status was discussed • Gave an option to form separate Union. Thus, laying
explicitly. No talks of forming separate Union. Framework of Partition.
• Free India could draw away from the
Commonwealth.
• Viceroy Executive Council expanded with 8/12 • Larger share of Indians in Administration during
majority of Indians. Interim Period.

OBJECTIONS:

• It wanted complete Independence
• It had Objection against representation of States by nominees rather than
Elected Representatives.
CONGRESS: • Right of secession was against the Principle of National unity.
• No immediate Transfer of Power and absence of Real share in defense.
• Demand for Governor General to be Constitutional Head was not
acknowledged à Governor General’s supremacy retained.
• It was against the Idea of Single Indian union
• It was unsatisfied as the Provisions denied Muslims Right of Self
MUSLIM LEAGUE: Determination.
• It did not approve of the machinery for creation of Constituent Assembly.
• It also did not approve of procedure for accession of Provinces to the Union.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT/ AUGUST REVOLUTION (1942)
• After failure of Cripps’s Mission, a Resolution was framed by Gandhi ji for British withdrawal and non-violent

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Non-Cooperation Movement against Japanese Invasion.
• Resolution was accepted in CWC meeting in Wardha on July 14, 1942.

REASONS FOR THE STRUGGLE:
• Failure of Cripps Mission exposed the unchanging attitude of the British Government.
• The Congress leadership wanted people to be prepared for probable Japanese invasion.
• Decline of faith in the stability of British rule due to loss in war.
• “Scorched Earth Policy” adopted by Britain in Bengal, Orissa, Assam.
• Rising prices of Salt, Rice, and seizing of Boats in Bengal-Orissa, accompanied by exposure of Racist policies
and tendencies of the Ruler.

Scorched Earth Policy: It is a military strategy of destroying anything that might be of use to the enemy
nation. E.g.: seizing of Boats in Bengal and Orissa.

AICC GOWALIA TANK MEETING, BOMBAY:
• Quit India Resolution was ratified in a Congress meeting at Gowalia Tank on 8th August 1942.
• Apart from QIM, other resolutions involved Civil Disobedience Movement against British Rule.
• Mantra of “Do or Die” was adopted in this Session by Gandhiji.

• Destruction of symbols of Public Authority.
• Underground activities. Usha Sharma started an underground Radio to
give fuel to the movement.
• Parallel Government: established in Ballia (UP), Tamluk (Bengal)à
Major activity after QIM organized “Bidyut Bahini”, Satara (Maharashtra) à “Prati Sarkar” was
resolution was passed: organized by Y. B. Chavan, Nana Patil etc.
• Youth, Women, Workers, Peasants, Government officials especially of
lower levels, Muslims, Communists participated in the movement. Upper
class remained Loyalists.
• There were no communal clashes during the movement. But there was
severe government repression with upto 10,000 being killed.

• SIGNIFICANCE: Demand for Independence was added into the agenda for National movement.
• 23rd march 1943: Pakistan Day was observed.

FAMINE OF 1943
• It occurred in the South West Region of Bengal.
• To feed vast army food grains were redirected.
• Imports from Burma, South East Asia were stopped.
• It got aggravated by the mismanagement on the part of Government.

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES RELATED TO QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

Mahatma Gandhi: • In Gowalia Tank he gave the proclamation of Do or Die.
• He was arrested in August 9, 1942 after that.
• Undertook Fast of 21 days against Government’s repression of Indians
involved in Quit India Movement.
Jaiprakash Narayan: • Popularly called as JP. He scaled Hazaribagh central Jail with Yogendra
Shukla to start Underground Movement of Freedom.
Ram Manohar Lohia, • Leaders associated with Underground activities.
Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta
Kriplani, Chhotubhai
Patnaik, R.P. Goenka,
Achyut Patwardhan
Chittu Pande: • He formed a parallel Government in Ballia (UP). He called himself a
Gandhian.
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Usha Mehta: • She was part of a small group which ran the Congress radio. She started an
Underground Radio in Bombay.
Jawaharlal Nehru: • Initially he supported arch moderates who were opposed to Gandhi ji’s
Plan. He later moved the Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942.
Rash Bihari Bose: • He was elected as the President of the Indian Independence League on
June 1942. He mobilized the Indian Prisoner of War taken by Japanese
forces and formed an armed rebellion against the British Government.
Captain Mohan Singh: • He was the Commander in Chief of the Indian National Army (INA).
Subhash Chandra Bose: • Joined Indian National Army in 1943, he gave the famous proclamation
“Tum mujhe khoon do, Mai tumhe Azaadi Doonga”.
• He addressed Gandhiji as “Father of the Nation” in a speech by Azad Hind
Radio.
• INA under Subhash Chandra Bose played an important role in India’s
Independence.
C. Rajagopalachari and • They were against Muslims Rights to secede through a Plebiscite after
Bhulabhai Desai: independence. They resigned the Congress in July 1942 from AICC.
K.G. Mashruwalla: • After the arrest of Mahadev Desai on 8thAugust 1942, he brought out two
militant issues of Harijan to arouse popular sentiments.
Satish Sharma: • He was a Local Congress leader and first Sarbadhinayak of Tamluk’s
National Government called as Tarnalipta Jatiya Sarkar in Tamluk
subdivision of Midnapore.
Laxman Naik: • Led large tribal population from Koraput (Orissa) to protest against the
Jaypore Zamindari and attack Police Stations.
Nana Patil: • Led a rebellion in Satara.

C. RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (1944)
To solve the deadlock between the Congress and the Muslim League C. Rajagopalachari came with a formula. It
was to come to solve the Constitutional Crises. Following were the highlights of it:
• Muslim League to Endorse Congress’s demand for Independence.
• ML to cooperate with Congress in forming a Provisional Government in Centre.
• Plebiscite of all the people from Muslim majority area of North West and North East for the formation of a
separate Sovereign Nation.
• Agreement to be made jointly for Defense, Commerce, Communications jointly if demands of partition are
accepted.
• Above terms to be operative in case full Powers were given to India by the British.

• Importance: it accepted Muslim League’s demand of Separate Pakistan.
• Muslim League wanted only Muslims of North West and North East India to vote. It was also in opposition
of Common Centre.

DESAI LIAQAT PACT (1945)
• Equal number of members suggested by League and the congress in Central Legislature.
• 20% seats were to be reserved for the minorities
• It failed to bring a settlement between the two but introduced parity between them.


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WAVELL PLAN- 1945 (SHIMLA CONFERENCE)
• All members of Executive Council to be Indians except the Governor General and Commander in chief.
• Caste Hindu and Muslim to have an equal Representation.
• Reconstructed Council to work as an Interim Government under the Provisions of Government of India Act,
1935. It shall not be responsible to the Central Assembly.
• Reconstruction of Governor General's Executive Council. This was an interim arrangement till new
Constitution is formed.

• It failed in meeting M. A. Jinnah’s Demands of Veto power. He wanted only
Muslim League to choose for the Muslim members of the Executive Council. It
Muslim League’s feared this arrangement would reduce the Muslim League to a one-third
Stand: minority. Wavell wanted Khizr Hyatt Khan as the Muslim representative from
Western Punjab.
• The Muslim League wanted decisions opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds
majority for approval.
• The Congress objected to the plan as an attempt to reduce the Congress to the
Congress Stand: status of a purely caste Hindu party.
• It insisted on its Right to include members of all communities among its
nominees.

LATER CAREER OF SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
• He left India in 1941 in disguise and lived in Germany from 1938-45.
• In Berlin, he established the “Free India Radio”.
• Raised a unit of Indian Prisoners of War under the name “Freedom Army (Mukti Sena)”
• Berlin Radio was used by him and it was called Azad Hind Radio. Its Headquarters were shifted to
Singapore and then to Rangoon.
Tokyo Conference: March 1942
• Rash Bihari Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru formed an organization by the name “Indian Independence League”
in 1928.
• New chapter of Indian Independence League was formed in Tokyo Conference.
• Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauz) was to be formed for the liberation of India.
• Mohan Singh Deb was going to be Commander in chief of the Army.
• Result of the Conference: All Indians residing from Burma to Malaya came. But they were apprehensive of
Vested interests of Japanese government. Hence nothing substantial resulted. Decision of meeting in
Bangkok in future date was taken.
• All Malayan Indian Independence League - 1942, Singapore: It was organized by Rash Bihari Bose. It
mainly took issues of local Indians engaged in plantations.
• Bangkok Conference- June 1942: It was chaired by Rash Bihari Bose. It passed 34-point resolution. Indian
National Army was made subordinate to Indian Independence League.

• Japanese Government should explicitly recognize India as an Independent Nation.
• Japanese Government should recognize the League as India’s National Representative
and guardian.
Main Points: • Indian National Army should be recognized as an Allied army and Prisoners of War
should be handed over to it.
• It Demanded assurance of India’s relations with Japan, respect for its Freedom and
Sovereignty post-Independence.

Bose in Japan 1943:
• He came to Japan in May 1943 to garner support and Promise of Japanese Government for expelling British
and to achieve India’s Independence.
• After Mohan Singh’s differences with Japanese Government, he was arrested and subsequently removed from
INA.
• He was later repatriated to India. He also became Member of Parliament under Congress Regime.
• In June, Subhash Chandra Bose was given premiership of Indian Independence League. He also took

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command of Indian National Army.
• Azad School: for training Recruits (POW)
• Rani Jhansi Regiment: first time women regiment in Asia under Captain Laxmi Swaminathan
• Officer’s Training School under Habib Ur Rehman.

Provisional Government of Free India, Singapore (October 1943)
• On 21st October 1943 Provisional Government of Free India was formed in Singapore.
• In March 1944 INA under the banner of Subhash Chandra Bose started military campaign against Burma.
“Delhi Chalo” became the battle cry.
• Japan, Germany, Italy, Croatia, Burma, Thailand, Nationalist China, Philippines recognized this Provisional
Government.
• Andaman and Nicobar Island were given by Japanese Government to it; later renamed as Shaheed Dweep
and Swaraj Dweep.
• 30th December 1943: National flag was hoisted.
• Battle of Imphal: From March- July 1943, Japan along with INA tried to invade Imphal and destroy allied
Forces. Were driven back to Burma by allied forces.
• Battle of Kohima: Another unsuccessful attempt to encircle British.
• May 1945: Rangoon was captured by the British.
• September 1945: Japan surrendered after Atomic bomb blast in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA) TRIALS/ RED FORT TRIALS
The officers of the INA were taken to court martial at the Red Fort of Delhi from November 1945 and May 1946.
Around ten courts-martial were held.

GENERAL ELECTIONS, 1945
Labour party under Clement Atlee came to Power. Sir Patrick Lawrence was the new Secretary of State for
India.

• Announcement of General Elections in India after 10 years. Last one held in
1936.
Major steps taken: • 91% non-Muslims seats were won by Congress à In Madras, United
Province, Bihar, Orissa, Central Province it had absolute majority.
• Muslim League secured all Muslim seats à It had absolute majority in Sindh
and Bengal.
• Muslim League established as a dominant Muslim party unlike in Elections of
Significance: 1935.
• Separate Electorate and Limited franchise contributed to the communal
voting in the elections. E.g.; For Provinces <10% people could vote. For
Central Assembly <1% were eligible.

Wavell Breakdown Plan: He planned of withdrawing British Army and Officers to 6 Muslim Provinces of
North East and North West. It was superseded by the Cabinet Mission Plan

RIN MUTINY (1946)
• Due to poor Pay, Food and Racial Discrimination a mutiny under Ratings of HMIS Talwar was started.
• Flags of Congress, Muslim League and Red flag of CPI were hoisted.
• Mutiny was ended by the intervention of Sardar Patel. Despite assurances the mutineers faced trials.
• This led to Violence in Bombay, with loss of 200 lives.
• Significance: Cabinet Mission was sent on 19th February 1946 to India.

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CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)
• Composition: Sir Patrick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) + Sir Stafford Cripps (President of Board of
Trade) + V. Alexander (the first lord of Admiralty)
• Objectives were:
Ø To make arrangements for Interim Government.
Ø Devise mechanism for the Formation of Constitution of Free India.
• The congress and the League could not come to a consensus. Therefore, the Mission furthered with its
own Plans.

