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TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT PAGE

1. The Concept of logic

What is Logic?

Implication of Critical Thinking

2. Language as a Vehicle of Thought

The Role of Language

Types of Sentences Based

on Their Function Types

of Sentences Based on

Their Structure

3. Statements

a. Factual Statement

b. Value judgment

c. Empirical

d. A priori
e. A posteriori

f. Contingent

g. Categorical

4. How to Handle Definitions

Types of definitions

h. Stipulative

i. Lexical

j. Ostensive
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k. Theoretical

l. Operational

m. real

5. Argument in Logic

What is an argument?

Identifying features of an argument- premises indicators and conclusion

indicators

6. Deductive and

Inductive Argument

deductive arguments-

validity , truth , soundness

syllogism

inductive- strength and cogency

Types of inductive- argument from analogy, causal argument, inductive

generalization, enumerative.

7. Fa
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llacies.

Types

Fallacy of appeal to

ignorance Fallacy

of appeal to

authority

Fallacy of argument against a person (Fallacy

of argumentum ad hominem) Genetic fallacy

Fallacy of appeal to population/

playing to the gallery Fallacy of

appeal to pity

Fallacy of appeal to force

Fallacy of complex
questions Fallacy
of begging the
question

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Fallacy of False Cause

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Fallacy of

Equivocation

Fallacy of

Composition

Fallacy of

Division

Fallacy of hasty

generalization

Fallacy of red

herring

Fallacy of false dilemma

8. Critical thinking

and development

INTRODUCTION

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It is considered by the University of Professional Studies,
Accra that the study of the course in Logic and Critical
Thinking will help to broaden the scope of the students
beyond the study of business courses and also equip them
with analytical skills which they can utilize as business
professionals.

UNIT ONE

THE CONCEPT OF LOGIC

a) WHAT IS LOGIC?

i. Logic as Sound Reasoning

Logic may be defined as a reasonable manner of

speaking or writing which is based on good judgment.
Note that such a statement is considered reasonable
because it is based on good judgement. Hence, we
can say there is logic in a statement someone has
made or that there is no logic in what the person said.

When people communicate either by speaking or

writing, it is expected that there will be a logical
sequence in the flow of their thought or ideas they
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 communicate to their audience. This implies that the
ideas are arranged in a sequence like A =B=C. This
implies A Leads to B and B leads C. Logic and
Critical Thinking will equip us with skills so that
whether we are speaking or writing, there will be logic
(reasoning) in what we communicate and it should be
presented sequentially.

ii. Logic as a Discipline

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Logic as a subject or discipline may be defined as ‗the
study of the methods and principles used to distinguish
correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning‘ (Copi &
Cohen, 2002, p.3).Thus, the purpose of studying logic is to
acquire the principles and methods which can be used in
judging or testing arguments to distinguish a good
argument from a bad one .When we listen to people speak,
we should not allow ourselves to be carried away but rather
evaluate what they say to convince ourselves that what
they are saying contains logical ingredients.

It should be noted that the mere study of logic does not

make you a reasonable person; rather, it is in applying the
principles of logic that one‘s statements, which are the
outcomes of one‘s reasoning can be evaluated and
considered as logical. Some are born with logical acumen
while others must acquire it but the ‗study of logic
enhances innate tendency to communicate logically. Thus
the study of logic equips one to perform the tasks in logic
systematically and with some confidence‘ (Bello, 2000,
p.3).

Learning logic affords us the following advantages:

i. We acquire the skill to communicate

logically. ii. We are able to evaluate what
others say or write to determine whether their
arguments are good or bad.
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 ii. We are able to distinguish between
argumentative discourse and non-
argumentative discourse. What an argument
implies will be discussed under Unit Five.

IMPLICATIONS OF CRITICAL THINKING

The word ‗critical‘ can be defined as something or a

situation which is urgent, or crucial. Therefore we can say
the finances of a company are in a critical situation. The
word may also imply the act of evaluating something and
so someone can ask you to give your critical opinion about
an issue. In the context of logic, the expression ‗critical
thinking‘ is used to imply the kind of thinking which is
‗evaluative‘ or ‗analytical‘.

Imagine that you attend a meeting with your partners

in a company, every one of you will give his or her
opinion on an issue but that does not mean that all
opinions are equally reasonable, even though you are all
entitled to your opinion. This is why it is not advisable to

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veto your opinions; ideally, all opinions must be subjected
to analysis. This is important because ‗despite the
impressive accomplishments of the human intellect ,one
frequently comes face to face with examples of faulty
reasoning, error, and misjudgement‘ (Moore &
Parker,2001, p.1). When we acquire critical thinking

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skills, we are able ‗to form intelligent opinions, make
good decisions and determine the best course of action as
well as recognize when someone else‘s reasoning is faulty
or manipulative‘ ( Moore & Parker, ibid, p.2). With
critical thinking skills we are able to critique the ideas of
others. This does not mean criticizing people. Rather, it
means evaluating what people say or write in order to
offer useful suggestions which will help them to reframe
their thoughts. Besides, critical thinking will help us to
pre-judge our own ideas before communicating them to
other people.

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

To be able to think critically one has to apply certain skills which include the
following:

1. The ability to listen carefully or attentively.

2. Ability to read carefully. This implies taking note of the implications of

what you read.

3. When someone is making a statement or a claim, you

have to identify the main issue which the speaker is
talking about and the position the speaker has taken
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 on the issue.

4. Ability to determine whether there is good reasoning underlying the

speaker‘s claim.

5. Ability to follow an argument to its logical conclusion

before making any remarks or judgement.

6. Ability to determine the implications of the issue being talked about.

7. Ability to evaluate and determine whether after all

considerations, such as the points above, it is prudent
to accept, reject, or suspend judgment on the claim
made by the person.

8. You should be objective in evaluating a statement or

claim made by someone. Do not allow yourself to be
influenced by biases or issues which are not related to
the focal issue under consideration.

9. You have to be level-headed in your judgment. This

implies that you should be calm and sensible in
making judgments or decisions.

UNIT TWO

Language as a vehicle of thought Introduction

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Language is a system for encoding and decoding
information and it is considered peculiar to humankind.
Thought is the idea or plan produced by mental activity.
However, thought does not act alone; rather, it is through
language that thoughts

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are generated in the mind. This means, the act of
expressing a thought is part of the thinking itself.

Language and thought are intimately associated. The

expression of a thought is not merely a postscript to the
process of thinking the thought in the first place. It is not as
if our thoughts exist and grow in some pure and special
place, devoid of any manifestation, until such time as we
choose to pluck one out of the mist and condense it into
words. Language is the vehicle of thought. Human beings
use words to communicate their ideas and these ideas are
conceived in the mind. The mind is primarily the centre of
consciousness that generates thoughts, perceptions,
feelings and ideas. The mind also stores knowledge and
memories. Therefore, the chief function of our brain is to
help us think and direct our activities. In order to get the
greatest benefit from this mental activity, we must have
some way by which we express these mental conceptions
to ourselves and to others. For this purpose, we use words.
These words come in the form of nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, verbs, conjunctions and pronouns.
These and the other parts of speech are all essential to the
use of language.

It is, therefore, worth mentioning that every language is

very important in life because speakers use language to
express their thought. Whatever language we speak, we
need to get sufficient vocabulary to make our thought clear
and convincing. Human beings have in reality three
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categories of vocabulary: one for reading, another for
writing, and yet another for speaking. Our reading
vocabulary is the largest because we read many things, yet
we have a hazy knowledge of some of the words because
their meaning may not clear.
We choose our words much more exactly and guardedly
when we put pen to paper than when we communicate
orally. This implies that, the words utilized from our
vocabulary in writing are much more carefully chosen than
those used in speaking. The spoken word usually contains
more repetition of expressions than the written; for, it is
easier to weed out duplications when writing compared to
oral communication. Monotony can be avoided through
the use of synonyms.

Practice Question: Choose a topic sentence and write a

paragraph on that topic.

You will realise that while writing you were careful in choosing your
words.

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It is easier to do that in writing than in speech, mostly
because you have more time to choose and review your
own words when you are writing them. The brain is
employed during cognitive tasks such as categorization
and inference. Just the act of choosing words to speak or
write makes us mindful of what we are trying to say.

Other vehicles of expressing content

There are various vehicles through which a content may be

expressed. This content can be in the form of subject
matter, message, topic, or discussion. Depending on the
content, an individual may choose any of the following
vehicles: Graphs, maps, photographs, sentences etc.

Let us consider these analogies:


‗Hohoe is in the Volta Region‘, for instance, can
be represented by a sentence or a map. The
content is the same, the vehicle differs.

 
Similarly in other cases: compare a photograph of the cat
asleep on the bed with the sentence ‗The cat is asleep on
the bed‘.


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 Compare a linguistic representation of the fact that Ghana is experiencing
‗dumsor‘ with a graph of the regions that are heavily affected.

Graphs, maps, photographs, sentences, and other

representational systems provide different vehicles for
representing content. Empiricism is of the view that the
vehicles of perception, whatever they are and however
they are structured, are sufficient to carry all thinkable
thought contents.

Consider the following philosophical questions:

1. What varieties of thought require language?
2. What varieties of thought (if any) are possible without language?
3. Does thought depend on language?

In order to make our thought sensible to ourselves and to

others: the following basics in communication need to be
followed:

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  
The words used on any occasion should be in keeping with the audience.
The
language must be suited to the hearer.

 
We do not address children in the same way we
would speak or write to those of more advanced age,
nor do we belittle our audience by addressing
adult in
juvenile terms.

 
It should not be taken for granted, however, that
merely because words are lengthy they are thereby
indicative of great knowledge. The best authors and
the greatest orators are not necessarily those who use
big words, but they are those whose command of the
language is such that they can find
the right words for the proper place, be it large or small.

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  
We should make keen observation of sentence
construction and words used by men of letters. When
we read the speeches and writings of others, we try to
recast the wording so as to make it say what the
author intended, only in a more terse manner. In
doing this, we are far more than a mere copyist; we
are master of our
own thought.

 
We should adopt a terse manner of clothing our
thought in words to represent just what we intended to
say. Ours speeches should not contain a word
unfamiliar to any ordinary student.

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  
In speaking or writing, do not attempt to be heavy and
ponderous in the expression of your thought. You
may have a weighty idea, but try to put it into words
that will convey the thought in the easiest manner. It
is more difficult for one who has but little learning to
appear to be learned, than for

a learned man to put language into simple form.


Ensure that your words are respectful, courteous, and relevant.

Functions of language

The role of language is crucial in every human endeavour.

Language shapes reality, and it limits what ideas and
concepts are available in a particular situation. In all
aspects of our lives, we engage with the meanings
available through language. Ideas and understandings
available through language shape our practice in a variety
of ways in everyday interactions.

