ARCHITECTURAL

G PHIC
STANDARDS

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tJCHN WILEY 6. SONS THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS

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11)[ I S I I 1\1 RICH.ARllj VIIIllll.AIA Kenneth R. Baetz
Editorial Director Contributing Editor Garv Corey
l avvrence Dick
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Associate Editor Assistant Editor Luke Fox
Mike Harris
Rlll;II;1 I lr rrc III R IV ElllTORIAl A)\, l( 1\ II \ Gordon M. Jensen
Production Manager Melton E. Castro David Larson
Molly Cutting An n Lassetter
DIIlIlIl LYNN DAVIS Stacy Droneburg Anthony Lewandowski
New Media Director Jenifer Tennant Dwyer Michael Lundberg
Christopher Keane Jeffrey Madsen
CI AI' I 11,\ R. C [IFRRA Elizabeth Laking Camille Mendez~Hordatt
Marketing Manager Elena Marcheso Moreno Rene R. Moya
Jennifer Taylor Tarnra Orte se n
AN IIlONY LFWA,NI)OW\I(I Stephanie Vierra Scott Peterson, AlA
Computer Consultant Virginia Vitzthum David Salela
James V. Vose Jerry L. Smith
l(lRIJ.\NI MUllIMI111,\ Chuck Taylor
Software Developer INIl[XFRS Renata Flecchia Tyler
M. L. Coughlin Antonio Vercillo
Jennifer Rushing Schur Kentoll Wesley Wingfield
L. Pilar Wyman Bri1c1ley E Workman, AlA

AGS TASI( hlR( I

Edward Allen, AlA
Ralph Bennett. AlA
William A. Brenner, AlA
Charles B. Goldsmith, AlA
McCain McMurray, AlA
Darrel Rippeteau, AlA

THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

OF ARCHITECTS
ARCHITECTURAL

STANDARDS
TENTH EDITION

JOHN RAY HOKE, JR., FAIA

EDITOR IN CHIEF

L10HN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New York • Chichester • Weinheim • Brisbane • Singapore • Toronto
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The drawings, tables, data, and other information in this book have been
obtained from many sources, including government organizations, trade
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architecture firms. The American Institute of Architects (AlA), the
Architectural Graphic Standards Task Force of the AlA, and the publisher
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library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Ramsey, Charles George, 1884-1963.

[Architectural graphic standards]
Ramsey/Sleeper architectural graphic standards/John Ray Hoke, Jr., editor in chief.-
10th ed.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-34816-3 (cloth: alk. paper)
1. Building-Details-Drawing. 2. Building-Details-Drawings-Standards. I. Title:
Architectural graphic standards. II. Sleeper, Harold Reeve, 1893-1960. III. Hoke, John
Ray, 1950-IV. Title.

TH2031 .R35 2000

721'.028'4-dc21 99-087348

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

Publisher's Note ix
3 CONCRETE 183
Forevvord x Concrete Forms and Accessories 184
Concrete Reinforcement 189
Preface xi
Cast-in-Place Concrete 192
A Vievv of Architectural Graphic Precast Concrete 201
Standards at the Beginning of the
Tvventy-First Century xiii
4 MASONRY 209
Timeline xiv Masonry Mortar 210
A Tribute to Masonry Accessories 212
Architectural Graphic Standards xv Masonry Units 218
Glass Unit Masonry 244
Acknovvledgments xvi Stone 247

1 GENERAL PLANNING AND 5 METALS 259

DESIGN DATA 1 Metal Materials 260
Human Dimensions 2 I Metal Fastenings 264
Egress Planning 8 Structural Metal Framing 266
Building Systems 13 Metal Joists 273
Seismic Design 37 Metal Deck 275
Lighting Design 47 Cold-Formed Metal Framing 277
Acoustical Design 63 Metal Fabrications 284
Building Security 73 Ornamental Metal 291
Site, Community, and Urban Planning 81 Expansion Control 296
Flood Damage Control 101
Automobiles, Roads, and Parking 103
Trucks, Trains, and Boats 115
6 WOOD AND PLASTICS 297
Introduction 298
Construction Information Systems 122
Design Load Tables 300
Wood Treatment 314
2 SITEWORK 143 Wood and Plastic Fastenings 317
Subsurface Investigation 144 Rough Carpentry 323
Excavation Support Systems 145 Structural Panels 339
Piles and Caissons 146 Heavy limber Construction 341
Water Distribution 147 Wood Decking 352
Sewerage and Drainage 148 Sheathing 355
Paving and Surfacing 156 Wood Trusses 361
Site Improvements and Amenities 159 Glued-Laminated Construction 373
Retaining Walls 170 Finish Carpentry 378
Planting 177 Architectural Woodwork 380

v
7 THERMAL AND MOISTURE
PROTECTION 397
Waterproofing and Dampproofing 398
Thermal Protection 402
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 404
Vapor Retarders 405
Shingles, Roofing Tiles, and Roof Coverings 406
Roofing and Siding Panels 413
Membrane Roofing 415
Flashing and Sheet Metal 429
Sheet Metal Roofing 434
Flashing 438
Roof Specialties and Accessories 450
Gutters and Downspouts 459
8 DOORS AND WINDOWS
Fire Rating and Security 464
Door and Window Openings 467
Metal Doors and Frames 469
Wood and Plastic Doors 473
Specialty Doors 478
Entrances and Storefronts 482
Windows 486
Skylights 498
Hardware 503
Glazing 512
9 FINISHES 515
Plaster and Gypsum Board 516
Tile 531
Stone Floor and Wall Coverings 534
Terrazzo 538
Special Ceiling Surfaces 539
Special Flooring 541
Unit Masonry Flooring 542
Wood Flooring 543
Resilient Flooring 546
Carpet 547
Wall Coverings 549
Special Wall Surfaces 551
Acoustical Treatment 552
Paints and Coatings 556
Special Coatings 561
10 SPECIALTIES 563
Compartments and Cubicles 564
Service Walls 565
Wall and Corner Guards 567
Fireplaces and Stoves 570
Flagpoles 573
Identifying Devices 574
Lockers 576
Fire Protection Specialties 577
Protective Covers 579
Postal Specialties 583
Partitions 584
11 EQUIPMENT 587
Security and Vault Equipment 588
Teller and Service Equipment 589
Instrumental Equipment 591
Commercial Laundry and Dry Cleaning
Equipment 593
Vending Equipment 594
463 Audiovisual Equipment 595
Loading-Dock Equipment 598
Solid Waste Handling Equipment 599
Food Service Equipment 600
Residential Equipment 609
Darkroom Equipment 612
12 FURNISHINGS 613
Lamps 614
General Use Furniture 615
School and Library Furniture 619
Residential Furniture 624
Classic and Contemporary Furniture 627
Ecclesiastical Furniture 635
Office Furniture 637
Interior Plants and Planters 641
13 SPECIAL
CONSTRUCTION 643
Air-Supported Structures 644
Special Purpose Rooms 645
Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control 653
Radiation Protection 654
Pre-Engineered Structures 656
Building Automation and Control 660
Detection and Alarm 662
Fire Suppression 663
14 CONVEYING SYSTEMS 665
Elevators 666
Escalators and Moving Walks 672
Material Handling 673
vi
 Historic Storefronts 857
15 MECHANICAL 677 Historic Structural Systems 858
Mechanical Insulation 678 Historic Interiors 860
Building Services Piping 679
Plumbing 690
Special Systems 704
20 BUILDING TYPES AND
SPACE PLANNNING 863
Heat Generation Equipment 705
Residential Room Planning 864
Refrigeration and Heat Transfer 710
Nonresidential Room Planning 876
HVAC Systems 716
Child Care 889
Air Distribution 726
Health Clubs 891
Museums 892
16 ELECTRICAL 737 Airports 896
Basic Electrical Materials and Methods 738
Health Care 900
Special Systems 745 Ecclesiastical 904
Transmission and Distribution 748 Detention 907
Lighting 752 Justice Facility Planning 908
Communications 758 Assembly 913
Retail 922
17 SPORTS AND GAME Animal Care 926
FACILITIES 759 Greenhouses 931
Field Sports 760 Housing 932
Track and Field 770 Waste Management 942
Court Sports 772 Distribution Facilities 945
Tableand Bar Sports- 780 Storage Facilities 948
Aquatics 781 Processing Facilities 949
Equestrian 790
Ice and Snow Sports 791 I
21 ACCESSIBILITY 951
Introduction 952
Target Shooting and Fencing 794
Building Blocks 956
Curbs and Parking 960
18 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL Ramps 962
DESIGN 795 Elevators 963
Climate 796 Doors 966
Solar Radiation and Building Orientation 799 Communication 967
Natural Ventil~tion 807 Mobility Aids 968
Climate Response and Building Design 808 Fumiture 970
Energy Conse'tvation 813 Toilets and Bathrooms 971
Passive Solar 819 Residential 974
Active Solar 823
Shading 826 Appendix 977
Thermal Transmission 829 Graphic Symbols 978
Environmental Construction 833 Drawing Methods 986
Geometry 995
19 HISTORIC PRESERVATION 843 Mathematical Data 1005
Introduction 844 Structural Calculations 1008
Historic Masonry 846 Classical Architecture 1011
Historic Wood 849 Metric 1017
Historic Architectural Metals 851
Historic Roofs 852 Directory 1023
Historic Windows 853
Historic Entrances and Porches 855 Index 1049

vii
1;:
 PUBLISHEItS NOTE
hroughout most of the twentieth century, publication of
T a new edition of Architectural Graphic Standards has
been a signal event at John Wiley & Sons. More than a mil-
lion copies of Ramsey and Sleeper's book have influenced
several generations of architects, engineers, and designers
of the built environment, as noted by Robert Ivy and Philip
Johnson in their respective essay and tribute to this tenth
edition. For half of the life of Architectural Graphic Stand-
ards, Wile't·has been proud to have The American Institute
of Architects as its publishing partner in this great ongoing
endeavor.
The release of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic
Standards is an unprecedented event even by the high stan-
dards set by this landmark publication. For the first time,
revised print and digital versions are being released simulta-
neously. Also for the first time, both versions are fully inte-
grated and contain the same content, in formats that are tai-
lored to their respective media. This integration culminates
a major investment of effort and re,sources, and ensures
that Architectural Graphic Standardst'will continue to be not
only a definitive reference but also a valuable design tool.
ROBERT C. GARBER
Publisher
Professional/Trade Publishing
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
n the fall of 1932, the lowest point of the Great Depres-
I sion, my father W. Bradford Wiley joined John Wiley &
Sons and soon learned that a promising new book had been
published in May. Martin Matheson, then manager of mar-
keting, had persuaded Charles George Ramsey, AlA, author
of an earlier Wiley textbook, and his younger colleague,
Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, to develop their ideas and pre-
pare the plates for what became Architectural Graphic
Standards. Subsequently, Matheson directed the design
and layout of the book and personally oversaw its produc-
tion and manufacture.
The immediate acceptance and success of Architectural
Graphic Standards extended far beyond its anticipated audi-
ence of architects, builders, draftsmen, engineers, and stu-
dents. Interior designers, real estate agents and brokers,
homeowners, insurance underwriters, and lovers of fine
books all carne to be among its users and admirers.
ix
Soon after the publication of Architectural Graphic Stand-
ards, suggestions and requests came from many enthusi-
astic readers. These called for changes and additions and
inevitably the decision was made to publish a second edi-
tion in 1936, which was almost 25 percent larger than the
first. Recovery from the Great Depression had begun when
the second edition came out, and with rising construction
activity the demand for Architectural Graphic Standards
increased. To serve its users' growing needs, work soon
began on a third edition which, when published in 1941,
was almost twice as large as the original edition.
World War II lengthened the interval between editions;
the fourth edition, prepared by Sleeper, appeared in 1951
and had grown to 614 pages. The fifth edition (with 758
pages), Sleeper's last revision, was issued in 1956. The
coauthors' achievements in the initial decade, followed by
the efforts of Sleeper, provided untold thousands of users
with an invaluable resource for almost 30 years.
Harold Sleeper's foresight led to his suggestion, which
was heartily supported by John Wiley & Sons, that The
American Institute of Architects be asked to assume the
editorial responsibility for the sixth and subsequent edi-
tions. This was proposed at the June 1964 annual conven-
tion of The American Institute of Architects, and within a
month a contract between John Wiley & Sons and the
Institute led to the fulfillment of Harold Sleeper's wish.
Now, more than 60 years after publication of the first
edition, we look back on a remarkable record. Each edition
has surpassed its predecessors. The book has grown five-
fold in length, immeasurably in depth, and is now packaged
in a variety of formats designed for the changing informa-
tion requirements of architects, their students, and their
colleagues in the design and construction fields. The col-
lected editions are a chronicle of twentieth-century archi-
tectural practice and reflect as well those times when
progress has meant preservinq (and hence respecting) our
architectural heritage.
John Wiley & Sons takes pride in the part the company
has played in the enduring success of Architectural Graphic
Standards and in the association with The American Insti-
tute of Architects. Generations of readers have benefited
from this work, and we look forward to meeting the needs
of generations to come.
BRADFORD WILEY"
Chairman
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 FOREWORD
n behalf of The American Institute of Architects (AlA),
O I am delighted to celebrate with our partners, John
Wiley & Sons, the publication of the tenth edition of Archi-
tectural Graphic Standards. Since 1964, this indispensable
tool of the trade has been a resource in helping the AlA
carry out its historic commitment to the architectural pro-
fession and the public we serve by helping to bring order to
this nation's building design standards. What is remarkable
about this work and the key, I believe, to its success has
been the fact that Architectural Graphic Standards is the
fruit of a thoughtful, cooperative process that makes every
member of our industry an interested stakeholder.
This book has empowered and inspired generations of
architects to create a better built environment. The collect-
ed editions are a chronicle of the best architectural prac-
tices of the twentieth century. Indeed, I would go so far as
to make a claim that the very nature of modern practice is
encapsulated in the pages of this splendid book. Each chap-
ter, each page, and each detail assists the architect in the
design process from programming through construction.
Everyone at the AlA and every practicing architect is indebt-
ed to the founding authors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA,
and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, for their leadership in cre-
ating this catalyst for coherence and coordination in a his-
torically fragmented industry. Without it, modern practice
would likely not be as advanced.
In this edition, there are so many contributions from tal-
ented AlA members and building design experts that it is
impossible to acknowledge all of them here. These men
and women gave unselfishly and creatively so that the
whole profession wili benefit from their knowledge and
wisdom. Such generosity is at the heart of what it means to
x
be a professional. To that list, I would like to add the many
individuals, firms, trade associations, professional societies,
and manufacturers who have given this publication its auth-
ority. Their contributions are credited throughout this book
on the appropriate pages.
I would also like to acknowledge and thank three Insti-
tute editors: Joseph N. Boaz, AlA (sixth edition); Robert T.
Packard, AlA (seventh edition); and John Ray Hoke, Jr.,
FAIA (eighth, ninth, and tenth editions). John has led this
project for the last quarter-century, defining the technical
content essential to a new generation of architects.
Because of the collective wisdom and dedication of the
Institute's editors, the basic principles of service to the
industry that were set forth in the original edition continue
to be advanced.
I would also like to thank two gifted individuals who
have enriched this new edition: Robert Ivy, FAIA, editor in
chief of Architectural Record, for his inspiring essay, and
AlA Gold Medal recipient Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA,
for his provocative tribute.
To each and every person associated with this special
project I offer the words of Eero Saarinen, FAIA, who wrote
in the foreword to the fifth edition: "Just as Vitruvius gives
us understanding of the vocabulary of Renaissance archi-
tects, so Architectural Graphic Standards will show the
future the dizzying speed and expanding horizons of archi-
tectural developments and practice in our time." (May 1956).
NORMAN L. KOONCE, FAIA
Executive Vice President/CEO
The American Institute ot Architects
Washington, DC
 PREFACE
he American Institute of Architects and John Wiley &
T Sons, Inc. are proud to offer to the building design and
construction community the tenth edition of Architectural
Graphic Standards (AGSl, for the first time in simultaneous
release with a CD-ROM version. Since AGS was first pub-
lished in 1932, more than a million copies of this comprehen-
sive source of design data and details have helped shape
twentieth-century buildings and cities. With the tenth edi-
tion, this influential volume, established by Charles George
Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, will contin-
ue into the next millennium as a trusted companion to all
who seek its guidance and reference.
Historically, the primary audience of AGS has been
made up of architects, interns, and construction specifiers
as well as civil, structural, and mechanical engineers and
students in all these fields. In addition, however, a very im-
portant secondary market exists for AGS. This group is com-
posed of general contractors, subcontractors, home build-
ers, estimators, specialty contractorsfdevelopers, planners,
landscape architects, interior designers, building code offi-
cials, building owners and building engineers, construction
trade associations, historians and preservationists, facility
space planners, librarians, homeowners, and lawyers.
Since the publication of the sixth edition in 1971, and
under the care of The American Institute of Architects, AGS
has generally been organized according to the principles of
MasterFormat®, which is published by the Construction
Specifications Institute. MasterFormat® organizes construc-
tion data and information into classifications based on build-
ing trade or specialty, reflecting the assembly-line character
of the modern construction industry. In the tenth edition, an
effort has been made to conform even more carefully to the
MasterFormat® system. As a result, most pages have new
and improved page titles and section names. Chapters 2
through 16 conform to MasterFormat®, while chapters 1,
17, 18, 19,20, and 21 contain sections that are compatible
with or complementary to MasterFormat®.
The tenth edition of AGS is the largest and most im-
proved edition to date in terms of growth and content. It
consists of approximately 11,000 illustrations in twenty-one
chapters. Much of the core information, or about 50 percent
of the book, has remained unchanged. The new edition has
increased by 127. pages or about 14 percent. It now has
1,022 content pages, as compared to the 895 content
pages in the ninth edition (one of the largest increases in
xi
size for any edition yet). But in terms of real change, with
revisions to old pages and new pages added, the book's
growth in content is estimated to be about 63 percent. For
those who keep records, we have omitted 232 ninth edition
pages, revised 224 pages, added 333 new pages, and trans-
ferred 465 pages unchanged from the ninth edition.
The 232 ninth edition pages we have omitted constitut-
ed about 26 percent of that edition. This process of weed-
ing out has helped enrich the book by making room for new
material. Most of the pages that were eliminated were out
of date or determined to be of little interest to today's pro-
fessional. Because of the large number of new pages in
this edition, I have not attempted to list them by name.
Therefore, I encourage you to open the tenth edition and its
CD-ROM product, located in the back cover of the book,
and begin your journey.
An important new chapter titled" Accessibility" is based
on the design standards of the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA). Today, both existing buildings and new con-
struction must comply with ADA requirements for accessi-
bility. A special team of experts helped define and develop
these new pages. My sincere thanks for their good work
and dedication go to Thomas Davies, AlA; Mark J. Mazz, AlA;
lawrence G. Perry, AlA; and Kim Beasley, AlA.
The publication of a major new edition of Architectural
Graphic Standards requires the time, energy, and expert-
ise of many people. I would like to thank all of the great
people at Wiley, but especially Robert C. Garber, publisher:
Joel Stein, editorial director; Robert J. Fletcher IV, produc-
tion manager; Debbie lynn Davis, new media director;Beth
A. Weiselberg, associate editor; and Jim Harper, editorial
assistant, for their commitment to this immense and com-
plex project. I would also like to thank two very important
players at Wiley who continue to shape the future and the
very nature of this important work. One is Stephen Kippur,
executive vice president, and president, ProfessionalfTrade
Division. The other is Katherine Schowalter, vice president,
Professional/Trade Division.
At the AlA, I am delighted with the dedication of our pro-
fessionals. My special thanks go to three important people
who make things happen. They are Janet Rumbarger,
managing editor; Pamela James Blumgart, assistant editor;
and Richard J. Vitullo, AlA, contributing editor. I am fortu-
nate to have them as my friends and associates over three
editions. I also want to thank Fred R. Deluca, senior vice
president/COO, for his many years of service in the care of
one of this Institute's most cherished programs.
I would like to thank two very special people who have
joined our AGS celebration-my dear friend Robert Ivy,
FAIA, editor in chief of Arctiitectutel Record, for his insight-
ful essay on the historical context of AGS; and one of this
nation's most prominent architects, Philip Cortelyou
Johnson, FAIA, for his inspired tribute. We are grateful for
their important contributions.
Finally, I want to pay tribute to the memory of the origi-
nal editors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve
Sleeper, FAIA who created the first five landmark editions.
They made a wise decision in entrusting the future of their
life's work to The American Institute of Architects, which
has nurtured the book with great care and passion for its
integrity. As the standard bearer of Ramsey's and Sleeper's
original vision, Graphic Standards is poised at the beginning
xii
of the new millennium, prepared for service for the next
century and beyond.
In conclusion, I want to express my deep appreciation to
the AlA members and other contributors for their good
efforts in the making of the tenth edition. We honor them
by acknowledging their contributions on the relevant page
or pages, as well as on the acknowledgments page follow-
ing the preface. Their valuable and inspired service to the
Institute is a fine example of how the profession continues
its undaunted support of Architectural Graphic Standards
year after year.
John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA
Editor in Chief
Washington, DC
January 2000
 A VIEW OF
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
he tenth edition of Architectural' Graphic Standards
T arrives on the cusp of change, as both a century and a
millennium tick into memory, It has been a period of
extremes-scientific optimism tempered by overwhelming
societal trauma, social improvement and two World Wars,
Le Corbusier and Albert Speer, Einstein's cosmic vision and
atomic weapons, Cold War and commerce.
Two houses built early in the twentieth century in
Pasadena, California, illustrate divisions present early in the
previous century. The first, Greene and Greene's Gamble
house, represents the apotheosis of hand craft, a contem-
porary wooden temple on a hillside rubbed to near perfec-
tion, as open and forthright as the capitalist family it served.
Just down the hill, Frank Lloyd Wright sounds a more com-
plex chord at La Minatura, a sophisticated example of mod-
ular block construction, advanced for its moment, yet hint-
ing at unresolved psychological forces. The two residences
represent radically different ideals, prescient of clashes that
would follow in succeeding years.
At the turn of the twenty-first cePl'tury, our own models
seem to be virtual ones, a galaxy of computer-generated, bio-
morphic shapes developed by architect Frank Gehry and his
coterie. The cyber revolution seems to promise endless for-
mal possibilities through easily calculated custom fabrication.
We have traveled far from Wright and the Greenes. Bom-
barded by new information, which assaults us in an electronic
torrent, we stand on an invisible divide with the sense that
new ways of building are underway. Where can those of us
concerned with shaping the built environment turn for help?
Throughout roughly two-thirds of the last hundred years,
this encyclopedia of building convention and practice has
offered succor and advice. Architectural Graphic Standards
has been a repository of good ideas and a framework for
constructing new ones; its content is singular, based on
architecture's specific language, which is drawing. Since
1932, architects, engineers, and a host of others have
turned to its pages as they would a knowledgeable mentor.
The representations in Graphic Standards are ideal, not
specific, meant to embody the best thinking and applications
in universal settings, allowing the reader to tailor details to
the real world. As a source of ideal principles, the book
stands with other seminal antecedents, such as the work of
Vitruvius from the first century BC; as a comprehensive
resource, it compares to the work of Sir Banister Fletcher al-
most two thousand years later, with a nod to Diderot and the
encyclopedists of eighteenth-century France.
xiii
Part of this work's beauty is its organization. Its clear
drawings; charts and graphs, and now its digital bits, offer
information on a mind-boggling range of issues that mirror
the design and building process. It answers the question,
"How do you do that?," from site planning to building sys-
tems. Graphic Standards presupposes the interrelationship
of parts to whole projects, a nineteenth-century notion
articulated by Wright when he said, "The part is to the
whole as the whole is to the part." Here, small details link
into larger systems, ultimately joined into entire construc-
tions embracing larger sites, a linked unity of great com-
plexity, divisible into bite-sized chunks.
Physical wisdom is represented in graphic ways.
Throughout the millennia, humankind has recognized subtle
changes in dimensions that make big kinetic or aesthetic
differences. Consider the lowly step. Graphic Standards
presents tread/riser diagrams that acknowledge the enor-
mous physical changes felt with minor shifts in width to
height ratios. It remains to the architect to devise the actu-
al stair, but all can appreciate the underlying facts.
You can read this book as social history as well.
Sections on accessibility, ecology, town planning, and his-
toric preservation all arose following specific movements in
the larger civilization. Likewise, the exquisite renderings
from earlier in this century, with their complicated analyses
of shade and shadow, have disappeared: Software has ren-
dered such knowledge almost arcane, as the electronic
GPS system eclipsed dead reckoning.
However, the potential unlocked by the computer age
only underscores our need for a resource like Graphic
Standards. When all things are possible, we need to know
what things are best. Great freedom on the screen will be
well-served by rock-solid craft and a knowledge of materi-
als. The editors and contributors to this body of knowledge
have, in a sense, created their own architecture with Archi-
tectural Graphic Standards. It, and its complementary digi-
tal version, form a structure of firmness, commodity, and
delight. Accessible and well-crafted, this sturdy and vast
treasury of ideas allows us to study, adopt, and modify the
accumulated wisdom of the past into our own new ideas.
Thus armed, we step forward in time.
ROBERT IVY, FAIA
Editor in Chief
Architectural Record
 TIMELINE
The increase in size and complexity of Architectural Graphic Standards since its initial publication
has mirrored the extraordinary accomplishments of architecture in the 20th century.
Architectural Graphic Standards Architecture landmarks

Pennsylvania Station, New York

(McKim, Mead and White)
John Wiley & Sons publishes Architectural Details, a
prototype for Architectural Graphic Standards
La Villa Savoye, Poissy, France (Le Corbusier)

Chrysler Building, New York (William Van Alen)

Wiley publishes first edition of

Architectural Graphic Standards
Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (Frank Lloyd Wright)

10,000th copy sold

100,000th copy sold

The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut

(Philip Johnson)
Fourth edition published: changes in building technology
trigger 80% increase in length over prior edition
Fifth edition published: last edition prepared by
Charles Ramsey and Harold Sleeper
Seagram Building, New York
(Ludwig Mies van der Rohe)

Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (Louis Kahn)

Sixth edition published: first edition edited by The
American Institute of Architects; incorporates
Uniformat organization
John Hancock Center, Chicago
(Bruce Graham/Skidmore Owings and Merrill)
AlA Headquarters, Washington, DC
(The Architects Collective)

Centre Pompidou, Paris

(Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano)
National Gallery of Art East Wing, Washington, DC
(I. M. Pei)

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, DC

(Maya Lin)
Ninth edition published: incorporates ADA guidelines; new
material on building systems and energy-efficient design

First digital version of Architectural Graphic Standards
released as CD v1.0
1,000,000th copy sold
J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California
(Richard Meier)
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain
(Frank Gehry)

Tenth edition of book and version 3.0 of CD published

xiv
 A TRIBUTE TO
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
n 1932, the same year Henry-Russell Hitchcock and I col-
I laborated in writing The International Style, John Wiley &
Sons brought out a little-known book titled Architectural
Graphic Standards. Both of these books, in different ways,
helped usher in the era of Modernism and contributed to
my amazing journey in architecture. Sixty-eight years later
and ten editions complete. Architectural Graphic Standards,
or as I like to call it, Graphic Standards, has quadrupled in
size and immeasurably in depth of content, thanks to the
dedicated work of its gifted editors, architects, and contrib-
utors. I even understand that it is in digital form on CD-ROM
located in the back cover of this book. What's next, a
Graphic Standards website?
I can't think of another book published this century that
has supported, taught, and delighted our profession as
much as Graphic Standards. These ten editions are a chron-
xv
icle of twentieth-century U.S. architectural practice stan-
dards. Furthermore, the book is one of the most unifying
and focused reference works available in the world. I have
always considered my Graphic Standards as important in
design as is my pencil.
Every architect loves it, wears it out, and keeps it with-
in arm's length. It is a combination of the Encyclopedia
Britannica and the telephone book-or maybe it's the
Whole Earth Catalog of architecture! No architect can be
without Graphic Standards, and with it every architect is
empowered and equipped to practice architecture.
PHILIP C. JOHNSON, FAIA
The Glass House
New Canaan, Connecticut
July 7, 7999
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Edward Allen, AlA Anthonv DiGreggarlo Jacqueline Jones Richard Rodgers

David Arkin, AlA Valerie Eickelberger Philip Kenyon Robert C. Rodgers, PE
Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RIBA Richard Eisner, FAIA Don Klabin Carl Rosenberg, AlA
Randall I. Atlas, AlA, PhD, John Eliker Thomas R. Krizmanlc, AlA Debbie Rathgeber Ryon, PE
CPP Dale Ellickson, FAIA James W Laffey
Charles M. Ault Carrie Fischer Elin Landenburger Robert Sardinsky
Chip Baker Russell S. Fling, PE Christopher Save reid
Gordon B. Batson, PE Robert P Foley, PE Michael G. Lawrence, AlA Michael Schley, AlA
Erik K. Beach Grace S Lee Thomas Schueler
Kim A. Beasley, AlA Mark J. Forma William T Mahan, AlA James E. Sekela, PE
Kenneth D. Franch, PE, AlA Mark J. Mazz, AlA Stephen Selkowitz
Ralph Bennett Michael Frankel, CIPE Keith McCormack, /O.IA Neil Thompson Shade
Tedd Benson Douglas J. Franklin Kevin R McDonald, AlA Robert W ShuIdes, PE
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, Sidney Freedman McCain McMurray, AlA Mary S. Smith, PE
IALD J. Francois Gabriel Joseph P Mensch, PE John Soltis
John Birchfield Edgar Glock Walter Moberg
Reed A Black Ronald L Gobbell, FAIA David Natella Stephen B. Soule
Richard Boon Paul Gossen William W. Stewart, FAIA
Ben Brungraber, PhD., PE Alfred Greenberg, PE, CEM Donald Neubauer. PE Kristie Strasen
Robert D Buckley, AlA Paul Nimitz Doug Sturz
Robert P Burns, AlA Walter T. Grondzik, PE Beth Nixborf Jim Swords
Jeff Haberl, PhD, PE Thomas F O'Connor, AlA, Charles A. Szoradi, AlA
David Campbell Tedd Hallinan FASTM Art Thiede
Dennis Carmichael Grant Halvorsen, SE, PE Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA Joel Ann Todd
John Carmody Don Hardenbergh Kathleen 0' Meara Charles B. Towles, PE
David Collins, FAIA Daniel F.e Hayes, AlA Steven A Parshall, FAIA Brian Trimble, PE
Mark Conroy Greg Heuer Lawrence G. Perry. AlA
Dean Cox, AlA Richard F. Humenn, PE Jessica Powell Thomas Turvaville, AlA
Mark Knapp Crawfis D.J. Hunsaker James Urban, ASLA
Thomas 0 Davies Jr., AlA Mary K Hurd Robert Prouse. IALD, IES Jeffrey R. Vandevoort
Fred Davis, CLEP Isabel Ramirez Richard J Vitullo, AlA
Larry O. Degelman, PE Robert Ivy, FAIA D. Neil Rankins James W. G. Watson, AlA
Hugh Newell Jacobsen, FAIA Darrel Rippeteau, AlA Ed Williams
Joseph Demkin, AlA Kenneth D. Jaffe Michael A. Ritter, PE Stephen Wise
Brent Dickens, AlA Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA Richard M Roberts, AlA

xvi
 ONE

GENERAL PLANNING
AND DESIGN DATA .