The Plan:
• Common Centre with control of Defense, Communication and External Affairs was proposed. It gave limited
Powers to the Centre, thus proposing a Weak Centre.
• All members of the Interim Government to be India and minimum interference from the Viceroy. Interim
Government to be formed from the Constituent Assembly.
• Formation of the Constituent Assembly on Democratic principles, with:
Ø Voting in 3 groups of General, Muslims and Sikhs through Proportional Representation.
Ø 389 members were to be in Constituent Assembly: 292 from Provinces, $ chief Commissioner
Province and the Princely states sending 93 members.
• All subjects (except Union and Residuary) were to be allocated to the Provinces.
• Princely states were to retain all Subjects and Residuary Subjects. They were no longer under British
paramountcy and free to join either India or Pakistan.
• Three tier executive, legislature at Provincial, Section and Union level.
• Grouping of the existing Provinces under three Sections:
Ø Section A: Madras, Bombay, Central Province, United Province, Bihar, Orissa (Hindu majority Provinces).
Ø Section B: Punjab, North West Frontier Province and Sindh (Muslim Majority provinces).
Ø Section C: Bengal and Punjab (Muslim Majority Provinces)
• Members of Groups to decide constitution of the Provinces separately. Constitution of the Union was to be
devised by the whole Constituent Assembly.
• After first General Elections, a Province would be Free to Come out of the Grouping.
• After 10 years, Province would be free to call for Reconsideration of the Group or the Union.

Interpretations by Congress: Cabinet Mission is against Pakistan. One Constituent Assembly is the vision.
League's Veto Power was gone.
Interpretations by ML: It represented Muslim Majority provinces in Section B and C. Therefore, Grouping
indicated towards Formation of Pakistan

OBJECTIONS:

Congress • Compulsory Grouping was opposite to the request of Provincial Autonomy.
• Provinces must be allowed to not join the Grouping (it was taking into
consideration Congress ruled Provinces of NWFP and Assam).
• Nominated members from the Princely states were not accepted.
Muslim League • The Muslim league wanted Compulsory Grouping.
• It wanted stronger Section of B and C (Muslim Majority provinces) for Stronger
Pakistan after the Partition.

• In June, Muslim League accepted the Plan.
• 24th June: Congress accepted the Long-term Plan.
• July 1946: Elections held in Provincial Assembly for Constituent Assembly.
• July 10, 1946: Nehru implied Constituent Assembly as Sovereign and would decide on Rules of Procedure
on its own.
• July 29, 1946: League rejected the Plan in response to Nehru’s statement. Direct Action day from August 16,
1946 to achieve Independent Pakistan.

DIRECT ACTION DAY, AUGUST 16 1946
• August 16, 1946 was fixed as Direct-Action day. Under the leadership of the Prime Minister of Bengal,
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Husseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Khwaja Nizamuddin fiery speeches were given to the already enraged ()
communal masses. 5000 people were killed in the violence that followed.
• From August 16 communal riots started in India in unprecedented level.
• Garmukteshwar (U.P), Calcutta, Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar were the most affected areas.

INTERIM GOVERNMENT
• Interim Government headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru was formed on 2nd September 1946.
• It was more or less the continuation of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• It was formed without Muslim League but later was allowed to join on October 26th:
Ø Without giving up on Direct Action Demand.
Ø Even after the rejection of Short Term-Long term demands of Cabinet Mission
Ø Despite being adamant on Compulsory Grouping with decision to be taken by the whole population.
(Thus, making the opponents of Pakistan into a minority).

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
• It met for the first time on December 9, 1946. It had 389 members (292 were representatives of state,
93 from Princely states, 4 from Chief Commissioner Provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Mewar, Coorg and British
Baluchistan).
• Congress won 208 seats and Muslim League won 73 seats. After the election Muslim League refused to
cooperate with the Congress. The British declared decisions of Constituent Assembly won’t be valid on
Muslim Majority area.
• Constituent Assembly was the first Parliament of independent India.
• Dr. Sachidanand Sinha was its First President when it met on December 9, 1946.

Objective Resolution: It was moved on 13th December 1947 and adopted on 22nd January 1947. It was drafted
by Jawaharlal Nehru and stated the ideals of an Independent Republic with autonomous units, Minority
safeguards and Social, Political and Economic Democracy.

Congress’s Stand: It accepted more than one Centre to have Transfer of Power. Transfer of Power would allow
Congress to frame a Constitution.

ATLEE’S STATEMENT (1947)
• On 20th February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Atlee released a statement. It declared a deadline of June
30, 1948 for Transfer of Power.
• Transfer of Power to be made to:
Ø Either to some form of Central Government.
Ø If Constitutional Assembly was not fully Representative it would transfer the Powers to the
existing Provincial Government in some area (if the Muslim majority provinces did not join the
Union.)
Ø This Transfer of Power would end British’s power and obligation w.r.t Princely States. The Power would
also not be transferred to successive states automatically.
Ø Lord Mountbatten to be the new Viceroy of India replacing Lord Wavell. He was the Last Viceroy of
British India.
• Muslim ‘league launched Civil Mass Disobedience after this.

Ø To prevent the growing Constitutional Crises.
Fixed date was set to: Ø So the concerned parties come into agreement on major issues.
Ø To convince Indians of British's Sincerity

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN, JUNE 3 1947
Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of British India. First Viceroy of Independent India being C. Rajagopalachari.
He was sent in India with a task of exploring options of Unity. But M.A. Jinnah was adamant about Sovereign
Pakistan. Congress gave consent to the Partition in June subsequently June 3 plan was tabled in House of
Commons by Clement Atlee.

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The Plan:
• The Provincial Assemblies of Bengal and Punjab would meet separately, one representing Muslim Majority
districts and another Hindu Majority districts to decide on the Partition by Voting.
• Referendum to be commenced in case of NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal.
• Sindh was free to take its own decisions.
• In case of Partition two Dominion and two Constituent assemblies to be formed.
• Since Congress gave demands a unified India, all its demands were to be met:
Ø Independence of princely states ruled out. Could join Indian or Pakistan dominion.
Ø No independence to Bengal.
Ø Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan was negated.
• Freedom would be given on 15th August 1947.
• Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to be set up in case of Partition.

Leagues demand of Separate Pakistan was agreed upon. So was the Congress’s demand. Idea was to retain
maximum Unity. Congress accepted Dominion Status for Quick Transfer of Power, army and bureaucratic
continuity and checks in the violent situation in the Country.

INDIA INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947
Mountbatten Plan was ratified as India Independence Act of 1947 by British Government. It was implemented
on 15th August 1947.
• Independent dominion of India and Pakistan to be formed.
• Each Dominion to have Governor General for overseeing implementation of the Act. Mountbatten was for
Indian Dominion and M.A. Jinnah for Pakistan.
• Constituent Assembly of Each Dominion to exercise powers of Legislature. Existing Assemblies to dissolve.
• Till New Constitution was adopted, Governance to be carried in Accordance with Government of India Act,
1935.

INTEGRATION OF STATES
Integration of States was done in two phases. Nehru presided over the All-India States People’s Conference
sessions. He declared that the States refusing to join the Constituent Assembly would be considered hostile. July
1947, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel took charge of New States Department.

Phase I • All states except Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh signed “Instrument of
Accession” with India. They acknowledged central authority over Defense
Communication and External Affairs.
• Reasons for acceptance:
Ø No changes in Political Structure.
Ø Giving up of powers which were never possessed.
Phase II • Integration of states into nearby province or into New regions (Himanchal Pradesh,
Kathiawar region, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh).
• Internal Constitutional changes in states which retained their old boundaries for
some years (Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore- Cochin.) Privy Purse was given or some
kings were made Governors/ Rajpramukh.

STUDENT NOTES:

65

15. Survey of British Policies in India

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Divide and Rule • Post 1857 Created rift along the communal lines.
• Turned region, provinces, caste, and religions against one another.
Towards • Education was a challenge to the British authority.
Educated Indians • Post 1885(foundation of INC), hostile to Educated Indians.
Towards • Used them as a counter to the nationalist.
Zamindars • Restored Awadh talukdars’ original lands.
• Hailed them as natural/traditional owners of the land.
Towards Social • Favoured the reactionary/Orthodox/Conservative forces and hence withdrew
Reforms support from the social reforms.
Underdeveloped • Neglected social services like education, health, sanitation, and infrastructure due
Social Services to heavy expenditure on army and wars.
• First demand for the reform of miserable working conditions in the factories came
from the Lancashire textile capitalist lobby.
• Commission to investigate the conditions of the workers formed in 1875.
• Indian Factory Act, 1881: focused on Child (age: 7-12 years) labour:
1. Ban on employment below 7 years.
2. Working hours – 9 hours per day for children.
Labour 3. 4 holidays/ month for children.
Legislations 4. Fencing of hazardous machinery.
• Indian Factory Act, 1891:
1. Increased age from 7 to 9 and 12 to 14 years.
2. Working hours for children reduced from 9 to 7 hours per day.
3. Fixed working hours for women to 11 hours per day with half hour break.
4. Weekly holiday for all.
5. No regulation of working hours for men.
• Above laws not applicable to British owned tea and coffee plantations.
Restrictions on • Restrictions on the press due to the nationalist activities: Vernacular Press Act,
Freedom of the 1878.
Press • Restrictions imposed during Swadeshi Movement in 1908 and 1910.
White Racism • Show of racial superiority in public places (parks, hotels, clubs, train
compartments) and in higher grades of services (military and civil).

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL POLICY

Industrial British Capitalist and Industrial lobby pressurized for greater markets for their goods.
Revolution
New schools of thought:
1. Rationalism: Scientific temper and reason.
Emergence of 2. Humanism: Importance of Human dignity.
new and 3. Doctrine of Change: All societies must continue to progress.
conflicting Conflicting schools of thought
schools of 1. Conservatives (Warren Hastings, Edmund Burke, Munro, Elphinstone, Metcalfe):
thought Believed Indian civilization to be different and not inferior and advocated little or
no change. Believed in stability over change.
2. Paternalistic Imperialism: Justified socio-economic slavery of India and
considered it inferior.
3. Radicals: Believed in modernization of the India and Indians but under the broad
limits of Imperialistic interest.
Indian Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, B. M. Malabari,
renaissance etc. worked for the reform of the Indian society through legislations against social
evils.
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Selective Introducing modernization only in the fields that promote British interest.
modernization
Role of the Sole intent to introduce Christianity (superior religion according to them).
Christian Supported the Radicals, Imperialists and Capitalist in their pursuit.
missionaries
British Retreat Abandoning of the reforms in its totality post 1858 and favoured the reactionary and
the conservative lot who proved loyal.

FOREIGN POLICY
Imperialistic interests (expansion and maintenance of Indian Empire, Commercial/ economic interests,
exclusion of other European Imperialists powers like Russia and France) caused border classes with neighboring
countries.

POLICY TOWARDS PRINCELY STATES
• Abandoning of the Policy of annexation post 1857
• End of their Sovereignty in 1876 (Queen Victoria’s Declaration): States to be agents of the government,
also made interference by the British in their Internal matters possible.
• Policy of Subordinate Union: using the states for their sustenance and making them completely subordinate
too.

STUDENT NOTES:

67

16. Economic Impact of the British Rule in India

Colonial rule brought about structural and operational transformation of Indian economy. The impact it had on
the Indian economy can be studied under the following heads.

DEINDUSTRIALISATION
• No efforts towards Modern Industrialization: instead of industrialization like in Europe, India witnessed
De-Industrialization.
• One-way free trade: Cheap European imports flooded into every corners of the country with the help of
railway.
• Indian goods subjected to heavy tariffs in Europe.
• Indian economy transformed from Net Exporter to Net Importer.
• Reverse Urbanization: Jobless artisans (who lost their patrons due the British rule) shifted to agriculture
due to repressive policies and lack of returns in urban centers.
• Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsman.

EMERGENCE OF INTERMEDIARIES AND IMPOVERISHMENT OF PEASANTRY
• Emergence of intermediaries who had no traditional ties with the land and little avenues for investment.
• Absence of traditional zamindars who considered land as a resource.
• Imposition of Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari system in large parts.
• Transferability of land caused insecurity amongst the tenants.
• Increased powers of Zamindars: illegal dues, summary evictions, begar, etc.
• No effort by the Government for the improvement of land productivity.
• Exploitation of the peasantry by the moneylenders.
• Uncertain productivity due to famine, flood etc.
• Peasants suffered at the hands of Government, Zamindars, and Moneylenders.
• Crores of people died of famine between 1850 to 1900.
• Poverty prevailed among the peasants due policies induced by colonial government and food scarcity.

STAGNATION, DETERIORATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF AGRICULTURE
• Induced by the forces like money economy, emergence of unified national market, external-internal trade.
• Commercialization of Agriculture was not natural rather a forced process for the peasants. The rise in prices
benefited the intermediaries while the fall adversely affected the peasants.
• Lack of resources and incentives at the hands of the peasants to improve productivity and lack of will with
the Zamindar and the Government.
• Commercial crops like cotton, jute, groundnut, oilseeds, tobacco, sugarcane, condiments, spices, fruits,
vegetables, tea, coffee, indigo, rubber, etc. were grown not for the purpose of consumption but for sale to
national and international market.