It has been well known since the beginning of time that

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men and women are on different wavelengths when it
comes to communicating. The differences between the
communication styles of men and women go far beyond
mere socialization, and appear to be inherent in the basic
make up of each sex. For males, conversation is the way
they negotiate their status in the group and keep people
from pushing them around; they use talk to preserve their
independence. Females, on the other hand turn to speak
the more acceptable varieties of language and they are
more humble in their speech. Females are emotionally
expressive and always want to be listened to.

McGinn (1990) supported Noam Chomsky on the idea of

cognitive closure. That our minds, like those of all other
species, must suffer "cognitive closure" with regard to
some topics of inquiry. Examples: Spiders cannot
contemplate the concept of fishing, and birds- some of
whom are excellent at fishing but aren't up to thinking
about democracy. What is inaccessible to the dog or the
dolphin, may be readily grasped by the chimp, but the
chimp in turn will be cognitively closed to

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some domains we human beings have no difficulty
thinking about. Chomsky and company ask a rhetorical
question: What makes us think we are different? Aren't
there bound to be strict limits on what Homo sapiens may
conceive? Comparing our brains with bird brains or
dolphin brains is almost beside the point, because our
brains are in effect joined together into a single cognitive
system that dwarfs all others. Naked animal brains are no
match at all for the heavily armed and outfitted brains we
carry in our heads.

Language plays several roles and below are some of them:

Communication function: The communication function

of language is the basic function of language. Humans use
language to express their basic need such as to apologize,
inform, caution, request, order, or make a promise.

Phatic function: it is the use of language to show

solidarity in the form of greetings. This function allows us
to maintained social relationships and to keep friends.

Emotive / Persuasive function: it is the use of language to

appeal to our emotions often with the aim of persuading
the listener.

It is the power of language to influence thinking.

Aesthetic function: it is the ability to use language in a

creative manner. This can be than by the use of metaphors
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and other devices.

Pleasure function: this is the use of language to give

pleasure, joy or entertainment. Devices such as alliteration
and assonance can be employed.

Group maker function: Language is used to show

identity. It is the use of language to set two or more people
as belonging to a group. Example: Code switching.

performativity: an utterance that constitutes an action,

e.g., ‗I now pronounce you husband and wife‘, when

uttered in the right circumstances.

‗I hereby pronounce this celebration dully launched‘

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Note that you should have the authority before you can use performativity

language.
Evaluative: to make a value judgement,

e.g., The theory of evolution provides the best account of

the origin of biological species.

SENTENCE TYPES

A group of words that makes complete sense is called a sentence. Example:

1. Colour red favourite is my. (makes no sense, therefore it is not a sentence)

2. My favourite colour is red. (makes complete sense, therefore it is a sentence)

Sentence can be categorized based on the function it

performs or based on its structure.

Sentence types according to function

Sentence function refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering

a specific sentence. Whether a listener is present or not is
sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has
this been said. Typically, a sentence goes from one
function to the next through a combination of changes in
word order, intonation, the addition of certain auxiliaries or
particles, or other times by providing a special verbal form.
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The four main categories can be further specified as being
either communicative or informative.

There are four sentence functions in English:

1. Declarative sentence (a statement)

2. Imperative sentence (a command)
3. Interrogativesentence (a question)
4. Exclamatory sentence (an exclamation)

1. Declarative sentence is a sentence that states a fact. It ends with a period.

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They state, assert, or declare something.
Examples:
Yasmin is a student. She lives in Washington.

2. Imperative sentence is a sentence which gives a

command, makes a request, or express a wish. They
end with a period or an exclamation mark

Example
s:
Go to your roo (An order
Please lend me you m. book. ( request)
r a
Have a good time at the picnic. (a wish)
What about the following?
Sit down and listen!
Fasten your seatbelts when the sign is illuminated.

3. Exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses

sudden and strong feelings, such as surprise, wonder, pity,
sympathy, happiness, or gratitude. They end with an
exclamation mark Example:
What a wow! What a
shame! Boy, am I tired!
Ouch!
I'll never finish this paper in time!
Oh my gosh!

4. Interrogative sentence: A sentence that asks a

question is called an interrogative sentence.
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 Examples: As you would expect, they end with a
question mark. What is your name?
Where do you live?
Question: Which type of sentence often omits the subject?

Allofunctional

There are many instances in which a sentence can be

grammatically shaped as one function, yet in actual
execution, may serve a completely different purpose than
suggested by the way it was constructed. Allofunctional is
serving a different purpose than originally intended. In
other words, it is very subtly yet unequivocally implied by

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process of pragmatics that its function must be changed to
another in order for the sentence to make sense in the
present context of conversation.

A classic example would be the "question": Could you pass the salt? During
dining.

What do you think you are doing? When your boss touches
part of your body you do not like him to touch.

Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause)

or more clauses (independent and dependent clauses). An
independent clause is called main clause while a dependent
clause is also called subordinate clause. On the basis of
numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a
sentence, sentences are divided in to four kinds.

1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence consists of only one independent
clause containing a subject and a verb and it expresses
complete thought. There is no dependent clause.
―An independent clause is called a simple

sentence.‖ Examples.

AdYasir Ahmedjwoa and ate John an

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 laughed. apple.

are sleeping.
Ayisha bought a book.

2. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of at least two
independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.
There is no dependent clause in compound sentence.
The coordinating conjunctions use to join independent
clauses are ―for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”. Independent
clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma
may or may not be used before the conjunction in
compound sentence.
Examples

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 I like an apple but my brother likes a mango. I
helped him and he became happy. He failed two times
yet he is not disappointed.
I asked him a question; he replied correctly.

3. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause
and at least one dependent clause joined by
subordinating conjunction (because, although, since,
when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who, which
etc).

Examples

I met the boy who had She is wearing a shirt which helped me.
looks nice.
You can‘t pass the test unless you study for it.

If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause,

a comma is not used between clauses in a complex
sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent
clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a
complex

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sentence. See the followi exampl
ng e.
is playing well
although he is
H
il
e l.
Although he is ill, he is playing well.

4. Compound -Complex Sentence

A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two
independents and one or more dependent clauses. It is
also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence.

Examples 1. He went to college and I went to a

market where I bought a book.

2. I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology

because he wants to be a doctor.
In the first sentence of above sentence, there are two
independent clauses ―he went to college‖ and ―I went to
a market‖, and one dependent clause ―where I bought a
book‖.

UNIT FOUR

LANGUAGE AND DEFINITION

A definition states the meaning of a word.

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Parts of a Definition

Definiendum is the word or term or concept to be defined.

Definiens is the word or group of words which are used to
define (assign a meaning to) another term or concept. In
short, the word being defined is the definiendum and the
definition is the definiens.

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As we proceed in our discussion of this unit, it is
important to note that numerous types of definitions exist,
and defining a word can mean a variety of things:

• Are definitions a help or a hindrance in understanding our world?

• One school of thought maintains that by defining

things we separate them into discrete parts when in
fact the world is continuous, a seamless cloth.

• The idea is that when we define an object we

artificially snip off pieces from the endlessness of
reality in order to make it manageable, but something
of the object‘s essence becomes lost when we try to
harness it by forcing it into the limits of a definition.

• However, we do know that to think without language

is extremely difficult, but with a set of defined words
we can conceive and imagine things almost without
limits.

• Overall, definitions enrich our understanding.

MEANING AND DEFINITION

The Complexity of Language

As discussed in previous units, it is important to recognize

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the difference between written and spoken language.
Spoken language introduces many additional layers of
meaning to that which is present in the actual words
spoken. A very good example of this is the sentence ‗You
shouldn‘t steal library books‘; with different emphasis
placed on each word the meaning of the sentence changes,
as in the following two sentences:

You shouldn‘t steal library books (implying that it may be

acceptable for others to do so).

You shouldn‘t steal library books (implying that

something like defacing them might be acceptable).

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Since we will only be concerned with the meaning of
written language we can ignore the subtleties of speech
but you should remember that there are differences.

The Meaning of Language

Now we turn to the consideration of the nature of meaning.

We will briefly look at three theories of meaning. The first
two are common sense views which have serious
difficulties.

Reference Theory:

The reference theory of meaning, which traces back to

Aristotle, considers the meaning of a word to be that
which the word refers to, i.e. the extension (or reference
class) of the word. For instance the word cat refers to all
the cats in the world, and the word book to all the books.
Problems with this theory are:

1. That we can understand the meaning of the word

Book with only partial experience of all the books,
which is puzzling if the meaning of book is all the
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books;

2. Many words such as unless, the and if don‘t have a reference class;

3. We can understand phrases like the oldest person in the

world without knowing the referent.

Idea Theory:

The idea theory of meaning, which comes from John

Locke, holds that the meaning of a word consists of the
idea or mental image associated with that word. This
theory seems to deal with the first and last problems for
the reference theory, but this theory has problems as well:

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1. There is no mental image associated with certain words, such as unless and if;

2. Onreflection, this theory fails to deal with problem 1. of the reference

theory—

when we hold an image of a dog in our minds it has certain

characteristics, such as long- haired or black, but certain
dogs do not have these characteristics. Since we clearly
cannot have an idea of a dog that fits all cases, i.e. one that
is black and not black, short-haired and long-haired, how
can the idea be the meaning;

3. We can never understand what someone else means

when given a word since we do not have access to their
ideas. The clearest cases of this are so-called simple
properties such as color, taste and smell. We cannot
describe the meaning of the
word red by using other words. Since the problems with
these theories make them untenable, they have been
rejected. A more reliable theory, that we will use in this
course, is the following:

Use Theory:

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The use theory, developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein and
John Austin, shifts the semantic burden from words to
sentences, i.e. it is only in the context of a sentence that a
given word takes on a definite meaning. This explains how
the same word may have many distinct meanings, such as:

She is a green lawyer. (i.e.

inexperienced) He is looking

green. (i.e. nauseated)

We had a green winter last year. (i.e. no snow)

Now, since the meaning of words is determined by their

use in a sentence, then how do we determine the meaning
of sentences? The meaning of sentences is determined by
their use in some context. To determine what a given
sentence

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means we examine how the speaker (or writer) is using it
in a given context. For instance, the sentence

Let me go

has very different meaning when uttered by a person

whose arm has been grabbed as compared to when it is
uttered by a child who wants permission to see a movie.

DEFINITION

Whenever language is used it is clearly necessary to

understand how certain words are being used.

This is especially important in producing and analyzing

arguments and in philosophical (or any other kind of)
debate. The use of a word can be specified by supplying a
definition for the word.

We will only be concerned with giving definitions for

words that have extensions (or reference classes). To
understand how such definitions work, it is important to
make the distinction, made by Gottlob Frege, between the
sense of a term (also known as connotation or intension)
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and its reference (or denotation or extension).

Sense: what we imagine when we understand the meaning

of a word, e.g., in the case of the word bachelor, the sense
is the concept of an unmarried male.
Reference: the class of objects that a word refers to, e.g.,
in the case of the word bachelor, the reference is the class
of all bachelors in the universe who exist, have existed and
may exist in the future.