Human Dimensions 2 Site, Community,

and Urban Planning 81
Egress Planning 8
Flood Damage Control 101
Building Systems 13
Automobiles, Roads,
Seismic Design 37 and Parking 103

Lighting Design 47 Trucks, Trains, and Boats 115

Acoustical Design 63 Construction Information

Systems 122
Building Security 73
2 Anthropometric Data: Adult

INTRODUCTION TO rate, differences are small when compared with size Disabilities are to be reckoned as follows: 3.5% of men
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA variations. and 0.2% of women are color blind; 4.5% of adults are
hard of hearing; over 30% wear glasses; 15 to 20% are
The following anthropometric drawings show three Pivot point and link systems make it easy to construct handicapped, and 1% are illiterate. Left-handed people
values for each measurement: the top figure is for the articulating templates and manikins. Links are sirnpli- have increased in number to more than 10%.
large person or 97.5 percentile; the middle figure. the fied bones. The spine is shown as a single link; since it
average person or 50 percentile; and the lower figure, can flex, pivot points mav be added. All human joints
the small person or 2.5 percentile. The chosen extreme are not simple pivots. though it is convenient to assume
percentiles thus include 95%. The remaining 5% in- so. Some move in complicated patterns like the roving SAFETY INFORMATION
elude some who learn to adapt and others. not ade- shoulder. Reaches shown are easv and comfortable;
quatelv represented. who are excluded to keep designs additional reach is possible bV bending and rotating the Maximum safe temperature of metal handles is 50°C
for the rnaloritv from becoming too complex and ex- trunk and bv extending the shoulder. Stooping to (122°F) and of nonmetallic handles, 62°C (144°F);
pensive. Space and access charts are designed to accept reach low is better than stretching to reach high. The maximum air temperature for warm air hand dryers
the 97.5 percentile large man and will cover all adults dynamic bodv mav need 10% more space than the is 60°C (l40°F); water temperatures over 46.1·C
except a few giants. Therefore, use the 97.5 percentile static posture allows. Shoes have been included in all (115° F) are destructive to human tissue. Environrnen-
to determine space envelopes, the 2.5 percentile to measurements; allowance may need to be made for tal temperature range is 17.2 to 23.9°C (63 to 75° F).
determine the maximum "kinetospheres" or reach heavV clothing. Sight lines and angles of vision givtn ill Weights lifted without discomfort or excessive strain
areas bv hand or foot. and the 50 percentile to estab- one place or another applv to all persons. are 22.7 kg (50 Ib) for 90% of men and 15.9 kg (35 lb}
lish control and displav heights. To accommodate for women; limit weight to 9.07 kg (20 Ib) if carried
both men and women, it is useful at times to add a The metric system of measurement has been included, bv one hand for long distances. Push and pull forces,
dimension of the large man to the corresponding since it is used in scientific work everywhere and is the like moving carts. are 258 N (58 lbf] and 236 N (53
dimension of the small woman and divide bV 2 to ob- most practical system of measurement ever devised. Ibf) initiallv, but 129 N (29.1 Ibf) and 142 N (32Ibf)
tain data for the average adult. This is the wav height Millimeters have been chosen to avoid use of decimals. if sustained. Noise above the following values can cause
standards evolve. Youth data are for combined sex. Rounding to 5 mm aids mental retention while being permanent deafness: 90 dB for 8 hr. 95 dB for 4 hr.
Although girls and bovs do not grow at the same within the tolerance of most human measurements. 100 dB for 2 hr. 105 dB for 1 hr. and 110dB for 0.5 hr.

n4~ m
Weight Kg & lb (Includes Avg. Clothes). Data Are For load ComPUtations, Not Health Purposes.
Standing Slump Can Be 0,.2 For Men Or Women. C.G. Is Within Pelvic link.

m
92.0 203 19.4 1illl21O 8.7
BO.5 178 I :~ I ~~:~ ~~ ~. ~ ~:~ ~:; 3.5
70.5 155 60 24 85
80
3.3
3.1 Weiftlt Kg & Lb
n!fl SO 17.7

m
~
Standin9 H ei!tl t
405 16.0
--;-- [165 65 - o 2.7
1.+ 75.5 166 365 14.4
65 2.5

r!l
95 7.7

--
1905 75.0 155 6.1 69.0 152 2.2 185 7.3

nrl
1770 69.8 55 s 3.3
61.5 135 185 7.2
1640' 64.6 I..... 145 5.7 ~~ Eye level 80 3.1