LAND REVENUE SYSTEMS DURING THE BRITISH:

Permanent Settlement • Started by Lord Cornwallis.
• Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Varanasi (United Provinces), Northern Karnataka.
• Covered 19% of British India.
• A new section of Zamindars appointed who would provide 10/11th part of
the revenue collected to the British while keep the remaining.
Ryotwari System • Started by Thomas Munro and Alexander Reed.
• Started in the Baramahal district of Tamil Nadu and later spread to Madras,
parts of Bombay, East Bengal, Assam and Kurg (Karnataka).
• Ryots (farmers) given the ownership and other rights over the land and were
required to pay the revenue directly to the government. Involved high taxes
and strict collection.
Mahalwari System • United Provinces, Central Provinces and in Punjab.
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• The unit of Revenue collection was the village or mahal. Village land
belonged to the community and it was the responsibility of the entire
community to pay the land revenue.

DESTRUCTION OF TRADITIONAL INDUSTRY
• Textile Industry: British paid the Indian textile industry from the revenue earned from Bengal rather than
pounds.
• Shipping Industry: Laws passed in 1813 and 1814 prohibited ships other than British from plying along
the coast.
• Steel Industry: Indian steel firms were forced to produce higher grade of steel which was less in popular
demand. Prohibited import of steel from India to England.
• Lopsided structural development: Neglect of core, heavy industries, and power industries. Lack of
technical education and regional disparities.
• Heavy rush of foreign capital in India due to greater profits, availability of cheap labor, cheap and abundant
raw materials, diminishing avenues in Britain, favor of colonial government towards the Europeans, ready
market abroad for Indian exports like tea, jute, manganese, etc.
• 2nd half of the 19th century, machine-based industries came up in India.
• The first cotton textile mill set up in 1853 in Bombay by Cowasjee Nanabhoy.
• First jute mill in 1855 in Rishra, Bengal.

Problems faced by Indian Industries à credit problems, no tariff protection by the Government, unequal
competition from foreign companies, stiff opposition from the British capitalist interests equipped with sound
technical and financial infrastructure.

NATIONALISTS CRITIQUE OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
• Government expenditure was solely to promote the interests of the British capitalists and ignored welfare
of the people. It favored one-way free trade and charged one-way tariff policy.
• Although Early nationalist favored the British rule on the pretext of modernization and development but later
argued against the development induced by railways and foreign trade. Pointed out that the development in
India was like a subsidy to the British Industries (G. V. Joshi)
• Transformation of the Indian economy from being a net exporter of finished goods to being the supplier of
raw materials, foodstuffs, and a field of British Investment.
• India’s poverty was completely manmade and removable. Equated development with industrialization.
Indian industrialization to be based solely on the Indian capital and not the foreign capital.
• Dadabhai Naoroji (Grand Old man of India): “Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India” à Propounded Drain
of Wealth Theory.
• Romesh Chandra Dutta: “The Economic History of India” à Half of annual GDP of India is outflowing
every year.
Home Charges formed an important component of the Drain of Wealth from India. It comprised of:
• Funds to support the Indian offices in London.
• Funds used to pay salaries and pensions of British personnel engaged in India.
• Interest on debts and other capital investments like railways.

STUDENT NOTES:


69

17. The Movement of the Working Class

PROBLEMS OF INDIAN WORKING CLASS
Low wages + Employment of child labor + Unhygienic and hazardous working conditions + No support from early
nationalists + Dual exploitation at the hands of the foreign government and local capitalists + Absence of basic
amenities + Long working hours.

CONTRIBUTION OF IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

BAL GANGADHAR TILAK:
• One of the Lal Bal Pal trio. Radical Nationalist but a Social conservative.
• "The father of the Indian unrest” by Sir Valentine Chirol. "The Maker of Modern India" by Mahatma
Gandhi.
• Strongest advocate of Swaraj ("self-rule").
• Gave the Slogan of "Swarajya is my birth-right and I shall have it!".
• Joined Congress in 1890, opposed its moderate attitude.
• Took up the issue of Bubonic Plague (late 1896) and the ill treatment by the authorities through
inflammatory articles in Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (English).
• Charged with incitement to murder and sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment after killing of Plague
Commissioner Rand and a British Officer Lt. Ayerst by the Chapekar brothers.
• Defended the mistaken killing of two women in the carriage of Kingsford, Chief Presidency Magistrate of
Calcutta by Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose, at Muzzafarpur, and was charged with sedition sentenced
to six years jail in Mandalay, Burma. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was his lawyer.
• Found the All India Home Rule League in 1916–18, in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, and Karnataka and
Berar region.
• Tilak was impressed by the Russian Revolution. Books "The Arctic Home in the Vedas" and "Shrimadh
Bhagvad Gita Rahasya".

LALA LAJPAT RAI:
• Popularly known as Punjab Kesari. One of the three Lal Bal Pal trio.
• President of INC in Calcutta Special Session of 1920.
• In 1921, he founded Servants of the People Society, a non-profit welfare organisation, in Lahore.
• Lajpat Rai travelled to US in 1917.
• Led a non-violent march in protest to the Simon Commission. Brutally assaulted by the police and later
succumbed to his injuries.
• Along with founding Arya Gazaette as its editor, authored:
1. The Story of My Deportation, 1908.
2. Arya Samaj, 1915.
3. The United States of America: A Hindu’s Impression, 1916.
4. The problem of National Education in India, 1920
5. Unhappy India, 1928.
6. England's Debt to India, 1917.
7. Autobiographical Writings
• He wrote biographies of Mazzini, Garibaldi, Shivaji, and, Shrikrishna.

EFFORTS FOR REFORM OF LABOR CONDITIONS

YEAR EFFORTS
1870 • Sasipada Baneerjee started Workingmen’s club and Newspaper Bharat Shramjeevi
1878 • Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee made efforts to get bill passed in the Bombay legislative
assembly for the labors.
1880 • Narayan Meghajee Lokhanday started Bombay Mill and Millhands Association and
Newspaper Deenbandhu.
1899 • Great Indian peninsular railway strike. Boasted by Tilak’s Kesari and Maratha.
1921 • Formation of All India Trade Union Congress.
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• First president Lala Lajpat Rai.
• First General Secretary Dewan Chaman Lal.
1926 • The Trade Union Act, 1926
• Organized trade unions as legal association.
• Elaborated procedure for the registration and regulation of trade unions.
• Secured both civil and criminal immunity for the trade unions for their legitimate
actions.
1928 • Six-month long strike in the Bombay Textile Mills led by Girni Kamgar Union.
• Industrial unrest witnessed with the crystallization of the various communist groups: S. A.
Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, P. C. Joshi, Sohan Singh Joshi.
1929 • Public Safety Ordinance
• Trade Disputes Act
• The appointment of Courts of Inquiry and Consultation boards compulsory.
• Made strikes on public utility services like railways, water, electricity, posts, illegal.
• Forbade trade union activity of coercive or purely political nature.
1929 • Meerut Conspiracy Case
• Arrest of 31 labor leaders followed by three-and-a-half-year trial with the conviction of
Muzzaffar Ahmad, S.A. Dange, Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, Shaukat Usmani and
others.
1931 • Split in the AITUC.
• Formation of All India Trade Union Federation led by corporatists like N. M. Joshi.
1937 • During the elections of 1937, AITUC supported the Congress.
• Congress ministries were sympathetic to the cause of the workers.
1938-45 • The workers joined the World War II and dissociated from Quit India Movement post
joining of Russia in the war.

STUDENT NOTES:


71

18.Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial Developments

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN (1773- 1857): COMPANY RULE

REGULATING ACT OF 1773:
• This is the first Act passed by the British Parliament to control and regulate the affairs of the East
India Company in India.
• Governor of Bengal became “Governor General of Bengal”. Warren Hastings was the First Governor
General of Bengal.
• An Executive Council with Four members was created for his assistance.
• Regulating Act made the independent Presidencies of Bombay and Madras subordinate to the
Presidency of Bengal.
• Supreme Court in Calcutta to be established in 1774 under the Act. (Structure: One Chief Justice and Two
Judges).
• The EIC was required to form a Court of Directors (COD) for reporting its Revenue, Civil, Military affairs to
the British Government. This Strengthened control of British Government over the Company’s affair in India.

Significance: It was implemented by British Government to control the working of East India Company in
India. It was their first step in setting up Central administration in India. It was also the first time the British
Government realized Administrative and Political functions of the Company.

ACT OF SETTLEMENT OF 1781:
• Also called as Act of Settlement. It was brought to amend the previous ac t.
• Governor General and his Council of Four members; along with Servants of the Company were exempted
from Jurisdiction (Control) of the Supreme Court for acts done under Official Capacity.
• Revenue matters and issues in Revenue collection were also exempted from the control of Supreme Court.
• Personal Laws were required to be used for trials of people from specific religion. (Hindu Personal Laws
for Hindus and Muslim Personal Laws for Muslims.)
• The population of Calcutta came under the Jurisdiction (control) of Supreme Court.
• It empowered the Governor General and his Council to frame Rules for the Provincial Courts and
Provincial Councils. It also laid provisions stating appeals from Provincial courts could be taken to Governor
General and his council. (Governor-General-in-Council).

PITT’S INDIA ACT OF 1784:
• The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay became subordinate to the Bengal Presidency. In effect,
Calcutta became the capital of the British possessions in India.
• Governors Councils were established in Bombay and Madras.
• This act made a distinction between the commercial and political activities of the East India Company.
• Company Administration was divided in:
1. Court of Directors was mandated to handle Commercial affairs. System of Double Government was
introduced.
2. Board of Control was established to manage Political affairs of India. It also supervised all operations of
Civil and military affairs. It regulated Revenues of British possession in India.


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Significance: As per this Act of 1784, the territories of East India Company were called as the “British
Possessions in India”. It gave the control of Company’s administration in India to the British Government.

Act of 1786 placed these provisions in place and Lord Cornwallis became the Governor General of Bengal.

CHARTER ACT OF 1793:
It accorded;
• Commander in Chief would not be the member of the Governor General Council until appointed.
• It extended the overriding power given to Cornwallis to all future Governor Generals.
• Governor General was given more powers over subordinate provinces of Bombay and Madras.
• Trade monopoly of Company was extended to 20 more years.

• Company’s territories in India came under the Sovereignty of British Government.
• Local Government was allowed to impose taxes on people. They could punish people on not paying taxes.
• It brought an end to the monopoly of East India Company, over trade with India.
• The company’s rule was extended to another 20 years. Their trade monopoly was ended except for the
trade in tea, opium, and with China.
• One of the important features of this act was to grant permission to the missionaries to come to India.

• Governor General of Bengal was made “Governor General of India”.
• The Governor-General was given full control over revenue, civil and military for administering British
possessions in India. The ending of the East India Company’s commercial activities and making it into the
British Crown’s trustee in administering India.
• William Bentinck was the First Governor General of India. Governor General of India had legislative
powers over entire India. Laws made under the Act were called Acts, whereas previously they were
called Regulations.
• East India Company became an administrative body. This ending its Commercial functions in India.
• The company’s trade links with China were also closed down. This act permitted the English to settle freely
in India.
• Charter Act of 1833 was the final step in the Process of Centralization in India, a process that began with
the Regulating Act of 1773.

• It separated Governor’s Legislative Functions from the Administrative Functions.
• Six members called as Legislative Councilors were added to the Governor General Council. It was called
Indian Legislative Council was to function as mini-Parliament on the lines of British Parliament.
• It extended Company’s rule in India without mentioning a time frame.
• For the First time, it introduced Local representation in Indian Legislative council.
• 4/6 members were elected from the province of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Agra new Governor General
Legislative Council.
• It made civil services open to all including Indians. This ended the system of appointments by
recommendation and started a system of open and fair competition.
• For the first time, local representation was introduced into the legislative council in the form of four
members from the local governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western Provinces.


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Significance: With the formation of Indian Legislative Council, Legislation was considered a separate function
of the Government. With no specification on the time frame the British Government could terminate
Company’s contract at any time.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN (1858-1947): THE CROWN RULE

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1858:
• Known as Act of Good Government of India. It abolished the East India Company and transferred powers
to the Crown.
• The rule of the Company ended and Viceroy was the new Designation of the “Governor General of
India”; who was direct representative of British Crown in India.
• It abolished Board of Control and Court of Directors thus ending Double Government.
• An Office of “Secretary of State” (SoS) for India was made. He was a member of British Cabinet responsible
to the British Government.
• Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council of India of 15 members. It was an advisory body with SoS
being the Chairman of the Council.