A denotative definition tries to identify the extension of the

term in question. Thus, we could provide a denotative
definition of the phrase "this logic class" simply by listing
all of our names. Since a complete enumeration of the
things to which a general term applies would be
cumbersome or inconvenient in many cases, though,

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we commonly pursue the same goal by listing smaller
groups of individuals or by offering a few examples
instead. In fact, some philosophers have held that the most
primitive denotative definitions in any language involve
no more than pointing at a single example to which the
term properly applies.

But there seem to be some important terms for which

denotative definition is entirely impossible. The phrase
"my grandchildren" makes perfect sense, for example, but
since it presently has no extension, there is no way to
indicate its membership by enumeration, example, or
ostension. In order to define terms of this sort at all, and in
order more conveniently to define general terms of every
variety, we naturally rely upon the second mode of
definition.

A connotative definition tries to identify the intension of a

term by providing a synonymous linguistic expression or
an operational procedure for determining the applicability
of the term. Of course, it isn't always easy to come up with
an alternative word or phrase that has exactly the same
meaning or to specify a concrete test for applicability. But
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when it does work, connotative definition provides an
adequate means for securing the meaning of a term

TYPES OF DEFINITIONS

STIPULATIVE DEFINITION

A stipulative definition proposes ('stipulates') that language

shall be used in a given way. A stipulative definition is one
in which a new symbol or term is introduced to which
some meaning is arbitrarily assigned. A stipulative
definition is neither true nor false, accurate nor inaccurate.

Words in a language are public instruments for

communication in that language, and a stipulative
definition is useful only if it sets out predictable and
comprehensible standards of use that are workable for the
purpose at hand. If a

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stipulated definition becomes popular, the word defined in
its new sense then becomes part of public language, and it
is open to changes and variations in use just as other
words are.

Misuse of Stipulaltive Definitions:

Stipulative definitions are misused in verbal disputes when

one person covertly uses a word in a peculiar way and then
proceeds to assume that everyone else uses that word in
the same way. Under these circumstances that person is
said to be using the word 'stipulatively.' In such cases the
assumption that the other person uses the word in the same
way is rarely justified. Sometimes there is not a word for
what you want to talk about, so you have to invent one.
Science and math are full of words with stipulative
definitions. (―prime,‖ ―composite,‖ ―whole,‖
―continuous‖…)

PRECISING DEFINITION

A Precising Definition is designed to reduce the

vagueness of a term in use. This is a kind of stipulative
44
definition.

Example: Tom is

rich. (What does

‘rich’ mean?)

…we might extend the lexical definition by adding that

here ‗rich‘ means ―has more than 5 million dollars.‖ This
makes the term PRECISE in our context.

Put in another way, précising definitions involve the use of

a definition in order to eliminate ambiguity in a term,

e.g.,

45
―A meter is one ten millionth the distance from equator
to pole.‖ (somewhat vague)

―A meter is the distance light travels in one

299,792,458th of a second.‖ (more precise)

REAL (ESSENTIAL) DEFINITION

Real Definitions attempt to capture the "essence" of the

definiendum. This use of definitions is an attempt to
describe the essence of something, which cannot be
stipulated and may not reflect the standard usage.
Essentialist definitions should be understood as
compressed theories, since the definition is really a theory
of what the essence of the thing consists in. A good
essentialist definition is one that reflects a true or
reasonable theory about the essential nature of the
phenomenon to which the term refers. This use of
definition applies to words such as justice, truth, love,
peace and science.

OSTENTATIVE DEFINITION

46
Sometimes a description of the experience or a catalogue of
examples is not enough of an explanation, and we can only
show the object, event, or characteristics to which a word
applies. We have an ostensive definition.

For instance, the best way to explain ―red‖ is to hold up

different red objects. To explain ―spicy‖ we might have
them taste a spicy food. Some things are first hand
experiences, and no description of characteristics will
convey the meaning adequately. A person blind from birth
will never understand the word ―red‖ except in the
descriptive sense.

Therefore, with ostentative definitions, a word is defined by giving examples by

47
pointing to particular

things, e.g.,

That [pointing to an animal] is a Baboon.

LEXICAL DEFINITION

A lexical definition is the kind of definition found in

dictionaries. It reports the meaning or meanings that a
term (definiendum) already has. It is, in other words, a
description of the way the speakers of a particular
language use a particular term in their language. The goal
here is to inform someone else of the accepted meaning of
the term, so the definition is more or less correct
depending upon the accuracy with which it captures that
usage. For example, the dictionary would define ‗blue‘ as
a primary colour. However, depending on the particular
context, the definition of ‗blue‘ may refer to a feeling of
sadness.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

It is a kind of intentional definition, which states that the

term to be defined is correctly applied to a given case if

48
and only if the performance of specified operations in that
case yields a specified result.

In other words, it occurs when a word is defined very

precisely in a way that specifies exactly when the word
can be applied and when it cannot, e.g.,

―A genius is anyone who scores over 140 on a standard I.Q. test.‖

THEORETICAL DEFINITION

A theoretical definition of a term is a definition that

attempts to formulate a theoretically adequate or
scientifically useful description of the objects to which the
term applies. Theoretical definitions go hand in hand with
the acceptance of a

49
comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding
the subject matter to which the defined terms pertain.

A theoretical definition assigns (stipulates) a meaning to a

term by suggesting a theory that gives a certain
characterization of the entities the theory denotes.

Theoretical definitions are common in mathematics and

science. They fix the meaning of a term for a specific use.

Examples:

Geometry: Parallel straight lines are straight lines which,

being in the same plane and being produced indefinitely in
both directions, do not meet one another in either
direction.

Chemistry: An electron is a stable fundamental atomic

particle with almost no mass and a negative charge.

PROBLEMS WITH DEFINITIONS

As we‘ve seen, definitions can play an important role in

understanding arguments, resolving arguments, and
50
misleading people.

It is thus important to understand how they can go wrong,

and how they can get things right.

TOO BROAD

Some definitions are ―too wide.‖ or broad. This is a

metaphor about the definition‘s extension. A definition is
―too wide‖ when it includes all the things in the word‘s
extension plus some other things.

51
―A small business is a business with less than 25 workers.‖

―Soccer is a game played with a ball‖

TOO NARROW

A definition is ―too narrow‖ when it includes only some of

the things in the word‘s extension.

―A school is an institution that aims at teaching children how to read and

write.‖

―A Christian is someone who believes that the Bible is

the word of God. Therefore, allowing gay marriage
discriminates against Christians, because the Bible says
that homosexuality is wrong.‖

TOO BROAD AND TOO NARROW

A definition is both too broad and too narrow if it

excludes members of the extension and include others
that are not in the extension, e.g.

―A pen is an instrument designed for writing words‖

52
―A restaurant is a place where one can eat.‖

You can eat in your house, or in a park. So there are places

where one can eat that are not restaurants.
Also, there are restaurants one cannot eat at, for example takeaway restaurants.

CIRCULAR DEFINITIONS

A circular definition is one that defines a term by using the

term defined. This can be precisely the same term as in,

53
 ―Golf ball is a small spherical object used
in the game of golf‖ or a cognate (word with the same
root) of the term being defined as in,
―A surgeon is someone who practices surgery.‖

AMBIGUOUS DEFINITIONS

An ambiguous word is a word with more than one meaning.

‗Bank‘ in English can mean a financial institution or the side of a river.

Sometimes sentences can be ambiguous even if none of

their words are. ―Flying planes can be dangerous.‖

THE LAW AND DEFINITIONS

Definitions are particularly important in legal contexts.

Often laws are written in ways that don‘t foresee certain
strange events, and they either technically apply or don‘t
apply, when that‘s not what we want or expect. In groups,
let‘s examine the following instances and discuss the
various meanings and implications derived herein.

54
“USING” A GUN

In the US, there are higher penalties for drug crimes when
people involved in the crime ―use‖ a gun.

But what happens if you trade your gun for drugs? Is that a ―use‖?

Smith v. US: person giving gun uses it.

55
Watson v. US: person receiving gun does not.

“OCCURRENCE”

On 11 September 2001, hijackers flew two planes into the

World Trade Center towers in New York City. The towers
collapsed and almost 3,000 people died.

The lessee of the towers, Larry Silverstein, had insurance

up to $3.5 million USD for any ―occurrence‖ that
damaged the buildings.

―PERSON‖

Suppose the government wants more people per car, so that

less pollution is emitted for every person transported. They
open up a lane in the road for cars with 2 or more people
in them. You‘re not allowed to drive in the lane if you‘re
the only
―person‖ in your car. Now suppose that you‘re pregnant?
Can you drive in the lane?

56
57
UNIT FIVE

ARGUMENT IN

LOGIC

a) What is an argument?

b) Identifying features of an argument- premises

indicators and conclusion indicators

Introduction

In previous chapters, we have been introduced to the

essence of language in communication, the necessity for
proper language in individual and corporate
communications, and the important role played by critical
thinking in discourse. A critical and indispensable
component in virtually all facets of corporate
decisionmaking is the concept of an argument. Almost
invariably, a decision to
‗fire‘ the operations manager, to open a new branch
office, to increase the stated capital of a company, to
merge with another company or to acquire assets of other
companies, and such other corporate decisions would have
58
been reached after a well thought through argument based
on certain evidence.
Even though in ordinary discourse a quarrel is an
argument, in logic when two people are quarrelling they
are not necessarily making arguments because in logic an
argument is a statement which presupposes that something
is right based on a previous knowledge and sound
judgement. In fact, the exchange of words may contain no
arguments at all. Thus, although the term
‗argument‘ is often used in other senses, we are here
concerned with argument as used in logic. Indeed, logic
principally concerns arguments. It is significant to note
from the onset, however, that an argument is not a
disagreement, neither is it a dispute or a quarrel. Is an
argument a debate? Not exactly; as would soon be
demonstrated, an argument could be presented as one of
the two sides of a debate. Thus, in a debate, one side
argues for the motion and the other side argues against
the motion. An argument is a reasoned, logical way of
demonstrating that the position, belief, or conclusion taken
by a proponent is valid. In short, an argument seeks to
make people believe that something is true based on the
evidence provided.

Definitions

An argument in logic has been defined as ‗any group of propositions one of

which is claimed to
1
59
follow from the other(s), the other(s) regarded as providing the evidence of the
truth of that one.‘

60
The claim may be right or wrong, but the rightness or
wrongness does not necessarily make it any less an
argument. Similarly, Copi and Cohen2 define an argument
as ‗any group of propositions of which one is claimed to
follow from the others, which are regarded as providing
support or grounds for the truth of that one. An argument
thus consists of a set of propositions (statements)
structured in such a way that the truth of one part is
supported by the other part(s). The proposition which is
claimed to be supported by the other(s) is referred to as the
conclusion, and the propositions which are regarded as
providing evidence for the truth of the conclusion are called
the premises (or premise if singular). The premises are
assumptions from which a conclusion can be drawn.