Jr;H:'~' 0[' ~----\ ~~~.~

Standing Height 75 3.0

~
790 6.2

liJ
55

~ -I' . . .
1 ~ I ~~~ !60.6
70.4 145 57
"- 235 9.3 1665
1540
65.5
60.6
135 5.3

m ~70-90"_~J--~~ r\
ti .j,80-,20
220 8.7 •
90 153 215 8.5 4 0

365
345
:;:
\ ~It---.>
L.
1
ce:;~ ~~~::~~:~
~ ~
Shoulder Height
. [J[
~~~ ~:~
175 6.8
70 14.5
350 13.7
[ 325
] [ 12.8
(
I ~ CI.. ~ul., l]ill575 62.4 Ir('
1 r--jj-
\ l.
J~~::::;;:j~~=~ 1460 57.6
1345 52.9
.----tl----;- Shoulder Height )

,- Ul3~ ~~'.~
T:;;
315 12.4
ljJ70 10.7
230 9.0
' ..
1--0[00
280
11.9
11.1 liJ 475
1365
1260
58.0 {
53.7
49.6

& ,"'-J
3~ g:~
Thoracic 195 7.7

i 265 10.4
tr~b~ Link Elbow Hei!tlt ..

[I
285 11.2
455
425
192
18.0
16.7
:z: -
Q 90 7.4
L 6.9
175 r1ml175 46.3
1090 43.0 ('
T' Un , 0[ 85
265
250
11.2
10.5
9.9

[I455 18.0 Elbow Height

160 6.3 1005 39.6

~
'-----'-'-'----H",c-t-'.,... I 425
400
16.8
15.7
'195
180
7.7
7.1
105 40.3
1025
:43.5
180_380
~ 935 36.9

[1[70 10.6 6.4

228-82" 255 10.0
Crotch Height 1_r:: HiP) 235 9.7 CG

~ ) 0[
-~

~
20 36.3
PIV 55
235
10.1
9.3
Pivot 850 33.5 \-- 207135" Crotch Hei!tlt 220 8.7

~
Points 775 30.6
Pelvic 5 3: 4.0
790 31.2
Link

[]I
Finger Height
0[2190
..10 8.3
7.5
730 28.7

'
0 18.1
425
390
16.7
15.3 . UI
I

11n35
680
620
28.9
26.8
24.5
175 6.9

0[ 25 16
. .7
Finger Height
~27.1 [I 90
175
160
7.5
6.9
6.3

Wldth~
J 390
355 15.4
140 \
I ~gJ~~:~
I-
OJITrHIP
380 14.9
lHI:3502: ·J I-- '65 2.6 -I
335 13.1 .7 I ~g ~:~
,
295

Hip W. Sitting
11.7

l 290
Hip W. Silting
16
13.8
11.5
t"\ ~~ ~:j
r~ 39--
Lli-
I ~ ~:g
2.9

[iJ355
315
00 15.8
13.9
12.4
Ol{]
SO 17.7
370 14.6
-i .JL i~ ~5.8
-I
17.7
16.2
14.8
links

[]I 10
380
16.2
14.9
310 12.3

J
J
V lILI'[l;~
§j3.5
Shoe Widlh

_ m 20
105
95
4.B
4.2
3.7

I~~ I~ ~
345 13.6
Shoe Length 2 3'-

nID
75 10.9
260 10.2 75 30
240 9.4 ,I-

lC
A\---'I:l:'-
r.-- ----'-;.~t
290
265
11.4
10.5
265
245
10.4
9.7 I -/ IJ 1 401 1 5
~ 9.7 225 8.9 I

Male and female S1anding heights (including shoes) Dimensional notation svstern:

~
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large ~ 97.5 percen.tile } includes ooo 39.3} Numb~~ appearin. g in bOo xes ~re measurements
1775 69.8 1665 65.5 average = 50 I"'erce-ntlle 95% U.S. 100 3.9 in milfimeters , Numbe~ outSIde boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small = 2,5 oercentue adults. 25.4 1.0 measurements in Inches

Niels Diffrient, Alvin A. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York. New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
 Anthropometric Data: Children 3

Combined Ages Standmq Shoulder Head Head H,.., Shoulder Crotch Arm Foot Eye Weight
Sex Data Years Height A Width B Width C Length 0 Height E Height F Height G Length H Length J Level K Kg Lb
Large 1BOO 70.8 465 18.2 155 6.2 200 7.9 225 BB 1460 57.5 860 33.9 790 31.1 270 10.6 1685 66.4 76.5 169
Avg-- 15 1675 659 420 16,5 145 5B 190 74 220 B6 1370 54.0 790 31.1 735 28.9 250 9.9 1565 61.7 69.0 152
Small --- 1545 60.8 375 J48 140 5.5 lB5 72 215 BA 1260 49.6 730 2B.7 6B5 26.9 230 91 1445 56.8 62.0 137
1625 63,9 395 156 155 61 200 79 215 B.5 1325 52.2 Bl0 31.9 710 2BO 240 9.5 1520 59.9 51,5 114
1485 28.7 1385
" 1350
1440
58.5
53.2
56.6
350
300
350
137
11,9
13.8
145
135
150
57
53
6.0
lB5
170
200
73
6.B
7B
215
210
210
8A
8.2
B.3
1205
1080
1165
47.5
42.5
45.8
730
645
705
25.4
27.7
660
600
640
25.9
23.7
25.1
220
195
220
B.6
76
B6
1250
1335
54.5
49.2
52.6
37.0
23.5
36.5
B2
52
Bl
1320 52,0 310 12.1 140 5.6 185 7.3 205 81 1065 42.0 630 24.9 5B5 23.1 200 7.B 1220 48.0 27.0 59
1200 47.3 265 10.5 130 52 170 6.7 205 8.0 960 37.7 560 22.0 515 2~.3 175 6.9 1100 43.3 17.0 38
1315 51.8 320 12.6 150 59 195 7.7 205 B.l 1060 4L8 630 24.7 5B5 23,1 200 79 1215 47.8 2B.0 62
1220 48.0 2B5 11.3 140 5.5 lBO 7.1 205 B.O 970 38.2 565 22.3 525 20.7 lBO 71 1120 44.0 22.0 49
1125 44.2 250 99 130 5.1 165 6.5 200 7B 890 35.1 50S 19.8 470 18.6 160 63 1025 40.3 16.5 36
t185 46.7 290 11.5 145 5.B 195 7.6 200 79 945 37.3 545 21.5 515 20.3 lBl 71 1085 42.8 22.0 49
M 1090 43.0 260 10.3 135 54 180 7.0 195 77 B65 34.1 490 19.3 460 18.2 161 63 995 39.' 18.0 39
995 ::9.1 230 91 125 5.0 165 6.5 190 75 7BO 30.7 430 17.0 415 16.3 141 5.6 B90 35.0 13.5 29.5
930 36,7 240 95 135 5.2 175 6.9 195 77 735 28.9 375 14.7 415 16.4 141 56 B35 32.B 13.0 29
725 28.6 205 BO 125 4.9 160 63 175 6.9 565 22.2 245 9.6 305 12.0 110 43 640 25.1 9.0 20
A
Birth 505 19.9 150 6.0 95 3.B 100 4.0 125 5.0 375 14.9 170 6.6 195 7.6 BO 3.1 440 17.4 3.5 7.5

M N 0 p Q S T U
V
370 14.6 465 18.3 430 17.0 420 16.6 115 4.4 355 14.0 190 7.4 185 73 2B5 11.3 255 10.1 195 7.6
15 350 13.8 430 17.0 400 15.7 390 15.3 105 4.1 325 12.7 175 6.9 175 6.9 270 10.6 240 9A lBO 7.0
330 13.0 405 15.9 360 14.2 350 13.8 100 3.9 290 11.5 160 G.? 165 65 250 99 220 B.7 165 6.5
345 13.5 420 16-7 3B5 15.1 375 14.7 100 39 320 12.5 170 67 170 6B 260 10.3 230 91 175 6B
12 320 12.6 390 15.3 345 13.6 335 13.2 95 3.B 2BO 11.1 150 60 160 6.3 245 9.6 215 B.5 160 6.2
295 11.7 360 14.' 305 12.1 300 11.8 90 3.5 250 9.B 130 5.2 150 5.9 225 B9 195 76 145 5.8
310 12.3 375 14.8 335 13.0 325 12.8 95 3.7 270 10.6 145 5.7 160 6.2 240 .9.4 210 B.2 150 60
G
290 11.4 350 13.8 300 11.9 290 11.4 90 3.5 245 9.6 130 5.1. 145 5.B 220 B6 190 7A 140 5.7
0 275 10.8 320 12.7 265 10.4 255 10.1 B5 3.3 220 B6 110 4.4 135 SA 195 7.7 160 6.3 130 51
290 11.4 345 13.7 300 11.8 290 11.4 90 3.5 245 9.6 130 5.1 145 5.8 220 B.6 190 7. 140 5.7
280 11.0 325 12.8 270 10.6 260 10.3 B5 3.3 220 87 115 4.5 140 5.5 200 7B 165 6.5 130 5.2
260 10.2 305 12.0 245 96 235 9.3 BO 3.1 210 B2 100 3.9 130 5.1 175 6.9 150 5.8 120 4.B
270 10.7 315 12.4 260 10.3 255 10.0 85 3.3 215 8.4 105 4.2 135 5.3 190 7.6 160 6.3 130 5.1
255 10.0 300 11.8 235 9.3 220 B.8 BO 3.1 200 7.8 90 3.6 125 4.9 170 67 145 5.7 120 4.7
240 94 2BO 11.0 210 8.2 195 7.7 70 2.B lB5 7.2 BO 3.1 120 4.7 145 57 130 5.1 115 4.5

High Low Reach High Reach Ey, Up To Hat Shelf Lavatory Work Work Table Sea
A"" Reach A Reach B Distance C Reach 0 Radius E level F A"" Height G Height H TopJ Depth K Height l Length M
2085 82.0 815 32.0 735 29.0 144{) 56.7 660 25.9 1215 47.8 15 1675 66.0 760 30.0 915 36.0 460 18.0 650 25.5 370 14.6
HS 15 1915 15.3 730 28.7 6B5 21.0 1375 54.1 610 24.1 1160 45.6 1485 58.5 685 795 16.5 340 13.3
635 25.1 1315 51.7 570
12 27.0 31.3 420 590 23.3
1765 6g.4 665 26.2 22.4 1100 43.3
J,. 9 1320 52.0 635 25.0 695 27.3 3BO 15.0 525 20.7 300 11.8
1860 13.2 70S 27.6 665 26.2 1320 52.0 600 23.6 1100 43.3
HS 12 1705 61.1 630 24.7 620 24.3 1250 49.2 555 1040
21.9 41.0 7 1220 48.0 585 23.0 635 25.0 355 14.0 480 18.9 275 10.8
1545 60.9 560 22.1 565 22.3 1185 46.6 510 20.1990 38.9 5 1090 43.0 485 19.0 570 22.5 330 13.0 445 17.5 250 9.9
1645 64.8 60S 23.B 600 23.6 1175 46.3 540 21.2 975 38.4
4 th. 1510 59.4 55!> 21.8 550 21.7 1120 44.0 495 19.5 925 36.5
1345 53.0 510 20.0 485 19.1 1040 40.9 435 17.1 880 34.6 Seat To Min Basic
1505 59.3 545 21.5 550 21.7 1080 42.6 SOD 19.6 890 35.0 Age,
""., Backrest
0
Backrest
Height P
Armrest
Spacing 0
""., Table
Width S
2 nd . 1370 53.9 510 20.1 495 19.5 1015 4{).0 445 17.5 B50 33.5
Hei!t'tN Width R
1245 49.0 485 19.0 445 11.5 960 31.7 395 15.6 815 32.0 15 405 15.9 150 6.0 175 6.8 445 17.5 380 15.0 760 30.0
1330 52.3 500 19.7 480 19.0 970 38.1 430 16.9 B15 32.1 12 370 14.6 145 5.7 160 6.2 420 16.5 370 14.5 710 2BO
KOG 5 1210 41.1 465 18~3 435 11.1 915 36.1 385 15.2 770 30.4
t lOBS 42.1 425 16.7 390 15.3 865 34.1 345 13£ 720 28.4
9
7
325
290
12.B
11.4
135
130
5.4
5.1
140
130
5£ 355
5.1 330
14.0
13.0
330
305
13.0
12.0
610
610
24.0
24.0
Starting School Grades
5 265 10.4 120 4.8 125 5.0 305 12.0 280 11.0 535 21.0
Chalk Board
Height

l...-.-.--coK_-+-H
o

Standing heiqhts (including shoesl-typiCal example Dimensional notal ion system

1800 70.8 large 15 year youth ~ 97.5 percent.ile } combined ooo 39.3} Numb~rs appea.ring in b.OXe5 are measurements
1675 65.9 average 15 year youth '"50 percentile sex data 100 3.9 III millimeters Numhers outsHre boxes are
1545 60.8 small 15 year youth'" 2.5 cercentue U.S. youths
GTIJ
25.4 1.0 measurements In incht:S

Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
4 Workstations: Standing

SERVING AT A COUNTER
Counter (FOOD COUNTERf
Depth Minimum
Aisle Space
535-610 21-24 18 One Server _-l..J---::":-~:"'"
Two or More
Counter Servers _-4,..J.--=.c~L:.:-I
Height 16
§J36

STANDING HEIGHT STCS.

2440 96 Residential Viewing Distance To Standard DisPlays COMBINED ADULT SEX
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Ceilings
13-28 2440 96- Residential Ceiling
I 2030 lao Minimum
High Reach, Higtl Shelves _ _ lower03
Ceilings
low Reach, low Shelves-Raise ~3
2135 84 Office Doors Shelving Depth
Work Surfaces I ower0 1.5
Residential Doors 230-305 9-12
2030 80
+ ~\~ 5:;~g~~ndeliers
1980 78
L...:.=":":'~":":''':'':'-l---~It 30' 2M
Shower Head (Max)
1905 75 Highest Head Top

1880 74 Clothes Line (Max)

No See Over
1830 72 Hat Hooks (Mall:)
Highest Shelf (Men)
1830 72
Shower Head Clear IMinl
Rail ForEveningDresses
1780 70 Top Of Mirror
1920
1730 68 Highest Shelf (Womenl 1780
1655

1600 63 Catwalk Head Clear (Mini 1790

1665
1575 62 Avg Adult Eye level 1540
10"
1475 58 Thermostats

1395 55 See Over

1370 Grab Bars

54
Phone Dial Hgt
1320 52 Highest File

1270 Door Push Plates

30" 50
Shower Valves
1220 48 Walt5witch Plate
Deal Plate
1145 45 Push Bar On Doors

1120 44 Bar (Hi)

Counters, Doorknob IMa)()

1065 42 Safety Handrails, Bars Optimum
Entrance lock (MaK) Shelving
1015 40 Zone
Ironing Board (Hi)
M
915 36 Handrails, Ironing Board (Hi)
Counters, Doorknob (Min)
840 33 Panic Bars

790 31 lavatory Rim

letter Slot,
760 30 Rails On Steps
760 30 Ironing Board (lo)

455 18 Wall QutJets

535-610 21-24
405 16 Highest Step
Cavity For Stool Storage
lowest lowest
Reach Level 305 12 Rung Spacing Reach Level
230
205 8 Bar Rails

190 7.5 Stair Riser (Opt I

150 6 Toe Space (MaxI

75 3 ToeCle.r IMinl

a Datum 25 Threshold (Maxi

Male and female standing heigtlts (including shoes]: Dimensional notation system:
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large:: 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} ~um.b_~rs aPpea.rin9 in boxes are measurements
1775
1640
69B
64.6
1665
1540
65.5 average=50pen:entile
60.6 small ., 2.5 percentile
95% us.
eccns ITm100
25.4
3.9 In rndlimeters. Numbers outside boxes are
1.0 measurements In inches.

Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
 Workstations: Seated 5
HIGH WORK SEATS SEATING ANGLES MEDIUM HIGH WORK SEATS
(BANK AND TICKET COUNTE RSl (POST OFFICE CDUNTE RI
Reclining Postures

610-710 24-28
Retaxing Postures
Alert Postures
I Work Postures
a 22

Sit Or Stand SO 0° Hip Anqles

Work Positions 110-130° Relax
13-14 95_130" Work
And Alert

Easy Head Rotation light Sources

(79 0 Maximums) Reflect In
EYeGlasse5

Minimum
Table
Widths
1o
24

27

30

SITTING HEIGHT STDS.

COMBINED ADUL T SEX

50"
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Easy
Head Movements
50° Maximum light Sources Below 1450 57 Highest Head Top High Forward Reach, Eye level, Head Heig--t ~ lower~ 2.2
Visual Limit line

I Create Glare 1420

1370
56

54
Mirror Top

No See Over
Reach Radius

/
Decrease~ 2.5

50" ~i9h Visual Limit

1370 54 Floor Lamp (Hi)
FunctIOnal GriPS

1270 50 High Shelf

1195 47 Avg Eye Level

1170 46 High File. Front Tab

1090 43 See Over Hgi

1065 42 Phone Dial Hqt

1015 40 Floor Lamp (La!

M
915 36 lunch Counter

865 34 High File, Top Tab

790 31 Sewing Table

760 Stool For 42 Counter

30
Hasp. Bed (Hi)
Work Table
735 29
Desk
685 27 Iron Board

660 26 Typing Table

Table (Min!
635 25
Knee Space
24 Side Tables
610
Chair For 36 Counter
455 18 Coffee Table (Hi)
Wall Outlets
455 18 8.d
445 17.5 Work Chair

400 15.8 Toilet Seat

3.8
15 Seat (Min)
Ma)(WC 3.2 380
Park Seat
Height 2.7
305 12 FOOl Stool (Hi)
Sitting 400
Height 280
470
425
18.5
16.8 150
" Coffee Table {Loj

Foot Ring 24 Chair

395 15.6
715 28.1 150 Toe Space (Max)
655 25.8
600 23.7 75 Toe Clear. (Min)

50 Foot Sroot It.ol

Male and female standing heights (including shoesl: Dimensional notation system

~
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large = 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} Numben appea.rin g in b.oxes are measurements
, 775 69_8 1665 65.5 average '"' 50 percentile95% u.S 100 3.9 In miltirneters. Numben cctsioe boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small = 2.5 percentile adults 25.4 1.0 measurements In Hlches

Niels Diffrient. Alliin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates: New York, New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
6 Space Usage

PASSAGES FOR ONE PASSAGE FOR TWO FACING DOORS SINGLE DOOR PASSAGE FOR FOUR FACING DOOR::

-----
Door Opening Door
Outward

©
Opening
Outward
Door A
(Q)
~36
@ Min

©
Door B Door A
E!30 OoorA 2440 96

1600 63
1805 71
@ 610
24@
Min
Door B

©
Door B
1650 65

© © 2135 84

© <1D
78

Note: Also See Wheelchair Requirements

Prefer Straight And Short Corridors With Two Way Traffic; "I" And 'L' Shapes Cause Blockages. Make Flow Plans
LIVING SPACE OFFICE SPACE

Table For One;

685
27 -NOTE~P;et;rFront Load
Dishwashen:

Male and female standing hei~ts (including shoes): English Beds: Small Single 900 x 1900;NewStd.Single 1000 x 2OOO;Small Double Dimensional notation sY'tem:

~
1905 75.0 1790 10.4 large"97.spercentile} includes
1350 x 1900; New Std. Double 1500 x 2(X)() ooo 39.3} Numbers apPearing in boxes ~re measurements
1175 69.8 1665 65.5 average" 50 percentile 95% U,S. 100 3.9 in millimeters. Numbers outsIde boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small '" 2.5 percentile adults 25.4 1.0 measurements in inches.

Niels Diffrient. Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
 Accessibility 7

SIDE CATWALK FRONT PASSAGEWAY CQARtQORS HALLWAYS WITH ONE BAG WITH TWO BAGS (:AAAYING TRAY
1 Person 2 People

rrnsl49 f1880174
,...,
I <
<

MANHOLES CEILING AND TOP AND WALL ACCESS CRAWL PIPE CRAWL·WAYS ARM ACCESS ARM ACCESS TWO HAND REACH TWO ARM REACH
FLOOR HATCH BOTTOM ACCESS TO ELBOW TO SHOULDER ACCESS (No Vision) ACCESS (No Visionl
~22.8 ~25Min

m; @ 1
Max AbOlie
§J18 Min Oia [!60] 30 Floor 0 2 , l ~ L Height
~36Spac:e Or$quare ~30Prefer ~8 ~5 ~'9.5~5

~i' ~~13
Min

~
$'~'
185 31
• Prefer
915 36

HEAD ACCESS fiNGER ACCESS TWO FINGER HAND FLAT ACCESS MINIMUM HAND FINGER TIP PUllS HANDLE OPENI NGS FOOT OPENINGS
TWIST ACCESS ACCESS TO WRIST
Diameter
~9.3Bare
0 1.3 Bare r=I
~2Bare
Height Width

~2.3 ~4Bare
Height

§]s
Width
~3.5Bare ~OrSquare
L
~3.2 Minimum
L
~3.8 ~1.5Bare
H L
~12
H
[!2i]4.5Bare
~ 1.5 Glove ~3.8Bare
~12.5safetv
Hot [!]O.3 To
r::::-l
EKclUd~2.5 G~~;
~4 ~6Glove @D6 ~4.5GIOve Hand Curled With
Or Without Screw
..H.
[ _~JO. 75 Minimum
G4.5 0 2 Glove ~13 ~5Shoes
I ~15.5 ~6.5 Boots
<$)-
~5To R

?:/Il
d I Round

~'{
I Object ~:~ I ~S=~i~~h Reet
~useHei9hl
II Hound

~
L/2 For Two F m(lf~rs L/2 For Two Fingers
I-- L
Dia

JLlolJC
Exetuoe .j
=:::::;:>For Cia - - - - - - ' For Dlil
« •. ca=;5J
I I I I 0.3 0.9

SIT";ING UPRIGHT RELAXEDSEATlNG SITTING ON FLOOR SQUATTING STOOPING KNEELING

Width No Armrest: Width With Armrest Work Width (For Short Durauoos! (For Short Durations) (Prefer Knee Padl

~22.8Min ~2BMin ~25Min

[865]34 Depth Maximum Recline
I [l1OOl67 [l98O] 78

Datum

SUPINE

[1005]75

PRONE

~
R 96
I ~p~~~,20
~43017
Male and female standing heig,ts (including shoes): Dimensional notation svstem:

~
1905 75.0 1790 70Alarge" 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} Numbers appearing. in boxes are measurements
1775 69.8 1665 65.5average"5Dpercentile 95% U.S. 100 3.9 In mll.,meten. Numbers outsioe boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small" 2.5 percentile adults 25A 1.0 measurements in meres.

, Niels Dilfrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York

HUMAN DIMENSIONS
8 Occupant load Calculations
GENERAL areas of an occupancy, shall be provided with exits as EXITS
though they are completely occupied, but their occupant
The information for determining occupant load shown in load need not be included in computing the total occupant All three major codes use occupant loads to determine the
the table on this page comes from three model building load of the building' rUBC Sec. 3302 la)). size and number of required exits. Based on occupant loads
codes in use in the United States: and area uses, it is possible to determine the required num-
Most codes require that to determine multiple use building ber of exits and the arrangement and sizes of exit compo-
1. BOCA National Building Code (BOCA). 1996 edition. with or area occupancies, the occupant load (OU must be based nents.
permission of the Building Officials and Code Administra- on the use that produces the most occupants. For example,
tors International. Inc .• publisher. the occupant load for a school multiple use room, which All three codes (BOCA. SBC. and UBC) consider an exit to
2. Standard Building Code (SBC). 1997 edition. with permis- will be used for classroom activities (Ot. factor 20) as well be more than merely a door. Although specific definitions
sion of the Southern Building Code Congress Interna- as assembly space (OL factor 15), is calculated using the 15 vary with each code, exits usually are considered to be con-
tional, tnc., publisher, with all rights reserved. sq ft per occupant factor. tinuous and unobstructed means of egress to a public way
and may include such building elements as doors, corridors,
3. Uniform Building Code (UBC). 1997 edition. with permis-
If buildings or areas contain two or more separate occupan- stairs, balconies, lobbies, exit courts, etc. Elevators are not
sion of the International Conference of Building Officials.
cies, the overall occupant load is determined by computing considered exits. Requirements for arrangement. size. and
publisher.
occupant loads for various areas and adding them together operation of exits vary; consult applicable codes for specific
Occupant load generally is defined as the maximum capac- for an aggregate occupant load. information.
ity of a building or room given as the total number of people
present at anyone time. For occupant loads, it is generally When calculating occupant load for areas with fixed seating
assumed that all areas of a building will be occupied at the in benches or pews, the number of occupants is based on
same time, with some exceptions noted in specific codes. one seat for each 18 in. of bench or pew space. In dining
For example. the UBC states, "Accessory use areas. which areas with booth seating, the number of seats is based on
ordinarily are used only by persons who occupy the main 24 in. for each seat.
MINIMUM EXITS
OCCUPANT LOADS BASED ON USAGE
MAXIMUM FLOOR AREA PER 2 EXITS MINIMUM
OCCUPANT (SQ FT) REQUIRED WHERE
OCCUPANT LOAD
USE BOCA SBC USC! USAGE IS AT LEAST,
Assembly areas 2-concentrated use (without fixed seats): 7 net 7 net 7 Aged. homes for the 6
auditoriums, bowling alleys3, churches, dance floors. lodge
Aircraft hangars 10
rooms, reviewing stands, stadiums
Auction rooms 30
Assembly areas-less concentrated use: conference rooms, 15net 15net 15
dining/drinking areas, exhibit rooms, gymnasiums, lounges, Assembly areas 50
staqes- Bowling alley 50
Assembly areas-standing space 3 net 3 net 3 Children's homes 6
Business areas 5 100 gross 100 gross 100 Classrooms 50
Courtrooms (without fixed seats) 40 net 40 net 40 Congregate residences 10
Day care facilities 35 Courtrooms 50
Dormitories 50 Dormitories 10
Educational Dwellings 10
Classroom areas 20 net 20 net 20
Shops and vocational rooms Exercise rooms 50
50 net 50nel 50
Industrial areas 6 Health care facilities
100 gross 100 gross 200
Sleeping rooms 8
Institutional? Treatment rooms 10
Children's homes, homes for aged. nursing homes, - - 80
Hotels and apartments 10
sanitariums, hospitals 240 gross 240 gross 240
Inpatient treatment areas 100 gross 100 gross - Kitchens (commercial) 30
Outpatient areas 1209ross 120 gross 120 Library reading rooms 50
Sleeping areas
locker rooms 30
Kitchens (commercial) 200
Manufacturing areas 30
Libraries
Reading rooms . 50 net 50 net 50 Mechanical equipment rooms 30
Stack areas 100 gross 100 gross 100 Nurseries for children (day care) 7
lobbies (accessory to assembly area) 7 Offices 30
locker rooms 50 Parking garages 30
Mechanical equipment areas 300 gross 300 gross 300 School shops and vocational 50
Mercantiles rooms
Basements 30 gross 30 gross 30 Skating rinks 50
Ground floors 30 gross 30 gross 30 Storage and stockrooms 30
Upper floors 60 gross 60 gross 60
Storage, stockrooms, shipping areas 300 gross 300 gross 300· Stores (retail sales rooms)
Basements 2 exits minimum
Parking garages 200 gross 200 gross 200 Ground floors 50
Hesidential"v 200 gross 200 gross Upper floors 50
Hotels and apartments - - 200 Swimming pools 50
Dwellings - - 300
Warehouses 30
Skating rinks I I - 15net - All other 50
Rink area - - 50
Deck - - 15
Storage areas 300 gross 300 gross 300
Swimming pools
Pool - - 50
Deck - - 15
All other areas - 100

1. Both BOCA and SBC use net and gross floor areas to de-
termine occupant load. UBC does not differentiate
between net and gross areas.
2. Occupant loads for assembly areas with fixed seats are
determined by the actual number of installed seats.
3. Occupant load calculations for bowline alleys under
BOCA and SBC use 5 persons per alley in addition to the
tabular values indicated.
4. Stages are considered assembly areas--less concen-
trated use (15 sq ft per occupant) in UBC, not separately
classified in BOCA or SBC.
5. USC classifies business areas as office occupancy.
6. USC classifies industrial areas as manufacturing areas.
7. BOCA and SBC classify areas within institutional occu-
pancies; UBC classifies by occupancy description only.
8. UBC classifies mercantile areas as store-retail sales
rooms.
9. UBC considers storage and stockroom areas as storage
occupancy (300 sq ft per occupant).
10. BOCA and SBC do not separate hotel/apartment and
dwelling occupancies.
11. BOCA does not classify skating rinks separately from
other assembly areas of less concentrated use (15 sq ft
per occupant). SBC does not separate areas within skat-
ing rinks.

ICBO; SBCCI; BOCA

James O. Rose, AlA; University of Wyoming; laramie, Wyoming
Annica S. Emilsson; Rippeteau Architects, P.c.; Washington, D.C

EGRESS PLANNING
 Stair Design 9

GENE~AL
Stairways are an essential component in the circulation and
egress systems of most buildings. They are also the site of
up to 42 in. {1067 mm} are permitted by some building
codes. Intermediate ralls or balusters must be spaced so
that a sphere of either 4 or 6 in. 1102 or 152 mmJ. depend-
ing on the code and use group, cannot pass through any
iTJmt_ ~,o"."
I
3'1" MIN

I
""'"0 ""~
BE 1 114 TO 1'12 " (3 2 TO 38
IN OUTSIDE DIAMETER
rnrru

accidents resulting in approximately 4000 deaths and one
million injuries requiring hospital treatment annually In the
United States. For these reasons, stairway design is strictly
controlled by building regulations.
~
part of the guard. Guardrail designs with horizontal rails that
are easily climbed are not recommended and, in some
cases. are restricted. For residential stairs. guardrails 36 in. 1'1.'(38 mrm CLEAR SPACE
(914 mm) in height are usually permitted. BETWEEN HANDRAIL AND WALL

The information on this and the following page on stair

design summarizes -most common building code and
access regulation requirements. Be sure to check local reg-
ulations as welt.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: Consult the table below on
building code stairway requirements to determine dimen-
sional limits for treads. risers, and stair width. Verify that
local codes are not more restrictive.
TREAD AND RISER SIZES: Use the stair proportioning
graph on the associated AGS stair design page to find the
number of risers, riser height, and optimum tread depth.
STAIR WIDTH: In addition to the minimums shown on this
page, stair widths must also meet occupant load require-
ments based on use group and floor area. Consult the local
building code.
STAIR DETAILS SUPPORT HANDRAIL FROM
BELOW SO GRIPPING SURFACE
Treads and risers within a flight must be uniform in size IS NOT INTERRUPTED
within close tolerances. Treads must be slip resistant. The
shape of nosings and risers must meet the requirements SECTION
shown below. Carpeting or other stair coverings should be
applied securely and should not create a nosing radius
greater than permitted. Handrails. guardrails. and stairways
themselves must meet structural load requirements.
ENDS OF HANDRAILS MUST
RETURN SMOOTHLY INTO A
Access regulations in some localities require floor material
WALL, FLOOR, OR POST
strips of contrasting color located at the top approach to a
stair and at the lowest tread. These markings are intended
to aid the visualtv'imoaired in identifying the limits of the
stair. The application of such markings may be appropriate
even where not required. particularly where a high propor- RETURN I
tion of elderly or visually impaired users are anticipated. TO WALL EXTENSION DIMENSION

LANDINGS: Landings at least as wide as the stair itself are PLAN

required at the top and bottom of the stair and at intermedi- SPECIAL STAIR CONFIGURATIONS RETURN
ate points if necessary to ensure that no single flight has a Winders (radiating risers) in stairs normally are permitted
rise greater than 12·It (3658 rnrn), only in single-family residences. Minimum tread depth
requirements at the inside of the winders may limit the
STAIR LAYOUT: A sample stairway plan and section are inside radius of the stair. Spiral stairs typically are permitted
shown on the following page on stair design. Some tips for in single-family residences and for access to mezzanines of
stair layout follow: limited area in other building types. With certain tread depth
restrictions, circular stairways are permitted in most build-
1. Maintain minimum headroom of 6 It 8 in. (2032 mm) for ings. Alternating tread stairways are permitted for some
non-residential and 6 ft 6 in. (1981 mm) for residential mezzanines and for access to rooftops. The use of fixed
stairs. ladders is limited to access to restricted areas. such as roof-
12" 1 TREAD
2. Avoid flights with fewer than three risers to minimize tops and elevator pits.
BOTTOM
tripping hazards.
EXTENSION
3. The use of door alcoves is recommended to prevent REFERENCES
stairway doors from obstructing the egress travel path. RETURN TO WALL
Metal Stairs Manual. National Association of Architectural IS ADDITIONAL TO
4. For prefabricated stairs. the stairwell enclosure should be Metal Manufacturers, 1992. REQUIRED
oversize by several inches for-ease of stair installation EXTENSION, TYP.
and to avoid structural conflicts. Templer. John. The Staircase. 2 vets. Cambridge. M,ass.: (TOP AND BOTTOM)
MIT Press, 1992.

TREAD AND RISER PROPORTIONING NOTE

Most interior stairs are designed to the steepest limits per- See pages in other Architectural Graphic Standards chap- ELEVATION
mitted by code so as to occupy the least amount of space. ters for stair construction details in various materials and for
However, tread and riser combinations that are less steep other applications.
may be considered for exterior stairs. grand stairs. or stairs 112"(13 rnm: RADIUS MAX----·~-----
of just a few risers. The most common rule for the comfort-
able proportioning of stairs in these cases is 2 x riser height 60.M~ -,
+ tread depth = 25 in. (635 rnrn). Consider testing life-size
mock-ups of stairs of unusual proportions to verify their
ease of use.

HANDRAILS
The accompanying diagrams summarize most handrail OK NOT OK NOT OK
requirements for nonresidential stairs. For residential stairs
ACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND RISERS NOTES
not covered by ADA, most codes permit handrails on only
one side of the stair, without top and bottom extensions. In
some cases a greater range of heights is also permitted.
RADIUS"','(13 ~ 1. When considering metal pipe rails, do not confuse the
nominal size by which pipes are specified with the actual
The ADA recommends (but does not require) additional outside diameter of the pipe. The outside diameter is
handrails at lower heights where stairs are used by chil- larger than the nominal size.
dren. 2. Handrails must be continuous on both sides of a stair.
---""--'OPEN RISER Ends of handrails must extend beyond the stair as shown

GUARDRAILS ~C--S-Q-U--CA==RE OR ABRUPT UNDERSIDE

above.
3. The gripping portion of a handrail must be equivalent to a
114to 1 y, in. (32 to 38 mm) diameter round rail.
Guardrails 42 in. (1067 mm) in height are typically required
on the open sides of nonresidential stairs. When handrails
are used in combination with a ·guardrail, handrail heights UNACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND HANDRAIL DETAILS CONFORMING TO
RISERS ADA AND MOST BUILDING CODES

BUILDING CODE STAIRWAY REQUIREMENTS

BUILDINGS OTHER THAN SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES
MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM
TREAD RISER TREAD RISER STAIR
DEPTH RESTRICTIONS MINIMUM STAIR WIDTH DEPTH RESTRICTIONS WIDTH
1998ADAAG 11" (279mm) No limits 48" (1219 mm) clear between handrails for stairs adjacent to an area of No limits No limits No limits
rescue assistance
1996 BOCA National 11" (279mm) T' (178 mm) maximum 44"(1118mm) 9" 1229 mm) 8'1.' (210 mm) 36" (914 mm)
8uilding Code 4" (102 mml minimum 36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer
1997 Standard 9" (229mm) 7 31."
(197 mm) maxi- 44" (1118 mm) 9" (229 mm) 7 31.' 1197 mm) 36" (914 mmJ
Building Code mum 36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer in some cases
2R + T must equal 25" (635 mm)
1997 Uniform
Building Code
11" (279 mm)
.
17" (178 mm) maximum
4" (102 mm) minimum
44"11118mm)
36" 1914 mrnl for occupancy of 49 or fewer
9" (229 mm) 8" (203 mm) 36" (914 mm)

60" (1524 mm) for educational use group with occupancy of 100 or
more

Joseph lana. Architect; Boston, Massachusetts

Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts
Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.

EGRESS PLANNING
10 Stair Design
STAIR PROPORTIONING GRAPH STAIR DESIGN AND BUILDING
CODES
mmllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllill1111111111111111111111111111111111111111 Building codes are updated regularly, so it is best to consul"
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
the current copy of the applicable building code (the SOC
RISER HEIGHT National Building Code. the Standard Building Code. or tl'
5" 5.5" 6" 6.5" 7" 75 8" 8.25"
Uniform Building Code) for tread and riser dimensions. Th
mm International Building Code will also offer a standard fc
3600 12'
U these dimensions when it is published in 2000.
OJ
::J
3400 0 STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
OJ
,,' '<i."
U An exit stairway in a theater rises a total of 20 ft 3 in. This
dimension is off the graph shown at left, which means tha-
3200 U at least one landing must be inserted in the stair. Sele(
0
'!! two flights of 10ft 1 'h in. rise each. Looking for the hiqhes
0: possible riser, read across to the 18-riser sloping line
3000 '0' w (before crossing the 7 in. maximum riser height line). ther
Ul
it upward to read a riser height of 6.75 in. Reading downwarc
..J to the bottom horizontal axis, the optimum tread dimensior
is 11 Y.! in. This figure can be rounded down to the leg;=;
2800
'"
i=
Z minimum of 11 in. to make the st~r a~ compact as pass!
9' w ble.
0
2600 iii
w
a: STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
X
A stairway in a single-family house rises 8 ft lOin. anc'
2400
I-
8'
'"
::E
'Ill
needs to be as compact as possible according to CASC
I
requirements. Read across to the 13-riser sloping line, the:
OJ
2200
o ci upward to read a riser of 8.15 in.
W
I
7' NOTES
0:
0 1. Stairs should be laid out in both plan and section. The dl
2000 0
..J
u,
mensions shown on this page are samples only .
6
I-
2. Landings must be at least as wide as the stair.
'BOO ci: 6' 3. No single flight may rise more than 12 It 0 in. 1365Smrr»
0 vertically.
0
..J 4. In each flight, there is one more riser than tread.
u,
1600 5. Handrails may project up to 3 Y.2 in. (S9 mm) into the
5' required stairway width. They must be continuous or the
ends must extend beyond the top and bottom of the
'400 stair. Stairs serving areas of rescue assistance must have
4 It clear between handrails.
6. Stairway doors must swing with the direction of egress
'200 4' travel and must not obstruct more than half of the
required landing width at any point in the swing. Wher
fully open doors must not strike handrails (including
extensions) and not project more than 7 in. (178 mm
1000
into the travel path.
3' 7. See AGS page on areas of rescue assistance for more
restrictive stair dimensioning requirements.
800

600 2'

ALLOWABLE HEAD HEIGHT

400

mm "
Ul
0:'
y~~
1'-<0
_' a:t-
OPTIMUM TREAD DEPTH (READ RIGHT TO LEFT) 2R + T '" 25" (635 mrrn III 0 ' "

Ul
1////////// /// ////////// 0:'

V i.-> v .:!"m~
I' - <0

1/
r
_. a: t-
HANDRAIL I
I- V ...... 100e{
'---
0
'03: V
V " .~~ V
'/2 REQUIR ED
'" V
/
I-
LANDING Ul
WIDTH MIN
V
V
/
I
l-
0
V
03:
.~~
-c
l-
Ul
V
V
V
I 4'-0"

V NOTE
r////// ///////////////~// Measure allowable head height at nosings.
PLAN
SAMPLE STAIRWAY

Joseph lana, Architect; Boston, Massachusetts

Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts
Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.

EGRESS PLANNING
 Spiral and Circular Stairs 11

DIAMETER FRAMING DIMENSIONS (IN.) BALCONY RAIL ----71~~~~~~~

,- -

,- ~-
--~-~~-~~"

-----TOP CAP
40 4B 52
STAIR DIAMETER
60 64 72 76 BB 96
II \
V CENTER
COLUMN A 20 24 26 30 32 36 38 44 48
-N'
.,1 8 24 28 30 34 36 40 42 48 52
1/
l----- 1
80 92 100
/' OUTSIDE
2" C 44 52 56 64 68 76
DIAMETER
II' HANDRAIL

A
c
B

l
I
,-----
I
....
I
I
I I o
BALCONY RAIL I I W
:I 1f--t--:=~~=;jT"
1 .. SQUARE BARS I
o I
114" X 2" I
I I

jI
MOUNTING
PLATE WITH m I I
I I
>- 3/ 8" HOLES
I I STRINGERS
I I I
o L ..J L ....J
," SQUARE
W BALUSTER-
I PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP PLAN-LEFT-HAND UP ~

NOTES ELEVATION
1. For spiral stairs. larger diameters increase perceived
PLATE
comfort, ease of use. and safety.
TREADS"" 2. Tread and platform materials: The most common materi-
als are steel (regular and galvanized), aluminum, and
wood. Steel and aluminum can be smooth plate, checker

V BASEPLATE
plate, pan type, and bar. A variety of hardwoods can be
used. although many manufacturers use steel substruc-
tures to support the wood finish surface.
3. Refer to local and national codes for dimension and con-
ELEVATiON struction requirements and allowable uses.

SPIRAL STAIRS

SPIRAL STAIR DESIGN DIMENSIONS (IN.)

Diameter 40 48 52 60 64 72 76 88 96
Center column 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6% 6%
Lb/9 It 205 220 235 250 265 310 325 435 485
Tread detail A 4 4 4 4 4 5
4 4 6 /. 6% PLAN
Tread detail B 18 22 24 28 32 34 36 42 48
~t NOTE

A~1u
B ,
27° tread detail C 9 1
/4 'l l
/ e 12 'I. 13 15 / 16 14 7 / . 16 3 / . 17 5 / . 20 '/2 22 5 / 16
Design considerations for circular stairs are similar to those
27" tread detail 0 7 5/. 8 8 'I. 8 3 /. 8 1/ 2 8 5 /. 8 3/ . 10 10 '/2 for spiral stairs. A fabricated steel tube serves as a one-
30 0 tread detail C 10 '/2 12 9 / 16 13 5 / a 15 3 / . 16 3 / . 18 7 / a 19 7 / a 23 25 '/a piece stringer to which treads are bolted or welded. Risers
12" can be open or closed. Numerous finishes are available.
30 tread detail 0
0
8'/2 8 5/a 8 3/. 8 7 /a 9 9 1/ 4 9 3 /a 11 'fa 11 '/2 and treads can be made of laminated wood.
Landing size 22 26 28 32 34 38 40 46 52 TREAD DETAIL
CIRCULAR STAIRS
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I ==~~==;=~=r~==--'f----11-:-~
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
IL J
I I I
L ~

PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP PLAN-RIGHT-HAND UP

FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT

FINISH FLOOR NUMBER CIRCLE FINISH FLOOR NUMBER CIRCLE FINISH FLOOR NUMBER CIRCLE
HEIGHT (IN.) OF STEPS DEGREE HEIGHT (IN.) OF STEPS DEGREE HEIGHT (IN.) OF STEPS DEGREE
84to 91 12 270 0
90 to 96 11 297" 85 to 95 9 270'
92 to 98 13 292'/2 0 97 to 104 12 324 0 96 to 104 10 300 0
99 to 105 14 315 0 105 to 112 13 351 0 105to 114 11 330'
106to112 15 337'/2 0
113 to 120 14 375 0
115to 123 12 360 0

113 to 119 16 360 0 121 to 128 15 405 0 124 to 133 13 390 0

120 to 126 17 382'/2 129t0136 16 432' 134 to 142 14 420 0

127to133 18 405 0 137 to 144 17 459 0 143 to 152 15 450 0

134 to 140 19 427'/2 145 to 152 18 486 0 153 to 161 16 480 0
141 to 147 20 450 0 153 to 160 19 513 0
162 to 171 17 510 0

148 to 154 21 472'/2 161 to 168 20 540 0 172 to 180 18 540 0

NOTE NOTE NOTE
16 treads per circle. Riser height: 6Jh to 7 in. 13112 treads per circle. Riser height: 7Yzto 8 in. 12 treads per circle. Riser height: 8Yzto 9Y.!in.
22 1/2 0 TREAD SPIRAL S'rAIRS 27 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS 30 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS

David W. Johnson; Washington, D.C.

EGRESS PLANNING
12 Treads, Risers, and Nosings

Sup·RESISTANT CAST ABRASIVE SURFACE SLIP-RESISTANT

SURFACE RUBBER
RADIUSED
----------~- -------------- EDGE

NOSING CAST IN
IRON. ALUMINUM.
NICKEL. OR
BRONZE

ANCHOR

VINYL OR RUBBER NOSING ~ _

II" MIN
TREAD GROOVES FOR TRACTION FLUSH ABRASIVE
WIDTH
NOSING SET ON
ALUMINUM BASE

MINIMUM
EXPOSURE
GRADUALLY FLUSH JUNCTURE OF METAL
RADIUSED NOSING OF RISER AND AT RISER
TREAD

TREADS AND RISER SIZES

Riser and tread dimensions must be uniform for the length ABRASIVE EPOXY
of the ,stair. ANSI specifications recommend a minimum
PREFABRICATED SYSTEM
tread dimension of 11 in. nosing-ta-nosing and a riser WHERE NOSING IS
height of 7 in. maximum. Open risers are not permitted on INTEGRAL WITH
stairs accessible to persons with disabilities.
STEELPAN--'(~~~I5I5~~~~
TREAD COVERING
FLUSH JOINT
OSHA standards require finishes to be "reasonably slip
resistant" by using nosinqs of slip-resistant finish. Treads
without nosings are acceptable provided that the tread is
serrated or is of a definite slip-resistant design. Uniform
color and texture are recommended for clear delineation of ~
edges. STEEL SUBTREAO

TROWELED GROOVES IN
ABRASIVE STRIPS
SUP-RESISTANT
NOSING DESIGN CONCRETE
ANSI specifications recommend nosings without abrupt RADIUSED
edges that project no more than 1'/2 in. beyond the edge of EDGE----
the riser. A safe stair uses a 1/2 in. radius abrasive nosing
firmly anchored to the tread, with no overhangs and a MINIMUM
clearly visible edge. OVERHANG VARIES
AT JOINT

ANCHOR

ROUNDED
NOSING

ANGLED
NOSING

.-- TAPERED
FLUSH END
RISER

PVC NOSING FULL-TREAD NOSING

RISER"DESIGN ACCEPTABLE NOSING PROFILES (ANSI 117.1-86)

EXTRUDED ALUMINUM V IN YL O R
RUBBER NOSING
REPLACEMENT TREAD
WITH ABRASIVE STRIPS \ CARPET

Iiiiiiiiiii~~~~~

LEVELING COMPOUND
WHERE WOOD. MARBLE.
OR CONCRETE TREAD IS
WORN OR SPLINTERED

NOTE

Abrasive materials are used as treads. nosings. or inlay

strips for new work and as surface-mounted replacement
treads for existing work. A homogeneous epoxy abrasive is
cured on an extruded aluminum base for a smoother sur-
tace, or it is used as a tiller between aluminum ribs VINYL NOSING STRUCTURAL TREAD INTEGRAL METAL TREAD/RISER

REPLACEMENT OF TREAD NOSING DETAILS

Eric K. Beach and Annica S. Emilsson, Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C

EGRESS PLANNING
 Building Systems-Steel Bar Joist with Bearing Wall 13

INTRODUCTION
Combining a wide range of common building technologies,
the building systems presented on this and the following
pages reflect basic approaches to design, construction, and
use of materials in response to a variety of occupancy
requirements. Such building systems embody key inteqra-
tion issues that arise when components and subsystems
are merged to produce complete buildings.

Each example includes a summary of the unique system

features, a description of the system's most appropriate or
particularly advantageous uses, and a discussion of the
main opportunities and challenges for systems integration.
The drawings stress the essential interconnectedness
among design decisions, illustrating the design process as
a fusion of the knowledge of many disciplines, each with an
understanding of the value and import of the others' contri-
butions.

The examples encompass structural, envelope, mechani-

cal, and interior systems. In most examples one system
(usually structural) or a pair of systems tends to dominate
the integration potentials and priorities, clearly circumscrib-
ing the prudent and possible uses of the other systems.
The examples represent common and reasonable combina-
tions and variations, but they are not the only possibilities
within a given building vocabulary.

STRUCTURAL
Roof: Steel decking and open web steel joists ICI
Floor: Slab on grade 1M)
Walls: Concrete masonry bearing wall and
concrete footing (H)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Bearing wall and

bar joist roof building systems employ masonry walls bear-
ing on a turndown slab on grade or conventional spread
footings. The walls support a roof structure of open web
steel bar joists, through which mechanical distribution sys-
tems are threaded. Spans for J- and H-series open web
joists generally may not exceed more than 20 times the
joist depth, or more than 50 to 60 ft. Long-span joists are
available, as are a wide variety of special shapes. By nature,
open web joists spaced at even intervals are best suited to
relatively light, uniform loads; joists may be doubled or tri-
pled to ~ccom,!,odate heavier, concentrated loads or may
be combined with other steel framing for roof openings and
rooftop mechanical equipment. The roof deck may be pre-
cast concrete plank, tongue and groove wood decking, or,
more commonly, steel decking. Small openings in the roof
area can be framed between joists by means of specially
designed headers.