Significance: It focused on improving Administrative machinery (Governor General of India replaced by Viceroy
under the Crown etc.) of India.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1861:
• It provided for Viceroy to nominate some ‘Nominated’ Indians in the extended Legislative Council. (1862,
Viceroy Canning nominated three Indians in the Legislative council)
• Legislative Powers of Bombay and Madras Presidencies were restored.
• It gave provisions of Formation of New Legislative Council (Upper House) Bengal (formed in 1862), North
Western Province (1886), and Punjab (1897). Presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal had more power
than this.
• Viceroy was empowered to issue Ordinance without the consent of Legislative Council in case of
emergency. This Ordinance was valid till 6 months from the date of issue.
• It recognized the Portfolio system which was started by Lord Canning in 1859.

Portfolio System: In it, a member of Viceroy Council was made in charge of one or more Departments and
could independently take decision and issue orders on the behalf of the Council.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1892:
• Additional non official members increased in Central and Provincial Legislative Councils. Official majority
was maintained.
• Increase in Functions of Legislative Councils: power of discussing Budget and addressing the Questions to
the Executive.
• It provided for the nomination of some Non-Official members of:
Ø Central Legislative Council by the Viceroy on the Recommendation of the Provincial Legislative Council
and Bengal Chamber of Commerce.
Ø Provincial Legislative Council by the Governor on the advice of District Board, Municipalities,
Universities, Trade Associations, Zamindars and Chambers.

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Significance: The Word ‘Election’ was nowhere mentioned but a limited and indirect election for the
Nominated members was introduced in this Act.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1909 (MORLEY MINTO REFORMS):
• Legislative Council was enlarged. In Central Legislative Council members were increased from 16 60. In
Provincial Councils number were not uniform.
• Central Legislative Council continued to have Official majority; whereas Non-Official Majority was
allowed in the Provincial Legislative Council.
• More powers were given to the Legislative Councils:
Ø Members were allowed to ask supplementary questions.
Ø Voting of separate items on the Budget allowed. Budget as a whole could still not be voted upon.
• Separate Electorate for Muslims Introduced. Only Muslims could vote for the Muslim Candidates. Lord
Minto became the “Father of Communal Electorate”
• Indians were allowed in the Executive Council of the Viceroy for the First time. Satyendra Prasad
Sinha was appointed as a Law member in the VEC.
• Separate representation for Presidency Corporations, Chamber of Commerce, Universities etc.

Significance: It was the first attempt to introduce “Representative and Popular Elements” in the Council.
Councils were referred to as Legislative Councils for the first time.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1919: MONTAGU CHELMSFORD REFORMS: MONTFORD REFORMS:
• Central and Provincial Subjects were separated with the power to make Laws on their respective subjects.
• Element of Dyarchy was introduced (Dual Rule/ Double Government: Division of the Subjects allocated to
the states into Two Categories, one managed by Executive Branch, Second by Popular ministers who were
Indians) in the Provinces.
• Provincial Subjects were divided into two parts: Reserved and Transferred:
Ø Reserved Subjects: They were to be administered by the Governor General and his executive Council.
They were not responsible to the Legislative council.
Ø Transferred Subjects: They were to be administered by Governor General with the help of his council.
They were responsible to the legislative council for these subjects.
• For the First time, Indian Legislative Council to be replaced by the Upper and Lower House of the
Parliament (Bicameralism). Majority members were to be chosen by Direct Elections.
• Three of the six members of the Viceroy Executive Council to be Indians. (Excluding Commander in Chief).
• Separate electorate for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Europeans, Europeans (Element of Communal
Representation).
• Franchise given to limited number of people on the basis of property, Tax, Education.
• Provincial Budget was separated from Central Budget and Provinces were allowed to enact their own
Budget.
• Provided for setting up of a Commission to see the working after 10 years of these provisions coming
into force. Simon Commission was appointed in 1927 for this purpose.

Significance: It was the first time the British Government declared its intention of introducing Responsible
Government in the Country.

• All India Federation consisting of Provinces and Princely states. It provided for division of Subjects based on
Centre, Provincial and Concurrent List.
• Residuary powers were with the Governor General.
• Princely States did not join the Federation.
• Diarchy was abolished and Provincial autonomy was introduced. Diarchy provision in the Centre was
introduced. Federal Subjects were divided into Reserved and Transferred. (This provision never came to
being.)
• Provinces were allowed to act as independent units of administration.
• The Governor was required to act under the advice of the ministers responsible to the provincial legislature.
T
• This provision came into force in 1937 and repealed in 1939.
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• Bicameralism (Upper House-Lower House): It came into being in six out of 11 provinces. Bengal, Bombay,
Madras, United Province, Bihar and Assam. Upper House: Legislative Council; Lower House: Legislative
Assembly.
• Separate Electorate: It was introduced for the depressed classes and Women. (Provision of Separate
electorate extended)
• Secretary of States was provided with team of Advisors. Council of India was abolished.
• Extended Franchise: 10% of people got the voting rights.
• Reserve Bank of India to be established for controlling currency and credit,
• Establishment of a Federal Court. Was established in 1937.

Significance: It was another important step introduction of Responsible Government.

It was brought in response to the Mountbatten Plan.
• It gave the provisions of Partition of India with the creation of two independent Dominion; India,
Pakistan. These Dominions had the Right to secede from the British Commonwealth.
• Governor Generals was to be appointed in both the Dominion of India and Pakistan by the King of Britain.
Office of the Viceroy came to an end. Hereafter British king would not have any responsibility w.r.t the
Government of India.
• It gave the authority to the Dominions to govern as per the provision of the Act of 1935 or make modifications
if need be.
• Constituent assemblies of the Dominions were empowered to frame and enact the Constitution. They could
also repeal any Act including the Independence of India Act. Constituent Assembly could legislate over
their territories till the drafting and enactment of the New Constitution.
• Governor General of India and Provincial Governors were designated as Head of the State respectively. They
were to work on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Right to Veto Bills or ask for Reservation of Bills of the Governor were reserved but were taken away
from the British Monarch.
• The office of Secretary of State was abolished and functions were transferred to Secretary of States for
Commonwealth.
• British paramountcy over princely states came to an end. They were allowed to be independent or join
any dominion.

Significance: British rule came to an end by this Act. India became Independent on 15th August 1947.

EVOLUTION OF JUDICIARY

Under Warren Hastings Under Cornwallis Under William Bentinck

REFORMS UNDER WARREN HASTINGS (1772-85):

For Criminal • Sadar Nizamat Adalat was in Murshidabad. It was headed by Deputy Nizam and
Disputes assisted by Chief Qazi and Chief Mufti. It was for Capital Punishment and for
Acquisition of Property.
• District Fauzdari Adalats, under an Indian officer assisted by a Qazi and a Mufti. It
was also under General Supervision of a Collector.
For Civil • Sadar Diwani Adalat under President and 2 members of the Supreme Council.
Disputes • District Diwani Adalat under Collector: Hindu law for Hindus and Muslim Laws for
Muslims.

REFORMS UNDER CORNWALLIS (1786-93):
• District Fauzdari Adalats were abolished and were replaced by Circuit Courts.
Ø Circuit Courts were established in Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Calcutta.
Ø It had European Judges and acted as a Court of Appeal for both Civil and criminal Cases.
• Sadar Nizamat Adalat was under Governor General and members of Supreme Council. It was shifted to
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Calcutta.
• District Diwani Adalat: It was designated as District, Zila or City court. It was placed under a District
Magistrate. Collector was freed from his earlier magisterial function; he now had responsibility of Revenue
Collection.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat established at Calcutta.

CORNWALLIS CODE
• There was a Separation of Revenue and Justice Administration.
• Government Servants are answerable to Civil Court for their actions done in official Capacity.
• Europeans Subjects were thus brought under the Jurisdiction of the court.
• Principle of Sovereignty of the Law was established.

REFORMS UNDER WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1833):
• Circuit courts were abolished
• Functions were transferred to the Collector under the Supervision of Commissioner of Revenue/ Circuit.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up in Allahabad for the Convenience of People of
Upper Province
• Suitor had the Option to Use Persian or Vernacular. In Supreme Court, English Language Replaced Persian.

1833 Law Commission under Macaulay was formed for Codification of Indian Laws:
1. Civil Procedure Code was Prepared in 1859.
2. Indian Penal Code was prepared in 1860.
3. Criminal Procedure Code was prepared in 1861.
1860 • Europeans could claim special privileges except in Case of Criminal Proceedings.
• No Judge of an Indian Origin could try them.
1865 Sadar Adalat and SC were merged into three High Courts of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
1935 Government of India Act provided for the formation of a Federal Court (was set up in 1937). It
could settle disputes between Governments and hear limited appeals from the High Courts.

EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES
Warren Hastings laid the Foundation of Civil Services in India. Charles Cornwallis reformed, Organized and
modernized it. Hence, he is called the “Father of Civil Services in India”.
• Charter Act of 1793: All posts worth 500 Pound annually were reserved for Covenanted Servants of the
company.
• Charter Act of 1833: It opened Civil Services for all. Its
provisions were never implemented.
• Proclamation of 1858: It declared the British
intentions of including more Indians freely and
impartially in offices under Civil Services.
• Indian Civil Services Act, 1861:
Ø This Act reserved certain Offices for Covenanted
Civil Servants.
Ø Examinations to be held in England in English. Classical learning of Greek and Latin was required.
Ø Maximum permissible age reduced à 23 (1859) à 22 (1860) à 21 (1866) à 19 (1878).
77

NOTE: Satyendra Nath became the First Indian ICS officer in 1863.

SOME INITIAL DEVELOPMENTS
• 1800: Wellesley had set up Fort Williams College in for training of New Recruits.
• 1806: The above college was disapproved by Court of Directors. East India College was set up in
Haileybury (England) for two years training of new recruits.

Statutory Civil Services Commission under Lytton (1878-79): It recommended;
• 1/6th of Covenanted posts to be filled by Indians of Higher family through nominations from Local
Government.
• Approval of Viceroy and Secretary of State were needed.
• This system was abolished.

Indian National Congress 1. For holding elections in India and England.
Demanded 2. Increase in the age Limit

ATCHISON COMMISSION ON PUBLIC SERVICES (1886):
• It was set up by Lord Dufferin; it recommended not using Covenanted - Non-Covenanted.
• Classified Civil Services into:
1. Imperial Indian Civil Services (England)
2. Provincial Civil Services (India)
3. Subordinate Civil Services (India)
• Increase in minimum age to 23 years from 19 (1878).

MONTFORD REFORMS (1919):
• Recommended simultaneous Examination in London and India.
• 1/3rd of recruitment to be made in India with raise by 1.5% annually.
• It provided for setting up a Public Service Commission. Central Public Service Commission was set up on
1926.
• Montford stated a realistic approach of more Indians to be commissioned in Public Services.
• Reason à for introducing responsible Government in future.

LEE COMMISSION (1924):
• A Public Commission to be immediately established (as envisioned in Government of India Act 1919)
• The Secretary of State should continue recruiting Indian Covenanted Services, the Irrigation/ branch of the
Services of Engineers. The IFS et al.
• Recruitments for the transferrable subjects like Education, Civil Medical Services to be made by Provincial
Government.
• Direct recruitment to the Indian Covenanted Services and a parity of 50:50 (ratio of European: Indians) to
be reached in 15 years.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT (1935):
• It recommended formation Federal Public Services and Provincial Public Services and Joint Public
Services for two or more provinces.

CORNWALLIS TRIED TO CHECK CORRUPTION IN CIVIL SERVICES BY:
• Raising salaries of the Officers.
• Strict rules were enforced against Private trade.
• Deterring Civil Servants against Bribes, Present.
• Enforcing Promotions through seniority.

EVOLUTION OF POLICE
• 1791:
Ø Cornwallis organized police force through Modernization.
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Ø Darogas (Indians) were appointed in Old Thanas (circles) in a district. A SP was appointed as the head of
the district.
Ø Earlier Zamindars did the policing duty and Cornwallis relieved them from it.
• 1808: Lord Mayo appointed SP in each Division and number of Spies (Goyendas).
• 1814: Court of Directors ordered to abolish Darogas and Subordinates except in Bengal.

NOTE: The above system led to poorly organized policing system with added burden of policing on the
magistrate. Presidency towns were the first to have these duties of magistrate separated from administrative
duties.

POLICE COMMISSION OF 1860:
• It recommended the formation of Indian Police Act of 1861 which gave guidelines for setting up Policing
system in the provinces.
• It recommended a system of Civil Constabulary: Village to be guarded by the Watchman but will be in
indirect contact with the Constabulary.
Ø Inspector General as Head in Province
Ø Deputy Inspector General as Head in a range
Ø SP as the Head in a District.