Examples of an Argument

Example (A)

All human beings

are mortals.
Socrates is a
human being.
Therefore Socrates is mortal.

Example (B)
61
 Everyone who attends UPSA gets a first class.
Everyone who gets a first class becomes a manager at the work place.
It follows that everyone who attends UPSA becomes a manager at the work
place.

Example (C)

In every election year, prices of

goods and services go up. Next year
is an election year.
Therefore next year, prices will go up.

As can be seen from the three examples above, the truth of

the last statement is justified by the first two statements.
The arguments above do not necessarily mean that all
arguments are made up of three sets of propositions, two
supporting the truth of one which is the conclusion. There
could be an argument made up of two propositions, four or
more propositions, or even one statement or proposition.
An example of a one-statement argument is:

Example D

1 Adapted from A. G. A. Bello (2000) Introduction to Logic. University Press

PLC, Ibadan 2 I.
M. Copi and C. Cohen (2002) Introduction to Logic. Pearson Education, Inc.
62
One statement argument or proposition .

63
 Example : If every SRC President is a member of the
University Choir then Kwame, the current SRC
President, is a chorister.

It must also be noted that the premises and conclusion of

an argument need not necessarily be set out in such a way
that the conclusion follows chronologically from the
premises, as seen in Examples (A), (B) and (C) above.
Indeed, the conclusion of an argument may precede the
premises, as for instance:

Example (E)

It is clear that Management has acted outside of its

mandate. Management has appointed an internal
auditor without the knowledge of the board of
directors. Meanwhile, the articles of incorporation of
the company provide that the appointment of the
internal auditor is the exclusive preserve of the board
of directors.

There are also instances where the conclusion is found

in between the premises. For instance; Example (F)

No employee ever gets dismissed when he

follows procedures within the company. Daniel‘s
64
 dismissal is justified as he has proven not to have
followed laid down procedures in procuring the raw
materials.

Practice E xercise:
1. In groups, students should produce arguments on

topical issues ranging from sports (the national soccer

team or the premier league), education, politics,
business, Students
Representative Council (SRC), elections, teaching
styles of lecturers, or topics related to their courses of
study.
2. Each group should list about three of those arguments.
3. Students, individually, should identify the
premises and conclusions
of given statements.
4. For the three arguments listed, ask other students to
make counterclaims and analyze with the students to
see if the conclusions of those counterclaims are
supported by the premises.

This discussion leads to how to identify an argument using certain indicators.

Identifying an Argument: Premise and Conclusion Indicators

It has been noted earlier that a part of the statement is not

the conclusion necessarily because it follows from the
previous statements chronologically. We have also
65
demonstrated that there could be one statement argument.
How then do we identify the parts of an argument since
every argument must have premise(s) and conclusion?

66
It could be argued that once the conclusion is found in an
argument, the other statements are likely to be premises
supporting the said found conclusion. We might be
deceived in this line of reasoning since in an argument,
there might be a whole bunch of statements that would
mean nothing as far as the logical argument is concerned.

Consider an example…

It is however a reasonable approach to start off with

conclusion indicators and perhaps adopt an elimination
approach in identifying the premises. Examples (A), (B)
and (C) supra could serve as a guide in identifying the
conclusion in an argument since we had earlier stated that
the last statements were the conclusions. Thus, there are
certain words or phrases which are helpful guides in
identifying the conclusion of an argument. Beginning with
our examples cited, the following are some words or
phrases which serve as conclusion-indicators:

Therefore… it follows that… it

is clear that … as a result…
accordingly… consequently…
thus… for these reasons…
which implies that…
hence… I conclude that …

67
 which means that …
so… we may infer that… which points to the fact that…

The following words and phrases have also been useful

guides in identifying premises in an argument, normally
referred to as premise-indicators;

Since… the
reason is may
be inferred
from… may
be
because… that… as indicated by… inasmuch

deduced from… in as shown by… view of

the fact that…

as… as shown
for… by… may be derived from…

It must be emphasized that there are no hard and fast rule

about the words and phrases stated above as premise and
conclusion indicators in terms of their functions in a
statement. Thus, there are instances where those words or
phrases may be found in a statement but the statement
itself might not be an argument. Moreover, the absence of
any of those words or phrases should not be taken as
denying the statement of being a premise or a conclusion.
68
In Examples (A), (B) and (C) above for instance, none of
the premises have any of the premise indicators.

Consider an example…

69
In such instances, recourse is had to the context of the
argument in order to determine which part forms the
premises and which part forms the conclusion.

In other instances, the passage may not immediately be

deciphered as an argument. Here, their contexts and
meanings demonstrate their argumentative function in the
passage. Yet in other instances, the propositions in the
passage need to be reformulated in order to bring out its
argumentative function.

Consider

example(s)

Unstated

propositions

There are some arguments which have either the premise

or the conclusion not stated but it is assumed that the
reader or the listener understands it. It might be a
conclusion whose premises are not stated, or premises
whose conclusion is not stated but it is reasonably
assumed to follow necessarily. An example of an
argument whose conclusion is not stated…

Some arguments also have one of their premises not stated

70
because the arguer supposes that it is common knowledge
or that it will be readily granted for other reasons. An
example adopted from Shakespeare‘s Julius Caesar about
Caesar‘s ambition thus;

He would not take

the crown;
2 Therefore
‗tis certain he was
not ambitious.

The argument above presumes a missing premise to the

effect that ‗if one doesn‘t accept the crown, then that
person is not ambitious‘. Even though the said premise is
not stated, it is reasonably presumed, having regard to the
entirety of the propositions made. Indeed arguments in
informal discourse (and sometimes formal) sometimes
employ these styles of arguments with unstated premises
or conclusions. Such types of arguments are referred to as
enthymemes.

Conclusion

We have been introduced to the nature and meaning of

arguments in logic and how to identify an argument. We
have noted among others that an argument has premise(s)
and a conclusion, the truth of the premises providing the
evidence to support the truth of the conclusion. We have
also discussed some indicators to easily identify premises
71
and conclusions in an argument and have noted
particularly that the presence or otherwise of these
premise- and conclusion-indicators are not full proof of
the fact that a proposition is necessarily a premise or a
conclusion. This topic sets the stage for further detail
discussion of the types of arguments.

STATEMENT AND ARGUMENT

Statements/Propositions

72
2 William Shakespeare. Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 2.
A Statement is an expression that makes a claim/an
assertion and is either true or false. Any statement that
makes a claim is also called a declarative statement.
Declarative statements are also called Propositions.
Therefore, Propositions and Statements can be used
interchangeably.

Examples

1. Banking and Finance is a difficult subject.

2. Some Prophets are false Christians.

3. Today is Monday.

4. Green tea is healthy to the human body.

Simple and Compound

Statements Simple

Statements
73
This is a statement that does not contain component parts.

Examples

1. UPSA is in Madina District.

2. Mensah is an Accountant.

3. Some Ghanaians are intelligent.

Each of the above examples does not contain any other

statement as component. They are structurally simple
statements. Simple statements can be combined to form
compound statements. Connectives are used to combine
simple statements. Some examples of connectives are:
and, but, if then, either or etc.

Compound Statements

74
Examples

Statements Models

75
This is a statement which contains one or more simpler statements as
constituent parts.

1. SomeUPSA students are Nigerians and some are Liberians.

2. IfMensah is an1WCOUD.ting student, then he will solve these liabilities ratios
for me.
3. Tom will win the SRC election if he works hard.
4. Education is very critical to national development and requires a strong
leadership.

More Complex
Compound

Compound
 Connective
Simple More Complex

Statement 2 Level I

Connective

(:: 1 ------------------ ►_.B1..._ as-ic_L_e_v_el ,

No Connective
 Simple
Statement 1

Simple

Statement Exercise

Which of the following are simple and compound statements?

1. Rainy seasons in Ghana are getting diminished.

2. All Accounting students should stay and the rest should go out.

3. Radio reaches out to a lot of people.

4. Political activities of students cause violence on campus, leading to insecurity

among students.

5. Mr. Mensah is a lecturer and owns a business.

38
Non-Statements

Non-Statements do not make a claim or convey

information about something in any significant way. They
may be interrogative, exclamatory, emotive expressions,
sentence fragment, suggestion or proposal.

Interrogatives

It is an expression that asks a question. They aim at getting

information. Example, what, whom, why, etc.

Why are you eating at this time?

39
What is your name?

They are not described as true or false.

Sentence Fragment

It is an expression containing a part of a statement, a

subject or verb phrase. They have no logical relationship
with other parts of the statement. Part of the statement is
missing.

Examples

1. The United Nations.

2. The effect of violence.

3. Students of UPSA.

4. Eating food.

5. Politics in Ghana.

Emotive Expression

It is an expression that conveys feelings or sentiments.

40
They do not have basis for logical evaluation. They are
highly subjective.

Examples

1. Rose is sweet.

2. Hey! I am going crazy.

3. I like your dress.

4. I hate your company.

5. You have a smooth and a sweet voice.

Commands

41
This is an expression that orders one to do something.

They cannot be true or false. Examples

1. Esi, shut the window.

2. Mensah, leave the room.

3. You must get out of this place now.

Suggestion/Proposal

An expression that proposes or puts something

forward for consideration. Examples

1. Can I please get the books.

2. Can we go to the Shopping Mall.

3. I want a copy of your book.

4. Sit down please!

UNIT 5
TYPES OF STATEMENTS

Value Judgment

It is a statement that shows how things ought to be in the

42
world. That is referred to technically as a normative
statement. It expresses how people ought to behave. It
does not only express a subjective feeling of a speaker but
follows more generally from moral or value principles that
a speaker shares with others about how the world ought to
be. Such arguments are based on the fundamental values
or beliefs of the speaker.

Examples

1. Drugs that inspire youth to be violent should be banned.

2. This boy is a good singer.

3. Husbands must not beat their wives.

43
4. Politicians cannot lie to the citizens.

Factual Statements

This is a statement whose truth or falsity depends upon

whether or not it accurately describes the way the world is.
Our knowledge of facts can make factual statements false.

Examples

1. Accra is the capital of Ghana.

2. Ghana has ten regions.

3. UPSA is a business school.

4. Ghana will go to the polls in 2016.

5. Christianity is the dominant religion in Ghana.

Empirical Statements

It is a statement that aims at describing observable or

measurable facts or features of the world. If the truth-value
of a statement is realized through observation, either by
means of the senses, instruments, report of other people,
behaviour of particular things in the world, then it is
44
empirical.

Examples

1. Aku is taller than Ama.

2. Mensah is dancing outside the house.

3. It is raining at Kasoa.

4. Malaria is caused by plasmodia.

5. Many countries in developed economies have legalized gay rights.

Contingent Statements

These are statements which are not universally true

because they are possible under certain conditions. Thus,
for one thing to happen, a certain condition must be
fulfilled. If a statement has a

45
truth-value which depends on factor ‗b‘, it means that its
truth-value would have been different if some other
possible state of affairs had existed in the world.