In buildings with masonry bearing walls, each joist should

be anchored to the masonry by means of a joist anchor I
embedded in the masonry. Steel joists can be designed to
cantilever beyond the edges of the bearing walls. Continu-
ous horizontal bracing of both top and bottom joist chords is
possible with spot-welded connections at each joist and
with the ends of the bracing members anchored to a bear-
ing wall; this type of system is well suited to seismic risk
zones.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B)
Walls: Window assembly (NI, exterior insulation and
finish system (EIFS)(D), and canopy assembly (K)
Floor: Vapor barrier.and dampproofing (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The concrete
masonry unit (CMU) bearing walls are insulated on the exte-
rior to take better advantage of the wall's thermal mass by
placing. it toward the occupied side. Lonq-span open web
steel JOistroofs can deflect substantially, and the camber of
the joists alone is often not sufficient to maintain the neces-
sary slope to roof drains.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Rooftop unit (AI and ductwork IGI
Electrical: Surface-mounted conduit or behind
furred-out walls
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof
Fire safety:Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum (El
Principal advantages and characteristics: If ductwork is to
be housed within the depth of the joist, headers or
branches must be fed through the joist webs, perpendicular
to. the spanning direction. The webs of joists must be
aligned, and bearing walls with projections must be worked
around. Because beams running transverse to the joists
may block the threading of piping, ductwork, and wiring,
care must be taken that variations in the configuration of
STEEL BAR JOIST WITH BEARING WALL
perimeter walls do not disrupt the regular pattern of the
joist web elements, interfering with straight runs for
mechanical components. If the building owners will also be
tenants, relatively fixed interior lighting and mechanical sys-
tems may be planned. Otherwise, overhead and in-floor
systems should be laid out for maximum flexibility. If the
joist depth is insufficient to carry the ductwork, such equip-
ment can be suspended from the bottom chord of the steel
joist.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile (EI
Floors: Resilient tile (JI
Walls:
Glazed interior face on CMU (I)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (F)
and natural light (N)
Furnishings:Movable displays
Princip~1 advantages and characteristics: Suspended inte-
rior ceilings are nearly always preferred to directly attached
interior ceilings. Finished ceilings attached directly to the
joist bottom chord are not only difficult to alter but must be
designed to accommodate the high degree of deflection
the roof assembly will experience.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
St~e~ open web joist and bearing wall construction yields
buildinqs that have relatively large interior clear spans and
flexible interior layouts. The open webbing of the joists pro-
vides a lightweight structure that is easily penetrated by
mechanical systems. The bottom chords of the joists are
used for suspension of interior finishes, lighting fixtures,
and air diffusers in finished areas, although they may be left
uncovered. Masonry bearing walls and metal joist roofs are
among the simplest and easiest to design and build. The
relatively low cost of the system makes it attractive for
speculative projects, as does the fact that contractors find
this construction method familiar and easy to erect. Retail
commercial facilities usually require flexibility in lighting,
partitioning, and mechanical systems and large expanses of
column- and wall-free space; the envelope and structural
systems chosen often reflect these demands.
The height to which masonry bearing walls can be built
without resorting to lateral bracing is limited. so they are
used most frequently in one-story structures. Roof spans
up to 60 ft can generally be accommodated. The spacing
and depth of joists is related to the spanning capability of
the roof decking material and the requirements for loads on
the roof structure.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
14 Building Systems-Steel Frame with Access Floor and Curtain Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame Steel, with welded and bolted connec-
tions IF)
Roof: Steel decking welded to frame (A)
Floors, upper: Steel decking welded to primary frame
members, with cast-in-place concrete top-
ping (M)
Floors, Slab on grade, with concrete founda-
basement:tion (01
Core: Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete
Principal advantages and characteristics: Core shear walls
add rigidity to frame; composite action of structural steel
framing and a steel and concrete floor diaphragm result in
relatively long, uninterrupted clear spans with smaller depth
of construction. Heights can range from one to more than
100 stories. System allows for off-site fabrication of frame
components, easy shipping to site, and rapid assembly; cor-
rugated steel deck becomes a working surface as soon as it
is placed and provides torrnwork for concrete topping

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing or single-ply membrane on
rigid insulation IB)
Walls: Curtain wall units of glass/frame assem-
blies IE) and insulated spandrel panels III,
attached to structural frame
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board, with
foundation drain (N); vapor barrier under
slab IP)

Principal advantages and characteristics: The envelope is

structurally independent of the steel frame, providing flexi-
bility in weight, size, and configuration of the envelope sys-
tem. Curtain wall units preassembled at the factory must
be designed with shipping, storage, installation, and gen-
eral handling in mind, emphasizing protection from damage
at all stages.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, either suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum or placed
in floor plenum beneath access floor IDI
Electrical and Electrical wires and cables placed mainly
telecommuni-in access floor plenum and
structural/eleo-
cations:trified floor (H); can also be located
in
ceiling plenum. for lighting, and in interior
wall at spandrel panel
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions placed in core
area for efficient vertical circulation of
systems
Fire safety: Sprinkler system suspended from struc-
ture in ceiling plenum

Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical sys-

tems, hidden in floor or ceiling plenums or both, can be
accessed through removable panels in ceiling or floor sys-
tems.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ICI
Floors: Carpeted access floor system (l.) and
structural electrified floor (HI
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IJI
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (G) and
natural light lEI
Furnishings: Open office furniture (K)
Principal advantages and characteristics· Suspended ceiling
provides space for distribution of internal services, but it
tends to be used principally for overhead lighting and duct-
work. Structural/electrified floors and access floor systems
keep all wires and cables in space below finish floor, easily
accessible by removable floor panels, allowing high degree
of flexibility for interior environment. Buildup of static elec-
tricity and the ensuing risk of equipment damage and
shocks need to be considered. Access floors are not suited
to situations involving heavy point loads or shifting heavy STEEL FRAME WITH ACCESS FLOOR AND CURTAIN WALL
equipment. Stringerless systems are among the most flexi-
ble and least costly varieties. but they lack the stability of
shown is advantageous in office environments that need
fully gridded systems and depend on perimeter walls for SYSTEM SUMMARY
restraint. Use of access floors as air plenum, requiring tight especially flexible interior layouts. This system keeps all
Steel frame and curtain wall construction allows for off-site wires and cables in the space below the finish floor (gener-
and uniform joints between access panels, may hinder
fabrication of frame and envelope components. easy ship- ally not less than 4 in. deep) and out of wall cavities
access to wires, cables, and pipes; ductwork in floor ple-
ping to the site, and rapid assembly at the site. The steel Although access floors may add to overall floor-to-floor
nums may eliminate the advantages of access floors by
and concrete in the floors are designed to act as a compos- heights, the access floor conceals the most visually obtru-
blocking the path for wiring, cables, and pipes.
ite diaphragm, providing a thin, lightweight structural ele- sive distribution elements.
ment with or without an access floor. The access floor

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Staggered Steel Truss 15

STRUCTURAL
Frame: Staggered story-high steel trusses (0) on
steel columns (I) support floor slabs on
both top and bottom chords
Roof: Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck ICI
Floors. upper: Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck (CI
Floor, lowest: Slab on grade, with concrete
foundation (M)
Walls: Precast shear panels (H) and precast
stiffener beams (OJstabilize structure

Principal advantages and characteristics: This system is

best suited to multiunit residential or hotel buildings of 7 to
30 stories with repetitive floor plans. Flocr-heiqht Pratt
trusses are placed atop every other column in a staggered
pattern, strengthening the structural system while reducing
overall weight; precast hollow-core concrete planks serve
as the floor without a topping slab, allowing for bays of
approximately 60 x 60 ft (twice the truss spacing). A fire-
resistant membrane, such as drywall, is usually added to
each side of a truss to provide protection; these walls also
serve to divide individual units. Lower floors in this system
can be finished and trimmed while upper-level structural
members are still being laid; the structure becomes rigid as
soon as the precast exterior wall panels and the outer con-
crete deck elements have been installed.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Rigid insulation, single-ply roofing and bal-
last (AI
Walls: Window assembly (GI. precast concrete
panels Ill, precast stiffener beams (01, and
precast shear panels {Hl
Basement: Vapor barrier, and waterproofing and
protective board (N)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Precast concrete

wall members act as an envelope system as well as a struc-
tural system.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, and sprinkler system
(B); separate unit-by-unit HVAC systems
can be used
Electrical: Conduit fed through vertical chases at
outer walls (JI
Plumbing.: Pipes fed through vertical interior chases
Fire safety: Sprinkler system supply at central I
corridor (BI

Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the Pratt-

type trusses extend from floor to ceiling, with openings for
corridors and elevator doors only, horizontal running of
pipes. wiring, and ductwork can be difficult. For this reason
separate unit-by-unit heating and air conditioning systems
are often preferable; also, unitary HVAC systems offer eco-
nomic and maintenance advantages in multifamily residen-
tial construction. Utilities are typically fed upward through
chases and risers on outer walls, with -service or supply
units placed to either side on each floor; end wall stair
enclosures are also used for this purpose. Most sprinkler
systems are laid out in this fashion as well.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Underside of concrete planks is either
painted or covered with acoustical ceiling
tile; corridors may have suspended ceil-
ingtile (B)
Floors: Joints at floor planks are grouted and tops
carpeted (KI or tiled (EI
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IFI
Lighting: Surface-mounted fixtures or suspended
fluorescent fixtures at corridor (8)
STAGGERED STEEL TRUSS
Principal advantages and characteristics: The smooth sur-
face of concrete deck planks can provide interior ceiling fin-
ishes, if desired. SYSTEM SUMMARY
Staggered truss construction is most often used for double-- considered economical for low-rise buildings due to the
loaded residential-type occupancies, including hotels, high- manufacturing costs of the jigs for the trusses and the
rise apartments. nursing homes. and hospitals. Such build- forms for the spandrel precasting. The system easily allows
ing types usually have highly repetitive floor plans and can for long structural bays, permitting a high degree of tlexibil-
benefit from systems that integrate objectives regarding ity in unit interiors. The ground floor is free of trusses and
structure, interior unit separations, fire-compartmentaliza- interior columns and thus suitable for parking or retail com-
tion, and acoustical privacy. The system is not generally mercial use. The system's light weight reduces foundation
size.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
16 Building Systems-lightweight Steel Frame and Brick Veneer
STRUCTURAL
Roof: Metal roof frame (Cvstud brace, C-rafter,
Ccchannel. C-joist) IC), with plywood
sheathing
Floor, upper: Metal floor frame (C-joist), steel deck, and
concrete topping (l)
Floor, ground: Slab on grade with concrete
foundation IP)
Walls: C-stud assembly 1M)

Principal advantages and characteristics: The lightweight

cold-formed steel members are load bearing, and beams,
columns. channels. headers. and other elements can be
built up from standard steel shapes and sections. The
frame's rigidity depends on cross bracing, the distance
from exterior corner to exterior corner, and the type and tav-
out of fasteners used. Sheathing both sides of the frame
also provides some lateral stability. Steel studs used for
masonry backup should be cross braced with steel straps.
Horizontal and diagonal bracing increases the frame's riqid-
ity. Welded connections are stronger than self-tappinq
screws. The method of attachment can affect costs sub-
stantially. The positioning and types of fasteners for affixing
both interior and exterior sheathing should be carefully
specified, because these factors significantly affect lateral
stability,

Cold-rolled steel framing is detailed and fastened quite dif-

ferently than wood framing, and special noncarpentry tools
and equipment are required. Advantages of cold-formed
steel framing include its light weight. dimensional stability,
speed and ease of assembly, resistance to moisture and
decay, and, in some cases, readier availability than wood
framing members. Also, steel framing members are Ire-
quently made from recycled scrap and can themselves be
endlessly recycled,

ENVELOPE
Roof: Shingles and roofing felt (8)
Grade: Dampproofing (0) and vapor barrier
under slab
Walls: Batt insulation (KI. window assembly (HI,
and brick veneer (GI

Principal advantages and characteristics: Deflection in light~

weight steel frame construction can be several times
greater than deflection in exterior masonry veneer; such dif-
ferentials must be accommodated in anchoring details or
overcome by adding structural rigidity to the wall frame.
The masonry ties that anchor the veneer to the steel frame
should permit free and independent movement of the two
materials. Where the veneer depends on the steel frame
for lateral stability, anchors should be flexible and should
not resist shear; wire ties that allow independent move-
ment are recommended. The framing design and method
of fastening windows and doors should account for the dif-
ferences in movement. In general, fenestration compo-
nents should be attached to either the framing or the
veneer, but not attached rigidly to both. When filled with
batt insulation and fully sheathed, the lightweight steel
frame wall is thermally isolated from the single wythe of
masonry veneer. This results in greater differential thermal
movement in the veneer than would occur with solid dou-
ble-wythe masonry construction; the interior heat is not
transferred as readily to the exterior masonry.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts. with diffusers ID)
Electrical: Wiring threaded through C-stud wall
assembly 1M)
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof

Principal advantages and characteristics: Prepunched holes

in the studs provide easy routing of plumbing and electrical
lines. Most codes require the use of electrical conduit or
sheathing of the prepunched stud opening to avoid strip-
ping the insulation as wires are drawn through. Electrolytic
action between framing members and nonferrous plumbing
pipes must also be considered, and pipes on exterior walls
must be adequately insulated.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile IE)
Floors: Ceramic floor tile (J) • resilient floor tile (N),
and carpet (I)
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IF)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Interior gypsum
wallboard, along with exterior sheathing, applied to steel
studs provides additional lateral bracing and an interior
finish.
LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL FRAME AND BRICK VENEER
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Lightweight .steel frame bearing wall construction is often
used in low-rise commercial and residential buildings. The
long-term performance of lightweight steel framing in struc-
tures over three stories is a concern. To date, its use in
medium- and high-rise buildings has been mainly for exte-
rior partitions or as nonbearing backup for exterior veneers.
Speed of construction, noncombustjbilitv. and relative light
weight are key advantages of this system. The space
between studs eases insulation and accommodates piping
and electrical distribution. Because the framing can be com
pleted independent of the masonry veneer, the inte- rior is
out of the weather quickly and can be finished while the
exterior brick veneer is laid. In nonresidential construction,
which is likely to have fewer bracing walls and longer verti-
cal spans and horizontal runs, added cold-formed bridging
or bracing of the frame increases lateral stability. This can
also be accomplished by decreasing the stud spacing or
increasing the stud gauge.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Buifding Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Wood Roof Truss and Wood Floor Truss 17
STRUCTURAL
Roof: Wood roof truss and plywood
sheathing IBI
Floor, upper: Wood floor truss and plywood
subfloor IGI
Floor. ground: Slab on grade, concrete masonry
foundation wall, and concrete
footing IK)
Walls: Wood frame and sheathing IFI

Principal advantages and characteristics: In this example. a

standard wood framing system is employed with prefabri-
cated roof and floor trusses and exterior sheathing. The
trusses are built at the factory to engineering specifications.
The exterior panels act in concert with wall studs as a struc-
tural skin and weathering surface. The wood frame system
unifies envelope and structure when this external skin acts
as a diaphragm over the studs, joists, and rafters. Often
built of 2 x 4 elements, the floor trusses also provide a nail-
ing edge nominally 4 in. wide along the top and bottom
chords for subflooring and decking, an improvement over
the thinner edges presented by dimension lumber.
Because trusses are made up from commonly available
dimension lumber, there is little chance that supply short-
ages will delay projects. Assuming proper factory quality
control. the variations often seen In dimension lumber from
different mill lots should not be a problem. Also, the smaller
wood components are more readily available from sustain-
able forest reserves, as opposed to large dimension lumber
sections, which are available only from older growth for-
ests.

Bridging between floor trusses may be eliminated, depend-

ing on the depth of the truss and the application and rigidity
of subflooring and ceiling finishes. If needed, bridging may
be accomplished by running continuous 2 x 4s perpendicu-
lar to the truss chords within the open web and nailing
them to truss struts. When such bridging is used, it should
not block possible transverse duct runs. Most floor truss
systems allow for a continuous-edge ribbon at the truss
ends in lieu of a header. Before truss units are lifted into
place, it is wise to inspect them for uniformity of depth and
camber and for general tightness. If substantial field-work is
contemplated, it may be desirable to use plywood l-trusses,
which can be cut to length and drilled to allow threading of
pipes and wires.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Shingles, roofing felt. with metal
flashing (AI
Grade: Vapor barrier under slab, with
dampproofinq at foundation
Walls' Batt insulation (E), window assembly (J),
and lapped wood siding III
I
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wood compo--
nents treated with fire retardants can now be used in many
applications for which untreated wood is unsuitable. Some
fire-retarding treatments may discolor wood, accelerate
corrosion of metal fasteners, or alter the structural proper-
ties of the wood. For example, plywood can become
delaminated, a particularly difficult problem when the ply-
wood sheathing itself acts as the exterior finish surface.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diffusers IHI. with below-slab
perimeter ducts 1M)
Electrical: Wiring threaded through holes drilled
through wood studs
Plumbing: Pipes set in partition walls, then
through roof

Principal advantages and characteristics: Open web trusses

allow threading of wiring, piping, and ductwork without on-
site drilling or cutting, thus greatly speeding and easing the
installation of heating, plumbing, and electrical systems.

INTERIOR
WOOD ROOF TRUSS AND WOOD FLOOR TRUSS
Ceilings: Acoustical tile (C)
Floors: Carpet ILl
SYSTEM SUMMARY tures. Open web trusses are lighter in weight than dimen-
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IDI
sion lumber and can be lifted easily in gangs by a small
Prefabricated roof and floor trusses eliminate much field crane or lift. Trusses are available in standard configurations
Principal advantages and characteristics: The open web labor, thus speeding on-site construction; help ensure dim- between 12 and 24 in. deep and allow threading of
wood trusses permit longer clear spans than conventional ensional stability; and may eliminate the need for inter- mechanical systems without cutting the members, speed-
timber framing, leaving greater flexibility for the location of mediate load bearing partitions. Longer clear spans are pos- ing installation. The smaller wood components used in
interior partition walls that need not be load bearing sible with floor trusses than with generally available dimen- these trusses are more readily available from sustainable
sion lumber, and recent advances in manufacturing forests, as opposed to the older growth trees harvested for
techniques make it possible to specify many special tea- larger standard lumber sections.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 18 Building Systems-Flat Plate Concrete
STRUCTURAL
Columns: Cast-in-place concrete (K)
Roof: Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (E)
Floors, upper' Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (El
Floors, basement Slab on grade and concrete pile
foundation (Nl
Core: Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete

Principal advantages and characteristics: Combines cast-in-

place concrete columns with two-way concrete slab plates
of uniform thickness. Two-way flat plate concrete floors are
among the simplest concrete structures for reinforcing,
formwork, and detailing. Exterior precast concrete panels
can be attached on lower floors, even with flat plate shoring
still in place, while concrete is being poured for upper-floor
columns and plates. When crane hoists are used to lift con-
crete buckets or large equipment, a hole is generally left in
a section of each plate to allow for passage of the hoist;
this hole is filled later, when large components have been
moved and concrete pouring is complete. Elevator shafts
are not used for this purpose, as elevators are usually
installed before construction work is complete. In this sys-
tem, precast concrete or composite spandrel units are
welded in place to a series of angle clips fastened into the
concrete flat plates at their edges.

Flat plate concrete construction permits more stories to be

fitted into a given building height than any other system.
This is because its floor structure has minimum thickness,
especially when post-tensioned. In addition, in many build-
ing types the underside of the floor plate can serve as the
finish ceiling.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Rigid insulation and ballast IC), on protected
roof membrane (B)
Walls: Window assembly (0) and precast concrete
spandrel panels 1M), batt insulation II)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board at
foundation, with vapor barrier under slab (0)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Exterior precast

concrete panels can be attached on lower floors, even with
flat plate shoring still in place, while concrete is being
poured for upper-floor columns and plates. Window-fram+
ing elements and glazing are installed after the spandrels
have been set. Tolerances within the system grow progres-
sively tighter: the concrete structure requires the least
attention; placement of steel angles for welding to the
spandrels requires greater exactitude; and positioning the
spandrels to accommodate framing and glass requires
greatest care.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum (Gl
Electrical and tele-
communications: Power and communication poles
(HI
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions in core
area for efficiency in vertical
circulation of systems
Fire safety: Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum
Conveying system' Elevator equipment in penthouse
(A)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Centralized core

permits relatively uniform, short horizontal runs for power,
plumbing, lighting, and other systems.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile (F)
Floors: Carpeting III
Walls: Gypsum wallboard, metal stud assembly IJ)
Lighting' Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling and
natura/light (01

Principal advantages and characteristics: Workstations in FLAT PLATE CONCRETE

unpartitioned interior offices can be serviced unobtrusively
by ceiling height power and communications poles, in
furred-out areas around columns, and in corridor partition
walls. Office workstations require daylight exposure and
views. Because the central core is farthest from perimeter
zones, usable floor area in the perimeter can be maximized.
On constrained urban sites, the central core may be moved
against an unfenestrated waH and still retain this advantage
SYSTEM SUMMARY
This example combines cast-in-place columns and two-way
concrete flat plates of uniform thickness, with precast con-
crete spandrel panels. The system usually has a central
core for vertical circulation and services, and it is typically
employed for low- to medium-rise construction because of
the costs and difficulties associated with placement of
materials and labor in higher buildings. The central core also
permits consolidation of vertical service risers, increasing
fire protection by reducing or eliminating through-floor pe
etrations in office areas.
Flat plate concrete construction is especially applicable
apartments, hotels, and dormitories, in which no su
pended ceiling is required. Story height can be minimized
these applications by using the undersides of the slabs
finish ceiling.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard 0, Rush, AlA, The BUilding Systems Integration Handbook {John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Post- Tensioned Concrete 19
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Rigid concrete (J)
Roof: Rigid concrete slab
Floors, upper: Concrete slab IB)
Floor, basement- Slab on grade and concrete
foundation (l)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Post-tensioning is

a highly sensitive integration of the compressive strength
of concrete with the tensile strength of steel. Plastic-
sheared. high-strength steel tendons are cast in the slab
and. after curing. are placed in the tubes, anchored. and
jacked into tension from one end. After stresses are
applied, the tendon channels may be grouted to bond the
tendons to the slab. For lengths greater than 100 tt,
stresses must be applied simultaneously from two ends.
Integration of mechanical services is influenced greatly by
the positioning of tendons, which controls the locations of
through-slab penetrations. Post-tensioning permits the use
of shallower beams and slabs, reducing overall building
height and permitting longer spans with thinner structural
members; structure is quite rigid and less subject to move-
ment and creep, allowing use of masonry" infill envelope.
Alterations and demolition can be difficult due to potential
forces latent in post-tensioned tendons.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing or single-ply
membrane on rigid insulation (Al
Walls: Window assembly (II. and brick and
concrete masonry with rigid insulation
(K)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board
at foundation (Nl. vapor barrier under
slab

Principal advantages and characteristics: Envelope rests on

the concrete frame by means of steel shelf angles attached
to spandrel beams.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum (C)
Electrical and tele-
communications: Wires and cables placed in wall
assemblies
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions placed in
centralized locations, avoiding
tendons
Fire safety:" Sprinkler system suspended from /
structure in ceiling plenum

Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical sys-

tems hidden in ceiling plenums can be accessed through
removable panels. This system is optimal for additions to
hospitals and other medical facilities, which often require
floor-to-floor heights that match those of the existing struc-
ture. Although contemporary standards for servicing and
mechanical equipment require deeper interstitial spaces
than are found in older medical buildings, the shallower
slabs and beams of post-tensioned concrete construction
can conserve such space.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceilings (E)
Floors: Resilient flooring IF)
Walls: Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (D)
and natural light III
Specialties: Operable partitions (GI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Suspended ceiling
provides space 'for distribution of internal services but tends
to be used only for overhead lighting and ductwork.

SYSTEM SUMMARY
Post-tensioned concrete construction is virtually identical to
the flat plate concrete construction described on the pre-
ceding page. The major difference lies in the thickness of
the concrete slab, which is slightly reduced in this type of
construction.
Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete by
stretching steel reinforcing tendons after placement and
curing of the concrete structure. This prestressing reduces
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE
or eliminates tensile stresses on the concrete under use
loading and strengthens the slab without increasing its
thickness or adding the dead loads introduced by additional
steel reinforcing rods. Post-tensioning is useful when the
thickness is important to economical or functional design
aspects or when concentrated live loads are high and the
building height must be kept to a minimum. It is also effec-
tive when project conditions require minimal floor-to-floor
heights but maximum ceiling heights with generous space
above the ceilings.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
20 Building Systems-Precast Concrete Frame
STRUCTURAL
Frame Prestressed precast concrete columns
and spandrel beams. IDI
Roof: Prestressed precast concrete
double T (81
Floors. upper" Prestressed precast concrete
double T (81
Floors, basement" Slab on grade. with cast-in-place
concrete piles (F)
Core' Cast-in-place concrete vertical
circulation {El

Principal advantages and characteristics: This system rs

most commonly used for parking garages. Double-T joists
are generally 8 or 12 ft wide, at a depth of 18 to 36 in.,
depending on the spanning requirements; spans of 60 ft
are considered maximum. due to the constraints of ship-
ping and lifting the pieces. but longer spans and deeper
sections are possible. It is advantageous to use as many
similar elements as possible; that is, floors, inverted T gird-
ers, and columns should all be of the same length and
design. Off-site precasting can conserve time and materials
for concrete forming, and on-site erection time is consider-
ably faster than for cast-in-place construction. Cast-in-place
core provides lateral stability to frame. Adding final finishes
and installation hardware to prestressed components
before erection helps reduce on-site construction time
Temporary shoring and bracing may be required during con-
struction, particularly (if the structure is composite) until the
toppings have cured to service strength. Lifting loops are
generally embedded in the precast pieces and then covered
with the topping or cut off after installation.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Concrete topping slab (AI
Walls: Spandrel beams act as finish walls (0);
no glazing in openings

Principal advantages and characteristics: For parking

garages, the most common application of precast concrete
frame, a weather-tight condition is not needed; therefore,
structural components can be directly exposed to the ele-
ments. Some aesthetic treatments can be cast in or applied
to surfaces but are not needed for moisture protection.

MECHANICAL
Electrical: Conduit, exposed at underside of
concrete structure
Plumbing: Pipes from roof and floor drains,
exposed to view throughout structure
Conveying system: Elevator equipment for hydraulic
elevator IGI
Fire safety: Sprinkler heads dropped from supply
lines set into channels at upper face of
precast floor Ts

Principal advantages and characteristics: In parking struc-

tures the requirements for through-floor penetrations are
minimal. However, holes or sleeves can be cast in the
stems and flanges of the Ts, to allow for passage of conduit
and piping. These holes and openings can be as great as
one-third of the stem's total depth but must avoid the rein-
forcing tendons; openings toward the top of the stem in
midspan and toward the bottom at the ends are most com-
mon. Preplanning of aU openings is essential to minimize
sitework and to realize the inherent economies of the sys-
tem. Ts may be notched at the ends to permit passage of
conduit along girders or beari,ng walls. Also, channels can
be formed by chamfering mated edges of adjacent Ts at
the upper surface, setting the conduit, then pouring a con-
crete topping slab.

INTERIOR
Floors: Concrete topping acts as floor finish (A)
Walls: Concrete structure surface acts as
wall finish (DI
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures attached to
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME
structure (C). and natural light between
spandrel beams
Specialties: Curbs, handrails, and signage SYSTEM SUMMARY
Precast concrete components are usually pretensioned. floor and roof Ts are set. the surface is covered with a th
Principal advantages and characteristics: Most typical inte-
Pretensioning is a method of prestressing concrete in concrete topping that provides the finished, weettu
rior elements are not needed because of the open air
which steel tendons are stretched prior to placement of exposed surface and a horizontal structural diaphragm. Tt
nature of the building type; however, all elements provided
concrete and maintained in tension until the concrete is precast components are fabricated off site and lifted in:
are attached directly to the exposed structure. In parking
place by crane. A variety of finished surfaces is possibr.
garages, the depth of the structural Ts and concerns for cured. The external tension on the tendons is then released
to compress the concrete. This example employs pre- and the unity of materials presents an opportunity for nat
minimizing floor-to-ceifinq height present special challenges
ral visible integration of elements. Thin brick or tile can at-.
for the integration of lighting and signs. stressed columns, inverted T girders, ledger girders, and
double-T joists, all of the same length and design. Once the be used as a surface material.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Flying Form 21

STRUCTURAL
Frame: Rigid concrete «»
Floors. upper: Flat plate (K)
Foundation: Slab on grade and concrete (M)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form con-
struction requires almost total regularity in structural bay
widths. Flying forms can be used to construct flat slabs,
pan-joist slabs. waffle slabs. and various types of beams-in-
slab. They are also used to form spandrels of varying con-
figuration. Flat plate or flat slab construction is preferred. as
this eases movement of the flying form "table" and mini~
mizes special additional forming. For flying forms to be eco-
nomical. the building structural layout must be uniform and
the beams and spandrels should be very shallow.

There are three principal types of flying forms: adjustable

post shoring, manufactured truss forms, and column-sup-
ported forms. Adjustable post shoring uses scaffolding that
rests on a wood sill and blocking and is raised by jacks. The
forms are moved horizontally, usually by means of rollers,
and are generally suitable for pours of up toAD ft in length.

Manufactured truss forms, ranging up to 50 x 100 ft in side

dimensions, use 4 to 6 ft deep trusses and are raised by a
series of uniformly distributed jacks. The forms are moved
by crane from one floor to the next, often in a staggered or
stepped sequence. Greater widths in truss forms are made
possible by the use of additional longitudinal trusses. Col-
umn-supported forms employ adjustable brackets that
"climb" columns and are shored after initial positioning.
This type is better suited to applications involving relatively
close c~lumn spacing.

Usually the same work crew sets and strips the flying
forms; half of the crew works below the deck level that has
been cast. while the other half works above the previously
cast area, setting the forms that have been removed. Con-
ventional temporary shoring, separated frpm the surface
forms, is set in place after removal of the flying forms. To
speed the process of curing and to enable quicker removal
of the forms, early high strength concrete is frequently
used.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B): con-
crete masonry parapet backup {A}
Walls: Window assembly (G) and precast concrete
spandrel panels (Ll
Basement: Vapor barrier (N)
Principles and characteristics: As in the case of convention-
ally cast-in-place flat plate concrete construction, the struc-
tural and mechanical systems are concealed from view,
with the precast concrete envelope spandrel and glazing
units connected to the structural frame. Flying form con-
struction. which requires relatively uniform bay widths, can
have an effect on visible integration because it produces
regularity in the rhythm of structural elements.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diffusers (D)

Electrical and
telecommunications: Under-carpet flat cable (J)

Principal advantages and characteristics: In office applica-

tions. the high quality of the slab's finished surface lends
itself readily to the use of flat wiring for power, lighting,
electronics, and communications. Because they are flat,
these wiring systems increase the flexibility of open office
planning; they are attached to the slab with steel tape prior
to the installation of carpet tiles, with direction changes
accomplished by folding the flat cable. Extra fire protection
measures are unnecessary, as there are no through-slab
penetrations to be sealed.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (E)
Floors: Carpet tile (I)
Walls: Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture and natural light (F)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form con-
struction permits great flexibility in interior layouts and fur-
niture arrangements. The use of flat wiring frees the
electrical system from restraints imposed by the structure,
permitting the furniture layout .and power needs to remain
variable until very late in the construction process.
FLYING FORM
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Speed of construction. the economies realized through
reuses of the forms, and the high quality of finished sur-
faces are among the most attractive features of this con-
struction method. The systems employed with flying form
construction do not differ substantially from those found in
other types of reinforced concrete construction; the differ-
ence lies in the method of forming slabs and spandrels and
in the sequencing of pours. A disadvantage of the flat plate
construction system is the relative difficulty of punching
through the slab or plate. An important consideration with
the use of flying forms is the regularity of bay spacing and