1902: Establishment of Criminal Investigation Department in the Provinces and Central Intelligence Bureau at
the Centre.

NOTE: William Bentinck’s contribution in controlling Thugee system is commendable of all.

STUDENT NOTES:


79

19. DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS

• The press played an important role during the freedom movement. It served as a tool for not only the
criticism of the Raj but also helped in the mobilization of the masses. It played an important role in taking the
nationalist spirit to every corner of the country.
• The evolution of Indian press during British rule was filled with difficulties like illiteracy, colonial pressure
and repression. But later on, it became a prominent tool for the freedom struggle.

Role of Press:

Early phase of Press: Important developments -

• The first printing press was established by Portuguese in 1556.
• First newspaper of India was established in 1780 by James Augustus Hickey named Calcutta General
Advertiser or The Bengal Gazette. He is considered as the ‘Father of Indian press’.
• Bengal Gazette is also sometimes known as Hickey’s Gazette.
• This newspaper was later seized by the government in 1782.
• Later more newspapers/journals came up - The Bengal Journal, The Calcutta Chronicle, The Madras Courier,
The Bombay Herald.
• The Company’s officers were worried that these newspapers might reach London and expose their misdeeds.
Thus, they saw the need for curbs on the press.
• Press played key role in dissemination of information and connecting leaders with people. Many leaders had
their own publications but they were not for profit making purpose.

Various acts and legislation to restrict press freedom:

Law/ act Features
• It was enacted by Lord Wellesley to prevent French from spreading rumours
which could harm British.
• Enacted in anticipation of French invasions.
• According to this, every newspaper should contain the names of the printer,
Censorship of Press editor and proprietor.
Act, 1799 • Before printing anything, it should be submitted to the secretary of
Censorship.
• War time restrictions and pre-censorship.
• Removed by Hastings in 1818.
• It was enacted by John Adams.
• Mainly against Indian Language (vernacular) newspapers.
• Penal offence to start a newspaper without license.
• Covered Newspapers, Journals, Pamplets, Books.
• Every publisher was required to get a license from the government.
Licensing Regulations, • In case of default, the penalty was Rs 400 and the press would be ceased by the
1823 government.
• Government has the right to cancel the license also.

Note: The restrictions were directed mainly to Indian language newspaper or
those edited by the Indians like Mirat-ul-Akbar (which was published by Raja
Ram Mohan Roy) had to stop its publication.
• It was enacted by Charles Metcalfe, also called Liberator of Indian press,
Press Act/Metcalfe repealed 1823 rules by John Adams.
Act, 1835 • This continued till 1856 which led to the growth of the newspaper in India.
• Registration of the Press.
80

• Every Publisher to give the precise information of the premises of the
publication.
• Due to emergency caused by the revolt of 1857, the government-imposed

licensing instructions on the procedure laid in the Press act of 1835.
• The government even reserved the right to stop publication and circulation
Licensing Act, 1857 of the book, newspaper or printed matter.
• Licensing restrictions in addition to the already existing registration process.
• Government had powers to stop publication of any newspaper.
• It replaced the Press act of 1835 or Metcalfe’s Act.
• Regulative and restrictive in nature.
Registration Act, 1867 • Copy of a book to given to the local government within one month of
publication.
• Every book to have the name and place of the printer or publisher.
• Lord Lytton was responsible for this act.
• Discriminated between Vernacular and English newspapers.
• The vernacular press (local language press) used to criticize British rule.
Therefore, they came down heavily to curb vernacular press in 1878.
• It was nicknamed ‘Gagging Act’.
• According to this, Magistrates were authorized to ask any publisher of
newspaper to give assurance of not publishing anything threatening peace and
Vernacular Press security in the country.
Act/Gagging Act, 1878 • No right to appeal. Magistrate decision was final in any dispute.
• This law was not applicable to the English press.
• This law was not applicable to the English press.
• This Act empowered the government to issue search warrants and enter
newspaper premises even without court orders.
• Under this, Surendra Nath Banerjee was the first Indian journalist to be
imprisoned for criticizing a judge of Calcutta high court in 1883.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was mostly associated with the nationalist fight for the
freedom of the press.
• He was related to building up nationalist sentiment through Ganpati (1893)
and Shivaji (1896) festivals and newspaper Kesari (in Marathi) and Maratha
(in English).
• The Gagging law was repealed in 1882 by Lord Ripon.
• Directed against Extremist activity.
• Magistrate with powers to confiscate property of press that incite violence.
• Tilak tried for sedition and sent to Mandalay Jail for 6 years under this
Newspaper act.
(Incitement to • Magistrates were empowered to confiscate printing press or property
Offences) Act, 1908 connected to the newspaper, which published objectionable material like
incitement to murder or acts of violence.
• Newspapers were allowed to appeal in high court within 15 days.
• Had features of Vernacular Press Act, 1878.
• This measure was put into effect in order to curtail and restrict the
emerging Indian Freedom Struggle, particularly during the arrival of World
War I.
Indian Press Act, 1910 • It empowered the local government to demand a security deposit of Rs. 500 to
Rs. 2000 which could be forfeited, and its registration cancelled owing to the
printing of any objectionable material.

NOTE: Press Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru, 1921 recommended
repeal of 1908 and 1910 Acts.

81

• Impact of Gandhian movement provoked the government to issue an
ordinance in 1930.
• Powers to provincial governments to suppress any activity under Civil
Indian Press Disobedience Movement.
(Emergency Powers) • Provincial governments were given the power to suppress the press.
Act, 1931 • In 1932, provisions of the act further amplified in the form of criminal
amendment act.
• During the 2nd World War pre-censorship reinforced and amended under the
Press emergent Act in 1931 and official secrets Act.
• Under this act, Congress and its activities were declared illegal.
• Registration of journalist was made compulsory.
Press regulating Act, • Messages regarding civil disturbances and news regarding acts of sabotage
1942: were restricted.
• There were limitations on headlines and space given to news on disturbances.
• The government had authority on arbitrary censorship.

Press Enquiry Committee, 1947:
• Set up to examine the press law in the light of fundamental rights by the constituent assembly.
• It recommended the repeal of Indian Emergency Powers Act, 1931 and amendments in other acts.

In favour of censorship: Wellesley, Lord Minto-II, Lord Adams, Lord Canning, Lord Lytton, Lord
Elphinstone, Sir Munro.
In favour of freedom of Press: Lord Hastings, Charles Metcalfe, Macaulay, Ripon.

IMPORTANT NEWSPAPERS AND ASSOCIATED PERSONALITIES:

Newspapers/Journals Year and Place of Personality
Publication
• The Bengal Gazette/Calcutta General 1780, Calcutta James Augustus Hickey (1780)
Advertiser (First newspaper to start
publication)
• Sambad Kaumudi (weekly in Bengali) 1821 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Mirat-ul Akbar (First journal in
Persian)
• Banga-Duta (A weekly in four 1822, Calcutta Raja Ram Mohan Roy and
languages- English, Bengali, Persian, Dwarkanath Tagore
Hindi)
• Bombay Times (from 1861 onwards, 1838, Bombay Robert Knight and Thomas Bennett
The Times of India)
• Swadesamitran Madras G. Subramaniya Aiyer
• The Hindu 1878, Madras GS Aiyar, Viraraghavchari and
Subba Rao Pandit
• The Bengalee (this and Amrita Bazar 1862, Calcutta Girishchandra Ghosh (taken over
Patrika- the first vernacular papers). by Surendra Nath Banerjee in
1879)
• Voice of India Dadabhai Naoroji
• Rast Goftar (A Gujarati fortnightly)
• Hindu Patriot 1853, Calcutta Girishchandra Ghosh
• Somprakasha 1858, Calcutta Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan
• National Paper 1865, Calcutta Devendra Nath Tagore
• Amrita Bazar Patrika (Bengali in the 1868, Jessore District Shishir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal
beginning and later on English Daily) Ghosh
• Bangadarshana 1873, Calcutta Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
• The Statesman 1875, Calcutta Robert Knight
• Indian Mirror 1862, Calcutta N.N. Sen and Devendranath Tagore
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• Kesari (Marathi) 1881, Bombay Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Maratha (English)
• Sudharak Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
• Hindustan G. P. Verma
• Advocate
• Paridasak (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
• Yugantar 1906, Bengal Barindra Kumar Ghosh and
Bhupendranath Dutta
• Sandhya 1906, Bengal Brhamanabandab Upadhay
• Indian Sociologist London Shyamji Krishna Verma
• Bande Matram Paris Madam Bhikaji Cama
• Free Hindustan Vancouver Taraknath Das
• Ghadr San Francisco Ghadar Party
• Talwar Berlin Virendrnath Chattopadhay
• Kudi Arasu (Tamil) 1910 E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar),
S S Mirajkar
• Tribune 1881, Lahore Sardar Dyal Singh Majithia
• Bombay Chronical (a daily) 1913, Bombay Pherozshahs Mehta, B G Horniman
• The Hindustan Times 1920, Delhi KM Pannikkar as a part of Akali Dal
Movement
• Bandi Jivan Bengal Sachindranath Sanyal
• Tagzin-ul-Akhlaq (journal) 1871 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
• Gujarati Fardunjee Marzban
• Indu Prakash Gopal Hari Deshmukh
• Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
• Kal Shivram Mahadev Paranjape
• Young India Mahatma Gandhi
• Harijan
• Nav jeevan
• Indian Opinion (Don’t get confuse with
New India of Annie Besant)
• National Herald 1938, Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru
• Vande Mataram Lala Lajpat Rai
• The People
• Leader (in English) Madan Mohan Malaviya
• Hindustan Dainik
• Independent 1919 Motilal Nehru
• Pioneer George Allen
• Justice T. N. Nair
• Quami Awaz Jawaharlal Nehru and Rafi Ahmad
Kidwai
• Commonweal Annie Beasant
• New India (Don’t get confuse with
Young India of M. K. Gandhi)
• Al- Balagh and Al-Hilal (Both urdu 1912 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
weekly newspaper)
• Comrade (Weekly English Newspaper) 1911 M. A. Jinnah
• Mook Nayak (Marathi) B. R. Ambedkar
• Bahishkrit Bharat


83

20. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

INITIAL EFFORTS IN EDUCATION SECTOR:
• Asiatic society of Bengal was established in 1784 to foster oriental studies in India.
• James Prinsep was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and is best
remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India.
• The Calcutta Madrasah was established by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim law and
related subjects.
• The Sanskrit College was established by Jonathan Duncan, the resident, at Benaras in 1791 for study of
Hindu law and philosophy. The Calcutta Madras and the Sanskrit College were designed to provide a regular
supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the Company’s court.
• Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company in
languages and customs of Indians (closed in 1802).

Charter Act of 1813:
• The Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging learned Indians and promoting
knowledge of modern sciences in the country.
• The Act directed the Company to sanction one lakh rupees annually for this purpose. However, even this
petty amount was not made available till 1823, mainly because of the controversy raged on the question of
the direction that this expenditure should take.
• Meanwhile, efforts of enlightened Indians such as Raja Rammohan Roy bore fruit and a grant was sanctioned
for Calcutta College set up in 1817 by educated Bengalis, imparting English education in Western
humanities and sciences.
• The government also set up three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi and Agra.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy:
Within the General Committee on Public Instruction, the Anglicists argued that the government spending on
education should be exclusively for modern studies.

• Exclusively suggested for spending on modern studies.
Anglicists Opinion: • Even the Anglicists were divided over the question of medium of
instruction—one faction was for English language as the medium, while the
other faction was for Indian languages (vernaculars) for the purpose.
• Western sciences and literature should be taught to prepare students to take
Orientalists Opinion: up jobs, emphasis should be placed on expansion of traditional Indian
learning.

Unfortunately, there was a great deal of confusion over English and vernacular languages as media of instruction
and as objects of study.