Examples

1. Ako is playing football now or he is singing in the choir,

2. The court will jail the boy or he will do community service.

3. If I am not able to come for lectures, I will go to Kumasi.

Analytic/Synthetic Statements
A statement is said to be analytic if the true-value of the
statement is discovered by the meaning of words in the
statement or by the relationships between the words. They
do not require empirical investigation.

Example

1. Bachelors are unmarried.

2. Ama is either driving or not driving.

3. Offenders of traffic rules are punished by the law.

4. Metaphosis shows a biological change in species.

46
A Priori Statements

If the truth-value of a statement is determined by other

means which are non-empirical, like mathematical proof,
logical techniques etc, the statement is known as a priori.
Such statements are indubitable or necessary truths; they
cannot be doubted.

Examples

1. A female sibling is a woman.

2. If all human will die and Kofi is human, then Kofi will die.

3. Every black elephant is an elephant.

4. Every lecturer is a teacher.

47
5. Either the lecturer will come or will not come to class today.

All Analytic Statements are A Priori

The truth-value of all analytic statements is discovered

from the meaning of words and the relationships between
words used in a statement. This is done without empirical
investigation of how things happen to be in the world. This
means all analytic statements must have truth values that
are determined a priori.
Not All A Priori Statement Are Analytic

There is no indication to the effect that truth-value of a

statement can be known without the use of the senses to
examine particular object and find out how things happen
to be in the world. (eg. colours and shapes).

Categorical Statements

A Categorical Statement is the statement which says

something is the case without reference to conditions or
alternatives.

48
Examples

1. All Policemen take bribe (Universal Affirmative).

2. No Policeman takes bribe (Universal Negative)

3. Some students cheat at exams (Particular Affirmative).

4. Some Ghanaians are not Christians (Particular Negative).

Relationships between

Statements Contraries:

Two statements are contrary to each other if both cannot

be true at the same, yet both could be false at the same
time.

Examples

1. Members of Accounting Group One are Fantes.

49
2. Members of Accounting Group One are Ewes.

If statement one is true, then statement two is necessarily

false. If statement one is false, statement two is
undetermined (it can be true or false).

Sub-Contraries

Two statements are sub-contrary to each other if both

cannot be false but both could be true. Examples

1. Some Marketing students are Professional students.

2. Some Marketing students are not Professional students.

If statement one is false, statement two is necessarily true.

If statement two is false, statement one is definitely true.
Also, if statement two is true, statement one is
undetermined.

Contradictions

Two statements are contradictory to each other if one

50
must be true and the other false. Examples

1. All students cheat in Exams.

2. Some students do not cheat in Exams.

If statement one is true, statement two is false and vice versa.

Subalterns

Two statements are subalterns if one is true,

the other must necessarily be true. Examples

1. All Logic students are intelligent.

2. Some Logic students are intelligent.

51
If statement one is true, statement two is necessarily true,
but if statement two is true, statement one remains
undetermined.

The various relationships established above lay down the

foundation for validity testing of some elementary

arguments. It is known in Logic as ―Square of Opposite

―.

Logically Equivalent Statements

Two statements are logically equivalent because if one is

true the other logically must be true, and if one is false the
other must be false. This means they are in every possible
situation either both true or both false.

Examples

1. It is not the case that

Alfred is friendly.
Equivalent: Alfred is
not friendly.
52
2. It is not the case that
Alfred is not friendly.
Equivalent: Alfred is
friendly.

3. If Mensah passes the Exam, then he will

take the Chief Executive position.
Equivalent: Mensah will be Chief
Executive if he passes the exam.

4. If either John or Mary is here,

then the Library is closed.
Equivalent: The Library is
closed since John is here.

NB: It is necessary to pay critical attention to the

context in which a statement is madeto ascertain to get
the implications of its logical equivalent.

Tautology

This is statement where the subject and the predicate are

53
saying the same thing OR a statement that is true by the

virtue of its form. For example to say, ‗Either Ghana is a

democratic country or not a democratic country‘ is a

tautology because both clauses imply the same thing.

Examples

54
1. A triangle is three-angled.

2. Either Ghana is a democratic country or not a democratic country.

3. Ben will either climb this tree or he will not.

Exercise

A. Identify the type of statement in the following:

1. I would like to go out with you, but I am afraid of what the students in the
class will say.

2. Who is sitting next to you?

3. We must teach the youth how to respect adults.

4. The economy of Ghana in global politics.

5. Millicent has beautiful eyes.

6. Keep off the corridor.

7. It is good to show kindness to others.

8. The Black Stars disappointed Africa in the 2014 World Cup.

9. The Logic Lecturer drives a saloon car.

10. Please can we go for a walk?

55
11. The witness lied by writing what he knew was not the truth.

12. Either Ben is on the team or he is not on the team.

13. Mary is either singing in the choir or she is learning.

14. When lectures begin.

15. The food in the bowl is contaminated with lead poison.

16. Mobile money transfer.

17. Patriotism is good for every Ghanaian.

18. The lady looking at me is a female.

56
19. I like to read novels.
20. Children must respect their parents.

21. Provide contrary, contradictory and subaltern of the statement ―All men are
mortal‖.

22. Which of the following can be inferred from the statement ―All ladies are
beautiful creatures‖

(a) No ladies are beautiful creatures.

(b) Some ladies are beautiful creatures.

(c) Some ladies are not beautiful creatures.

23. Which of the following can be inferred from the

statement ―Some sharks are black‖. Given the
statement is false.

(a) All sharks are black.

(b) No sharks are black.

(c) Some sharks are not black.

Classify each of the following statements on the basis of

analytic statements, a priori, empirical, factual and
contingent statement.

57
24. Kwasi and Mensah are both friends of the Lecturer.

25. Lecturers are people who normally take up teaching appointments in the
Universities.

26. Every dog is an animal.

27. It is raining outside.

28. Either the President will address Parliament or he will attend UN Conference.

29. Someone is not paying attention.

30. Every blue wall is painted.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

58
Arguments can be classified into two broad types:
Deductive and Inductive. This is premised on the grounds
that we reason from Deduction or Induction. One way of
distinguishing Deductive arguments from Inductive
arguments is to look at the general pattern of the argument
types.

Deductive Arguments

A deductive argument is an argument in which the

conclusion is claimed to be true on the basis of the
premises as a matter of necessity, ie. If all its premises are
true, then its conclusion must be true. Therefore, it is
impossible for the conclusion to be false if all the premises
are true.

Example 1

All human beings

are mortal. Jane is

a human being.

Therefore, Jane is mortal.

59
Given the truth of the two premises, there is no way for
the conclusion to be false. The premises provide
conclusive support for the conclusion.

Example 2

All Police Officers take bribe. Since Evans is a Police Officer, he takes bribe.

This is a good deductive argument. The two premises (all

Police Officers take bribe and Evans is a Police Officer)
provide a conclusive support to the conclusion: he takes
bribe.

Example 3

Biologists are scientists. James is not a scientist so, James is not a biologist.

This is also a good deductive argument. Given the truth of

the two premises, the conclusion must be true.

Evaluating Deductive Arguments

60
Deductive arguments are evaluated as valid, invalid,
sound, and unsound. Deductive arguments are therefore
described as valid, invalid, sound or unsound.

61
Valid Deductive Argument (Valid Argument)
A Valid argument is one in which the premises support
the conclusion completely. OR a Valid argument is one
such that it is impossible for its premises to be true and its
conclusion to be false. Therefore, assuming its premises
are true, its conclusion must be true.

Recall Example 1

All human

beings are

mortal Jane is a

human being

Therefore, Jane

is mortal.

Example 1 is a valid argument; given the truth of all its

premises, it is not possible for its conclusion to be false.

62
Recall Example 2

All Police Officers take bribe. Since Evans is

a Police Officer, he takes bribe. It is

impossible for the conclusion to be false

while the premises are true.

Example

Either Sowah has a poor memory or he is lying. Sowah

does not have a poor memory so, Sowah is lying.

This is valid argument; given the truth of all its premises it

is not possible for its conclusion to be false.

NB:

One does not have to know whether the premises of an

argument are actually true in order to determine its
validity.

63
In Logic, validity means there must be a linkage between
the premises and the conclusion. An argument can have
one or more false premises and still be valid.

Example

All birds

have beaks.

Some cats

are birds.

So, some cats have beaks.

Second premise is false and yet the argument is valid.

Example

All sharks are birds. All birds are Policemen. So, all sharks are Policemen.

Although the premises of the argument are in fact false,

the argument is valid. We may not know whether the
premises of an argument are true or false and yet we may
64
know that the argument is valid. Thus, the question ―Are
the premises actually true‖? is distinct from the question
―Is the argument valid‖?

Invalid Deductive Argument (Invalid Argument)

Invalid argument is one such that it is possible for its

conclusion to be false even when all its premises are true.

Example

Kofi is taller

than Ama. Musa

is taller than

Ama.

Therefore, Kofi is taller than Musa.

The above is an invalid argument.

If we assume that both premises are true (ie. Kofi is taller

than Ama, and Musa is taller than Ama), there is no
65
necessity why its conclusion must be true. Though Kofi
and Musa are taller than Ama,

66
there remains a possibility that Kofi and Musa may be of
the same height. Also, Kofi may be taller than Musa and
vice versa. The possibility of drawing other conclusions,
in spite of the truth of the premises makes the argument
invalid.

Example

All dogs are

animals. All

cats are

animals.

Therefore, all dogs are cats.

This argument is invalid. We can accept the premises and reject the conclusion.
Example

If Pat is a wife, then Pat is a woman, but Pat is not a wife, so Pat is not a
woman.

The argument is invalid. There is no logical linkage

between the premises and the conclusion. We can accept

67
the premises and reject the conclusion.

Here is an example:

All goats can fly. Anything that can fly can swim. So all goats can swim.

Although the two premises of this argument are false, this

is actually a valid argument. If goats can indeed fly, and if
anything that can fly can also swim, then it must be the
case that all goats can swim. This means the premises and
the conclusion of a valid argument can all be false.

One can see that validity is not about the actual truth or
falsity of the premises or the conclusion. Validity is about
the logical connection between the premises and the
conclusion. Validity does not guarantee that the premises
are in fact true. It shows that if the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true.

Invalid Argument

Example

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Kofi loves Betty. Betty loves Ama. Therefore, Kofi loves Ama.

69
This argument is invalid, for it is possible that the
premises are true and yet the conclusion is false. Perhaps
Kofi loves Betty but does not love Ama. The possibility of
such a situation is enough to show that the argument is
invalid.
An argument can be invalid even if the conclusion and the premises are actually
true.

Also, it is possible for valid arguments to have a true conclusion even when all
its premises are false.