the absence of deep beams or spandrels.
During construction the forms are placed and removed in a
sequence of related operations, with temporary shoring
used after form removal under the slabs until they have
cured. The repetitive use of the forms can lead to conserva-
tion of both time and, of course, the materials used in form-
ing. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed in the
suspended ceiling assembly. The use of flat wiring atop the
floor slabs for internal distribution of power, lighting, elec-
tronics, and communications dictates the use of removable
carpet tiles and yields a set of requirements for interfaces
with furnishings and equipment.

Based on Richard D. Rush. AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
22 Building Systems-Tilt-up Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Precast concrete panels (H}
Roof: Steel deck and open web steel Joists ICI
Floor: Slab on grade and concrete footing (JI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Load--bearing tilt-
up wall panels provide a unified vertical envelope. structure,
and interior. The panels are precast on-site. generally using
the floor slab or grade as the casting surface, and tilted or
lifted into position. The floor slab used as a form must be
level. smoothly finished. and treated with a bond-breaking
agent to permit easy separation of the cast pieces. The wall
panels, usually 6 in. in nominal thickness. may extend from
one to several stories in height, and must be designed to
withstand the bending loads involved in tilting and lifting, as
well as loads that will be encountered once in place. They
may be plain, reinforced, or prestressed and are often pro-
vided with temporary timber or steel "strongbacks" for tilt-
ing, particularly when there are large window openings.

The panels must be braced during construction until all wall

and roof structural members are in place. Columns are usu-
ally cast in place following installation of the panels. In load-
bearing tilt-up wall systems the roof and floor members are
bolted or welded to plates and angles cast into a continu-
ous ledge beam. Roofing systems may be steel open-web
joists, precast concrete T's. or hollow-core planks. Flashing
reglets and other roofing connection details can be cast
with the panels. Regular inspection of casting and lifting
operations is essential.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B); skylights
(AI
Walls: Precast concrete panels (H); window assembly
(GI; dampproofing and protective board (E)
Floor: Concrete slab (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Joints between
panels should be designed to be concealed; this is easily
accomplished where cast-in-place columns are designed to
lap the panel edges, or where the panels insert at their
edges into a precast column channel. Connections
between panels should not be rigid, so caulks and sealants
are important.

Foundation and slab detailing are key to preventing water

infiltration at the panel bases. It is good 'practice to design
the system so that the slab level is slightly above the bot-
tom edge of the vertical tilt-up panel.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ductwork in open-web bar joists IG); radiant
heat panels in suspended ceiling lEI
Electrical: Fluorescent light fixtures (F)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the slab
on which the panels are cast must be smooth, utility race-
ways. pipes, and conduits that will penetrate the slabs
must be stubbed below the finish slab level, covered during
wall panel casting. and then uncovered for final connec-
tions.

The location and installation of angles. channels, weld

plates, conduits, connectors, and other hardware should be
carefully planned and detailed, with regular and careful
inspections before placing the concrete. Lifting forces and
special complications related to openings require exacting
structural analysis and special erection hardware.

The suspended ceiling panels incorporate radiant heat pan-

els. Ductwork for cooling and ventilation air is threaded
through the open-web bar joists. In the open area. gas-fired
heating units are suspended from columns and the struc-
ture is left exposed.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (K)
Floors: Resilient tile flooring (I)
Walls: Precast concrete panels (H)
Lighting: Skylights (AI and fluorescent light fixtures (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: The site-east pan-
els are the load--bearing elements for the roof members and
provide both interior and exterior finish. The building shell
can be erected quickly, permitting interior work to proceed
along with final joining and sealing of the envelope panels.
The clear spans produced by the bar joist roof structure and
option for hung ceiling allow interior partitions to be intro-
TILT-UP WALL
duced virtually anywhere, with meshed interior and
mechanical systems provided by a ceitinq-rnounted radiant
heat panel.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Tilt-up walls have been used routinely in a variety of build-
ing types and heights, especially for single-story buildinqs
with large, uncomplicated exteriors. The system is also
increasingly used for multistory lowrise projects. Significant
savings in time and formwork costs can be achieved. and
long lead times required for precast or structural steel com-
ponents are often averted. Because most of the forming
and erection work is done within the floor slab area, tilt-up
systems work well in confined construction sites.
Conservation of time and forming material is realized when
there is uniformity in panel design and when the floor sur-
face can be used for forming. Careful planning of the form-
ing, storage, and lifting sequence is essential, and early
consultation with manufacturers and contractors is advis-
able. Regular inspection of casting and lifting operations is
essential.

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Bui/ding Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Laminated Wood Post and Beam 23

STRUCTURAL
Frame: Heavy glued laminated wood beams (Hl; exposed
wood frame and plywood sheathing (J)
Roof: Plywood sheathing and wood roof, tongue-and-
groove wood decking (C)
Floors' Slab on grade and concrete foundation (N)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Heavy glued and

laminated beams and columns, which define the interior of
the building, make up the frame in this example. The roof
structure is laminated tongue-and-groove decking, nomi-
nally 214in. thick. laid over the beams.

Considerable flexibility is available in selecting structural

modules and bay sizes in heavy timber construction by
varying the depth of beams and increasing the thickness of
decking to span between beams. Columns are frequently
overdesigned to give an appropriate appearance; if sized
only to carry the loads transferred from above, they may
appear too spindly in proportion to other framing elements.

Glued laminated beams, columns, aod decking are gener-

ally preferred over dimensioned sawcut lumber. Appear-
ance is easier to specify and ensure; a variety of custom
shapes, sizes, and presawn joints can be obtained in glued
laminated pieces; and they are drier and more resistant to
twisting, checking, and shrinkage. All pieces should remain
factory-wrapped until in place and out of the weather, as
rain and snow will stain them.

If mill-cut lumber is used, it should be cut and dried well in

advance and should be specified free of heart centers.
Although well suited to pier foundation systems, post and
beam framing is often more easily erected atop a perimeter
masonry foundation.

Outside air infiltration is increased at endwall joints in

tongue--and--groove timber decking and must be controlled
through appropriate detailing. When components have
been carefully ordered and weather conditions are favor-
able, erection of the structural system can proceed quickly.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Standing seam roof, roofing felt. and rigid insula-
tion (B)
Walls; Wood siding (G); window assembly (F)

Floor; Vapor barrier under slab (0)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Lower portions of
perimeter walls are framed conventionally with wood studs
between -rnain timber columns; a vapor barrier is placed
toward the occupied side, and the voids are filled with batt I
or rigid insulation. Drywall covers interior walls; the exterior
is sheathed in plywood and finished with diagonal wood
siding. The roof deck is covered with a moisture barrier and
insulated on top with rigid insulation board between sleep-
ers. A standing seam metal roof is applied over the sleep-
ers, which also provide diagonal bracing.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, supply and return system (D)

Electrical: Rigid conduits run through decking (A)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Space heating and
cooling is provided by. air supply-and-return ducts. Kitchens.
lavatories, and other areas requiring both odor removal
equipment and greater amounts of fresh air are separated
by walls and covered by suspended or furred ceilings.

As in any system with exposed components, cleanliness of

details. finishing, and dimensional coordination are very
important. If .ductwork cannot be fed through voids in the
floor structure into interior and exterior wall voids, layout,
finishing, and suspension hardware must be skillfully
designed and executed for compatibility, as must interior
fire sprinkling systems. Overhead electrical service can be
located in rigid conduits that run through the decking. Dur-
ing the application of roofing materials, puncturing these LAMINATED WOOD POST AND BEAM
hidden conduits must be avoided.
SYSTEM SUMMARY and appearance of hardware used for joinery of the wood
members. Certain parts of the mechanical system can be
Although used historically for larger buildings, post and meshed within interior partitions and exterior walls, leaving
INTERIOR
beam construction is now generally confined to buildings of them concealed. The sizing of structural members and join-
Floors: Carpeting (I) and clay tile flooring (M) three stories or fewer. Its main advantages are simplicity of ery details may be influenced more by considerations of
elements and details, combined with the potential for visual visual proportion and appearance than strictly by the loading
Walls: Drywall (L1 integration and bold structural and architectural forms. and stress conditions involved.
Lighting' Incandescent light fixtures (E) and natural light
Structure and interior are unified in post and beam con-
Principal advantages and characteristics: The underside of struction. Because the structural elements in this system
the laminated tongue-and-groove decking is exposed to are exposed to view in the finished builcings, as are por-
interior view and should be specified for appearance grade. tions of the mechanical system, care is required in the
Drywall covers interior walls. visual integration of these components and in the design

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
24 Building Systems-Lightweight Mobile Modular
STRUCTURAL
Frame" Wood frame and sheathing (J)
Roof: Glued laminated beams and wood deck (C)

Floors: Plywood subfloor on lateral steel beams IN)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Modules are tied
together through the concealment of joints and mating
lines. accomplished by holding the cladding material back
from the mating line, and spanning between two units with
field-installed components to cover the' area left unclad
They are then bolted at the steel frame, in addition to being
anchored to the foundation. Stud framing, floor joists, and
roof rafters are supported on steel l-bearn frames until the
unit is placed on its foundation.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Sheet metal roofing and metal cap flashing (8)
Walls: Aluminum siding (I) and batt Insulation ID)
Floor: Vapor barrier (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Openings in the
envelope for doors and windows may present difficulty in
mating units, due to differential movement of the units,
which are normally placed on separate and tess-than-per-
manent foundations. Entrance doors, for example, should
not span between unit mating lines, even when the installa-
tion is not considered temporary. Exterior siding can be
held back from the mating lines between units and then
field-instal'ed to span the joint lines. This technique
improves visual integration and also helps tie units together
structurally. At the roof, special curb caps are available or
may be field-fabricated to span across low parapets on
mated units. If a complex must mate some units at all four
sides, mechanical system plants may be root-mounted.
Modular units are normally tied down by cable and earth-
embedded anchors.

Skirting at the base of the units is often necessary for

appearance and security, with field-set steps required at
entrances. Plans for roof drainage and water carryoff should
be resolved with the manufacturer.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Rooftop unit (A) and Insulated ducts lEI
Electrical: Electric baseboard heaters III
Plumbing: Factory installed. hooked up on site (I)
Fire safety: Fire sprinklers and fire/security systems may be
factory installed
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wiring and plumb-
ing, installed at the factory, are easily hooked up at the des-
tination site. Nearly all system components are installed at
the factory, including heating, cooling, and ventilation
equipment. Site grading, foundation work, connection of
utilities and services, landscaping, and interconnection of
the modular units are the only on-site activities required.
Mechanical systems are meshed within voids in the struc-
ture and envelope assembly and are basically self-con-
tained within each unit; even when plans call for the linking
together of units to form a complex, mechanical and electri-
cal systems for the individual units remain independent. For
occupancies that require substantial interior partitioning,
HVAC supply and return registers should be planned for
high wallor ceiling locations.

INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (F)
Walls: Drywall (K); window assembly (H)
Floors: Resilient flooring (M)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures in ceiling (Gl and natural
light
Principal advantages and characteristics: An interesting
aspect of these low-cost buildings is that except for base-
board-mounted electric heat panels, there are no exposed
structural or mechanical elements. The result is maximum
interior flexibility.
Ordinarily floor plans are based on the relatively narrow
dimension of the module and require great care In planning
for interior layouts, although it is possible to obtain large
clear-spanned floor areas. Claddings, exterior and interior
wall finishes, door and window types, floor finishes, and
envelope thermal insulation levels can be specified to
order.
LIGHTWEIGHT MOBILE MODULAR
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Lightweight mobile modular buildings consist of factory fab-
ricated wooden structures. Although both smaller and
larger dimensions are available, the most common size is
12 ft x 60 ft. Speeds of construction and low initial cost are
the main advantages of mobile modules. On-site labor
requirements are minimal. Where weather, labor, or site
problems affect other options, or for emergency or tempo-
rary use, mobile modulars are often the appropriate solu-
tion. Mobile modular use has increased significantly in
areas of rapid growth and development, especially in areas
with large influxes of temporary population. Modules can
be easily moved, even when assembled as a complex.
Modular units can almost always be combined. Door open
ings should not be placed at the mating lines between mod
ules; such placement requires field installation of the door-
and may result later in binding of the door due to differentia
movements between the mated modules. When plannm;
the complex, the manufacturer should be apprised of the
location of utilities and services on the site: any local build
ing code requirements that differ from major codes: anc
handicapped access needs. Distance of the site from the
manufacturing plant is a major cost factor, and any cornph
cations in shipping should be investigated

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Space Frames 25

STRUCTURAL
Frame: Metal space frame (B)

Roof: Metal deck IBI

Floor: Slab on grade and concrete foundation (I)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Space frames
serve as both structural and interior systems, while provid-
ing a structure for envelope connections and space for
meshing of mechanical distribution elements. A metal deck
and built-up roof cover the space frame shown, Space
frames may appear in horizontal, vertical, domed. vaulted,
stepped, sloped, or tower configurations, In this example,
the edges of the space frame are glazed to permit perime-
ter clerestory lighting of interior areas. Tubular high-
strength extruded aluminum struts are joined by means of
solid aluminum hubs, also designed to accommodate the
hardware for fastening of clerestory glazing. The frame can
also be cantilevered beyond the continuous perimeter
masonry wall, which allows for effective plate structural
action.

Space frames are increasingly common as atrium covers

and have also been used as structures for entire building
envelopes. In perimeter-supported applications, truss
depth-to-span ratios of up to 1/30 are practical. Besides,
their light weight and economy of materials, space frames
have the quality control advantages of factory production.

Recent developments in strut and hub technology make

space frames highly durable and well engineered. The light-
weight frame components are easily shipped, quickly
assembled on site, and then lifted into place. Sometimes
the frames are factory assembled and shipped whole or in
subsections to the site. Careful coordination and assembly
instructions are important to keep pieces in sequence for
field assembly. Field bolting is almost always preferred to
field welding of frame components, because welding space
frames is expensive, and quality control can pose problems.

Where a continuous perimeter wall will not support the

space frame, the design of supporting points is crucial. Cer-
tain spanning and rigidity advantages are gained by the
design of supports that extend the pattern of the space
frame above or below the plane of the main truss.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (A)
Walls: Brick veneer and rigid insulation (G)
Floor: Vapor barrier (J)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structure and
envelope are connected in this example, with the exposed I
nature of the space frame requiring a high degree of visible .
integration between the frame's structural components and
parts of the mechanical system. The space frame permits
very long column-free spans with minimal amounts of
structural material. The visual properties can be destroyed if
the frame is coated for fire protection and in many cases
coating can be forgone if the frame is placed 20 ft or more
above floor level.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts suspended from hubs of the frame IC)
Electrical: Electrical conduits (C)
Fire safety: Sprinkler piping IC)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the
space frame is a highly regular structure and is exposed to
view in most applications, the coordination of service sys-
tems with patterns in the frame is essential for visible inte-
gration. Piping can be suspended from the hubs of the
frame, but should correspond to the patterns of the frame.
Utility runs generally follow the orthogonal grid, while the
sprinkling apparatus and electrical conduits may be run
diagonally. Fireproofing of space frames generally destroys
their appearance, so sprinkling is usually a consideration SPACE FRAME
unless the exposed frame is 20 ft or more above floor level.

INTERIOR frame serve to join the struts and can also accommodate Typical applications include spans above entries, sports are-
mountings for the envelope system and various types of nas, and convention centers.
Ceilings: Metal deck (8) interior equipment.
Floors: Wood flooring IH)
The selection of a space frame module is governed by the
Walls: Glass block panel (E) and concrete masonry SYSTEM SUMMARY integration of cladding systems, the spanning characteris-
bearing wall (F) tics of deckings, and the mullion spacing for glazings. A
The triangulated space frame network is one of the strong- space frame may be enclosed with metal decking, glass,
Lighting: Incandescent light fixtures 10) est and most efficient structural configurations, permitting acrylic, membrane, or insulated paneling. Space frames
long column-free spans with lightweight, highly repetitive must usually be engineered and fabricated by a specialty
Principal advantages and characteristics: The ceiling unifies elements. Slender structural members make space frames engineer and/or fabricator, although strut sections and hubs
interior and structural systems, and meshes them with uni- advantageous in cases where high light permeability is generally do not need to be specially designed for each
fied mechanical and interior systems. The solid hubs in the sought, yet significant live structural loading may occur. application

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems Integra~on Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
26 Building Systems-Metal Building Systems
STRUCTURAL
Frame" Rigid steel frame (C)
Roof: Standing seam metal roof (8); batt insulation (0)

Floors: Slab on grade and concrete foun~atjon (l)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Pre-engineered

primary frames and claddings are dominant in warehouse.
agricultural. and light industrial buildings. and are increas-
inglyused for office and retail facilities. Their use is gener-
ally confined to one-story construction. but there is growing
experience with multistory buildings.

Metal frame and skin building systems take advantage of

factory assembly techniques and quality control. The struc-
tural integration of frame components with the building
skin, for strength and rigidity, permits major economies in
the size and number of steel framing components. Primary
and secondary framing members, fasteners, and panels
interact to produce a light stable building shell. All framing
and cladding components are designed, engineered, and
fabricated in a plant, then shipped to the site for erection.
The same company often designs, engineers, and. builds
the system. Metal structural components are generally
sized and deployed according to exact requirements of an
application, permitting economies in materials and speed of
construction.

ENVELOPE
Roof: Standing seam metal roof IB)
Walls: Window assembly IH); insulated metal wall panels
(I)

Floor: Dampproofing 1M) and vapor barrier IN)

Principal advantages and characteristics: The pre-engi-
neered metal building integrates lightweight structural and
envelope components, each of which adds strength and
rigidity to the overall form. The floor slab, often left uncov-
ered in warehouse and industrial applications, unifies the
envelope, structure, and interior systems, and is normally
the only major site preparation required for erecting the
building. The light weight of the envelope system, which is
valuable for shipping, is especially vulnerable to wind uplift
and requires great care in design and layout of fastenings.
For applications in which privacy or sound isolation is an
issue, the thin sheet steel presents an acoustical problem.

The standing seam metal roof system requires less mainte-

nance than other alternatives, and its long-term perfor-
mance record is excellent. Most standing seam metal roofs
provide a free-floating monolithic membrane, connected by
a series of slotted clips that allow movement. This method
freely accommodates expansion/contraction cycles caused
by thermal changes. In addition, a variety of details, colors,
and finishes is available.

MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diHusers IE); heat pump IJ); ridge
vent IA)
Plumbing: Stacks in roofing panels and seams
Principal advantages and characteristics: Although the
structural and envelope systems of metal buildings are usu-
ally highly integrated, manufacturers rarely consider the
mechanical and interior systems in any detail. When insulat-
ing metal sandwich panels are used for interior and exterior
finishes, special care is required in detailing the power and
signal wiring, and in providing for its protection once in
place. The mechanical plant shown in this drawing is
located on the ground adjacent to the building, but it could
just as easily be roof mounted.

The standing seam metal roof presents several items of
concern to architects: the modularity of roof panels and
seams, important for locating plumbing stacks, skylights,
and other roof apertures; proper expansion details at inter-
sections with flashing, especially upper-roof ridge; and the
critical importance of crickets, parapet caps, and other
details to avoid buildup of standing water.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (G)
Floors: Carpet IK)
Walls: Insulated metal wall panels II)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures (F) and natural light
Principal advantages and characteristics: This construction
approach is particularly advantageous for applications
requiring large interior clear-spans, the support of heavy
overhead cranes, or substantial expanses of roof. More
METAL BUILDING SYSTEMS
often associated with ..standard." buildings components
and even "standard" buildings, the metal buildings sys-
tems industry is able to respond to highly specialized
needs, while still employing standardized structural compo-
nents and factory fabrication.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
A variety of exterior cladding alternatives is available, rang-
ing from lightweight corrugated metal skins to fully insu-
lated sandwich panels that provide both interior and
exterior finishes. Manufacturers also otter door, window,
and skylight components that work as integral elements of
the envelope and interior systems. Centralization of respon-
sibility for engineering, fabrication, and construction per-
mits close cost control and early assessment of building
costs. Architects working with pre-engineered building sys-
tems can rely on technical support from the manufacturer,
induding the preparation of fabrication and subsystem eng
nearing documents.
The pre-engineered, cold-formed steel componentry is ver
flexible and can be used for a wide variety of buildin.
shapes and sizes. Such buildings can be rapidly dismantle
and moved. The rectilinear nature of such systems usuall
results in buildings that are easily expanded in the longe
dimension. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed I
the ceilings, but the mechanical plant (here shown on the
ground adjacent to the building, but just as easily roof
mounted) is normally kept on the exterior, sometimes pre
senting difficulty with visible integration.
Metal systems are very lightweight. In areas subject to
winds, special care should be taken for wind bracing
structural frame and for fastening and design of exteric
cladding details. Building corners and edges are particular!-
subject to wind-induced uplifting and suction.

Based on Richard D Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 1986).

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Building Systems-Tension Fabric Structures 27
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Steel cables in fabric sleeves (A); steel masts (e)

Floors: Slab on grade (E)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Structural, enve-
lope. and interior systems are unified in tension-fabric struc-
tures. A fabric membrane, usually configured to follow an
optimal structural shape. is anchored by steel cables
attached to the fabric and is suspended from steel or alumi-
num masts to form "aroof or total enclosure.

Fabrics for temporary use are typically composed of a poly-

ester substrate with a polyvinyl-chloride-eoated outer layer.
A more expensive but longer-lasting fabric is either Teflon-
coated or silicone-coated fiberglass. Cables are clamped to
the fabric. which is cut and sewn according to patterns for
the structural shape employed.

The rules of structural geometry that govern the design of

tension structures impart a unique and particular form,
which does not easily permit deviations. Working with an
engineer, the architect often begins the design process
with model studies and a computer analysis to verify load
expectations and to guide pattern-making for the fabric.

ENVELOPE
Walls and roof: Noncombustible fabric membrane (8)
Floor: Vapor barrier (G)

Principal advantages and characteristics: In general the skin

and cables of these structures are in tension, while col-
umns and arches are subject to compression. Under
dynamic loading conditions, an efficient tensile structure
will adjust and allow slight deformation.

Unique aerodynamic properties assist open tension struc-

tures in overcoming the difficulties of wind-driven rain;
wind conditions subject most of the fabric to negative pres-
sure, "lifting" rain away from the skin. The use of vegeta-
tion or architectural barriers at ground-level openings also
reduces wind and rain effects under the canopy.

MECHANICAL
Electrical: Lighting fixtures, receptacles, and sound sys-
tem mounted on columns and masts (0)
Fire safety: Noncombustible or fire-retardant fabric mem-
brane (B)

Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the fabric

transmits light while blocking direct rays of the sun, it also
assumes some functions normal to mechanical systems.
Electrical lighting and other equipment are difficult to inte-
grate because of the thinness of the structural envelope
membrane, and are nearly always attached to the structural
masts or placed on independent, freestanding structures.

Acoustical, thermal, and fire-safety considerations are diffi-

cult to accommodate in tension structures, although their
light weight and dynamic properties under wind loading
make them very safe from a structural point of view. If
areas of fabric are placed close to the ground or in other
easily accessible locations, vandalism becomes a concern,
as most materials suitable for tensile structures are easily
cut. Fabric-covered structures for the performing arts are
generally equipped with electrical systems designed for
safety in wet conditions. Sealing of the holes at the peaks
of tensile structures where masts protrude is not usually
necessary.

Several of the major building codes now contain provisions

governing tensile structures, but it is advisable to consult
local code officials early in the design process. The treat-
ment of electrical wiring within or affixed to rigid columns
and masts, which must be designed to permit some move-
ment. may be a concern. Some fabrics are classified as
noncombustible, and some are only fire retardant. so it is
important to determine early on which fabrics are accept-
able in a specific situation
INTERIOR
Ceilings
and walls' Noncombustible fabric membrane (B)
Floors: Pivoted mast base and concrete footing (F)
Lighting' Incandescent light fixtures (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Color is an integral
element of fabrics and will have an effect on the quality of
natural illumination beneath the canopy. Because the fabric
provides both interior and exterior finished surfaces for the
envelope, the columns and masts are typically the only
TENSION FABRIC
structural members used for mounting such items as light- Designers can consult with specialists on engineering and
ing fixtures and power receptacles. Gantries hung from col- shop drawings. Oesignlbuild firms will produce complete
umns or masts provide additional service areas shop drawings and often fabricate all components or erect
the structure on the site. Careful detailing of steel and cable
elements, joints, and attachments is critical to overall
SYSTEM SUMMARY appearance, as most will be exposed to view. Steel and
wire rope manufacturers can assist with detailing
Several features give tension structures an advantage over
low-cost wood, metal, and concrete shelters. Fabrics can
range in service life from a few years to several decades. If
a lifetime of around 15 years is acceptable for the facility, a
PVC-coated tension structure will suffice at a low initial
cost. The usual solution for greater permanence is Teflon
coated fiberglass. Clear spans of up to 100 ft are easily
obtained with lightweight fabric structures.

Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.

BUILDING SYSTEMS
28 Floor Structure Assemblies

FLOOR STRUCTURE ASSEMBLIES STANDARD DEAD LOAD

OF ,
I ABLE
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT DEPTH OF MEMBER LOAD SPAN DIMENSIONAL
MANUFACTURERS' LITERATURE AND SYSTEM SIZES STRUCTURE! ,GE RANGE STABILITY
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS (IN.) (IN.) (PSF) ) (FT) AFFECTED BY

PLYWOOD SU8FLOOR 7-13 Nominal joist 5-8 1-40 Up to 18 Deflection

I
" .. ._ . c o- _,..

~WOOO
_J~L __ . ~_~CEILING
WOOD JOIST
2x 6, 8,10,
JOiST and 12

WOOD
TRUSS
PLYWOOD
OR
! F P L Y W O O D SUBFLOOR
PLYWOOD JOIST
(OR WOOD TRUSS)
13-21 Plywood joists
12,14,16,18,
and 20
6-12 )-40 12-30 Deflection

JOIST -----------~CEtLING

WOOD WOOD PLANK 1022 Nominal plank 6-16 )-40 10-22 -

SEAM 2,3, and 4
AND WOOD BEAM
PLANK

~---

LAMINATED
WOOD ~WOODPLANK 8-22 Nominal plank 6-20 0-40 8-34 -
BEAM GLUE LAMINATED 2,3, and 4
AND WOOD BEAM

-
PLANK
--

I ~
STEEL
-- ~ :-::~O~AI~~:-LOOR 931 Steel joists 820 0-40 16-40 Deflection
JOIST
8-30
STEEL JOIST
- -- -- -....-CEILING
<.•.:.::.._..•. ,.•.. ~:._·,..-;_.4_::.-:o/;:;..ot-CONCRETE SLAB
11 75 Steel joists 30-110 )-100 16-60 Deflection

~
STEEL ST E E L CENTERING 8-72 (up to 130)
JOIST
STEEL JOIST
_ ~CEILrNG

LIGHT- PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR 7-12 Consult 6-20 0-60 10-22 -

WEIGHT
--. ~LIGI-lTWEIGI-lT STEEL manufacturers'
STEEL
FRAME _-1
- ----
.L. FRAME
~CEIUNG
literature

9 15 35--60 0-100 16-35 Deflection

STEEL lC 1i.C--STEEL CENTERING
FRAME
-----
.J:---- STEEL BEAM
--lC...:...-CEILING

8-16 Concrete plank 40-75 0-150 Up to 50 Deflection

STEEL Generally and creep
FRAME
16-48 W
4-12 D below 35

PRECAST
~~,··.······~~~~ARSETT~;~~:~~~ 6-12 Concrete plank
16-48 W
40-75 0-150 Up to 60
Generally
Deflection
and creep
CONCRETE .,-; PLANK
;0..' CONCRETE BEAM
4-12 D below 35

ONE -WAY 4-10 - 50-120 0-150 10-20 -

CONCRETE More with
SLAB prestressing

4-10 - 50-120 0-250 10-30 -

TWO-WAY
More with
CONCRETE
SLAB
prestressing

ONE-WAY 8-22 Standard 40-90 0-150 15--50 Creep

RIBBED
pan forms More with
CONCRETE
SLAB 20 and 30 W prestressing
6-20 D
TWO-WAY 8-22 Standard 75-105 0-200 25-60 Creep
RIBBED dome forms More with
CONCRETE 19 x 19, 30x 30 prestressing
SLAB
6-20 D
CONCRETE I .I ,...--- CONCRETE SLAB 6-16 Min. slab 75--170 ,0-250 20-40 Creep
FLAT
SLAB 4S;R~F ~:~~T~ANEL thickness
5 without) Drop
Up to 70 with
prestressing
COLUMN 4 with panel
- - - - - - - - - - -....-CONCRETE 8-18 4',5',6',8', 50-80 0-150 20-50 Creep
PRECAST .n~·i···':·" ..-;, -r: ~<.":'-.:;;,:-,# TOPPING
DOUBLE
and 10' W
TEE PRECAST 6-16 D
DOUBLE TEE

~~.-:;::,~;-:;:::.,;:;_-:-..-C ONCRETE TOPPING 18-38 16-36 D 50-90 :0-150 25-65 Creep

PRECAST
TEE <:': PRECAST
• SINGLE TEE

COMPOSITE
>__". '.I'
~:;t;: ~WELDED STUD
s-CONCRETE SLAB

{SHEAR CONNECTOR}
4-6 35-70 ,0-200 Up to 35 Deflection

____ STEEL BEAM

CONCRETE 5-14 60-175 ,0-200 18-35 Creep

FLAT More with
PLATE prestressing

Roger K. Lewis, FAIA and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. LeWIS, FAIA & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Floor Structure Assemblies 29

BAY SIZE
REQUIRES
FINISHED
REQUIRES
FINISHED
\ COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE 1
_.--------!.2...~UND~A":l~~ISSl~ ____
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER
CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
CONSTRue·
TlON TYPE
I
I
UNPRO- MAXIMUM
CHARAC- FLOOR CEILING SERVICE TECTED PROTECTED CLASSIFI·
TERISTICS SURFACE SU~FACE PLENUM IMPACT AIRBORNE HOURS HOURS CATION I REMARKS

- Yes Visual or Between Poor Fair - 2 481AI Economical, light, easy

fire Joists (combustible) 3C 181 to construct. Limited to
protection -one way lowrise construction
purposes

- Yes Visual or Between Poor Fair - 2 48 (AI Close dimensional toler-

fire trusses and (combustible) 3C (81 ances; cutting holes
protection joists through web permissible
purposes -two ways

Maximum Optional No Under Poor F'Hr - 2 3A Most efficient with

beam structure 6" x 10" frame planks continuous over
spacing -one way min. more than one span
8'·0" 4" planks min.

- Optional No Under Poor Fair - 2 3A -

structure 6" x 10" frame
-one way min.
4" planks min.

Light joists Yes Visual or Between Poor Poor - 1 3C (8) -

16" to 30" o.c. fire joists
Heavy joists protection -two ways
4'-12' o.c. purposes

Light joists No Visual or Between Poor Fair - 1-3 1, 2 and 3 Economical system,
16" to 30" o.c. fire joists selective partition place-
Heavy joists protection -two ways ment required. Canti-
4'-12' o,c. purposes levers difficult

- r.es Visual or Under Poor Poor - 1 3C (81 -

fire structure
protection
purposes

- No Visual or Under Poor Fair 1-3 1-4 l,2,and3 -

fire structure
protection
purposes

- Optional Visual or Under Fair Fair - 1-4 1,2,and3 -

fire structure
protection
purposes

- Optional No Under Fair Fair 2-4 3-4 1 and 2 -

structure

- No No U~er Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Restricted to short

structure spans because of exces-
sive dead load

L S 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Suitable for concen-
structure trated loads, easy parti-
tion placement

- No No Between Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Economy through re-

ribs use of forms, shear at
-one way supports controlling
factor

L:S 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 For heavy loads,
structure columns should be
equidistant. Not good
for cantilevers

L$.1.33W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Drop panels against
structure shear required for spans
above 12 ft

- Optional Visual Between Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Most widely used pre-
purposes; ribs stressed concrete
differential -one way product in the medium
camber span range

- Optional Visual Between Fair GOOd 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Easy construction, lack
purposes; ribs continuity, poor earth-
differential -one way quake resistance
camber

- No Visual or Under Good Good - 1-4 1,2, and 3 -

fire structure
protection
purposes

L -& 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Uniform slab thickness,
structure economical to form,
easy to cantilever

Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
30 RoofStructure Assemblies

ROOF" STRUCTURE ASSEMBLIES STANDARD IOEAO LOAD SUITABLE

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT DEPTH OF MEMBER OF LIVE LOAD SPAN BAY SIZE DIMENSIONAL
MANUFACTURER'S LITERATuRE AND SYSTEM SiZES STRUCTURE RANGE RANGE CHARAC- STABILITY
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS (IN.) (IN.) (PSF) (PSF' (FT' TERISTICS AFFECTED BY

EPLYWOOO 5-13 Nominal 4-8 10-50 Up to 22 Deflection

] SHEATHING
WOOD rafters
RAFTER WOOD JOiST
2 x 4, 6, 8, 10,
-- ------ - CEILING and 12

WOOD BEAM ~ W O O D PLANK 8-22 ~ominal 5-12 10-50 8-34 Maximum

AND PLANK WOOD BEAM planks beam
lOR LAMINATED
BEAM I
~,3, and 4 spacing
8'·0"

3-6 10-50 8-32 4'·0"

PLYWOOD
PANEL
modules

Varies 5-15 10-50 30-50 2'-8' Deflection

WOOD (1'-12')
TRUSS
between
trusses

STEEL DECK
f'ot PURLIN
Varies 1525 1060 100 200 Deflection
STEEL
TRUSS
STEEL TRUSS

'". - ........ CONCRETE

11 75 Steel joists 10-28 1050 Up to 96 Light joists Deflection

~
STEEL ST E E L 8-72 16"-30" o.c.
..JOIST CENTERING
Heavy joists
STEEL ..JOIST
----- ---.....,..- CEILING 4'-12' o.c.
P LY W O O D DECK 10-32 Steel joists 820 10-50 Up to 96 Light joists Deflection
STEEL
.JOIST
_____
E§ _ __ ~
WOOD NAILER
STEEL ..JOIST
CEILING
8-30 16"-30" o.c.
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c.

INSULATION 11 75 Steel joists 6-24 10-50 Up to 96 Deflection

~
STEEL ST E E L DEC K 8-72
.JOIST STEEL .JOIST
___ _ __ ~ C E I L I N G

4-12 plus Concrete plank 40-75 30-70 20-60 Deflection

STEEL beam depth 16-48 W Generally and creep
FRAME 4-12 D below 35

4-12 plus Concrete plank 40-75 30-70 20-60 Deflection

PRECAST beam depth 16-48W Generally and creep
CONCRETE 4-12 D below 35

ONE-WAY 4-10 slab 50-120 Up to 100 10-25

CONCRETE plus More with
SLAB beam depth prestressing

,,=====~r-~ CONCRETE SLAB 4-10 slab 50-120 Up to 100 10-30 L S 1.33 W

TWO-WAY
CONCRETE ~-. . ~~/~.::.'.'~-'
~.-~ CONCRETE plus More with
SLAB ~BEAM beam depth prestressing

ONE-WAY 8-22 Standard 40-90 Up to 100 15-50 Creep

RIBBED pan forms More with
CONCRETE 20 and 30 W prestressing
SLAB 6-20 D

TWO'-WAY 8-24 Standard 75-105 Up to 100 25-60 L:S 1.33W Creep

RIBBED dome forms More with
CONCRETE 19 x 19, 30 x 30 prestressing
SLAB 6-20 D
16-36 16-36 deep 65-85 20-80 30-100 Creep
PRECAST
TEE

6-16 4',5',6',8', and 35-55 25-60 20-75 Creep

pRECAST
DOUBLE
10' wide
TEE 6"-16" deep

4-14 50-160 Up to 100 Up to 35 L S 1.33 W Creep

CONCRETE More with
FLAT prestressing
PLATE

5 16 Min. slab 50-200 Up to 100 Up to 40 L<1.33W Creep