Important committees and their recommendations:

Year Committee Recommendations
1781 Calcutta Madrasah • By Warren Hastings
• Study of Muslim Laws
1791 Sanskrit College • Study of Hindu law and philosophy.
• By Johnathan Duncan
• By Wellesley
1800 Fort William College • Training of Civil servants in Indian laws and customs.
• Closed in 1802
1813 Charter Act • 1 Lakh rupees annually for the promotion of modern sciences’
education.
1835 Lord Macaulay’s Minutes • Favored Anglicists (Oriental vs Anglicist Controversy within
the General Committee on Public Instruction).
84

• Teaching of Western Sciences and Literature in English.
• Neglect of Mass Education.
• Downward Filtration theory.
James Thompson, • Village Education.
1843-53 (Lieutenant Governor, NW • Vernacular Language.
Provinces) • To train personnel for Revenue and Public Works Department.
• Magna Carta of English Education in India.
• Government to take up the responsibility for the Education of
masses.
• Hierarchy of Educational Institutions
• Stress on Female, Vocational Education and teachers’ training.
1854 Wood’s Dispatch • Secular Education in Government Institutions.
• Grants-in-aid to encourage private education.
• Medium Instruction English in higher studies and vernaculars
in school level.
• Affiliating universities in the presidency towns of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras.
• Earlier schemes had neglected primary and secondary
education. When education was shifted to provinces in 1870,
primary and secondary education further suffered because the
provinces already had limited resources at their disposal.
• Commission focused on primary and secondary education.
1882-83 Hunter Commission • Primary Education in Vernacular.
• District and Municipal Boards to control Primary Education.
• Secondary (High Schools) with two Divisions- Literary and
Vocational.
• Stressed on problems with Female education especially
outside Presidency towns.
• Spur in private Education institutes thus quality of Education
had deteriorated and educational institutions acted as factories
for producing political revolutionaries.
• Based on Raleigh Commission (1902).
• Focused on University Education.
• Focus on Research and study.
• Number and duration of fellows reduced.
• Most fellows nominated by Government.
1904 Indian Universities Act (By • Government to veto/amend/pass Universities Senate’s
Curzon) regulations.
• Stricter private affiliations norms.
• 5 lakh/annum for improvement of Higher and University
Education.

Note: The nationalists saw in it an attempt to strengthen
imperialism and to sabotage nationalist feelings. Gokhale called it
a “retrograde measure”.
• Reason: In 1906, the progressive state of Baroda introduced
compulsory primary education throughout its territories.
1913 Government Resolution on • Policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial
Education Policy governments to take steps to Provide free elementary
education to the poorer and more backward sections.
• Study and report on problems of Calcutta University. Its
1917-19 Saddler University recommendations were applicable more or less to other
Commission universities also.
• For the improvement of university education, improvement of
secondary education was a necessary pre- condition.
85

• Focus from school to university Education.
• 12- year curriculum in Schools.
• Separate Board for Secondary and Intermediate.
• Focus on Female, scientific, technical and Teachers’ training.
• University to be centralized, unitary-residential- teaching
autonomous body.
• Less rigidity in framing university regulations.
• The Hartog Committee was set up to report on development of
education
1929 Hartog Committee • Focus on Primary Education, but no compulsory education.
• Selective admissions in Universities to improve quality.
• Only deserving students to go for high school and college
others to be diverted vocational course.
• The objective was to create within 40 years, the same
Level of educational attainment as prevailed in England.
• 3-6 years age group- pre- primary education 6-11-free,
universal and compulsory elementary education.
• High school education for 11- 17 years age group for selected
1944 Sergeant Plan of Education children, and a university course of 3 years after higher
secondary.
• Adequate technical, commercial and arts education.
• Abolition of intermediate course.
• Liquidation of adult illiteracy in 20 years.
• Commission laid stress on teachers’ training, physical
education, education for the physically and mentally
handicapped.

Education Under Dyarchy (GOI Act 1919):
• Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, education was shifted to provincial ministries and the government
stopped taking direct interest in educational matters, while government grants, liberally sanctioned since
1902, were now stopped.
• Financial difficulties prevented any substantial expansion but still education grew, especially under
philanthropic efforts.

Development of Vernacular Education:
During the early 19th century vernacular education was in a poor state of affairs. It was mostly dependent on
contributions from wealthy zamindars.

1835, 1836, William Adam’s reports on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar pointed out
1838: defects in the system of vernacular education.
1843-53: James Jonathan’s experiments in North- West Provinces (UP), as the lieutenant-governor
there, included opening one government school as model school in each tehsildari and a
normal school for teachers’ training for vernacular schools.
1853 In a famous minute, Lord Dalhousie expressed strong opinion in favour of vernacular
education.
1854 Wood’s Dispatch made the following provisions for vernacular education:
1. Improvement of standards
2. Supervision by government agency
3. Normal schools to train teachers
These gave impetus to the cause of vernacular education.
1854-71 The government paid some attention to secondary and vernacular education. The number
of vernacular schools increased by more than five-fold.
1882 The Hunter Commission held that State should make special efforts for extension and
improvement of vernacular education. Mass education was to be seen as instructing masses
through vernaculars.

86

1904 Education policy put special emphasis on vernacular education and increased grants for it.
1929 Hartog Committee presented a gloomy picture of primary education.
1937 These schools received encouragement from Congress ministries.

Development of Technical Education:
• The Engineering College at Roorkee -1847
• The Calcutta College of Engineering -1856.
• In 1858 Overseers’ School at Poona was raised to the status of Poona College of Engineering and affiliated to
Bombay University.
• Guindy College of Engineering was affiliated to Madras University.
• Medical training started with establishment of a medical college in Calcutta in 1835.
• Agriculture College at Pusa by Curzon.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937):
• The Congress had organised a National Conference on Education in October 1937 in Wardha. In the light
of the resolutions passed there, Zakir Hussain committee formulated a detailed national scheme for basic
education.
• The main principle behind this scheme was ‘learning through activity’.
• It was based on Gandhi’s ideas published in a series of articles in the weekly Harijan. Gandhi thought
that Western education had created a gulf between the educated few and the masses and had also made the
educated elite ineffective.
• The scheme had the following provisions:
Ø Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus.
Ø First seven years of schooling to be an integral part of a free and compulsory nationwide education
system (through mother tongue).
Ø Teaching to be in Hindi from class II to VII and in English only after class VIII.
Ø Ways to be devised to establish contact with the community around schools through service.
Ø A suitable technique to be devised with a view to implementing the main idea of basic education—
educating the child through the medium of productive activity of a suitable handicraft.
• The system, rather than being a methodology for education, was an expression of an idea for a new life
and a new society. The basic premise was that only through such a scheme could India be an independent
and non-violent society. This scheme was child-centred and cooperative.

Note: There was not much development of this idea, because of the start of the Second World War and the
resignation of the Congress ministries (October 1939).

STUDENT NOTES:


87

21. IMPORTANT BRITISH COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS

Commissions on Famine:

• In 1865-66, a famine engulfed Orissa, Bengal, Bihar, and Madras and took
a toll of nearly 20 lakhs of lives with Orissa alone loosing 10 lakh lives,
Campbell Commission: since the famine was most severe in Orissa; it is called the Orissa famine.
• The famine proved a turning point in the history of Indian famines for it
was followed by the appointment of a committee under the chairmanship
of Sir George Campbell.
Stratchy Commission • It was set up in 1878 under the Chairmanship of Sir Richard Strachey.
• The commission recommended state interference in food trade in the
event of famine. India witnessed another major famine in 1896-97.
Lyall Commission • It was constituted in 1897 under the Chairmanship of Sir James Lyall. This
commission recommended the development of irrigation facilities.
• It was set up in 1900 under the Chairmanship of Sir Anthony (Later Lord)
McDonnel to re-evaluate and recommend changes in report of the
MacDonnell Commission previous commission, based on the findings of the recent famine.
• This Commission recommended that the official machinery dealing with a
famine must work around the year so that the scarcity of food grains could
be controlled well in time.

Law Commissions:
• Law Commissions in India have a pre-independence origin.
• The first Law Commission was formed in 1834 as a result of the Charter Act, 1833 under the
chairmanship of TB Macaulay.
• The first commission’s recommendations resulted in the codification of the penal code and the Criminal
Procedure Code.
• Second Pre-Independence Law Commission, 1853 – Sir John Romilly.
• Third Pre-Independence Law Commission, 1862 - Sir John Romilly.
• Fourth Pre-Independence Law Commission, 1879 – Dr Whitley Stokes.
• After independence, the first Law Commission was constituted in 1955 in a continuance of the tradition of
bringing law reforms in the country through the medium of law commissions.

Currency Commission:
• Mansfield Commission by Dufferin in 1886
• Fowler Commission by Elgin II in 1898
• Babington Smith Commission by Chelmsford in 1919
• Hilton Young Commission by Linlithgow in 1926

Other Important Commissions:

Scott-Moncrieff Commission On Irrigation by Curzon in 1901
Fraser Commission On Police Reforms by Curzon in 1902
Hunter Commission On Punjab Disturbances by Chelmsford 1919
Butler Commission On Indian States relation with British Crown by Irwin in 1927
Whiteley Commission On Labour by Irwin in 1929
Sapru Commission On Unemployment by Linlithgow in 1935
Chalfield Commission On Army by Linlighgow 1939
Floud Commission On Tenancy in Bengal by Linlighgow in 1940
Durand Commission (1893) To define the Durand Line between India and Afghanistan (now
between Pakistan and Afghanistan; a small portion of the line touches
India in Pakistan occupied Kashmir).

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22. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements

Swadeshi Movement:

• Spread the message of swadeshi to Poona and Bombay and organised
Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to arouse patriotic feelings.
Lokmanya Tilak • He stressed that the aim of swadeshi, boycott and national education was
attainment of swaraj.
• He opened cooperative stores and headed the Swadeshi Wastu
Pracharini Sabha.
• Took the movement to Punjab and parts of northern India. He was assisted
Lala Lajpat Rai in his venture by Ajit Singh.
• His articles, which were published in Kayastha Samachar, endorsed
technical education and industrial self-sufficiency.
Syed Haider Raza • Popularized the Swadeshi Movement in Delhi.
• Spread the movement to Madras and organised the strike of the Tuticorin
Chidambaram Pillai Coral Mill.
• He founded the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in Tuticorin on the
east coast of the Madras Province.
Bipin Chandra Pal • Of the Extremist clan played a major role in popularizing the movement,
especially in the urban areas. He was the editor of New India.
• Of Patna suggested boycott and organised the East Indian Railway strike
in 1906. He also wrote fiery articles in Urdu to rouse nationalist sentiments
Laikat Hossain in Muslims. He was supported by other Muslim swadeshi agitators like
Ghaznavi, Rasul, Din Mohammed, Dedar Bux, Moniruzzaman, Ismail
Hussain, Siraji, Abdul Hussain and Abdul Gaffar.
Ramendra Sunder • Called for observance of arandhan (keeping the hearth unlit) as a mark of
Trivedi mourning and protest on the day the partition was put into effect.
• Composed several songs to inspire freedom struggle and revived Bengali
Rabindranath Tagore folk music to rouse national pride.
• He also set up some swadeshi stores and called for the observance of raksha
bandhan (tying of threads on each other’s wrists as a sign of brotherhood).
• He was in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India. He was
appointed as the principal of Bengal National College founded in 1906
to encourage patriotic thinking and an education system related to Indian
conditions and culture.
Aurobindo Ghosh • He was also the editor of Bande Mataram and through his editorials
encouraged strikes, national education etc., in the spirit of the Swadeshi
Movement.
• He was assisted by Jatindranath Bannerji and Barindrakumar Ghosh
(who managed the Anushilan Samiti).
• Held moderate nationalist opinion launched powerful press campaigns
Surendranath Banerjea through newspapers like The Bengalee and addressed mass meetings.
• He was assisted by Krishnakumar Mitra and Narendra Kumar Sen.
• A school teacher, set up Swadesh Bandhab Samiti to propagate the
Ashwini Kumar Dutt, Swadeshi Movement and led the Muslim peasants of Barisal in their
protests.
Promotha Mitter, • Founded the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta.
Barindrakumar Ghosh,
Jatindranath Bannerji
G.K. Gokhale • President of the Benaras session of the Indian National Congress, 1905,
supported the Swadeshi Movement.
Abdul Halim Guznavi • A zamindar and a lawyer, set up swadeshi industries and helped Aurobindo
Ghosh to extend revolutionary activities outside Bengal. He was assisted by
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Abul Kalam Azad.
Dadabhai Naoroji • At the 1906 Congress session declared that the goal of the Congress was
to attain “swaraj”.
Acharya P.C. Roy • In order to promote swadeshi, set up the Bengal Chemicals Factory.
Ashwini kumar Banerjee • A swadeshi activist, led the jute mill workers to form an Indian Millhands’
Union at Budge-Budge in August 1906.
Satish Chandra Mukherji • Through his Dawn Society promoted an education system under
indigenous control.
Motilal Ghosh • Of the Amrit Bazar Patrika group contributed several fiery articles in the
paper to arouse patriotic sentiments and was in favour of Extremism.
Brahmabandhab • Through his Sandhya and Yugantar (brought out by a group associated
Upadhyay with Barindrakumar Ghosh) popularised swaraj and the Swadeshi
Movement.
Jogendrachandra • Set up an association in March 1904 to raise funds to facilitate students to
go abroad for technical and industrial training.
Manindra Nandi • A zamindar from Kasimbazar, patronised several indigenous industries.
Kalisankar Sukul • Brought out several pamphlets on Swadeshi Movement and argued that a
new kind of business class should be built to promote national interests.
Sunder Lal • A student from UP, was drawn towards terrorism.
Kunwarji Mehta and • Began organisational work through the Patidar Yuvak Mandal.
Kalyanji Mehta
• Promoted Swadeshi Movement in Punjab through the Brahmo-leaning
Lala Harkishan Lal group which began the Tribune newspaper. He also founded the Punjab
National Bank.
Muhammed Shafi and • Were leaders of a Muslim group in Punjab involved in constructive
Fazal-i-Husain swadeshi, rather than boycott.
V. Krishnaswami Iyer • Headed the ‘Mylapore’ group in the Madras Presidency.
G. Subramaniya Iyer, T. • Were other leaders in the south but were opposed to V.K. Iyer. Prakasam
Prakasam and M. Krishna and Krishna Rao started Kistnapatrika in Masulipatnam in 1904.
Rao
Subramaniya Bharati • A member of Tamilian revolutionary group and an eminent poet, played a
significant role in arousing nationalism in the Tamil areas.
Prabhatkusum Roy • Were lawyers who helped in organising labour; Premtosh Bose was
Chaudhuri, Athanasuis another pioneer labour leader.
Apurba-kumar Ghosh
• Was one of the first revolutionary leaders, and after his return from Paris
Hemachandra Kanungo (he had gone there to get military training), a combined bomb factory and
religious school was set up in Calcutta.
Khudiram Bose and • Two revolutionaries, murdered Kennedy on April 30, 1908.
Prafulla Chaki
Pulin Das • Organised the Deccan Anushilan, with the Barrah dacoity as its first major
venture.
Madan Mohan Malaviya • Were in favour of cooperation with provincial governments and non-
and Motilal Nehru political Swadeshi Movement.
Sachindranath Sanyal • Emerged as a revolutionary leader in Benaras through contacts with
Mokhodacharan Samadhyay (the editor of Sandhya after the death of
Brahmabandhab).
Savarkar • The Savarkar brothers founded the Mitra Mela in 1899 and were directly
involved in extremism in Maharashtra.
Dinshaw Wacha • Persuaded mill-owners in Maharashtra to sell dhotis at moderate prices.