NB:

1. The premises and the conclusion of an invalid argument can all be true.

2. A valid argument should be defined as an argument with true premises and a

true conclusion.

3. The premises and the conclusion of a valid argument can all be false.

4. A valid argument with false premises can still have a true conclusion.

Sound Deductive Argument (Sound Argument)

An argument is described as sound if it satisfies the following two conditions:

70
1. It must be valid.

2. All its premises must be true.

NB:

Sound argument cannot have a false premise.

Valid + All Premises true = Sound Argument

Examples

1. If Teshie is in Accra, then

Teshie is in Ghana. Teshie
is in Accra.

So, Teshie is in Ghana.

2. All humans are mortals, and

all mortals will die. Jane is
human.

71
 Therefore, Jane will die.

3. All first year students will take

Logic and Critical Thinking. Mary
is a first year student.

Therefore, Mary will take Logic and Critical Thinking.

Unsound Arguments

An argument is described as unsound if it has any of the following features:

1. It is Valid but has at least one false premise.

2. It is Invalid but all its premises are true.

3. It is Invalid and has at least one false premise.

Examples

All sharks are birds. All birds are Policemen. So all sharks are Policemen.

The argument is valid but unsound. All the premises

including the conclusion are false. Any false premise
renders the argument unsound.

72
Example

Are the following true or false? Explain your answer.

1. All Sound arguments are valid.

2. All Valid arguments are sound.

3. No argument with false premise can be valid.

4. An argument with false premises but true conclusion must be Invalid.

5. All Invalid arguments are unsound.

6. All true statements are valid.

7. To show that an argument is unsound, we must at least

show that some of its premises are actually false.

73
8. An Invalid argument has a false conclusion.

9. All Sound arguments are true.

10. An argument with false premise but true conclusion may be valid.

SYLLOGISM

A Syllogism is an argument that has two premises and a

conclusion. It is a deductive argument with only two
premises. The premises inform the conclusion. Syllogisms
are classified as categorical or non-categorical.

Example

All men are

mortal. All

Yorubas are

men.

Therefore, all Yorubas are mortal.

(Categorical Syllogism). Example

74
All good things

are scarce. Some

snacks are good

things.

Therefore, some snacks are scarce. (Categorical Syllogism).

Example

If my car is out of fuel,

it will not start. My car
is out of fuel.

So my car will not start. (Non-categorical Syllogism)

Example

Either I go to church or I

will do my homework. I

shall not go to church.

75
Therefore, I will do
my homework.
(Non-categorical
Syllogism)

We can refer to Syllogisms as Valid and Invalid since they are deductive
arguments.

Some Valid Argument Patterns

This will focus on logical connection between premises and conclusions.

Modus Ponens

If P, then q

P Therefore, q.

Example

If it is raining, then the

ground is wet. It is

raining.
76
Therefore, the ground is wet.

Modus Tollens

If P,

then q

Not q

Therefore, not P.

Example

If Ghana approves of gay rights,

then gay rights is good. Gay rights

is not good.

Therefore Ghana will not approve gay rights.

77
Disfunctive Syllogism

Either

A or B

Not A

Therefo

re B

Example

Either Esther goes to the market or she

will attend church service. Esther does

not go to the market.

Therefore, she will attend church service.

Hypothetical Syllogism

If P,

then q
78
If q,

then r

Therefore, if P, then r.

Alternatively, this can be

presented as : A=B

B=C

Therefor

e, A=C

Example

If John meets the deadline, then he

will attend the meeting. If he

attends the meeting then he can

make the presentation.

Therefore, if John meets the deadline, he will make the presentation.

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Constructive Dilemma

Either A or B

80
If A,

then C

If B,

then D

Therefore, either C or D

Example

Either Lucy knew the information on her tax returns

was inaccurate or she did not know it. If Lucy knew

the information was inaccurate, then she was

negligent.

Therefore, either Lucy was lying or she was negligent.

Inductive Arguments

An inductive argument is an argument in which the

conclusion is claimed to be true on the basis of the
premises as a matter of probability. The premises can only
provide more or less probable grounds for the conclusion.
81
This means that it is possible to accept the premises and
still reject the conclusion. The conclusion is probable,
tentative and provisional but not necessary. The key
characteristic of deductive arguments that it is impossible
to have all true premises and false conclusion is not
applicable to inductive arguments.

In inductive arguments the premises do not conclusively

support the conclusion. The conclusion of a good
inductive argument does not/will not follow from the
premises. The premises may be very strong still they are
inconclusive ground for the conclusion. Therefore, the
conclusion of an inductive argument is merely probable.

An inductive argument is neither true nor false; also it is

neither valid nor invalid. They are evaluated as god or bad,
strong or weak, convincing or unconvincing depending on
the degree of support the premises give to the conclusion.

The premises of an inductive argument give some degree

of probabilistic support for its conclusion. Good inductive
arguments provide strong probabilistic support for their

82
conclusion and bad inductive arguments provide weaker
probabilistic support for their conclusion. None of them
provides absolute certainty.

Examples

83
1. Jane is a Professor
and she is rich.
John is a Professor
and he is rich.

James is a Professor and he is rich.

Therefore, all Professors are rich.

The premises do not conclusively support the conclusion.
If we accept the premises as true, we cannot do same for
the conclusion. One can never be sure that all Professors
are rich.

2. The crow in Sowah‘s

house is black. The
crow in Jane‘s house
is black.

The crow in Mensah‘s house is black.

Therefore, all crows

are black.

One can never be sure that all crows are black. It is

84
possible to come across a crow in the future which is not
black. Since there is the possibility of non-black coloured
crow, the conclusion ―All crows are black‖ is merely
probable.

Basic Types of
Inductive Arguments

These include:

1. Inductive Generalization

2. Enumerative Inductive Argument

3. Causal Arguments

4. Argument from Analogy.

Inductive Generalization

This argument moves from premisses that cite particular

observation to a conclusion that is more general OR the
process of a general conclusion from facts about particular
sample.

85
Examples

86
1. Jane is a first year student
and owns a car. John is a
first year student and
owns a car.

Therefore all first year students own a car.

The argument moves from premises that report what has

been observed in specific cases to a conclusion about a
larger population that has not been directly observed. They
are generally weak inductive arguments.

Example

2. In a study of 200 people, those who had more exposure

to environmental smoke had a higher frequency of lung
cancer.

Therefore people who have more exposure to

environmental smoke generally have a higher
frequency of lung cancer.

Enumerative Inductive Arguments

87
These arguments move from a general premise to a
particular conclusion. The conclusion is inferred from
statistical evidence or data findings. Statistics is required to
project an estimate about an entire population from
observed samples. This uses induction by enumerative.
The likelihood of the conclusion depends on:

1. Whether the samples tested is large enough in relation to the population.

2. Whether the samples are well distributed to represent

the population. A representative sample must be large
enough, varied enough and must be randomly selected.

Example

1. Most 70-year-old men who have major surgery suffer serious complications.
Ben is a 70-year-old man who has had major
surgery. Ben will likely suffer serious complications.

2. 80% voters in the pre-election polls were found to be

sympathetic to candidate James. In the actual elections,
the percentage of voters sympathetic to candidate James
may rise.
88
Examples 1 and 2 can be described as strong/good
inductive arguments. This means the premises make the
conclusion more probable. The percentages involved are
high and this gives a good reason to believe that the
conclusion is likely to be true.

Causal Argument

Causal arguments have the

following form:

Whenever A occurs, B

occurs.

Therefore, A causes B.

Where A and B are any two events. Cause is antecedent

and therefore precedes the effect. Effect is consequent and
therefore follows the cause.

If A is the cause of B, then certainly A precedes B; but to

say that since A precedes B. Therefore A is definitely
89
cause of B, is wrong. This thinking leads to fallacy of false
cause (post hoc; ergo propter hoc).

NB:

For cause and effect relationship, one needs to establish

the cause as unconditional antecedent of an effect. This
means the antecedent is self-sufficient to produce the
effect. The cause must be immediate or proximate
antecedent of the effect.

Example

N is

cause of

M M is

cause of

O is cause of P

P is cause of R
90
Therefore, N is cause of E.

N is a remote cause of R, M and O are also remote cause of

R. Only P is the immediate or proximate cause of R.

91
Example

For the past five years every time the Black Stars wear
white jersey, the team was defeated. To prevent future
defeats the Black Stars should not use white jersey for any
match.

One needs to determine the correlation between white

jersey and defeat. It may be coincidental and white jersey
and defeat is not related to each other in any significant
way.

Example

Violent crime has been on the increase for the past two
decades. The quantity of violent movies has also increased
during this time. Therefore, the cause of the increase in
violent crime is the increase in the quantity of violent
movies.

Causal argument that moves from correlation to cause

without any further support is weak. It is not enough to
suggest that there might be an A-factor; some attempt
92
must be made to establish its existence.

Argument from Analogy

Analogy is a situation where two entities are compared

with respect to certain attributes they share in common.
An argument from analogy is an argument in which the
conclusion depends on the existence of similarity between
two entities.

Symbolically, an analogical argument can be expressed as:

A has X, y, Z attributes

B has X, Y, Z

attributes But

A has W

Therefore B has W.

An argument from analogy claims that two kinds of things

are alike in many respects and one has some further
characteristics. It then moves to the claim that the other
93
thing shares this characteristic.

The similarity among the entities should be relevant since

being similar in some respect does not guarantee that
things will be similar in other respect. The characteristics
by themselves do not

94
guarantee that things will be similar in other respect. The
characteristics by themselves do not guarantee relevant or
irrelevant characteristics. The confusion between essential
and non-essential characteristics, between relevant and
irrelevant characteristics leads to defect reasoning in
analogical arguments.

Arguments from analogy are more reliable and stronger if

the number of similarities among entities are more. The
similarities between the entities should be important and
relevant. The thrust of an argument from analogy depends
on the character of identity and not on the amount of
similarity.

Example

I bought a black Toyota manufactured in the USA. This

new Toyota is also black and manufactured in the USA.
Since the old Toyota was strong and durable, I can be sure
this new
Toyota will also be strong and durable.

95
Evaluating Argument from Analogy

1. Truth: First of all we need to check that the two objects

being compared are indeed similar in the way assumed.
Here, the old car is also a Toyota and the new car is also
a Toyota. They are both manufactured in the USA. They
are both black in colour.

2. Relevance: If the two objects are similar, we also need

to make sure that those aspects in which they are similar
are actually relevant to the conclusion. Does it means if
the old car is black, and the new car is also black and are
both Toyota manufactured from the USA, if the old car is
strong and durable, then the new car must also be strong
and durable. How is the colour of the car related to
durability? Can a colour of a car determine its strength
and durability?

3. Number: If the number of shared properties between

the two objects are high in number and relevant to the
conclusion, then the analogical argument is stronger
than when we can only identify few shared properties.
In this case, we have colour, brand and place of
96
 manufacturing. Three properties may not be sufficient.