~~~_~~,..CONCRETE
CONCRETE ~:~~~;~_~ SLAB thickness More with Equal column
FLAT
SLAB
DROP PANEL 5 W/O} Drop prestressing spacing
required
CAPITAL 4 wi panel
COLUMN

3-6 5-20 Up to 50 Up to 10 Up to 8' Deflection

GYPSUM between and creep
DECK subpurlins

Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 RoofStructure Assemblies 31

COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER

SUITABLE REQUIRES TO SOUND TRANSMISSION CODE AND UNDERWRITERS CONSTRUC-
FOR FINISHED RELATIVE TION TYPE
UNPRO- MAXIMUM
INCLINED CEILING SERVICE THERMAL TECTED PROTECTED CLASSIFI-
SURFACE PLENUM CAPACITY IMPACT AIRBORNE HOURS HOURS CATION REMARKS
ROOFS

Yes For visual Between low Poor Fair - 2 46 (A)

or fire rafters (combustible) 3C (6)
protection -one way
purposes

Yes For fire Under Medium Poor Fair - 2 3A

protection structure 6" x 10" frame
purposes -one way min.
4" plank min.

Yes No Under low Poor Fair - 2 461A)

structure 3C (6)
only

Yes For visual Between low Poor Fair - 2 46 (A) Truss depth to span
or fire trusses (combustible) 3C (6) ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 10
protection
purposes

Yes For visual Between low Fair Fair - 1-4 l,2,and3 Truss depth to span
Pitched trusses or fire trusses ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 15
usually used protection
for short spans purposes

No For visual Between Medium Fair fair - 1-4 1,2, and 3

or fire joists
protection
purposes

Yes For visual Between low Poor Fair - 1 1,2, and 3

or fire joists
protection
purposes

Yes For visual Between High Excellent Good - 2 1,2, and 3

or fire joists
protection
purposes

Yes For visual Under High Fair Fair - 1-4 l,2,and3 Easy to design;
or fire structure quick erection
protection
purposes

Yes No Under High Fair Fair 2-4 3-4 1 and 2 Provides finished
structure flush ceiling.
May be used with any
framing system

No No Under ;figh Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2

structure

No No Under High Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2

structure

No For visual Between High Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2

purposes ribs
-one way

No No Under High Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Economy in forming;

structure suitable for two-way
cantilevering

Yes For visual Between High Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Generally used for
or fire ribs long spans
protection -one way
purposes

Yes For visual Between High Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Most widely used
or fire ribs prestressed concrete
protection -one way element.
purposes

No No Under High Good Good , -4 3-4 1 and 2 Uniform slab thickness;

structure easy to form;
suitable for vertical
expansion of building

No No Under High Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Suitable for heavy
structure roof loads

No For visual Under High Good Good - 2 l,2,and3 Provides resistance to

or fire structure wind and seismic loads
protection'
purposes I I
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet 1. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA. & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
32 Exterior Wall Assemblies

EXTERIOR WALL ASSEMBLIES WALL

,..:
HEAT TRANS_
THiCKNESS
VERTICAL SPAN c!!! SERVICE MISSiON COEFFI_
RANGE /UNSUP.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT MANUFACTURERS (NOMINAL) WEIGHT PORTED HEIGHT)
z'"
- llJ RACKING PLENUM CIENT IU,FACTORJ
LITERATURE AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS . {IN.} (PSF) (FT) :t' 0:: RESISTANCE SPACE (BTUtHR 'SQ FT .0FI

~C.M.U.
C.M. U. {GRAVEL 8 55 Up to 13 Good None 0.56
AGGREGATE) 12 85 Up to 20 0.49
;:'"
------+--------------------t-------+------!-------12
'§
C.M,U. 8+ 60 Up to 13 s: Good Through 0.21
I I NSULATED I
12 + 90 Up to 20 -o insulation 0.20
fii
C. M. U . BRICK. VENEER 4+4+ 75 Good Through 0.19
AND C,M.U insulation
BRICK
~ii!!I!!!\lii!!\liili!!1i~~
. .INSULATION
4+8+ 100 0.18
VENEER
I INSULATED) ~ ~ INT. WALL FIN.

CAVITY REPELLENT I 4+2+4 75 Up to 9 Fair None 0.12

4+2+8 100 Up to 13 0.11

ST UC C O

OE
C.M,U.
C.M. U. 8+ 67 Up to 13 Good Through 0.16
AND
STUCCO interior
INSULATION
(INSULATED J insulation
INT. WALL FIN.

~
E X T. WALL F"IN.
~~~:T.r~NG WITH MOISTURE 4 12 Up to 14 Poor to fair Between 0.06
WOOD
STUD ~ ~ ~~~AT~~~O
BARRIER
WITH VAPOR
6 16 Up to 20
(LId';; 50)
studs 0.04
INT. WALL FIN

BRICK 4+4 52 Up to 14 Poor to fair 8etween 0.07

VENEER studs

METAL 4 14 Up to 13 Poor Between 0.06

STUD 5 18 Up to 17 studs 0.04

BRiCK 4+4 54 Up to 15 Good Between 0.07

VENEER studs

INSULATED 5 6 Fair to good None 0.05

SANDWICH See
PANEL manufacturers'
literature

8 92 Up to 13 Excellent None 0.68

CONCRETE ~.....~ ....... ,.~. ~: .. .......- CONGRETE
(w/rein!. 17)
:.~:·_.~·.:-;··~'o.-::.. ",~ 0.55
12 138 Up to 20
(w/rein!. 25)

CONCRETE 8+ 97 Up to 13 Excellent Through 0.13

I fNSULATED I (w/rein!.17) insulation

CONCRETE
AND 4+8+ 112 Up to 13 Excellent Through 0.13
BRICK (w/rein!. 17) insulation
VENEER
(INSULATED I

PRECAST .-".~" ...• , •..-., CONCRETE IREINFORCEpJ 2+ 23 Up to 6 Fair to good Through 0.99
CONCRETE ( ! ,INSULATiON 4+ 46 Up to 12 insulation 0.85
INT. WALL FINISH
..........-
PRECAST
CONCRETE 5 45 Up to 14 Fair to good None 0.14
SANDWICH

GLASS SEE INDEX UNDER "GLASS"

SIZE RANGE
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WIND
SHADING
COEFFI· I
G ASS AREA LOAD CIENT S.C.
'I_ 3.2 Four side supported 110 SF @ 10 PSF Clear Clearltinted
SINGLE 1/4" GLASS
20SF@60PSF 0.94 1.1
GLAZING Reflective
Two side supported 40 SF @ 10 PSF Tinted
17 SF @60 PSF 0.8-1.1
0.70

DOUBLE
GLAZING z:r : : : GLASS
CAVITY
'1_ 6.4 Four side supported 55 SF @30 PSF

Heat strengthened
28 SF @60 PSF
70 SF @80 PSF
Reflective
0.44
Clearltinted
0.5-0.6
Reflective
30 SF @ 200 PSF 0.3-0.6

1'1_ 9.6 Clear/tinted

W:~::··
GLASS
TRIPLE CAVITY 0.3-0.4
GLAZING
Reflective
0.2-0.4

Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect Roger K. Lewis. FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Exterior Wall Assemblies 33

RESIST ANCE TO
I
FIRE RESISTIVE
RATING PER
CODE AND CONSTRUCTION
SUBCONTRAC-
TORS REQUIRED EXTERIOR
EXTERIOR-AIRBORNE HAZARD UNDERWRITERS TYPE FOR ERECTION MAINTENANCE
CLASSIFICATION (FIRE) (HRSI CLASSIFICATION lPLUS FINISHESl REQUIREMENTS REMARKS
SOUND TRANSMISSION

Fair to good Classification provides data in 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, re- Properties of non-engineered masonry
regard to (1) flame spread, (2) fuel 4 pointing joints, are drastically reduced
contributed, and (3) smoke devet- painting, sand
oped during fire exposure of mate- blasting
rials in comparison to asbestos-
Fair to good cement boards as zero and untreated 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, re-
red oak lumber as 100 when exposed 4 Carpentry pointing joints.
to fire under similar conditions Drywall painting, sand
FUEL
blasting
CON- SMOKE
Excellent FLAME TRIB- DEVEL- 3-4 l,2,and3 Masonry Washing, re-
OPED 4 Carpentry pointing joints,
~ UTED
Drywall sand blasting
Paint on CMU
5-25 0-5 0-10
Excellent Gypsum board surfaced on both 4 l,2,and3 Masonry Washing, re- Cavity increases heat storage capacity
sides with paper Drywall pointing joints, and resistance to rain penetration
15 15 0 (Carpentry) sand blasting

Good Gypsum board surfaeed on both 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, paint- The assembly is reversed for optimum
sides with paper, vinyl faced Drywall ing, and re- energy conservation
25-35 0-10 15-45 Lath and plaste r stuccoing
(Carpentry)

Poor to fair Untreated wood particle board 1 4 Carpentry Washing, paint- Exterior wall finishes:
180 75 190 (combustible) Drywall ing, and replac- • wood, plywood,
(Lath and ing exterior • aluminum siding
plaster) finish • stucco
Good to excellent Treated wood particle board with 1-2 3B,C Masonry Washing, re-
untreated wood face veneer (combustible) Carpentry pointing joints,
25-180 10-160 10-250 Drywall sand blasting

Poor to fair Vermiculite acoustical plaster 1-2 1 Carpentry Washing, paint- Exterior wall finishes:
10-20 10-20 0 (nonbearing) Drywall ing, and replac- • wood, plywood,
2 and 3 (Lath and ing exterior • aluminum siding
plaster) finish • stucco

Good to excellent Glass fiber batts and blankets (basic) 1-2 1 Masonry Washing, re-
20 15 20 (nonbearingl Carpentry pointing joints,
2 and 3 Drywall sand blasting
(foil kraft faced)
25 0 0
Poor to good; See See Curtain walls Washing, steam Temperature change critical
see manufacturers' manufacturers' manufacturers -erection cleaning, paint- Minimize metal through connections
Treated lumber
literature literature literature ing, replacing
(Douglas fir)
joint sealers
15 10 0-5
Good- (Hemlock) 4 l,2,and3 Concrete work Washing, sand Concrete walls have very high heat
10-15 5-1s1 0 4 blasting storage capacity

Laminated plastic Ifr)

Good 20-30 0-15 5-30 4 l,2,and3 Concrete work Washing, sand
4 Drywall blasting
(Carpentry)

Excellent NFPA CLASSIFICATION: 4 l,2,and3 Concrete work Washing, re-

FLAME SMOKE
Masonry pointing joints,
Drywall sand blasting
---
A
CLASS SPREAD
0-25
DEVELOPED
0-450
(Carpentry)

Poor to fair B 26-75 0-450 lA Curtain walls Washing, sand Large size economical (fewer joints)
C 76-200 0-450 1-3 (nonbearing) -erection blasting, re- units available with various finishes
For lesser classifications, permitted 1B, 2, and 3 Drywall placing joint
in residential construction only, (Carpentry) sealers
refer to regulating agency guidelines
Fair 1-3 lA Curtain walls Washing, sand 8' x 20' max. size for concrete sand-
(ncnbearinq) -erection blasting, re- wich panels
lB, 2, and 3 placing joint Plant quality control is very essential
sealers

Poor - - Curtain walls Washing, re- Anchorage to building is critical

-erection placing joint Anchors must isolate wall to Iimi t
(Glazing) sealers, gaskets building movement transmitted to
glass
Wall design must limit wall movement
Fair - - Curtain walls Washing, re- transmitted to glass
-erection placing joint Mullions should accommodate movement
(Glazing) sealers. gaskets throuqh gaskets, sliding connections, etc.

Good - - Cu rtain walls Washing, re-

-r-erection placing joint
(Glazing) sealers, gaskets

Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis. FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C

BUILDING SYSTEMS
34 Selected Floor loads
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY Residential IMPACT LOADS
DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS Multifamily houses
Private apartments 40 The live loads shall be assumed to include adequate altov,
LIVE ance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be
Public rooms 100
LOAD made in structural design for uses and loads that involve
OCCUPANCY OR USE (PSF) Corridors 80
Dwellings unusual vibration and impact forces.
Armories and drill rooms 150 First floor 40
ELEVATORS: All elevator loads shall be increased 100'Ye
Assembly halls and other places of assembly' Second floor and habitable attics 30
for impact, and the structural supports shall be designed
Fixed seats 50 Inhabitable attics 20
within limits of deflection prescribed by American
Movable seats ioo Hotels
National Standard Safety Code for elevators and escala-
Platforms lassembly) roo Guest rooms 40
tors, All.1 ~ 1981, and American National Standard Prac-
Public rooms 100
Attics tice for the Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and
Corridors serving public rooms 100
Nonstorage 10 Movinq Walks (Inspector's Manuall A17.2 - 1979.
Storage 30' Rest rooms and toilet rooms 40
2. MACHINERY: For the purpose of design, the weight of
Bakeries 150 Schools machinery and moving loads shall be increased as fol
Classrooms 40 lows to allow for impact:
Balconies
Corridors 80 a Elevator machinery, 100%.
Exterior 60
Interior (fixed seats) 50 Sidewalks. vehicular driveways, and yards sub- 250 b. Light machinery, shaft or motor driven, 20%.
Interior (movable seats) ioo ject to trucking
c. Reciprocating machinery or power driven units, 50%
Bowling Alleys. poolrooms, and similar recre- Skating rinks 100
d. Hangers for floors or balconies, 33%.
ational areas 75 Stairs and exit-ways 100
All percentages to be increased if so recommended by
Broadcasting studios roo Storage warehouses the manufacturer.
Catwalks 25 Light 125 3. CRANEWAYS: All craneways, except those using only
H~vy ~O
Cold storage rooms manually powered cranes, shall have their design loads
Hay or grain 300 increased for impact as follows:
Floor 150
Roof 250 Stores a. A vertical force equal to 25% of the maximum wheel
Retail load.
Corridors First floor, rooms 75
First floor ioo Upper floors 75
b. A lateral force equal to 20% of the weight of trolley
Other floors. same as occupancy served Wholesale 100 and lifted load only, applied one - half at the top of
except as indicated each rail.
Telephone exchange rooms 150 2
Dance halls and ballrooms ioo c. A longitudinal force of 10% of the maximum wheel
Theaters loads of the crane applied at top of rail.
Dining rooms and restaurants too Aisles, corridors, and lobbies 100 4. PARKING GARAGE GUARDRAILS: Guardrails and walls
Dormitories Orchestra floors 50 acting as impact rails in parking structures shall be
Nonpartitioned 80 Balconies 50 designed for a minimum horizontal ultimate load of
Partitioned 40 Stage floors 150 10,000 Ib applied 18 in. above the floor at any point of the
File rooms Dressing rooms 40
guardrail.
Card 125' Grid iron floor or fly gallery grating 75
Letter 80' Projection room 100
High-density storage 150' Transformer rooms 200 2 MINIMUM ROOF LOADS
Fire escapes on multifamily or single family res- roo Vaults, in offices 250 1
1. FLAT, PITCHED, OR CURVED ROOFS: Ordinary roofs -
idential buildings only flat. pitched, or curved - shall be designed for the live
Yards and terraces, pedestrians 100
Foundries 600' loads or the snow load, whichever produces the greater
Fuel rooms, framed 400' NOTES stress.
Garages (passenger cars only). For trucks and 50 1. Increase when occupancy exceeds this amount. 2. PONDING: For roofs, care shall be taken to provide drain-
buses use AASH03lane load age or the load shall be increased to represent all likely
2. Use weight of actual equipment when greater. accumulations of water. Deflection of roof members will
Grandstands roo- 3. American Association of State Highway Officials permit pondinq of water accompanied by increased
Greenhouses 150 4. Paper storage 50 Ib/ft of clear story height. deflection and additional ponding.
Gymnasiums, main floor and balconies ioo 5. Verify with design criteria. 3. SPECIAL PURPOSE ROOFS: When used for promenade
purposes, roofs shall be designed for a maximum live
Hospitals 6. Additional loads-120 Ib~inear It vertical. 24 Iblft parallel
load of 60 psf; 100 pst when designed for roof garden or
Operating rooms and laboratories 60 lateral, and 10 Ib/ft perpendicular to seat and footboards.
assembly uses. Roofs used for other special purposes
Private rooms 40 shall be designed for appropriate loads, as directed or
Wards 40
approved by the building official.
Corridors, above first floor 80
Hotels (see residential) LIVE LOAD
Kitchens, other than domestic 150 2 Live load is the weight superimposed by the use and occu- LIVE LOAD REDUCTION
Laboratories, scientific roo pancy of the building or other structure, not including the In general, design live loads should not be in excess of 100
wind, snow, earthquake, or dead load. psf on any member, supporting an area of 150 sq ft or
Laundries 150'
more, except for places of public assembly, repair garages.
Libraries The live loads to be assumed in the design of buildings and parking structures, and roofs. The reduction shall not
Reading rooms 60 other structures shall be the greatest loads that probably exceed the value of R from the following formulas:
Stack rooms (books and shelving at will be produced by the intended use or occupancy, but in
65 pef) but not less than indicated 150 no case less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit R ~.081A-1 501
Corridors, above first floor 80 load. R = 2311+D/U
Manufacturing where R =reduction (%)
Light 75 o=dead load per square foot of area supported
Heavy 125 THRUSTS AND HANDRAILS by the member
Ice 300 Stairway and balcony railing, both exterior and interior. shall L =live load per square foot of area supported
Marquees 75 be designed to resist a vertical and a horizontal thrust of 50 by the member
Ibllinear ft applied at the top of the railing. For one- and two- A =area supported by the member
Morgues 125
family dwellings, a thrust of 20 Ib~inear It may be used In no case should the reduction exceed 60% for vertical
Office buildings instead of 50. members, nor 40 to 60% for horizontal members.
Office 50
Business machine equipment ioo- For live loads in excess of 100 pst, some codes allow a live
Lobbies roo CONCENTRATED LOADS load reduction of 20% for columns only.
Corridors, above first floor 80
File and computer rooms require heavier Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly dis-
loads based on anticipated occupancy tributed live load or the concentrated load in pounds given,
whichever produces the greater stresses. Unless other-
CODES AND STANDARDS
Penal Institutions
wise specified. the indicated concentration shall be The applicable building code should be referred to for spe-
Cell blocks 40
assumed to occupy an area of 2 1/ 2 sq ft (6.26 ft 2 ) and shall cific uniformly distributed live loads, movable partition load,
Corridors ioo be located so as to produce the maximum stress conditions special and concentrated load requirements.
Printing plants in the structural members.
Composing rooms ioo In addition to specific code requirements, the designer
Linotype rooms ioo must consider the effects of special loading conditions,
Paper storage rooms PARTIAL LOADING such as moving loads, construction loads, roof top planting
Pressrooms 150' loads and concentrated loads from supported or hanging
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live loads
Public rooms roo applied only to a portion of the length of a structure or
equipment (radiology, computer. heavy filing, or mechanical
member shall be considered if it produces a more unfavor- equipment)
able effect than the same intensity applied over the full
The live loads given in this table are obtained by reference
length of the structure or member
to ASCE, UBC, BOCA, and SBCCI.

Charles W. Vanderlinden, PE; Hansen Lind Meyer, Inc.; Orlando, Florida

BUILDING SYSTEMS
 Long Span and Tensile Structures 35

GENERAL LONG SPAN SYSTEMS

When selectinqa long span roof system. it is appropriate to
consider life safety of equal concern to cost. Egress must be
carefully evaluated by simulating the most adverse condi-
tions rather than simply complying with building codes. Fire
W f-
W U III
safety begins by limiting the fire load, as codes rarely require W « z
fire protection or sprinkler systems. Auxiliary uses having W Z z u, 0
any fire risk (e.q., food handling) should be carefully fire sep-
u « « a: J: « f-
«u, ..J ..J ;) f- 0
arated from the rest of the structure. a. a. III a. lIl« W
>- >- a: 0 W lIl>
« « 0 0 a:t:l
~t
;)
W 0 OZ
DESIGN CONSIDERATION ~ ~ III
J:
W W
>
SPAN RANGE (FT) 'Z_
0 f-lIl
f- > f-O
W 0 -c U a: a: «f- Ua: UZ
FACTORS MATERIAL
Z f- 0 0 0 0
0.« «f-
~ ;) ;) «W
Examples of long span structures shown in the table are rat-
SYSTEM (OR SHAPE)
0 f-
..J
u, a: U U
0
If)
- - '"
0 If) 0 0
<D lila: "-lIl "-lIl
ed for their ability to address the following design factor con-
ditions.
Joist
Truss
Steel

Steel
·· ·
· ·
20 - 24
16 - 22
p.q.s a.b.f.q
a.b.f.q.rn.t
NATURAL CONDITIONS
· · -- -
16 - 20 a.b.t m

· ·
a. Uneven or excessive snow and ice loads: Geometry,
equipment, or exterior structure may contribute to snow Wood
· 9-12 a.b.t.q
drifting or ice buildup.
b. Ponding: Provide positive drainage to remove water from · · -I-'-
- 9 - 12 b.f
the structure when roof drains clog.
c. Wind: Evaluate potential of wind induced destructive
Space
frame
Steel
· · 16 - 20 I a.b.i.jm.n.
p.q.s.u
vibration in members or connections.
d. Thermal: Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles can
cause significant changes in structural shape and mem-
Stressed
skin
Steel
· · 14-18 I a,b,i,j,m,n,
p.q.s.u

ber stresses and may lead to fatigue failure. Beam Steel

· · 18-22 a.q b.t.t
e. Freeze/thaw cycles or corrosive atmosphere: Evaluate
long-term effects on structural performance, particularly
Wood
· · -- 16 -20 b.f.t
for exposed concrete structures. Prestressed
concrete · · 22 -26 b.f.t

· ·
PRIMARY STRESSES
Rigid Steel 20-24 a.b I
f. Two or more load paths lor all loads should be provided

· · --
frame
wherever possible. The greater the area a single member Wood 18- 22 I

·
supports, the greater should be its safety factor.
g. Compression failure: Resistance to lateral buckling of
long members is crucial. Use members that assure initial
and verifiable alignment.
Prestressed
concrete · 24-28 I

Cabke i,p c.e.h.q.t

h. Tension failure: Dynamic stability under wind or other stayed
vibration loading should be carefully verified.

SECONDARY STRESSES
Folded
plate
Steel

Wood
·
·
·
· --
18- 22
12 - 16
b

b
a.f.rn
a.f.m

· ·
i. Deflection: Changes in orientation of members at joints
from loads can increase stresses destructively. Concrete
-- r- 10-14 b a.f.l.rn
Member interaction: Load flows through structures in
such a way as to minimize strength. Check all possible
load paths of complex geometric structures.
Cylindric
shell
Concrete
· · -- 10- 14 b a,l,m,o

k. Nonstructural connections: Assemblies attached to a Vault Concrete

· · ·· 6- 10 b c.o
structure will influence structural load flow and even
become part of the load flow if the attachment changes
Arch Steel
· · 4-8 b a.d.t.q
the dellected shape.
I Wood
· · · 3-7 b a.d.f.q
Scale: Most systems have a span beyond which self
weight becomes a severe limit. Concrete
· · · 3-7 b a,d,l,g
m.Stress concentration: Check stresses at changes of
cross sections, holes, and connections. High-strength
Dome Radial
steel · · 4-8 b,c a.d.f.q

· ·
materials are particularly sensitive.
Geodesic 2-5 a.b.c.f.q d.n.r
TOLERANCES dome

n. Erection alignment: True member length and spatial posi-

tion are crucial for proper alignment and load flow.
Radial
wood · · 3-6 b,c a.d.t.q

o. Creep: Length changes over time will influence both pri-

mary and secondary stresses.
Lamella
wood · · 3-6 a,b,c,l,g d.n.r

· ·
p. Supports and foundations: Supports must accept move-
ments due to deflections from primary and secondary Concrete 5-8 b,c,l,g a.d.l,o
stresses and differential foundation settlement.
Pneumatics Steel
· · 4-7 d a.b.c.e
QUALITY CONTROL Cabke Parallel
· · 8-16 d a.b.c.f
q. Engineering design must not be compromised by time,
scheduling, design changes, or building codes. Comput-
Radial
· · 6- 12 d a.b.c.f
erized design must be carefully verified to resolve all pri-
mary and secondary stresses.
Hyperbolic
· · 4-8 b.d.f a,c

r. Construction methods should be selected carefully to Tent

· ·· 3-6 b.f a.c
safely locate the structural components accurately in
space.
s. Site observation: Only when the structure is properly
Hyperbolic Concrete
· 3-6 I a.dj.o

established in space should it be accepted. Changes in

construction should be carefully checked.
1. Structural building maintenance: Conditions and align-
ment of various members, especially crucial nonredun-
dant members, should be verified on a regular schedule.
Consider using equipment to detect excessive deflec-
tion.
u. Nonstructural building maintenance: Condition of building
components should not adversely affect the structure
(e.g., keep roof drains open, prevent excessive equip-
ment vibration, and maintain expansion joints).
NOTES
1. Steel is A-36; wood is laminated, sometimes heavy tim-
ber; concrete is reinforced with steel; prestressed con-
crete is prestressed with steel.
2. Cable-stayed system can give auxiliary support to
trusses, beams, or frames, greatly reducing span and
member sizes, but providing additional tensional
strength.
3. Lamella arches provide two--way arch structures and
improve redundancy.
4. Domes may also be constructed of aluminum.
5. Pneumatics are fabric roofs, pressurized, and stabilized
with steel cables.
6. For each system the following notation applies:
• is the typical configuration
- is occasionally used

William C. Bauman, Jr.: University of Oklahoma; Norman, Oklahoma

BUILDING SYSTEMS
36 Composite Structural Elements
EMBOSSMENTS PROVIDE
KEYING EFFECT FOR
COMPOSITE ACTION

SHEAR STUDS
WELDED TO
STEEL BEAM
BOTTO~
PLATE FORMS
TRANSFER
SHEAR
CELLS FOR BETWEEN
WIRING CONCRETE
AND STEEL
CROSS WIRES WELDED TO DECK
BEAM
(OPTIONAL KEY DETAIL) ----------

CONCRETE TOPPED STEEL DECK STEEL BEAM WITH STUD IN CONCRETE SLAB
STEEL TUBE
CONCRETE FILL
UNDERLAYMENT
BONDS TO STEEL
TUBE __ --~ __ CONCRETE ENCASEMENT BONDS WEB MEMBERS
TO STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR
COMPOSITE ACTiON

STEEL-ENCASED CONCRETE
CONCRETE ENCASED STEEL COLUMNS WOOD AND STEEL JOISTS
<,
WOOD TOP CHORD
HOLES
CUT FOR WOOD POST
UTILITY
LINES STEEL BOTTOM
LIMITED CHORD
BY MFR.
SPECS. _ _+ _ ~

STRESS RATED
WOOD TOP AND
BOTTOM CHORD
(BUILT-UP OR
SOLiD WOOD)

WOOD AND PLYWOOD COMPOSITE

JOISTS
TOP AND BOTTOM STRUCTURALCONCRETE.~... . . TOP CHORD CUT
FLANGE PLATES SLAB ACTS AS
COMPRESSION .
......
-.
<: '. :~
"··v··V .'
FROM STEEL
YIELD STRESS I"
BEAM -
50,000 PSI OR FLANGE OF YIELD
GREATER COMPOSITE STRESS
MEMBER 36,000 PSI-----'"
WEB YIELD
STRESS
36,000 PSI WELD
WELD
TO TRANSFER
BOTTOM
SHEAR FORCES
CHORD CUT FROM
BETWEEN TEES
DIFFERENT WEIGH1
HEAVY TEE YIELD STEEL BEAM: YEIL[
STRESS SAME AS STRESS SAMEAS OR
TOP TEE OR GREATER GREATER THAN TOP CHORD

HYBRID STEEL GIRDERS USING STEELS OF DIFFERING STRENGTH

STEEL STUDS WELDED TO NOTES
STEEL GIRDER (OR DOWELS
FROM PRECAST GIRDER) Individual elements of the composite unit must be securely
DEVELOP COMPOSITE fastened to prevent slippage, especially at points where
ACTION load is transferred from one element of the composite
STRUCTURAL member to another.
WOOD JOIST
MEMBERS
TYPES OF COMPOSITE ELEMENTS
1 Concrete topped composite steel decks.
2. Steel beams acting compositely with concrete slabs.
3. Steel columns encased by or filled with concrete.
4. Open web joists of wood and steel or joists with ply
wood webs and wood chords.
5.Trusses combining wood and steel.
6 Hybrid girders utilizing steels of different strengths.
STEEL PLATE
SANDWICHED 7. Cast-in-place concrete slab on precast concrete joists or
BETWEEN beams.
WOOD JOISTS

FLITCH BEAMS REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB AND

Composite construction combines different materials, or
different grades of a material, to form a structural member
that utilizes the most desirable properties of each. Perhaps
the earliest composite structural unit was the mud brick
PRECAST JOIST
reinforced with straw. More recently fiberglass-reinforced
plastics, wire-reinforced safety glass, and glued laminated
plywood and wood beams have been used.
COMPARATIVE DESIGN
A 30 ft beam with a 2.25 kip/ft uniform load carrying 2 1/ 2 in
concrete fill on a 2 in. metal deck slab uses a W24x55 in a
noncomposite design and only a Wl8x40 with 38 steel
studs of 3/4 in. diameter in a composite design.

Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

BUILDING SYSTEMS

GENERAL
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust
is divided into constantly moving plates. Earthquakes occur
when, as a result of slowly accumulating pressure. the
ground slips abruptly along a geological fault plane on or
near a plate boundary. The resulting waves of vibration
within the earth create ground motions at the surface.
which, in turn. induce movement within buildings. The fre~
quency, magnitude. and duration of the ground motion.
physical characteristics of the building, and geology of a site
determine how these forces affect a building.
DESIGN JUDGMENT
In an earthquake, buildings designed to the minimum levels
required by model codes often sustain damage. Early dis-
cussions with an owner should explore the need to limit
property loss in an earthquake and the desirability of
attempting to ensure continued building operation immedi-
ately afterward. To achieve these results, it may be neces-
sary to make design decisions more carefully tuned to the
seismic conditions of a site than code requires.
GROUND RUPTURE GROUND SHAKING
MAIN CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE
0.10 0.50
PERIOD OF BUILDING MOTION
NOTE
The relationship between the period of ground motion and
the period of building motion is of great importance. Funda-
mental periods of motion in structures range from 0.1 sec-
ond for a one-story building to 4.0 seconds or more for a
high-rise building. Ground generally vibrates for a period of
between 0.5 and 1.0 second. If the period of ground motion
and the natural period of motion in a building coincide, the
FUNDAMENTAL PERIODS
SEISMIC ACCELERATION FOR LOW BUILDINGS EXPRESSED
AS A PERCENTAGE OF GRAVITY
William W. Stewart, FAIA: Stewart-Schaberg Architects: Clayton, Missouri
Map courtesv of the U.S. Geological Survey. National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project (June 1996)
Introduction to Seismic Design
SEISMIC CODES
The seismic requirements in the Uniform Building Code
have historically been based on Recommended Lateral
Force Requirements, generally referred to as "The Blue
Book," an earthquake design manual developed by the
Structural Engineers Association of California. The seismic
requirements in the National Building Code and the Stan-
dard Building Code are based on FEMA 222, the National
Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Recommended
Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings. Since
the Blue Book and the NEHRP provisions incorporate the
expertise of many of the same engineers, and since the
anticipated International Building Code will encourage con-
vergence of the requirements, the seismic code develop-
ment community intends to make the two codes similar.
The following information is based on the requirements
expected to appear in the 1997 NEHRP provisions and in
subsequent issues of all model codes. Detached one- and
two-family dwellings will be exempt from seismic regula-
tions in areas other than those with high seismicity. Seis-
mic codes are constantly evolving, and architects should
always consult the relevant code before beginning a
project. - representation of lateral earthquake forces; also referred to
DIFFERENTIAL
~ ==~
- --- =-
----
LIQUEFACTION
-
SUBSIDENCE
(FREQUENCY
Mw-t MAGNITU::J
r-a 4 SEISMIC GROUND
MOTION
I building may resonate and the loads will be increased. The-
oretically, one part of the seismic design problem is to
"tune" the building so that its own period of motion falls
outside the estimated range of ground motion frequency. In
practice, this tuning is very seldom carried out. Rather,
architects rely on increased load effects required by the
applicable code to take care of the problem.
37
A recent. significant change in the seismic codes is the
elimination of seismic zones as a basis for establishing
design acceleration. Seismic maps have been redrawn
(completely for the first time since 1976) to show building
response periods as a percentage of gravity.
The map below, based on a building response period of 02
second, gives accelerations to be used for low buildings. A
similar map based on a building response of 1.0 second is
proposed for taller buildings. Before determining what level
of ground shaking applies to a project, an architect must
find out what type of earth the building will be built on. The
maps are based on buildings built on soft rock, but ground
motion increases as the soil becomes softer.
TERMS
The seismic community has an extensive set of terms with
which to describe common conditions in the field. Follow-
ing is a short list of these terms and their definitions:
BASE SHEAR (static analysis): calculated total shear force
acting at the base of a structure, used in codes as a static
as "equivalent lateral force."
¢ ODD
¢ ODD
¢
¢
ODD
BASE SHEAR DRIFT
BASE SHEAR AND DRIFT
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE: earthquake ground motion for
which a building is designed.
DRIFT: lateral deflection of a building or structure. Story
drift is the relative movement between adjacent floors.
DUCTILITY: the ability of a structural frame to bend but not
break. Its ductility is a major factor in establishing the ability
of a building to withstand large earthquakes. Ductile materi-
als (steel in particular) fail only after permanent deformation
has taken place. Good ductility requires special detailing of
the joints.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS: a structural analvsis based on the
vibration motion of a buildinq. Dynamic analysis is time-con-
suming and normally reserved for complex projects.
FORCES, IN-PLANE: forces exerted parallel to a wall or
frame.
FORCES, OUT-OF PLANE: forces exerted perpendicular to
a wall or frame.
OUT-OF-PLANE
FORCE DIAGRAMS
MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE: the greatest
ground shaking expected to occur during an earthquake at a
site. These values are somewhat higher than those of the
design earthquake. particularly in areas where seismic
events are very infrequent. The code maps are based on
earthquakes of this magnitude.
RE-ENTRANT CORNER: The inside building corner of an L-,
H-, X-, or T-shaped plan.
SEISMIC DESIGN
38 Site Design for Seismic Areas
GENERAL -- PROVIDE 25' MIN. SETBACK MODE OF

~'~'""
COLLAPSE
Each building and site lies within a broader context of ",ecOcec """
IDENTI.FIED FAULT TRACE
repiona! seismicity. localized geology, community. vulnera-
billty. and adjacent structures and land uses. Siting deci-
sions, therefore. can have a significant impact on the overall
seismic performance of a structure. This page focuses on
the following criteria for siting a building:
-t- BUILDING
SITE

1" Avoid unstable sites. I

2. Avoid nonengineered fill.
3. Avoid or design for sites that can subside or liquefy.
4. Avoid building over surface faulting. SiTE ELEVATION
5. Avoid adjacent hazardous buildings. PROVIDE OPEN
SPACE
6. Prevent battering from adjacent buildings. SITE SECTION SEPARATION
7. Create safe areas of refuge when redeveloping older FAULT ZONE (200 YAROS ON
buildings. EACH SIDE OF SUSPECTED
ACTIVE FAULT, THOSE THAT
Decisions on appropriate land uses for a specific site, sepa- HAVE MOVED WITHIN PAST
ration from active ground faulting, site stability, and separa- 1 1,000 YEARS)
tion from adjacent buildings are critical to performance. SURFACE
Although many of these factors have traditionally been con-
sidered city planning issues, the designer must also incor-
FAULT TRACE
DOD
porate them into the architectural development of a
seismically resistant building.

SEISMIC ZONATION SiTE ELEVATiON

TO REDUCE RISK
EXISTING COLLAPSE
RELATIVE HAZARD BUILDING
RISK OF SITE LAND USE
Low High-density commercial/retail ADO BUTTRESS TO
PREVENT COLLAPSE
High occupancy and assembly
NEW
Essential services (fire stations, SITE PLAN STRUCTURE
hospitals, emergency operations NOTE
centers. etc.)
Within a fault zone, trench to determine the exact location
Hazardous industrial processes of the fault trace. Development within a fault zone should
be restricted to low-density land uses, open space, and
Medium Medium- and low-density other low-occupancy activities
residential
Low-rise commercial/retail SURFACE FAULTING
SITE ELEVATiON
Industrial uses SATURATED SAND LAYER
CAN LIQUEFY AND SPREAD
High Very low-density residential LATERALLY AND CREATE
ADJACENT HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS
SAND BOILS ON SURFACE
Nonhazardous industrial
Recreation B U IL D IN G DRIFT
DURING EARTHQUAKE
Public open space (

r----D-.,Tr/--=f_~_~_PV_=i""~_1!,~"""'O"
Public rights-of-way

NOTE
Land uses should reflect the relative risk of the location.

DD DO
AVOID BUILDING AT TOES
OR DOWN SLOPE OF
ACTIVE LANDSLIDES
BATTERING FROM ADJACENT
BUILDINGS
EXISTING UNREINFORCED
SITE SECTION (BEFORE LIQUEFACTION) MASONRY BUILDINGS (URM)
BUILDING

SAND SPREADS LATERALLY

AND EJECTS VERTICALLY

-----~
AVOID BUILDING
ABOVE ACTIVE STREET AND PARCEL MAP-URM BLOCK
LANDSLIDES

CREATE SAFE ZONE AND

MULTIPLE EGRESS ROUTES
SiTE SECTION

NOTE
SiTE SECTION (AFTER EARTHQUAKE
On sloping sites, earthquakes can trigger landslides Also, AND LIQUEFACTION)
alluvium and unconsolidated soils can increase the violence
and duration of ground shaking. In areas of young soil
NOTE
deposits, design for greater ground shaking. For example,
during the 1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake, ground shaking in Avoid sites subject to liquefaction (water saturated sandy
San Francisco's marina district. on nonengineered fill, was soils), design foundation systems to withstand ground fail-
more than twice as violent and lasted more than twice as ure, drain water from the site, and change the composition
long as ground shaking on adjacent bedrock sites. of the soil and compact the site. REVITALIZED URM BLOCK
UNSTABLE SITES SUBSIDENCE OR LIQUEFACTION SAFE AREAS OF REFUGE IN
OLDER BUILDINGS

Richard Eisner, FAIA; Governor's Office of Emergency Services; Oakland, California

SEISMIC DESIGN
 Building Configuration for Seismic Areas 39
LOAD PATHS
A load path is the path seismic forces take from the roof to
the foundation of a structure. Typically the load travels from
The seismic-resistant framing system selected for a struc-
ture must meet both architectural and seismic design
requirements. Although most buildings can be made seis-
mic resistant, some architectural configurations interrupt
SYMMETRICAL
~ RESiSTANCE

~
UNBALANCED
RESISTANCE
BUILDING
TWIST
n
I 1I: I r~J
the diaphragms through connections to the vertical lateral the load path or otherwise interfere with the seismic design
force-resisting elements and on to the foundation by way of process. Inappropriate design choices increase construc-
additional connections. This path should be direct and unin- tion cost and make the seismic restraint system less effec-
terrupted. Seismic design begins with, and codes require, tive. The examples on this page contrast configurations that
the establishment of a continuous load path. probably would cause problems in areas with high levels of
seismicity with variations that should avoid these problems.

FORCE
PREFERRED
U FORCE
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
The lateral force resisting system for a symmetrical building
LOWER FLOOR STRENGTH is much easier to design than that for an asymmetrical
MUST BE AT LEAST 80%
OF FLOOR ABOVE buildinq. Because the source of an earthquake cannot be
known, symmetry in both directions should be considered.
TORSION IN PLAN

PREFERRED DISCOURAGED
<O.15L
NOTE
PREFERRED PREFERRED This is a variation of the symmetry issue. When the notch
gets too big, the bulding tends to tear at the inside corner.
NOTE NOTE
RE-ENTRANT CORNERS
The base should not be too much larger than the tower While it is best to have uniform stiffness. some variation is
above. acceptable.

VERTICAL GEOMETRY IRREGULARITY

c:=J ROOF NOT
CONSIDERED - V
TOTAL OPEN AREA
LESS THAN ONE HALF
c:=J c=J
OF PLAN AREA
c:=J 50% GREATER
MASS THAN
THAT OF
c=J
c:=J ~E6~~'§N~ H-'"
II [
PREFERRED DiSCOURAGED

NOTE
While all floors do not have to be the same. it is important
I that no floor has too much more mass than those adjacent.
MASS IRREGULARITY

c=J c=J
c=J c::=J
PREFERRED DiSCOURAGED c=J c::=J
NOTE .> l7-~~~~~NED c::=J
Horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) can more readily
transfer earthquake loads to the vertical force resisting
DIAPHRAGM DJSCONTINUITIES
system when the size and number of holes in the dia-
phragm are limited.

PREFERRED
NOTE
n DISCOURAGED

When a taller (inherently weaker) first floor is desired, antic-

SHEAR SHEAR
WALLS WALLS ipate using much heavier first floor framing to equalize the
LINE UP OFFSET stiffness with that of the floors above.
SOFT STORY

o SHEAR
WALL

o
o WINDOW

o
PREFERRED DISCOURAGED
NOTE
Although both drawings illustrate shear walls in the same
PREFERRED DISCOURAGED plane, one arrangement is discouraged because the load
path is not direct enough.

OUT-OF-PLANE VERTICAL OFFSETS IN-PLANE DISCONTINUITY

William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri

SEISMIC DESIGN
40 Seismic Design-General
ESTABLISHING SEISMIC FORCES
--- GLASS
The equivalent lateral force procedure is the most common
method at establishing seismic design forces. In it. the
___ - DIAPHRAGM
seismic load, V (base shear), is determined by multiplying
the weight of the building by a factor Cs N=CsWl. The
value of C$ depends on the size of the design earthquake.
the type of soil. and the response modification factor (a vari-
able corresponding to the type of lateral force resisting sys-
tem used). This force is applied at the base of the structure
then distributed throughout the building according to the
mass and strength of the structure.
DESIGN FOR RESISTING
SEISMIC FORCES
Shear walls are load-bearing or non load-bearing walls that
resist seismic forces acting in the plane of the wall. Shear
wall design is simpler and more cost-effective than other
lateral force resisting systems; however, the architectural
design must be able to accommodate the locations of
these walls and the small number of openings they permit. SHEAR WALLS AND DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms are horizontal or nearly horizontal structural ele-
ments (usually a floor or roof) designed to transmit lateral
forces to the vertical elements of a seismic resisting sys-
tem. Diaphragms must be rigid enough and the connec-
tions strong enough to transfer the entire load to the lateral
force resisting system.
Tall, narrow structures tend to tip over before they slide,
while short structures slide rather than tip Earthquake
waves rock buildings, increasing overturning loads, and can
act in any direction. Thus, resistance to overturning is best
achieved at a building's perimeter rather than at its core.
Building foundations must be designed to resist the lateral
forces transmitted through the earth and the forces trans-
mitted from the lateral load resisting system to the earth. In
general. softer soils amplify the effects of an earthquake. OVERTURNING
OVERTURNING AND SLIDING
BUILDING FRAMES
Braced frames depend on diagonal braces to resist lateral
forces. Although cost-effective, most braces limit the num-
ber of openings possible in a wall, Eccentric bracing is a
configuration that allows for more openings than are nor- TRADITIONAL BRACED CONFIGURATIONS
(PREFERRED)
mally achievable. K-bracing used to be a common variation
of X-bracing, but it was discovered that the forces at the
intersection are very great, making the connection difficult.
A moment frame is one in which members and joints are
able to resist lateral forces along the axis of the members
as well as by bending. It is an alternative to solid shear K BRACE
walls that allows for openness and design flexibility. (DISCOURAGED)
BRACED FRAMES
DDD
COLUMN
WELD
(BEAM
DDD
~DDD~
~ ~BOLT
BOLT WELD
TYPICAL SHEAR TYPICAL MOMENT
ONLY CONNECTiON CONNECTION
FLOATING STRUCTURAL
FLOOR SLAB
CONNECTIONS
WOOD CONNECTIONS
Connections are an important element of the lateral force
resisting framing system. Wood connections come in a
variety of types, many of which are not appropriate for seis- OUTER
mic or wind loading conditions. End grain nailing performs STEEL
SHIMS--t-_
poorly and should be avoided, and toe nailing as the sole
means of attachment is inadequate. Positive connections
using appropriate fasteners are necessary to establish a LEAD
continuous load path. Shear walls must be fastened PLUG --i"",,~'1
securely to the foundation. Diaphragms should be properly
attached to the lateral force resisting system. Connector '.- . .. -
{
"
design and detailing should include proper use of connec- DOWEL HOLES
tors to achieve required load capacity and code compliance. THROUGH
OUTER SHIM
Adequate size and placing of nails is necessary to minimize . MORTAR LEVELING
splitting and optimize the load carrying ability of the frame. DETAIL PAD ON FOUNDATION
(See AGS pages on wood seismic design and structural
wood fasteners for details.) BASE ISOLATION
William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
ANCHORAGE
Anchors are either cast-in-place or drilled in after placern
of the concrete. When anchors can be precisely locat-
before the concrete is poured, cast-in-place anchors
typically used. Post-installed anchors are usually emplov-
when anchor locations cannot be predetermined with au
racy. Spacing between anchors, the distance to the edqe
the concrete, embedment depth, stiffness characteristic
and the type of loading (e.g., dead, live, dynamic, seisn
all must be considered. For structural elements that requi
seismic design, only anchors tested under dynamic load t
should be used. The preferred anchor types for seismic Pi'
forma nee include cast-in-place bolts and inserts. Acce»
able post-installated anchors are undercut anchors, hea,
duty sleeve (torque-controlled expansion) anchors,
chemical anchors. .f-bolts and L-bolts cannot be counter:
to resist much uplift.
TOOL
j
UNDERCUT
CONCRETE
BEFORE
BOLT IS
I PLACED
/
UNDERCUT THREADED
POST-INSTALLED CAST-iN-PLACE
ANCHOR ANCHOR
SLIDING
THREADED
ROD
WASHER
(OPTIONAL) ~
_~NUT
-r-e--r-r- HEADED \
BOLT
HEADED CAST-iN-PLACE ANCHORS
ANCHORAGE
ECCENTRIC
BRACE
BASE ISOLATION
Base isolation is a major seismic design innovation. Anerc
gous to the suspension of an automobile, isolators separate
the building from ground motion. Base isolation is mot
cost-effective for buildings in areas of high seismicity, bulle
ings that must have an irregular shape, large histor.
buildings, and buildings that must remain in operatro
immediately after an earthquake.
When using base isolation, it is important to ensure that th,
isolators are the only place where the building touches th,
PERIMETER surrounding earth. This is normally accomplished by pos
CLOSURE tioning the building in a large scooped out area and can
necting it to the surrounding ground with flexible "bridges
The base isolators are usually located in a sub-basemen
dedicated to their use.
A recent variation of base isolation is offered by a family ()
devices that absorb or dissipate energy and change the
response of a structure to seismic activity. These svsternr
appear most useful for improving existing structures with
out the need for an entirely new structural system.
REFERENCES
AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research. Buildings i;j
Risk: Seismic Design Basics for Practicing Architects
Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association
Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay
in Panel Ceilings. 5700 Old Orchard Ad.. Skokie. IL 60077
National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRpl
Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for Nev.
Buildings. t994 ed. Part 1. "Provisions" IFEMA-222A); part
. 2. "Cornrnentarv" IFEMA-223A).
.
.
BASEPLATE - - . Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existinc
WITH DOWELS Buildings IFEMA-178) and Handbook of Techniques for the
Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA-172l.
- - . Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHAP Rec
ommended Provisions IFEMA-99J.
 Architectural and Mechanical Components for Seismic Design 41
GENERAL ADJUSTABLE LENGTH 12-GAUGE WIRES AT EACH
VERTICAL COMPRESSION CORNER OR AT LEAST AT
When detailing architectural and mechanical elements for STRUT TO PREVENT DIAGONALLY OPPOSITE
seismic resistance, the architect's primary concerns are to VERTICAL CORNERS; ANCHOR
MOVEMENT WIRE TO STRUCTURE
minimize falling hazards and to maintain a normal egress ABOVE (MINIMUM 3
route. Features such as masonry chimneys, parapets, light TIGHT TURNS IN 1 1/2"
fixtures, suspended mechanical equipment, large duct- AT EACH END OF WIRE)
work, and heavy pipes are potential falling hazards. Cabi-
nets and bookcases can block exits if they fall. An additional
concern for architects designing for earthquake-prone areas
is the need for a building to remain in operation after an
earthquake.

Many resources that offer detailed solutions for seismic

design only address areas with high seismic activity. How-
ever, no ::>ingle detail is appropriate for all areas. This page is
meant to guide architects through the philosophy of seis-
mic design. Readers should use the references listed to
develop the right solution for a particular site.

To determine seismic forces on architectural components,

an importance factor (I) is introduced into the force equa-
NOTE
tion. I is either 1.0 or 1.5. If the component is essential or
might create a hazardous condition when falling or break- Provide 4-way diagonal bracing and compression struts
ing, there is a 50% increase in the design load. The lateral approximately every 12 ft each way. .
force == 1.6 SaS IW. W is the weight of the part. SaS is the STIFF SPACER. OR OTHER
spectral acceleration. In reality the force decreases as the
LIGHTING FIXTURE DETAIL FOR
SUITABLE SYSTEM TO KEEP SEISMIC AREAS
location (height) of the component within the building is PERIMETER COMPONENTS
lowered. A more complicated formula is available if it is FROM SPREADING APART
necessary to reduce the loads. WALL CHANNEL
CEILING GRID <,

SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY

FOR STRUCTURES

gr
SEISMIC USE GROUP
3 /8 " FOR LOW TO
VALUE OF SaS I II III MODERATE SEISMIC
(3 / 4" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
5 aS s 0.167 9 A A A
7
/8 " FOR LOW TO
0.167 9 ~ 5 aS < 0.33 9 B B C MODERATE SEISMIC
0.33 9 s 5 aS < 0.50 9 C C D (2" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
""
0.50 9 ~ 5 aS <1.0 9
1.0g,;5a5
D
E
D
E
D
F
WALL ATTACHMENT DETAIL
NOTE
""
NOTES For ceiling grids, pull-out capacity at the joints is a key to Ii
good seismic performance. Vertical (compression) struts
1. g-weight of object being analyzed; 5. s- spect ral prevent failure from wave-like or galloping motion. Solu-
response acceleration tions for all levels of seismic activity are addressed in the
2. Seismic use group classification is assigned to each Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association
building depending on the importance of maintaining standards. . 4
H
:i; DISTANCE
function or protecting occupant safety. Buildings in sets- FROM WALL
mic use group 111 are those that are required to function CEILING DETAILS FOR SEISMIC AREAS
for post earthquake recovery. Seismic use group II build- FLEXIBLE GAS
ings are buildings with relatively large occupant loads. CONNECTION
LIGHT FIXTURES
Any remaining buildings fall into group l. The level of
seismic -detailing is expressed by letters A through F and I There are two ways to handle light fixtures that could shake
free from the ceiling grid and create a falling hazard. One is
3 / " X 24-GAUGE
4
PLUMBER'S TAPE
is based on the relationship between the seismic use .
group and the level of design ground motion. This level to suspend the light fixture from the structure above with NOTE
of detailing is known as the seismic design category. two to four wires (if two wires, they should be in opposite
corners). The second method (not used in areas with high Fill space between water heater and wall with 2x blocking
seismicity) is to brace the ceiling and clip the light fixtures with cushioned face.
to the grid. Pendant-mounted fixtures should be designed WATER HEATER SEISMIC
so they cannot swing and hit other building components. REINFORCING

METAL CHANNEL, EXTERIOR CLADDING SHELVING AND CABINETS

FASTENED TO
STRUCTURE Exterior cladding must be secured to the building to pre- Shelves and racks can overturn during seismic activity,
ABOVE, PERMITS vent it from falling. Heavier veneers require more anchor- injuring building occupants or blocking exits. The hazard
PARTITION TO

l
SUDE AT TOP
age, When cladding is anchored to the structural frame,
BUT RESTRAINS consideration must be given to how movement of the
. IT FROM LATERAL frame will affect movement in the cladding. A major con-
MOVEMENT cern is the difference in movement between floors and/or
floor and roof (story drift). which is addressed with connec-
SEALANT REQUIRED tions that permit the cladding to move independently of the
FOR ACOUSTIC structural frame. Commonly used are push-pull connec-
ISOLATiON
tions, caulked joints, slip joints, and covers that collapse.
_-.LL~!\~---.l-.L':::::----METAL OR
WOOD STUD
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
FASTEN
To brace sprinkler systems, architects must address three
BASE TO
STRUCTURE main problems: the falling hazard of heavy mains, separa-
tion of the mains at the joints (property loss is critical here),
and breaking of the pipes where the heads pass through
the ceiling. The la.tter problem is solved by enlarging the
hole (with up to 1 In. clearance) and covering it with a large
escutcheon plate. An alternative is to detail a swing joint in
the sprinkler drop that will provide 1 in. movement in all
directions. Another solution is to detail the grid and sprin-
kler drops as one integral unit. (See NFPA 13 for informa-
tion on sprinkler bracing,)
NOTE
This detail must be checked for acceptability when the par-
tition is fire-rated. Partitions that extend to the structure WATER HEATERS
above usually perform well if consideration has been given
to potential building racking (i.e.. being forced out of When a water heater overturns, a gas line can rupture.
plumb). Depending on the level of seismicity, the common solution
for residential water heaters is to use a flexible gas connec-
~~~r\JION DETAIL FOR SEISMIC tion and/or a simple steel strap wrapped around the tank
and securely anchored to a stud or solid wall.
increases with the occupancy density and the height of the
equipment. Fixtures should be bolted onto heavy-gauge
studs above their center of gravity.
ELEVATORS
Traction elevators cause the most concern in regard to seis-
mic activity. The main problem is that the counterweights
may come loose and strike the cab. Current elevator stan-
dards address this problem, but older elevators may need
to be upgraded.
HVAC, ELECTRICAL, AND
PLUMBING COMPONENTS
HVAC equipment is often heavy, with large inertial forces;
securely attaching such equipment greatly reduces dam-
age. Piping systems generally perform well during seismic
activity but are vulnerable at equipment connections.
Heavy electrical equipment such as switchgear, transform-
ers, and batteries are the parts of the electrical system
most vulnerable to seismic activity. Emergency systems
depend on electrical power for fuel or control and so may
fail even though the equipment remains functional.
Plumbing distribution systems are relatively flexible and can
withstand a fair amount of shaking. Piping and equipment
should be anchored so it will move with the structure, limit-
ing differential movement at the joints.