Non-cooperation Movement:

M.K. Gandhi • Issued a manifesto in March 1920, announcing his doctrine of non-violent

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Non-Cooperation Movement. He was the main force behind the movement
and urged the people to adopt swadeshi principles and habits including
hand spinning, weaving and work for removal of untouchability.
• He addressed lakhs of people during his nation-wide tour in 1921. He
suspended the movement after an outburst of violence at Chauri Chaura in
UP in February 1922.
• Moved the main resolution on non-cooperation in the annual session
of the Congress in Nagpur in 1920 and played a major role in promoting
the movement.
C.R. Das • A successful lawyer, he boycotted the law courts and gave up a lucrative
practice. His three subordinates and supporters, Birendranath Samsal in
Midnapore, J.M. Sengupta in Chittagong and Subhash Bose in Calcutta played
a major role in uniting the Hindus and Muslims.
• Carried on the non-cooperation propaganda and encouraged the formation
Jawaharlal Nehru of Kisan Sabhas to take up the cause of the peasants exploited by
government policies. He was against Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the
movement.
J.M. Sengupta • A Bengali nationalist leader, supported the labourers on tea plantations in
Assam in their protests and strike.
Basanti Debi • Wife of C.R. Das, was one of the first women volunteers to court arrest
in 1921.
• Organised the anti-union board agitation in the Contai and Tamluk sub-
Birendranath Samsal divisions of Midnapore.
• In November- December 1921, Samsal initiated a no-tax movement among
the Mahishya substantial tenantry of Midnapore.
Jitendralal Banerji • Organised the peasants in 1921-22 to resist settlement operations in Bogra,
Pabna and Birbhum.
Subhash Chandra Bose • Supported the movement and resigned from the civil service. He was
appointed the principal of the national college in Calcutta.
Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali • Who were the foremost Khilafat leaders vehemently supported Gandhi in
and Muhammed Ali) his nation-wide tour to spread the movement. At the All-India Khilafat
Conference, Muhammed Ali declared that ‘it was religiously unlawful for
the Muslims to continue in the British Army’. The Ali brothers were
arrested later.
• Renounced his legal practice in response to the non-cooperation call by
Gandhi. He was arrested in 1921.
• Other notable lawyers who gave up their practice included M.R. Jayakar,
Motilal Nehru Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, C. Rajagopalachari, T. Prakasam and
Asaf Ali.
• Their sacrifice inspired many others, who boycotted government jobs and
entered the mainstream of freedom struggle.
• Initially not in favour of the policy of non-cooperation (he was against the
Lala Lajpat Rai boycott of schools) but later he supported the movement. In fact, he
protested against its withdrawal in 1922.
Rajendra Prasad • Actively supported the Gandhian movement in Bihar.
• Spread the movement in Gujarat and regarded non-cooperation as a
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel feasible alternative to revolutionary terrorism to fight against a colonial
government
Motilal Tejawat • Organised the Bhils and the Bhil movement strengthened the non-
cooperation activities.
Alluri Sitaram Raju • Led the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the
Non-Cooperation Movement.
Hasrat Mohani, • A Khilafat leader, condemned the arrest of the Ali brothers and demanded
complete independence.
Purushottamdas • All of whom belonged to the industrialist section, launched an Anti-Non-
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Thakurdas, Jamnadas Cooperation Association in 1920.
Dwarkadas, Cowasji
Jehangir, Phroze Sethna
and Setalvad
Kunhammad Haji, • Acted as presidents of the Khilafat Republics set up at a number of places.
Kalathingal Mammad, Ali
Musaliar, Sithi Koya
Thangal and Imbechi
Koya Thangal
Muhammad Osman • Another Khilafat agitator, organised volunteer groups and trade unions
in Calcutta.
S.A. Dange, R.S. Nimbkar, • Were members of a radical student group and promoted the movement
V.D. Sathaye, R.V. although they were not in line with Gandhi’s views. They were influenced
Nadkarni, S.V. Deshpande by R.B. Lotwalla, a millionaire with a socialist leaning.
and K.N. Joglekar • Dange, in April 1921, wrote Gandhi versus Lenin and was in favour of
swaraj which would nationalize factories and distribute zamindari land
among farmers.
• Was a lawyer and labour organiser in Madras and played a significant role
Singaravelu Chettiar in merging the labour and freedom movements. He was the first
communist in south India and was in favour of using non-violent non-
cooperation against ‘capitalistic autocracy’.
N.C. Bardaloi, • An Assam Congress leader, favoured non- cooperation but was against
strikes in plantations, as he himself was a planter.
Ambikagiri Roy • Known as ‘Assam Kesari’. Ambikagiri Roy Chaudhuri’s poetry had a
Chaudhuri profound impact on the Assamese and helped in arousing nationalist spirit
in them.
Muzaffar Ahmad • Formed the pioneer communist group in Calcutta. He was influenced by
M.N. Roy and Nalini Gupta.
Purushottamdas Tandon, • Began their political careers in 1920-21, with the onset of the Non-
Ganesh Shankar Cooperation Movement.
Vidyarthi, Govind Ballabh
Pant and Lal Bahadur
Shastri
• A well-known novelist, resigned his post in a Gorakhpur government school
in February 1921 and started contributing to the journal Aaj.
Premchand • His novels Premasharam, Rangbhumi etc., reflect Gandhian principles and
values and endorse non- cooperation as an effective weapon to gain
freedom.
• Organised peasants’ revolt in south and south-east Awadh and helped
Baba Ramchandra merge the peasants’ revolt with the Non-Cooperation Movement. He was
arrested in February 1921.
• A communist leader, was the editor of the communist journal Vanguard.
M.N. Roy He condemned the sessions court’s sentence to death to 172 of the 225
accused in the Chauri Chaura incident (later, 19 were hanged and the rest
transported) as against 22 policemen killed.
• An army pensioner in Gorakhpur village, was beaten up by the British police.
Bhagwan Ahir The incident flared up nationalist sentiments in the village, which then led
to the killing of 22 policemen in Chauri-Chaura, by the peasants.

Civil Disobedience Movement:

• Formally launched the civil disobedience movement on april 6, 1930 by
M.K. Gandhi picking a handful of salt after the completion of historic ‘dandi march’ from
sabarmati ashram to dandi, thus breaking the salt law imposed by the
government.

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• He was the major force behind the movement and inspired grass-root
participation in the freedom struggle.
C. Rajagopalachari • Led a salt march from trichinopoly to vedaranniyam on the tanjore
coast in tamil nadu, in support of the civil disobedience movement. He was
arrested on april 30, 1930.
K. Kelappan • A nair congress leader, launched the vaikom satyagraha and marched from
calicut to payanneer in defiance of salt laws.
• actively involved in the movement and was arrested on april 17, 1930 for
Jawaharlal Nehru defiance of the salt law.
• He formulated a radical agrarian programme and suggested formation
of the constituent assembly as the prime political slogan.
P. Krishna Pillai • Defended the national flag and resisted lathicharge on the calicut beach on
november 11, 1930. He later founded the Kerala communist movement.
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan • Formed a clan of non-violent revolutionaries, the Khudai Khidmatgars
(known as red shirts), who played an active role in the movement.
• The first Indian woman to become the president of the congress, was
involved in a march towards the Dharsana Salt Works, a government salt
Sarojini Naidu depot.
• Other leaders who participated in this total non-violent affair were Imam
Saheb, Gandhi’s comrade of the South African struggle, and Manilal,
gandhi’s son.
• Surya sen’s chittagong revolt group carried out a raid on two armouries
Surya Sen and declared the establishment of a provisional government.
• He issued a manifesto in the name of Indian republican army and called
on the Indians to revolt against the British rule.
• A leader of the nationalist Muslims in Bombay, took the place of Gandhi in
Abbas Tayabji the movement after the latter’s arrest.
• However, he too was arrested by the government.
Ambalal Sarabhai and • Gave their cooperation to Motilal Nehru in removing the barriers between
Kasturbhai Lakhai the congress and the Bombay mill-owners and industrialists.
Chandraprabha Saikiani • Instigated the aboriginal kachari villagers in assam to break forest laws.
• Led the faction group in Bengal congress and set up rival organizations to
Subhash Bose and J.M. conduct civil disobedience. Bose criticised Gandhi, when the latter
Sengupta suspended the movement in may 1933. He was supported by Vithal bhai
Patel.
Santi and Suniti • Assassinated the district magistrate of tippera, stevens. Their action marked
Chaudhari the entry of women in the revolutionary movement.
• A Muslim graduate, started an agitation and attacked the Srinagar jail on july
Sheikh Abdullah 31, 1931 where 21 persons were killed in police firing.
• He also developed close contacts with a group of anti-autocratic Jammu
Hindus led by P. N. Bazaz.
• A Muslim leader in Punjab, organised the meos (semi-tribal peasant
Mohammed Yasin Khan community with leanings towards Islam) to protest against maharaja
Jaisingh Sawai’s hike in revenue, begar, and reservation of forests for the
purpose of hunting.
K.M. Ashraf • became India’s first Marxist historian, was associated with the movement.
Pandit Madan Mohan • Who was an upholder of Gandhian policies since 1920’s, began to drift
Malaviya away with the launch of harijan campaign by Gandhi. He started a
breakaway congress nationalist party.
Satyamurthy, Bhulabhai • Demanded a return to electoral politics by way of a revived Swarajya party.
Desai, M.A. Ansari and
B.C. Roy
Jayaprakash Narayan, • Wanted the congress to have affinity with left-wing.
Achhut Patwardhan,
Yusuf Mehrali, Ashok
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Mehta and Minoo Masani
Sampurnanand • Formulated ‘a tentative socialist programme’ for india and a congress
socialist party was started in 1934, which was supported by Narendra Dev.
N.V. Gadgil • With his socialist leanings lent support to a temple entry movement in 1929
and established friendly ties with the non- brahmin Satyashodhak Samaj
(represented by Keshavrao Jedhe of Poona).
B.R. Ambedkar • The leader of the untouchable Mahars, attended the round table
conference in 1930. However, the congress failed to win over the political
agitation of the Mahars.
Gopabandhu Chaudhuri • Popularised the movement in Orissa and led the salt satyagraha in the
coastal areas of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri districts.
Jadunandan Sharma • Activated the kisan sabha movement in Gaya district of Bihar.
Duggirala • Of the krishna district initiated a no-revenue campaign in 1931 in coastal
Balaramakrishnaya Andhra. He also wrote a Telegu ballad Gandhi Gita which aroused patriotic
sentiments.
Maulana Bhasani • Organised a large Praja Sammelan at Sirajgunj and demanded abolition of
zamindari and reduction in debts.
M.N. Roy • Roy and his followers popularized socialist ideas in the villages and a no-
tax campaign was started in Awadh.