4. Diversity: Are the shared properties of the two

objects of the same kind or different types. Here, is
the colour black the same nature, is the old brand, the
same as the new brand etc.

5. Disanalogy: Are there dissimilarities between the two

objects which might cast doubt on the conclusion. In
what ways is the old car different from the new car?

97
Exercise

Evaluate these arguments from analogy. Examine any

aspects in which the two things being compared are
relevantly similar.

1. Weather reports do not change the weather, but

newspaper reports and the public media can influence
people and have an indirect effect on moral standards.
2. Democracy does not work in a family. Parents should
have the ultimate say because they are wiser and their
children do not know what is best for themselves.
Similarly, the best form of government for a society is
not a democratic one but one where leaders are more
like parents.

3. We should not blame the media for deteriorating moral

standards. Newspapers and TV are like weather
reporters who report the facts. We do not blame weather
reports for telling us that the weather is bad.

4. War and robbery are rather similar: the same intrusion,

violence involved with taking what belongs to another.
98
 If one needs to be stopped, why not the other?

5. These two students deserve similar grades since they

both sat in the same class and use the same blue ink pen.

Distinction between Inductive and Deductive Arguments

The connection between premises and conclusion of an

inductive argument does not depend upon the logical
structure of the argument. This is important in deductive
arguments.

The conclusion of a deductive argument follows

necessarily from the premises because the conclusion is
already inherited in the premises. Therefore the premises
of a deductive argument provide sufficient and total
support to the conclusion. Additional premises do not
make any difference to the conclusion of a deductive
argument.

In this direction, the key characteristic of deductive

argument that it is impossible to have all true premises and
false conclusion is not applicable to inductive arguments.

99
This means the premises of an inductive argument do not
provide conclusive support to the conclusion. That is, the
conclusion and the premises are not related by strict
implicative relation in inductive arguments. In an inductive
argument, we establish a reasonably acceptable conclusion
on the basis of the premises while in deductive argument
we examine what follows necessarily from a given set of
premises.

100
The conclusion of an inductive argument is said to be
confirmed by the premises and not proven as in deductive
arguments.

The conclusion of an inductive is hypothetical which are either law-like or

statistical.

Hypothesis is a conclusion which refers to a population or

an infinite subject of some kind. The premises of this
hypothesis describe empirical evidence of some kind.

Examples of law-like Hypothesis

1. All metal expand when heated.

2. Planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun.

3. All students must take Logic and Critical Thinking.

Examples of Statistical Hypothesis

1. 80% of all students in UPSA take Logic and Critical Thinking.

2. Many Ghanaians are allergic to pineapple.

3. 75% of people who contract Ebola die of the virus.

101
 UNIT SEVEN

FALLACIES

A fallacy may be defined as a weakness in someone‘s

argument or opinion which is caused by a mistake in their
thinking. The mistake is referred to as a flaw. Fallacy in
logic is not about a false belief or perception which is
believed by a lot of people to be true. Note that a fallacy is
an ‗error‘ in an argument but an argument which contains
a fallacy is also said to be a fallacy.

A fallacy is an argument which provides no support to its

conclusion though it may appear as if the premises support
the conclusion. This occurs where some persuasive
strategies, such as appeal to emotions, are employed by the
speaker.

Traditionally, Latin names were given to the fallacies but

they also have their English equivalents. It is not
necessary to memorize the Latin expressions; it is enough
to simply focus on the English
102
definitions and try to understand the concepts. It is the
application of the principles in your daily life and business
transactions that is more important.

The focus here is on informal fallacies. These are fallacies

which occur in informal arguments rather than formal
fallacies which occur in formal arguments. Informal
fallacies may be classified into three main categories,
namely:

Fallacies of

relevance

Fallacies of

presumption

Fallacies of

ambiguity

FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

Fallacies of relevance occur when the premises of an

103
argument are not logically relevant to the truth of the
conclusion. When an argument relies on premises that are
not relevant to its conclusion and, therefore, cannot
establish the truth of the argument, then a fallacy of
relevance has been committed.
1. FALLACY OF APPEAL TO IGNORANCE

The Fallacy of Appeal to Ignorance is also known as

argument from ignorance (Argument Ad Ignorantiam).
This fallacy is committed ‗when it is argued that a
proposition is true simply on the basis that it has not been
proved false, or that it is false because it has not been
proved true‘ (Copic & Cohen, p. 139).

Examples:

i. For instance, if an institution plans to change a

policy or introduce a new mode of operation, some
members of the organization may oppose the
change because it has not been proved to be true.
This may happen due to ignorance or fear.

ii. Our company is the leading producer of drugs in

104
this country. Nobody has made a complaint of
inefficacy about our drugs therefore our drugs are
the best in this country.

105
3. Fallacy of appeal to inappropriate authority or Fallacy of appeal authority.(
Fallacy Ad

verecundian).

We usually prove that our argument is correct by referring

to an expert authority who shares the same opinion. On the
contrary, we commit a fallacy if our reference is to
someone who is not an authority in that discipline. The
fallacy of appeal to inappropriate authority arises ‗when
the appeal is made to parties having no legitimate claim to
authority in the matter at hand‘. Examples of misplaced
Appeals to authority can be found in advertisements. For
examples, when we are encouraged to drink a particular
soft drink because it is the favourite drink of a famous
footballer, this is a fallacy of appeal to inappropriate
authority. The fact is that the footballer is neither a chemist
nor an expert in brewery.

Example: fan ice is the best ice cream on the

market. Dede Ayew likes ice cream.

Conclusion: therefore fan ice is the best.

106
4. Fallacy of argument against the man.(Argument Ad Hominen)

This fallacy is committed when a speaker attacks the

character or condition of somebody instead of dealing with
the correctness or incorrectness of the person‘s reasoning,
or the truth or falsehood of what that person said.

Example: Kofi Mensah gives a business proposal to your company for

consideration. Someone

in your company remarks: ‗this is a known drunkard, how

can his proposal be any better and worth accepting?‘

5. Genetic Fallacy

Genetic fallacy is a variant of adhominem fallacy. In

the case where an argument attacks the source or genesis
of the proposition rather than its relevance, it may be
termed ‗genetic fallacy‘.

Example: Can anything good come out of Kofi krom? I

don‘t think this proposal coming from the Assemblyman
of Kofi krom is worth looking at.
107
6. Fallacy of appeal to population/ playing to the gallery (Argument Ad Populum)

108
The fallacy of appeal to population is based on the
premises that most people or many people believe or
accept something. Yet, the fact that many people hold a
certain view or patronize a particular product does not
make it good. Neither does it make the view correct. This
is a type of emotional appeal. In this case, also, the
premises are clearly not relevant to the conclusion, the
premises are deliberately chosen as means to manipulate
the beliefs of the audience. If a speaker suggests strongly
that a particular opinion is correct because most or many
people believe in that opinion, then a fallacy of appeal to
population has been committed. Alternatively, to say that a
claim or argument by someone is not right because not
many people subscribe to that opinion, then a fallacy
appeal to population has been committed.

Example: Everybody says our political party is the best

therefore if you have to join a party, you have to join this
large family of our political party.

7. Fallacy of appeal to pity (Ad Miseri Cordian)

109
It is an argument in which a speaker appeals to the

emotions of pity and altruism in the audience. Example:

A student in a certain university plagiarised a book

published by a lecturer. In fact, the student copied several
pages of the book, bound it nicely and gave it a new title.
He was summoned before the disciplinary committee and
he pleaded that ‗I am a poor boy and this is what I do to
cater for myself‘.

8. Fallacy of appeal to force (Argument Ad Baculum)

To threaten somebody or coerce the person to accept an

opinion is a fallacy of appeal to force. Example: The
management of an organization threatens to cut down
some of the employee‘s allowances unless they work for
some extra hours which will not be paid for.

FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION

It is a misleading argument in which there is a wrong

assumption upon which the conclusion is to be based. To
110
identify this type of fallacy, one has to point out the wrong
assumption that is buried in the unreliability. Examples of
fallacies of presumption include complex questions,
begging the question, and false cause.

111
1. Fallacy of complex question: a complex question is
one in which there are two questions such that one
implies the other. The complex question is a
deceitful strategy. The following:

‗where have you put your friend‘s phone?‘ is an example

of a complex question. It contains two questions, namely

Have you taken your

friends phone? Where

have you put your

friend‘s phone?

The first is an implied question which presupposes an affirmative answer. It

is a presumption
that you have taken your friend‘s phone upon which the
conclusion will be based. To deal with a complex
question, it is better not to answer but rather request that
the questions be separated.

2. Fallacy of begging the question ( Petitio principii)

112
 An argument which begs the question is also known
as a ‗circular argument‘. When an argument begs the
question, the expected conclusion is already assumed in
the premises.
According to Copi and Cohen (2002 p.159), ‗to beg the
question is to assume the truth of what one seeks to
prove, in the effort to prove it‘.

Example:

Our university is the best business school in the

country. It has the best lecturers and so it is always
the best. Certainly in several years to come it will be
the best business school in the country.

3. Fallacy of false cause (non causa pro causa)

This is the situation in which an occurrence is

attributed to a cause which is actually not the cause.
Hence, it is a fallacy caused by presuming the reality of
a causal connection that does not really exist.
Sometimes one event may follow another closely and
so we assume that the second event was caused by the
113
first because the second went followed the first closely.
The fallacy of false cause is sometimes referred to as
the fallacy of ‗post hoc ergo propter hoc‘ (after the
thing, therefore because of the thing).

114
 Example: The recent flood in the city occurred because
fetish priests have failed to sacrifice to the gods
immediately before the rains.

FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY

Fallacies of ambiguity occur often through the

careless use of words, phrases, clauses or sentences which
communicate more than one meaning so that the speaker‘s
intended information is not communicated properly.
Sometimes, the words and expressions which have more
than one meaning are manipulated, played upon or misused
intentionally by a speaker to confuse an audience.

When a word or expression contains more than one

meaning, it is said to be ambiguous. A word may convey
one meaning in the premises and a different meaning in
the conclusion.

Examples of fallacies of

ambiguity: Fallacy

of equivocation
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Equivocation is a manner of speech in which the
speaker does not give a clear or direct answer to a
question. When someone confuses two or more
meanings of the same word or phrase, either
accidentally or deliberately, he is said to be using the
words equivocally. If the person misuses the words or
plays on them in an argument, he or she has committed
a fallacy of equivocation. When the equivocation is
done in a joke or playful manner it is called a pun.
An example of a pun resulting in equivocation is given below:

Marullus: But what trade art thou? Answer me directly.

2nd Citizen: A trade, sir, that I hope I may use with a

safe conscience is in indeed, Sir, a mender of bad soles.

Marullus: What trade thou knave? Thou

naughty knave, what trade? Source: Act 1,

Scne1, Shakespeare‘s Julius Caeser.

In this dialogue the second Citizen is playing on the word ‗sole‘ which could
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mean the soul of
a person. This play on words annoys Marullus and so

he refers to 2nd Citizen as ‗naughty knave‘.