William W. Stewart. FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri

SEISMIC DESIGN
42 Seismic Rehabilitation of BUildings
GENERAL
The greatest hazard In major earthquakes stems from older
buildings that were designed under early seismic codes or
before such codes were introduced. Seismic rehabilitation
(or seismic retrofit) refers to design and construction
intended to improve the seismic performance of an existing
building.
Some cities have established seismic rehabilitation pro-
grams to reduce the risk caused by unreinforced masonry
(URM) buildings, which are particularly hazardous in earth-
quakes. The City of Los Angeles, for example, passed an
URM ordinance in 1981 that required all of the 8000 URM
buildings in the city to be strengthened or demolished. San
Francisco has a similar ordinance. Many buildings also have
been voluntarily rehabilitated
REHABILITATION PROCESS
REHABILITATION STRATEGIES CODES AND REGULATIONS
Although the unique characteristics of each building must At present a general code for seismic rehabilitation of b.
be considered when devising a rehabilitation strategy, ings does not exist. For URM buildings, the City of- I
some fundamental concepts have been developed from Angeles Section 88 Code may be appropriate; for cert.
experrence: types of historic URM buildings. the Uniform Code
Building Conservation may be used. Following
1 Add strength. Northridge earthquake. Los Angeles developed criteria
2. Alter building stiffness. rehabilitating tilt-up buildings and nonductile reinforced c.
3. Create structural continuity crete frame buildings.
4. Add structural containment The Building Seismic Safety Council/National Earthqua
5. Rationalize existing capacity Hazard Reduction Program is developing the first cornp:
6. Isolate the building from the ground. hensive criteria (available about 1998) for the rehabilitatn
of all building types in any geographic region.
7. Add energy-dissipating details
In addition to purely structural issues, architectural con-
cerns influence rehabilitation design. For historic buildings,
rehabilitation measures must be devised that respect the
original architecture, and the addition of external strength-

The first steps in rehabilitation are to identify the seismic
deficiencies and determine a method of rehabilitation.
Other steps involve bUdgeting, preparing contract docu-
D~D
ening components is not an option. For other buildings this
may not be a concern, and affordable cost, safety, and pres-
ervation of building function may be the paramount objec-
tives.

D~D
ments, and selecting a contractor.

EVALUATION PROCEDURES FEMA publication 172 provides conceptual design guidance

on methods of rehabilitating all 1'5 model building types
Two procedures exist for evaluating buildings for seismic described in FEMA 178.
rehabilitation. The first, called rapid visual screening (RVS),
is used to assess the rehabilitation needs of a number of
buildings: a whole city, a few city blocks, a college campus,
II I :: I
etc. RVS involves surveying the exterior of a building and ADD REINFORCED INFILL WALLS TO
recording its major features in a way that allows it to be INCREASE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
rated for possible seismic risk. The evaluation takes about
30 minutes per building. The intent is not to provide a defin-
itive seismic rating but rather to indicate which buildings
should undergo a more detailed evaluation. This procedure
is described in Federal Emergency Management Agency
IFEMAI Publication 154. Dl8JD
The second. more detailed seismic evaluation process is
described in FEMA Publication 178. The evaluation begins
with collecting information about a structure and classifying
it according to one of fifteen model building types. This
Dl8JD
qualitative investigation determines whether the building
exhibits any of the defined life-threatening performance
characteristics that similar structures have demonstrated in
previous earthquakes. If such characteristics are identified, UNREINFORCEO MASONRY ADD BRACING TO INCREASE STIFFNESS
a detailed evaluation is recommended and permissible BEARING WALL
capacity/demand ratios are suggested. Although the
detailed procedure generally takes several days to com-
plete, it provides an evaluation of the building's threat to life
and a list of the particular structural and nonstructural fea-
tures that must be addressed.

Another aspect of the evaluation is establishing the benefit-

cost ratio for seismic rehabilitation. FEMA Publication 227
DDDDD
describes such a procedure and provides computer soft-
ware to perform the evaluation.
DDDDD
HAZARDOUS BUILDING TYPES
Any building may be hazardous in an earthquake if it is not
designed according to seismic codes and. perhaps more
significant, the designer does not understand or have expe-
DDDDD ADO BUTTRESSES FOR CONTAINMENT

rience with seismic design. Many old buildings, designed

before seismic codes existed. are well designed seismically
and have stood the test of time. Other, newer buildings are
NON DUCTILE CONCRETE FRAME
unsafe because they were designed according to an obso-
lete code and without an understanding of seismic design
issues.

A number of typical building types have been identified as

hazardous because of their generally poor performance in
earthquakes:

1. URMs: bearing wall buildings with unreinforced masonry

walls. usually brick.
2. Nonductile concrete frame: typical of buildings con- ADO ENERGY DISSIPATING BRACES TO
structed in the United States before about 1975, when REDUCE DRIFT AND INCREASE DAMPING
new codes came into effect that recognized the prob-
lems caused by underreintorced concrete frame struc-
tures subject to brittle failure. (Ductility refers to the
ability of structures. usually steel structures, to deform
greatly under load without collapsinq.l
3. Concrete or steel frame with unreinforced masonry walls CONCRETE FRAME WITH
(often hollow tile): popular for buildings constructed from UNREINFORCEO MASONRY INFILL
the early 20th century until World War II.
4. Precast concrete tilt-up construction: common industrial
building type that relies on the exterior concrete walls to
act as shear walls against earthquake forces. Unless cor-
rectly detailed, the roofs are likely to pull away from the
walls and collapse during earthquakes.