Quit India Movement:

M.K. Gandhi • Planned an all-out campaign to compel British withdrawal from India, after
the failure of the Cripps Mission to reach a compromise.
• At the historic August meeting at Gowalia Tank in Bombay, Gandhi
proclaimed his mantra—’do or die’. He was arrested on August 9, 1942.
• He undertook a 21-day fast in February 1943 to protest against the
Government actions against Indians involved in the movement.
Jayaprakash Narayan • A member of the Congress Socialist group and played a prominent role in
the movement.
Ram Manohar Lohia, • Were leaders associated with the underground movement and
Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta revolutionary activities in support of Quit India Movement.
Kripalani, Chhotubhai
Puranik, Biju Patnaik,
R.P. Goenka and Achyut
Patwardhan
Chittu Pande • Called himself a Gandhian, formed a parallel government and captured all
the ten police stations in Ballia, in east UP in August 1942.
Usha Mehta • Actively supported the movement and was an important member of a small
group which ran the Congress Radio.
Jawaharlal Nehru • Initially supported the arch Moderates, who were opposed to Gandhi’s plan,
but later, he moved the Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942.
Sumati Morarjee • Helped Achyut Patwardhan in his underground activities. She later became
India’s leading woman industrialist.
Rashbehari Bose • A revolutionary activist, was elected the president of the Indian
Independence League (formed in March 1942) in June 1942. He was living
in Japan since 1915 as a fugitive.
• He mobilised Indian soldiers taken as prisoners of war by the Japanese
forces (after the British was defeated in South East Asia) for an armed
rebellion against the British colonial rule.
Captain Mohan Singh • An Indian soldier fighting on behalf of the British was taken as prisoner of
war by the Japanese.
• He was persuaded by a Japanese army officer to work with the Japanese for
India’s freedom. He was appointed the commander of the Indian National
Army.
94

Subhash Chandra Bose • Joined the Indian National Army in 1943. One of his most famous
declarations was “Tum mujhe khoon do mai tumhe azadi doonga” (You
give me blood; I will give you freedom).
• The INA played a significant role in the independence struggle under the
leadership of Subhash Bose.
C. Rajagopalachari and • Were the arch- Moderates, who were in favour of recognising the rights of
Bhulabhai Desai Muslim majority provinces to secede through plebiscites after
independence had been gained.
• They resigned from the AICC in July 1942.
K.G. Mashruwalla • Brought out two militant issues of Harijan (after the arrest of Mahadev
Desai) to arouse the sentiments of people.
Satish Samanta • A local Congress leader and the first sarbadhinayak of the Tamluk Jatiya
Sarkar, helped in establishing a rebel ‘national government’ in Tamluk
sub-division of Midnapore.
Nana Patil • Headed a rebellion in Satara.

STUDENT NOTES:

95

23. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: Contributions

and importance

GOVERNORS-GENERALS:

Governor Generals Contributions/Important Events During their Rule
• Regulating Act of 1773.
• Act of 1781, under which the powers of jurisdiction between the governor-
general-in-council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta, were clearly
divided.
Warren Hastings • Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
1773-1785 • The Rohilla War of 1774.
• The First Maratha War in 1775-82 and the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
• Second Mysore War in 1780-84.
• Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the Maharaja of Banaras, which led
to Hastings’ subsequent impeachment in England.
• Foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784).
• Third Mysore War (1790-92) and Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
• Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms, and
Lord Cornwallis separation of revenue administration and civil jurisdiction.
1786-1793 • Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 1793.
• Europeanisation of administrative machinery and introduction of civil
services.
Sir John Shore • Charter Act of 1793.
1793-1798 • Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the Marathas (1795).
• Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance System (1798); first alliance
with Nizam of Hyderabad.
Lord Wellesley • Fourth Mysore War (1799).
1798-1805 • Second Maratha War (1803-05).
• Took over the administration of Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800) and Carnatic
(1801).
• Treaty of Bassein (1802).
Sir George Barlow • Vellore Mutiny (1806).
1805-1807
Lord Minto I • Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).
1807-1813
• Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) and the Treaty of Sagauli, 1816.
• Third Maratha War (1817-19) and dissolution of Maratha Confederacy;
Lord Hastings creation of Bombay Presidency (1818).
1813-1823 • Strife with Pindaris (1817-1818).
• Treaty with Sindhia (1817).
• Establishment of Ryotwari System by Thomas Munro, governor of
Madras (1820).
Lord Amherst • First Burmese War (1824-1826).
1823-1828 • Capture of Bharatpur (1826).
• Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829).
• Suppression of thugi (1830).
Lord William Bentinck • Charter Act of 1833.
1828-1835 • Resolution of 1835, and educational reforms and introduction of English
as the official language.
• Annexation of Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834) and Central Cachar (1834).
• Treaty of ‘perpetual friendship’ with Ranjeet Singh.

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• Abolition of the provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis,
appointment of commissioners of revenue and circuit.
Lord Metcalfe • New press law removing restrictions on the press in India.
1835-1836
Lord Auckland • First Afghan War (1838-42).
1836-1842 • Death of Ranjit Singh (1839).
Lord Ellenborough • Annexation of Sindh (1843).
1842-1844 • War with Gwalior (1843).
Lord Hardinge I • First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and the Treaty of Lahore (1846).
1844-1848 • Social reforms including abolition of female infanticide and human sacrifice.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and annexation of Punjab (1849).
• Annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu (1852).
• Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara (1848),
Jaitpur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur
(1854) and Awadh (1856).
• “Wood’s (Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control) Educational
Dispatch” of 1854 and opening of Anglo-vernacular schools and
Lord Dalhousie government colleges.
1848-1856 • Railway Minute of 1853; and laying down of first railway line connecting
Bombay and Thane in 1853.
• Telegraph (4000 miles of telegraph lines to connect Calcutta with Bombay,
Madras and Peshawar) and postal (Post Office Act, 1854) reforms.
• Ganges Canal declared open (1854); establishment of separate public
works department in every province.
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
Lord Canning • Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in
1856-1857 1857.
• Revolt of 1857.

VICEROYS:

• Transfer of control from East India Company to the Crown, the
Lord Canning Government of India Act, 1858.
1858-1862 • ‘White Mutiny’ by European troops in 1859.
• Indian Councils Act of 1861.
Lord Elgin I • Wahabi Movement
1862-1863
Lord John Lawrence • Bhutan War (1865)
1864-1869 • Setting up of the High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1865).
• Opening of the Rajkot College in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer
for political training of Indian princes.
Lord Mayo • Establishment of Statistical Survey of India.
1869-1872 • Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
• Introduction of state railways.

Lord Northbrook • Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875.
1872-1876 • Trial of Gaekwar of Baroda.
• Kuka Movement in Punjab.
• Famine of 1876-78 affecting Madras, Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of
central India and Punjab; appointment of Famine Commission under the
Lord Lytton presidency of Richard Strachey (1878).
1876-1880 • Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of ‘Kaiser-i-
Hind’ or Queen Empress of India.
• The Vernacular Press Act (1878).
• The Arms Act (1878).
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• The Second Afghan War (1878-80).
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882).
• The first Factory Act (1881) to improve labour conditions.
Continuation of financial decentralization.
Lord Ripon • Government resolution on local self-government (1882) – Ripon known
1880-1884 as “father of Local Self Government”.
• Appointment of Education Commission under chairmanship of Sir
William Hunter (1882).
• The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883-84).
• Rendition of Mysore.
Lord Dufferin • The Third Burmese War (1885-86).
1884-1888 • Establishment of the Indian National Congress.
• Factory Act (1891).
• Categorisation of civil services into imperial, provisional and subordinate.
Lord Lansdowne • Indian Councils Act (1892).
1888-1894 • Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand Line
between India and Afghanistan (now between Pakistan and Afghanistan; a
small portion of the line touches India in Pakistan occupied Kashmir).
Lord Elgin II • Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar brothers (1897).
1894-1899
• Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to
review police administration.
• Appointment of Universities Commission (1902) and passing of Indian
Universities Act (1904).
Lord Curzon • Establishment of Department of Commerce and Industry.
1899-1905 • Calcutta Corporation Act (1899).
• Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904).
• Partition of Bengal (1905).
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy.
• Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet (1904).
Lord Minto II • Popularisation of anti-partition and Swadeshi Movements.
1905-1910 • Split in Congress in the annual session of 1907 in Surat.
• Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906).
• Creation of Bengal Presidency (like Bombay and Madras) in 1911.
Lord Hardinge II • Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
1910-1916 • Establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan
Malaviya.
• Coronation durbar of King George V held in Delhi (1911).
• Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916).
• Lucknow session of the Congress (1916).
• Lucknow pact between the Congress and Muslim League (1916).
• Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhi’s return; launch of
Champaran Satyagraha (1916), Kheda Satyagraha (1918), and
Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918).
Lord Chelmsford • Montagu’s August Declaration (1917).
1916-1921 • Government of India Act (1919).
• The Rowlatt Act (1919).
• Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (1919).
• Launch of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements.
• Foundation of Women’s University at Poona (1916) and appointment of
Saddler’s Commission (1917) for reforms in educational policy.
• Death of Tilak (August 1, 1920).
• Appointment of S.P. Sinha as governor of Bihar (the first Indian to
become a governor).

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• Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent
withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921).
• Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919.
Lord Reading • Criminal Law Amendment Act and abolition of cotton excise.
1921-1926 • Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta.
• Kakori train robbery (1925).
• Murder of Swami Shraddhanand (1926).
• Establishment of Swaraj Party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922).
• Decision to hold simultaneous examinations for the ICS both in Delhi and
London, with effect from 1923.
• Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the
commission by the Indians.
• An All-Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for
the (future) Constitution of India, the report of which was called the Nehru
Report or the Nehru Constitution.
• Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission (1927).
• Murder of Saunders, the assistant superintendent of police of Lahore; bomb
Lord Irwin blast in the Assembly Hall of Delhi (1929); the Lahore Conspiracy Case and
1926-1931 death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike (1929), and bomb accident
in train in Delhi (1929).
• Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Purna Swaraj Resolution.
• Dandi March (March 12, 1930) by Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
• ‘Deepavali Declaration’ by Lord Irwin (1929).
• Boycott of the First Round Table Conference (1930).
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) and suspension of Civil Disobedience
Movement.
• Second Round Table Conference (1931) and failure of the conference,
resumption of Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Announcement of Communal Award (1932) under which separate
communal electorates were set up.
• ‘Fast unto death’ by Gandhi in Yerawada prison, broken after the Poona
Lord Willingdon Pact (1932).
1931-1936 • Third Round Table Conference (1932).
• Launch of Individual Civil Disobedience (1933).
• The Government of India Act of 1935.
• Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist
Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash Narayan (1934).
• Burma separated from India (1935).
• First general elections (1936-37); Congress attained absolute majority.
• Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the Second
World War (1939).
• Subhash Chandra Bose elected as the president of Congress at the fifty-first
session of the Congress (1938).
• Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation of the Forward Bloc (1939).
Lord Linlithgow • Lahore Resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim League, demand for
1936-1944 separate state for Muslims.
• ‘August Offer’ (1940) by the viceroy; its criticism by the Congress and
endorsement by the Muslim League.
• Winston Churchill elected prime minister of England (1940).
• Escape of Subhash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organisation of the
Indian National Army.
• Cripps Mission’s Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting
up of a Constituent Assembly; its rejection by the Congress.
99

• Passing of the ‘Quit India Resolution’ by the Congress (1942); outbreak of
‘August Revolution’; or Revolt of 1942 after the arrest of national leaders.
• ‘Divide and Quit’ slogan at the Karachi session (1944) of the Muslim
League.
• C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula (1944), failure of Gandhi- Jinnah talks
(1944).
• Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942).
• End of Second World War (1945).
Lord Wavell • Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the
1944-1947 Congress.
• Observance of ‘Direct Action Day’ (August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
• Elections to the Constituent Assembly, formation of Interim Government by
the Congress (September 1946).
• Announcement of end of British rule in India by Clement Attlee (prime
minister of England) on February 20, 1947.
• June Third Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
Lord Mountbatten • Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
1947-1948 • Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliff for the
partition of Bengal and Punjab.

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