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 Fallacy of composition

The fallacy of composition is committed when

someone bases an argument fallaciously (wrongly) on
the attributes of parts of a whole to make a conclusion
which applies to the whole.

Example: I met two graduates of UPSA in an

accounting firm in Accra who demonstrated
appreciable competence in accounting; I think all
UPSA accounting students are good.

Fallacy of division

A fallacy of division is committed when someone

argues fallaciously that what is true of a whole must
also be true of its parts. For example, to argue that
because UPSA is a famous university in the training of
Accountants, Esther is a very good accountant because
she graduated from UPSA.

There is a second type of fallacy of division which is

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committed when someone argues that the attributes of a
collection of elements are applicable to the attributes
themselves. For instance, to argue that University of
Professional Studies students study Accounting,
Marketing, Administration and Banking therefore each
and every student of the university studies all these
subjects are a fallacy.

Fallacy of hasty generalization

When a speaker jumps to a conclusion from a sample

that is too small, he or she is guilty of a fallacy of hasty
generalization. If the argument is a generalization, it
means that the sample is not representative of the
target.

Example1: Students in a secondary school close to

UPSA wear blue shirts. I saw a young man in a
blue shirt walking across the UPSA gate
therefore that young man must be a student of
that secondary school.

Example 2: I saw a car parked by the cemetery. It implies that the owner has
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passed away.

Example 3: According to an American tourist, he met

two Ghanaians in the US who were nice to him
therefore all Ghanaians are nice people.

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 Fallacy of red herring

This fallacy is committed when someone brings in a

topic which is not related or relevant to the main issue
or topic being discussed. It distracts the conversation
from the original point. A red herring is actually a
smelly fish which will distract a dog from its trail.
Reference to it as a fallacy is therefore a metaphor
borrowed into logic.

Example:

Policeman: Driver, I have arrested you.

Where are your documents? Driver: Yes sir,

I remember you very well at Konongo.

Policeman: Yes I used to work at Konongo.

In this dialogue, the driver has thrown in a red herring

and the policeman lost the argument by responding to
the red herring, ‗yes I used to work at Konongo‘. To
deal with a red herring, ignore the irrelevant red
herring and focus on the main issue.
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 Fallacy of False Dilemma

Fallacy of false dilemma occurs when a speaker limits

options to only two alternatives although other
alternatives may be available. This fallacy is also called
the fallacy of false alternatives or black-or-white
fallacy. The speaker assumes erroneously that an
‗either-or‘ or an ‗all – ornothing‘ situation exists while
in fact there may be other possibilities. Example:

There are only two good secondary schools in Ghana,

school A and school B. IF your child does not attend
any of these two schools you have only wasted your
resources.

UNIT 8

THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING

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IN ADDRESSING ISSUES OF DEVELOPMENT

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Critical Thinking refers to the ability to evaluate and
analyse issues. Anyone who thinks critically will first
evaluate or analyse an issue or a particular circumstance
before proceeding to accept a proposal, an idea or
implement an action. Critical thinking cannot be divorced
from meaningful development. Development is perceived
in different ways and so we can talk of personal
development, institutional development and national
development. Personal development entails physical
growth and mental development.

National development can be seen from two

perspectives, namely a) economic development and b)
development as a behavioural concept.

Real development implies the latter. In that case, to be

developed is to show enhancement in behaviour and
values. In other words, ‗to be developed is to have the
capability to perform satisfactorily the functions
appropriate to the object‘ (Gyekye, 2004, p.39) where the
object could be the individual, institution or nation.
Gyekye (ibid) distinguishes between growth and
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development and indicates that ‗growth is a physical
(sensory) concept measured in quantitative terms‘ whereas
‗development on the other hand is, essentially a behavioural concept‘ (pp.37-
38).
Thus development is a holistic issue, for as Gyekye
observes, ‗economic development is not a sufficient
condition for the existence of high standards of morality or
of effective arrangements for a just distribution of the
wealth produced‘ (p.41). Indeed, the concept of
development should be seen beyond the provision physical
infrastructure. Real development has to do with a change
in mental attitude, which implies a positive orientation and
attitudinal change which contributes towards the wellbeing
of the individual and society as a whole.

The importance of critical thinking in individual lives

for personal development as well as institutional and
national development is very crucial. There can be no
development without education, whether formal or
informal. In preliterate times the cultural values and
practices of a society were transmitted from one generation
to the other through practice and oral transmission. In
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contemporary times, children spend more time in school
than home with their parents and relations. It is imperative
therefore that much of the learning these days has to be
done at school. Hence, critical thinking and values must be
incorporated into the syllabi of schools. Education may be
defined as the acquisition of skills and values which can be
employed towards the individual‘s personal development
and the development of society. Skills of critical thinking
are invaluable in equipping the individual to enable him or
her to contribute effectively towards the development of
themselves and society at large.

126
 People with critical thinking can be bold to questions
the status quo in any situation so that new ways of doing
things can be evolved to advance society. In the absence
of critical thinking a group of people will only adjust to
the circumstances in which they find themselves. As Paulo
Freire (1985), a Brazilian educationist and philosopher put
it, ‗only by developing a permanently critical attitude can
men overcome a posture of adjustment in order to become
integrated with the spirit of the time‘ (p.5-6). The practices
and values which are current in an epoch or time in which
we find ourselves, put some pressure on us to conform.
However, it calls for critical thinking and evaluation of
what is considered normal, according to ‗the spirit of the
time‘, for one to be able to deviate from that norm. When
a lot of students graduate, yet cannot think critically it is a
situation which Freire (ibid) refers to as massification.
Such people, according to him, are ‗objects‘ not
‗subjects‘; objects because they can be manipulated by
others easily. As he rightly observes, ‗for men (and
women) to overcome their state of massification, they must
be enabled to reflect about that very condition‘ (p.20). This
127
enablement is what constitutes the focus of this course in
Critical Thinking because by acquiring critical thinking
skills, students will be enabled to evaluate issues and
avoid the acceptance of every proposal hook and line.

When people are critically enabled, they can review

their peculiar circumstances and bring about changes in
their own conditions as well as the circumstances of their
society or nation.
Plato‘s allegory of the return to the cave depicts human
beings as prisoners who have been chained by their own
way of thinking. An allegory is a story in which symbolic
characters are used to represent ideas or thematic issues,
setting and so forth so as to teach a lesson, usually moral.

Plato‘s allegory is a story meant to illustrate the gloomy

situation of people who lack critical thinking, cannot
evaluate their own circumstances and therefore remain
metaphorically chained by their own way of thinking. We
can only liberate ourselves from mental slavery and
ineptitude if we acquire the skills of critical thinking and
128
apply duly them. According to the allegory, there is a fire
light behind the prisoners which casts their shadows in
front of them. They see their shadows reflected on the
walls of the cave but not the reality of who they are or what
they can be. Due to their lack of critical thinking, they
have accepted their shadows as the reality.

The story requires the philosopher to rise up and

liberate society with his or her knowledge but another
lesson which the story presents is that we must always
evaluate the circumstances around us in order to ascertain
the reality of our circumstances. This will help to devise
solutions to the problems to bring about desired changes.
Plato underscores the fact that philosophers and, indeed,

129
students who have studied logic and critical thinking, have
a role to play because: ‗You have been better and more
thoroughly educated than those others and hence you are
more capable of playing your part both as men of thought
and as men of action‘ (cited in Gyekye 2004, p.11).

The Need for Critical Thinking in the Adaptation of Foreign Values

Due to globalisation, values are easily transferred from one

part of the globe to the other and this has facilitated
universalism. Universalism refers to the philosophical
concept that certain values and practices transcend the
period and cultures in which they were developed and
became accepted by other cultures, thereby becoming
universal. In this age of free flow of technology and ideas,
it is essential that we evaluate any new concepts or
products from other parts of the world before they are
implemented in our country.

Can you mention anything which has become universal today?

Particularism refers to ideas or practices which originate

130
from a particular place and remain a practice which is
specific to the place of origin.

Can you mention any practices or values which are practised specifically in
Ghana?
Even such values and practices which are specific to
Ghana must be critically evaluated from time to time so
that the aspects of cultural practices which are not in tune
with a particular period of time should be modified. By
this, only the aspects which are relevant will continue to
be practised.

In tackling the issues of development in Africa,

some scholars have advocated a return to Africa‘s cultural
heritage. For instance, Dzobo (1981) stated that ‗Sankofa
is therefore a necessary journey into our past of our
indigenous culture, so that we can march into the future
with confidence and with a sense of commitment to our
cultural heritage‘ (Cited in Gyekye, 2004, p.72). Sankofa
is an Akan word which literarily means ‗to go back and
pick‘. The full implication of the expression is that, ‗to
131
return to the past and pick something you have left is
nothing bad‘.

On the contrary, Gyekye (ibid) holds the opinion that

we must be critical in adopting past traditional values and
practices and, therefore, advocates critical sankofaism.
According to him, critical sankofaism ‗is the objective,
rational, unemotional, and appropriate approach to adopt
toward inherited cultural traditions‘ (2004, p.73). In fact,
principles of critical thinking must be applied in every
aspect of Ghana‘s bid for development, and Africa for that
matter.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Discus some circumstances in your chosen profession

where critical thinking may need to be applied.

Give some examples of technology transfer where

critical thinking will be required. Discuss aspects of

Plato‘s allegory of the Return to the Cave which

show lack of critical thinking and state the lessons

you have learnt from these situations.

133
REFERENCES

Aga, B. (2007). Introduction ID Logic. Ibadan: University PressPLC

Alexander, P. (ed) (1964). William Shakespeare: TM

Complete Wonb. London: Collins Clear-
Type Press.

Chhand, C. (2009) Logic: Informal, Symbolicand Inductive (2nd ed.) New

DeJhi: Pill Leaming
Private Limited

Copi, I.M. (2002). Introduction to Logic (11th ed). New Jersey: Pearson
Education Inc.

Freire, P. (1985). Education for Critical Comciomness. London: Sheed &

Ward.
George, M., Mark, B., and Tim, M. (1987) Rudiments of Logic. New York:
Prentice-Hall Inc. ----:- co ent H1
: Which is the Surname?

Ghiselin, M. (1997)Metaphysicsandthe Origin of ,pecies. SUNY Press

Govier, T. (2010)A Practical Study of Argument, 7th ed. Wadsworth.

Hurley P. J. (2012) A Concise Introduction to Logic,11th ed. Wadsworth.

Krishna, J. (2009) Logic (4th ed).New Delhi: O.K Printworld (P) Ltd.

McGinn, C. (1990) TM Problem of Consciousrteaa.Oxford: Blackwe11

Wiredu, J.F. (1999) Organized English Structure. Accra: Academic Publications

Ltd.
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LOGIC AND CRITICAL
THINKING NOTE

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THANK YOU

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