BASE ISOLATION TO REDUCE

PRECAST CONCRETE TILT-UP RESPONSE AND AID DAMAGE CONTROL

HAZARDOUS STRUCTURAL TYPES REHABILITATING A CONCRETE FRAME

Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RI8A, Building Systems Development, lnc.: Palo Alto, California

SEISMIC DESIGN
 Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry 43
lower seismic exposure areas and walls not part of the lat- .4
GENERAL eral resisting system (even when other walls are engi-
Empirical rules and formulas for the design of masonry neered). Buildings that are in higher exposure areas or have
structures resulted from the long history of masonry use walls that are part of the lateral resistance system require
and thus predate engineering and analysis. Empirical design engineering design that conforms to local codes.
is a method of sizing and proportioning masonry ~I.ements
that depends on centering gravity loads over beanng walls, There are specific limits on masonry as to height wind or
neglecting the effect of steel reinforcing. other horizontal loads. and seismic loads. In many cases, EXPANSION
design for wind and industry recommendations for crack BOLT TO
For most masonry work, empirical design is conservative. It CONCRETE
control due to shrinkage or expansion may govern building (WELD TO
is generally appropriate for smaller buildings with i.nterior reinforcement in areas with lower seismic activity. STEEL)
masonry partitions and stiff floors, as well as buildinqs in
3" X 3" X 15 1 "
STEEL ANGL~,
CONTINUOUS
OR CLIP ANGLE
BONO BEAM AT
DIAPHRAGM
CONNECTION SEALANT,
eMU WALL OPTIONAL

BONO BEAM
NOTCHED TO
ALLOW FOR
PASSAGE OF
#4 BAR NOTE

#4 STEEL REBAR This detail allows transfer of out-of-plane forces but iso-
AT BONO BEAM lates in-plane forces from the structure.
(DIAPHRAGM #4 STEEL
CONNECTION), REBAR AT CONCRETE (OR
CONTINUOUS CORNER (OR STEEL)
THROUGH

. .
IN FIRST VOID STRUCTURE
CONTROL FROM CORNER,
JOINTS FILLED SOLID (.
WITH GROUT)

'" .
----'~:!irn~1IIIIIqJ~=~:=S:I:Z'EALLOWS
MAX. 16" FROM
~9~~6~(OR FOR DEFLECTION
OR CREEP
CONTROL JOINT)

FLEXIBLE
W1_7 STEEL WALL SEALANT WITH
REINFORCING AT BACKER ROO
16" O.C., VERTICAL

COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER

BOND BEAM
LQCATEDTO
ALLOW FOR
16" CAVITY GROUTING
D.C. ACCESSIBILITY

NONBEARING WALL ISOLATION

DETAILS

REBARS SET INTO

FOUNDATION SHEAR WALL SPACING
RATIO-EMPIRICAL DESIGN
I Bearing walls Solid units I/t < 20
NOTE Fully grouted I/t < 20
Standard construction practice tor masonry crack control requirements as well. W1. 7 steel reinforcement at 8 in. o.c. Others I/t < 18
requires Wl.7 at 16 in. o.c., which would cover seismic should be used in parapet locations. Nonbearing walls Exterior I/t < 18
WALL REINFORCING FOR MASONRY WALL (EMPIRICAL DESIGN FOR MODERATE Interior I/t < 36
SEISMIC AREAS)
I-wall length; t-wall thickness

METAL SCREEN OR MESH

TO RESTRICT GROUT FLOW

PRIMARY
CMU WALL

EMBED BENT ENOS

IN GROUTED CELLS

30" MIN
_ - - - - SECONDARY
eMU WALL

NOTE
Preformed, hot-dipped galvanized tees (Wl.7 wire at 8 in.
o.c., vertical for bearing; 16 in. o.c. tor nonbearing) are
used for reinforcing intersecting walls.
INTERSECTING WALL DETAIL INTERSECTING WALL REINFORCING

Edgar Glock, Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis. Missouri

SEISMIC DESIGN
44 Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry

GROUT CELL AT WOOD TRUSS

AT 24" O.C
ANCHOR ONLY

1/2" HEADED BOLT

AT MAX. 6'·0" D.C
G ROUT CELL AT
DOWEL ONLY
1" X 12" STEEL
STRAP, EACH
#13 DOWEL AT TRUSS
16" o.c. (TURN
PRESSURE-
DOWN 16" INTO II TREATED
BONO BEAM) c!.L!? WOOD PLATE

'/2" DiAMETER
HEADED BOLT
FLOOR JOIST AT 6'-0" O.C
PARALLEL TO
WALL 16" D.C CONTINUOUS
~ Ll BOND BEAM.
CONTINUOUS --------- GROUT SOUD
BOND BEAM WITH
#4 REBAR5 CMU WALL
CONCRETE ON
METAL DECK
_ - - - - eMU WALL
WOOD TRUSS
THROUGH WALL AT 24" O.C
REINFORCING 4" X 4" X 15/ 16"
(Wl.7.16"O.C .. CONTINUOUS
VERTICAL) STEEL ANGLE
(ANCHOR WITH
NOTE EXPANSION

Anchors should also be placed at cross-bracing for joists. o BOLT)

3" X 3" X 3/ 16"
STEEL ANGLE
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR WOOD AT48 O.C
M

JOIST/RAFTER PARALLEL TO WALL

CONTINUOUS
PRESSURE
BOND BEAM
TREATED
GROUT CELL AT (GROUT SOLID)
WOOD PLATE
ANCHOR ONLY

1/2" HEADED BOLT 1/ 2" DIAMETER

AT MAX. 6'-0" o.c. CMU WALL HEADED BOLT
(OR l,Z" THREADED AT 6'-0" o.c
ROO HOOKED TO
BAR) CONTINUOUS
THROUGH WALL BOND BEAM.
REINFORCING ,GROUT SOLID
METAL JOIST (W1.7, 16" O.C .. NOTE
HANGER VERTICAL) CMU WALL
For moderate seismic areas

DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL ROOF TIE DETAILS FOR MODERATE

JOISTS PARALLEL TO WALL SEISMIC AREAS

FLOOR JOIST OR
RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL 16" D.C.
3" LEDGER

CONTINUOUS AS ALTERNATE
CONCRETE ON
BONO BEAM WITH TO BRACE, USE
METAL DECK
#4 ROO #4 STEEL REBAR
AT 48" O.C:
C]
l*==q~-----THROUGH WALL CAVITIES FILLED
REINFORCING :' WITH GROUT
(WT.7, 16" a.c .. I" I
VERTICAL) II

~USEBRACE
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION H -, -, -.( IF HfT > 3
FOR WOOD JOIST/RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR TO WALL -,
" ROOF
" STRUCTURE
-,
GROUT CELL AT -,
ANCHOR ONLY -,
"I
I
-,
II -,

..:L__ jJ~Et:l;;3;:EI1~~
'1
"' I
BEARING ~f::=~:f============
PLATE WITH
#13 HOOK "
TO BAR
CONTINUOUS
JOIST/RAFTER BONO BEAM
(GROUT SOLID)
PARALLEL OR
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL

1/2" DIAMETER
THREADED ROO,
HOOKED TO BOND
BEAM REBAR
CONTINUOUS STEEL JOIST NOTE
BONO BEAM
THROUGH WALL Empirical design for masonry parapets should be used only
THROUGH WALL REINFORCING in areas with low seismicity, Engineering analysis is
REINFORCING (WI.7, 16" O.C.,
(W1.7, 16" D.C.
required when the heiqht-to-thickness ratio of three-to--one
VERTICAL) is exceeded and in areas of higher seismicity,
VERTICAL)

ALTERNATE DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL MASONRY PARAPET DETAIL FOR
CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/ JOISTS PERPENDICULAR TO WALL SEISMIC AREAS
RAFTER

Edgar Glock. Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis, Missouri

SEISMIC DESIGN

GENERAL
Wood frame structures with a variety of solid wood and
engineered wood products can be designed to resist seis-
mic forces using many of the same principles used to resist
wind forces. Wind-resistant design involves resolving loads
assumed to be applied to the structure in one direction for a
short time (monotonic loads). Wind load can induce shear
that is both perpendicular and parallel with the structure.
resulting in an overturning motion as well as uplift on the
structure. Seismic loads, on the other hand. are cyclical.
moving in different directions over a short period.
Seismic loading conditions on conventional construction are
referenced in four main sources, which also provide infor-
mation about the capacity of various materials: American
Society of Civil Engineers 7-95, Section A9.9.10; the Build-
ing Code, Section 2326; the Standard Building Code, Sec-
tions 2308.2.2 and 2310; and the National Building Code,
Section 2305.8. In general, these provisions are limited to
buildings with bearing walls not exceeding 10ft in height
and gravity dead loads not exceeding 15 psf for floors and
exterior walls and 10 psf for floors and partitions. Sheathing
for braced walls must be at least 48 in. wide over studs
spaced not more than 24 in. o.c
Wood construction standards for all seismic areas include
the following: wall anchorage must use a minimum of t
o.c., maximum. Walls must be capped with double top
plates, Uniform with end joints offset by at least 4 ft. Bot-
tom plates must be 11 /.} in. thick (2 in. nominal) and at least
the width of the studs.
Forces must be transferred from the roof and tloorts) to
braced walls and from the braced walls in upper stories to
the braced walls in the story below, then into the founda-
tion . Transfer must be accomplished with toe nails using
three 8d nails per joist or rafter where not more than 2 ft
o.c. or with metal framing devices capable of transmitting
the lateral force. Roof to wall connections must be made at
the exterior walls when the building is 50 ft or less in
length. A combination of exterior and interior bearing walls
is necessary when the building length exceeds 50 ft.
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing 45
NOTES
ROOF DIAPHRAGM
1. Diaphragms (the roof, tloorts}. and shear panels in walls)
CEILING DIAPHRAGM must be designed to resist forces created by the dead
load mass of the structure and applied seismic loads. In
wood frame construction, a diaphragm is typically a
structural "panel" made of a skin (sheathing) stretched
- - - - - ROOF-TO-WALL over and fastened to ribs (wood members such as 2x4s)
ANCHORAGE The resulting construction is stiff and strong enough to
transmit forces to resisting systems such as the founda-
tion. Connections must be designed to transfer lateral
forces and restrain overturning motion. Lateral forces can
WALL DIAPHRAGM be either perpendicular or parallel to the structure. The
load from each part of a building that is created as the
buildinq shifts from the movement of the earth must be
transferred to adjoining elements (roof sheathing to
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
rafters to top plates to wall sheathing and studs to bot-
tom plates to floor sheathing and framing and so on, until
the lowest level of floor framing, from which the load
moves to the foundation; in slab-on-grade construction,
the load moves finally from the wall sheathing and studs
to the bottom platesl.
WALL-TO-FLOOR-
2. The roof diaphragm comprises roof sheathing, roof fram-
TO-WALL ing (rafters, top chord of truss, etc.), and blocking.
ANCHORAGE 3. The ceiling diaphragm comprises ceiling finish material
(for example, gypsum wallboard) and ceiling framing
ijoists, lower chord of trusses, etc).
4. Roof-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down anchors to
resist uplift forces and nailing to resist shear forces
WALL DIAPHRAGM
5. The wall diaphragm comprises wall sheathing, wall fram-
ing, and sheathing fasteners.
6. The floor diaphragm comprises floor sheathing, floor
framing (joists, trusses, etc.), blocking, etc.
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
7. Wall-to-floor-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down
anchors and shear connectors (for example, nails).
8. Hoor-to-toundaticn anchorage consists of hold-down
anchors to resist overturning forces and anchor bolts (1/2
FLOOR-TO- in. diameter at 6 ft o.c.) to resist shear forces.
FOUNDATION
ANCHORAGE
TYPICAL WALL SECTION FOR CONVENTIONAL WOOD FRAMING

Connections designed for both lateral and vertical (uplift or

overturning) loads must be used in conventional wood SPACING FOR BRACED WALL SPACING
frame structures designed for seismic areas, Traditional BLOCKED DIAPHRAGM* DISTANCE
nailing schedules are often adequate to handle lateral SEISMIC BETWEEN MAXIMUM
BOUNDARY OTHER CAPACITIES
forces. Vertical forces can be addressed by lapping struc- PANELS (IN.) PANELS (IN.) (LB/FT) PERFORMANCE BRACED NUMBER OF
tural sheathing and/or strapping the roof, walls, and floors CATEGORY WALLS STORIES
together at appropriate intervals. In addition, the overturn- 6 6 320
A 35 ft 3
ing loads in walls must be restrained by anchoring the ends 4 6 425
B 35 ft 3
of the shear panels (whether traditional or perforated) to the 640
2'/, 4
structural wall below. C 25ft 2
2 3 730
l'
0 25ft
Nontraditional materials such as LVL, I joists, and structural
composite lumber can be used in seismic design; the I * 15/ 32-in. panel sheathing; 10d nails into 2X framing (Douglas
fir, larch, southern pine).
"Two stories for detached one- and two-family dwellings
capacities and applicable connection types of these prod-
ucts are available from the manufacturers.

BOUNDARY
PANELS, TYP

NOTE
Each diaphragm in a building must resist the seismic
effects in both directions of all the mass above it as well as
of its own mass. The seismic loads caused by the roof
mass must be transferred to the wall, and the wall must be
designed to resist both the effect of the mass of the roof
and the mass of the wall. These combined loads must then
be transferred to the floor below, which must be designed
to resist the effect of both its mass and the load applied by
the wall above. In turn, walls below must resist these
loads, until the force reaches the foundation, which must
be able to resist the combined loads from the rest of the
building.
SEISMIC LOAD TRANSFER
NOTES
1. Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of shear panels,
with 10d nails in 2x framing.
2. Capacities are based on structural I panels of Douglas fir,
larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or
alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood
Association.
3. The aspect ratio (the ratio of the longer dimension to the
NOTE
shorter) of a floor or roof diaphragm is limited to LiL 1 ::;; 4.
Openings in the diaphragm are limited to either 12 ft or The bracing element is typically a shear panel that is
half the length of the diaphragm, whichever is smaller. anchored against both shear and overturning
FLOOR AND ROOF DIAPHRAGM BRACED WALL SPACING

David S. Collins, FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio

SEISMIC DESIGN
46 Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing

4'-0" TOP PLATE

JOINT OFFSET,
TYP

i
H

~ {)C,,"
LOCATION OF
HOLD-DOWNS
PANEL
TYP

(AT EACH END

OF SHEAR
PANELS, TYP.)

NOTES
~HOLD-DOWNS AT END OF WALL

1. For perforated shear walls, the whole wall is considered

~f>?£,,,SJ.~~
MAX.
NOTES
4' X S' MIN.
SHEAR PANEL 1. In traditional shear wall design, parts of the wall that are
sheathed from top to bottom without openings are con-
~it1:'c~t~'E,A6~~g,t~NT~L, sidered individually as shear panels. Hold-down anchors
STUDS BOTH SIDES are required at both ends of each of these panels. Each
NOTES segment must be restrained against the overturning
motion and the shear to which it will be exposed.
1. Shear panels that consist of framing members and
2. The capacity of a traditional shear wall is the sum of the
sheathing panel(s) or diagonal sheathing members pro- capacities of the individual shear waH segments, which
vide the principal lateral resistance to shear loads.
are determined by multiplying the length of each seg-
Sheathing panels are made of plywood and aSB (for ment by the capacity of the sheathing (IMin. ft). Exam-
structural panels), gypsum sheathing, or fiberboard. Diag-
ple: Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of the shear
onal wood sheathing boards or strapping can also be
panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in. o.c. for 280 IMin. ft.
used. The shear capacity of the material depends on the The capacity of this shear wall would be equal to 280 x (A
quality of the framing and sheathing materials and on the
+ B + C); 280 x H = uplift (hold-down capacity).
connections. Building codes require a minimum aspect
ratio of H/L,; 2 or 3'1, for the panel. Sheathing both sides TRADITIONAL SHEAR WALLS
with the same material doubles the capacity of the shear
panel. Tests have shown that sheathing each side with a
different material adds capacity, although this concept is MINIMUM LENGTH OF BRACED WALL
not accepted by all codes.
STORY SHEATHING TYPE* LOW RISK
2. Use 10d nails at all edges and in field (center area) as fol-
lows: for edge nailing, 6 in. o.c. for 280 1!Jllin. ft; 4 in. o.c. Top or only G-P 8'-0'
for 430 Ibn,n. ft; 3 m o.c for 550 Ibnin. ft; 2 in. o.c. for SW 4'-0'
730 lbllin. tt: and 12 in. o.c. for field nailing. Story below top G-P 12'-0'
3. This drawing is based on use of structural I panels of SW 8'-0'
Douglas fir, larch, or southern pine. For additional thick-
nesses or alternative wood species, consult the Ameri- Bottom of 3 stories G-P 16'-0'
can Plywood Association. SW 8'-0'
WOOD WALL SHEAR PANEL • G-P---gypsum; SW-structural wood
as a single shear panel without regard to wall openings.
Hold-down anchors are required only at the ends of the
wall. To determine the capacity of the wall, the lengths
of the full-height sheathed areas are added together and
the sum multiplied by the capacity of the sheathing.
2. Perforated shear walls may require higher capacity
sheathing than traditional shear walls to compensate for
the lack of intermediate hold-down anchors.
3. The sheathed walls above and below the openings in a
perforated shear wall increase the capacity of the wall
The capacity of the shear wall must be adjusted by a fac-
tor derived from two variables: the maximum opening
height and the percentage of full-height sheathing on the
shear panel. In the following example, a factor of 0.49 is
applied. The Wood Frame Construction Manual gives
more examples. Example: Use 15132 in. sheathing for the
outside of the shear panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in
O.C. for 280 Ibmn. ft. Shear = 280 x (A + B + C) x 0.49;
280 x 8 = 2240 Ib uplift (hold-down capacity).
PERFORATED SHEAR WALLS
HIGH RISK
12'-0' 16'-0' 20'-0'
8'-0' 8'-0' 12'-0'
16'-0' 20'-0'
8'-0' 12'-0' 29'-0'
Not permitted as conventional

LUMBER DESIGN VALUES FOR SEISMIC CONDITIONS

ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
DESIGN VALUE* 2x8 SIZE REPETITIVE MEMBER 1.15 LOAD 1.6 ADJUSTED DESIGN VALUE (PSI)
Fb Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 875 psi 1.2 Fb-l050 1210 1930 1930
SPF no. l/no. 2; 875 psi 1.2 Fb-l050 1210 1930 1930
Southern pine no. 2; 1200 psi - 1380 2210 2210
F. Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 95 psi - - 150 150
SPF no. 1/no.2; 70 psi 110 110
Southern pine no. 2; 90 psi 145 145
F" Douglas fir-larch no. 2: 625 psi 625
SPF no. l/no. 2; 425 psi 425
Southern pine no. 2; 565 psi - - - 565
Fell Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 1300 psi 1.05 F,,=1560 - 2185 2185
SPF no. l/no. 2; 1100 psi 1.05 F,,,-1320 - 1850 1850
Southern pine no. 2; 1550 psi - - 2480 2480
* Additional design values for other species and grades of Association's National Desiqn Specification. The values seismic and Wind conditions IS a factor of 1.6. These factors
lumber can be obtained from the Supplement to the published for wood products must be adjusted by various are applicable only to solid wood products and glued lami-
AF&PA National Design Specification. factors, including size (except for southern pine), to deter- nated timbers. Connections have similar adjustment fac-
mine the appropriate design values for a particular applica- tors.
NOTE tion. Repetitive members, consisting of three members
Design values for traditional solid wood products and con- spaced not more than 2 ft o.c. and sharing a load, must be
nections are available in the American Forest and Paper increased by a factor of 1.15, while the adjustment for

David S. Collins. FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio

SEISMIC DESIGN
 Lighting Design 47
GENERAL LIGHT SOURCE SELECTION GUIDE
Lighting design involves selecting lighting fixtures (lumi-
naires) and determining their locations and control devices
I APPLICATIONS

to realize the desired effects. Basic lighting designs are

fairly generic and require but a modest level of effort to <2500 Bulk industrial and security (HPSllighting
achieve a workable result. Attractive and/or complex light-
2700-3000 Low light levels in most spaces «10 FC); general residential lighting; hotels, tine dining and family restaurants,
ing designs, on the other hand, can require significantly
theme parks
more design work and detail in specifying products and
locations. Typical steps in the process are these: 2950--3200 Display lighting for retail and galleries; feature lighting
350Q--4100 General lighting in offices, schools, stores, industry, medicine; display lighting; sports lighting
1. Establish project criteria: Determine the quantity and
quality of illumination, color of light, and luminairs type 4100--5000 Special application lighting when color discrimination is very important; not commonly used for general lighting
(style, appearance) wanted. Check applicable codes and 5000-7500 Special application lighting when color discrimination is critical; uncommon for general lighting
standards, and find out the cost and power limits. MINIMUM LAMP CRI'
2. Create design concepts: Select the types of luminaires to <50 Noncritical industrial. storage, and security lighting
be used, outline desired controls, and propose locations.
Test cost and power budgets. 50-70 Industrial and general illumination when color is not important
3. Refine the design: Make calculations and adjustments, 70--79 Most office, retail, school. medical, and other work and recreational spaces
sketch details, draft specifications, and coordinate 80-89 Retail, work, and residential spaces when color quality is important
mechanical and structural work.
90-100 Retail and work spaces when color rendering is critical
4. Prepare working drawings: Draw lighting plans, make fix-
ture schedules, and plan layout and circuit controls. 1 CCT-correlated color temperature
. Determine emergency, life safety, and egress lighting. 2 CRI-eolor rendering index

As with all creative processes, it is not unusual to repeat

steps until an acceptable result is achieved. With increasing
enforcement of energy codes, traditional designs (espe-
cially those using incandescent lighting) will not meet READING AREA PRECISE WORKING AREA
energy code requirements. Reiterations involving different (CATEGORY"C" (CATEGORY "E": 50 TO 100 FC)
light sources or luminaires will often be necessary. 10 TO 20 Fe)

SETTING DESIGN CRITERIA

Lighting design requires the definition of the following crite-
ria for each application: quantity of illumination, quality of
I ---l I

[OJ
illumination, color of light. and suitable luminaire styles.

QUANTITY OF ILLUMINATION
Standards for illumination are set by the Illuminating Engi-
I D I I
I
neering Society of North America IIESNA). Illumination is
generally measured in the horizontal plane 30 in. above the
I I
I

D
floor. The units of illumination are footcandles (lumens per
square foot) and lux (lumens per square meter). IESNA-rec-
ommended levels are summarized on the following page
I I
I
(Lighting and Lighting Systemsl-more detailed and spe-
cific information is given in the IESNA Lighting Handbook I I
and in other IESNA publications. L:-----------H
Specific lighting levels may be set by codes, such as life
I WAITING
AREA
I
safety codes and health codes. For instance, NFPA 101
(National Fire Protection Association Life Safety Standard) I I
recommends an average illumination of 1 footcandle (10
lux) along a.path of emergency egress with an emergency
power source. Some owners establish their own lighting
level requirements for specific areas. I
I
L
D _ J
I

Choosing lighting levels involves thoughtful application of

IESNA recommendations to meet the goals of the project.
Too much light will lead to excessive energy use and failure
GENERAL OFFICE GENERAL OFFICE
to meet energy code limits. Use of high lighting levels FUNCTION AREA WORKING AREA
(more than 200 footcandlesl is rare and usually is associ- (CATEGORY "8": LOBBY (CATEGORY "0"
5 TO 10 FC> ---- 20 TO 50 Fe)
ated with special purpose lighting systems like surgical
lights.

The IESNA recommends exterior lighting levels for specific

applications such as street lighting, sports lighting, and
parking lot lighting. Although the IESNA makes some rec-
ommendations for exterior lighting applications that are
more artistic, such as building facades or statuary, most of
these are left to the designer's discretion.
NOTE
In this example, choosing the proper amount of light in light level ranges for older people, where finishes are espe-
each area not only meets visual needs but consumes only cially dark, or where the work is particularly important or
the minimum necessary energy. Use the high end of the requires great speed.

The uniformity of lighting levels is also subject to IESNA
recommendations. For interior lighting, IESNA generally
recommends the following ratios of illumination for com-
fort:
1. Task proper: 100%.
2. Immediate surround: 33-100%.
3. Distant surround: 10-100%.
When light is designed to maintain these relationships, the
human eye continually adapts to the light level and
responds quickly to visual stimulus. However, visual inter-
est is caused by contrast in which ratios between task and
surround might be 100: 1 or even greater. This is one of the
greatest paradoxes of lighting design: The most appealing
visual scenes are often uncomfortable.
1,IGHTING LEVELS FOR TYPICAL OFFICE RECEPTION AREA
QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION
Quality of illumination remains largely an aesthetic issue.
However, a number of specific quality issues can be
addressed objectively:
1. Eliminate flicker: Light sources should minimize or elimi-
nate flicker caused by AC power or other influences.
2. Eliminate or minimize glare: Shield lamps from view.
Minimize very bright and very dark surfaces. Illuminate
walls and ceilings.
3. Use light sources with good color rendering: Halogen,
high CRI (color rendering index) full size and compact flu-
orescent, and high CRI metal halide and white HPS
lamps should be used whenever possible.
COLOR OF LIGHT
Both the correlated color temperature (CCT) and color ren-
dering index (CRO for light sources should be used in
choosing light sources. In general, try to match CCT when
mixing sources, such as halogen and fluorescent.
SUITABLE LUMINAIRE STYLES
Many design problems have reasonably obvious solutions
determined by a combination of budget, energy code, and
industry standards. For instance, most office lighting
designs utilize recessed troffers because they are cost-
effective and energy-efficient and they meet the standard
expectations of owners and tenants. Choices among trof-
fers require further consideration, although at that point
style is a lesser issue.
Some situations call for uncommon or creative designs. In
these cases, the distribution of the luminaire and its physi-
cal appearance become critical. In particular, luminaires that
enhance the architecture are desired for residences, hotels,
restaurants, and other nonwork spaces. Decorative styles
range from contemporary to very traditional; lamp options
may permit a choice between incandescent and more
energy-efficient light sources, such as compact fluorescent
or low watt high-intensity discharge (HID) luminaires. In
fact. energy-efficient decorative lighting fixtures, both inte-
rior and exterior, are one of the fastest growing parts of the
lighting fixture industry as the market for attractive lumi-
naires that comply with energy codes grows.

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
48 lighting and lighting Systems
GENERAL
Most b~ildings are equipped with electric .49htj~g syste~s
for interior uses. Early In the history of Ilghtln!":1. l!h.~mJnatlon
systems were desiqned for minimum use of mtenor space
at night. Today, however, electric illumination systems gen-
erally are designed to be used in place of natural light
FUNCTIONS OF LIGHTING
Light is one of many tools available to help in space design,
In the beginning of any project, it is wise to recall the func-
tions of lighting and to be certain each has been examined:
Performance of tasks: Lighting to perform work, whether
it is reading, assembling parts, or seeing a blackboard, is
referred to as task lighting. Visual work is a primary rea-
son for providing lighting.
Enhancement of space and structure: It is only through
the- presence of light that spatial volume, planes, orna-
ment, and color are revealed. For centuries, structural
systems evolved partly in response to aesthetic as well
as functional desires for light of a certain quality. The
progress from bearing wall to curtain wall was driven by
the push of newly discovered technologies (both in
materials and in technique), by evolving cultural desires
for certain spatial characteristics, and by a desire to admit
light of a particular quality. These developments are
reflected in the Gothic church window, the baroque ocu-
lus, and the Bauhaus wall of glass. With the advent of
electric lighting systems, this connection of structure to
light was no longer entirely necessary, but most archi-
tects continue to pay homage to this historical tie.
3. Focusing attention: The quality of light in a space pro-
foundly affects people's perception of that space. The
timing and the direction of an individual's gaze are often
a function of the varying quality and distribution of light
through the space. Lighting draws attention to points of
interest and helps guide the user of a space.
4. Provision of security: Lighting can enhance visibility and
thereby engender a sense of security. Lighting can also
be used to illuminate hazards, such as a changing floor
plane or moving objects.
BASIC LIGHTING TERMS
LUMINAIRE: a structure that holds an electric lamp and its
socket, wiring, and auxiliaries, such as ballasts.
PORTABLE LUMINAIRE (LAMP): a luminalre equipped with
a cord and plug and designed to be moved from space to
space.
LIGHTING FIXTURE: a luminaire that is permanently
attached ("hard wired") to a building
LIGHTING SYSTEM: the lighting fixtures in a building,
sometimes including portable lights, subdivided into
smaller systems (e.g., the lighting system in a room or aU
luminaires of a particular type In a room or building).
ILLUMINANCE: the measure of light striking a surface, in
footcandles (lumens per square meter). Illuminance can be
measured and predicted using calculations; also illumina-
tion.
/ \
I \
O'
NOTE
Fixture manufacturers have developed luminaires (mostly
fluorescent) that produce a light distribution that tends to
reduce direct glare and veiling reflections if used in large,
uniform arrays and typical open office geometries. This dis-
tribution pattern is called batwing.
LUMINAIRE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
PATTERN
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
Robert Prouse, IALD, IES; H.M. Brandston & Partners, Inc., New York, New York
LIGHTING DESIGN
ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR VARIOUS INDOOR ACTIVITIES
RANGES OF ILLUMINANCE
ILLUMINANCE REFERENCE
TYPES OF ACTIVITY CATEGORY LUX FOOTCANDLES WORK PLANE
Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5 General lighting
throughout
Simple orientation for short, temporary B 5075-100 5-7.5-10
spaces
visits
Working spaces used only occasionally C 100-150-200 101520
for visual tasks
-
Performance of visual tasks of high 0 200-300-500 20-30-50 Illuminance on
contrast or large size task
Performance of visual tasks of medium E 500 750-1000 50-75-100
contrast or small size
Performance of visual tasks of low F t 000- 1500-2000 100-150-200
contrast or small size
Performance of visual tasks of low G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500 Illuminance on
contrast and very small size over a task, provided
prolonged period by a comb ina-
tion of general
Performance of very prolonged and H 5000-7500-10000 50G-750-1000
and local (sup-
exacting visual tasks
plementaryl
Performance of very special visual tasks I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000 lighting
of extremely low contrast and small size
NOTE
Standards for lighting and illurrunation in North America are IESNA Lighting Handbook, 8th edition, from which this
established by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North table is taken.
America. IESNA recommendations are summarized in the
LAMP: the electric bulb or tube within a luminaire. its lumens downward will have a higher CU (room cavity
ratio and reflectance values being equal) than one that dis-
PHOTOMETRY: the measure of light, especially with tributes light in any other direction. A higher CU is not nec-
respect to a luminaire. essarily a virtue; it only ranks fixtures according to their
ability to provide horizontal illuminance.
PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: a written report that describes
the manner in which light is emitted from a lurninaire, pre- The lumen method/zonal cavity system is limited by the fol-
sented in an industry standard format. lowing:
ENERGY EFFICIENCY, the measure of how a lighting sys- 1. It is based on a single number, average value.
tem compares to standards, in the context of building size 2. It assumes a uniform array of lighting fixtures.
and function.
3. It assumes all room surfaces have a matte (lambertian)
finish.
4. It assumes the room is devoid of obstruction, at least
down to the level of the work plane.
LUMEN METHOD
The light loss factor (LLF) is used to calculate the Hlumi
Lighting design involves determining how many luminaires nance of a lighting system at a specific point in time under
are needed for a particular application and where to locate given conditions. It incorporates variations from test condi
them. The most accurate means of determining illumination tions in temperature and voltage, dirt accumulation on light-
performance is by computer; a number of point-by-point ing fixtures and room surfaces, lamp lumen output
lighting programs are available with DXF and DWG file inter- depreciation, maintenance procedures (mainly frequency of
faces and other features. (See the annual computer issue cleaning), and atmospheric conditions. The LLF is also
of Lighting Design and Application, an IESNA publication. known as the maintenance factor.
for a current list of commercially available proprarns.I It is
also possible to estimate illumination results from a pro- Tc use a CU table, assumptions must first be made about
posed lighting design using the lumen method and photo- the reflectance of major room surfaces. Then the room cav-
metric reportts) from candidate luminaires. itv ratio (RCR) can be determined according to one of the
following formulas:
The lumen method, also known as the zonal cavity system,
is a calculation method that can be used to determine the For rectangular rooms: RCR ~ 15 x H(L + Will (L x WI.
horizontal illuminance that will result from a proposed light- which H is the cavity height
ing fixture selection and layout or the number of fixtures
required by a proposed fixture selection and its horizontal For odd-shaped rooms: RCR = 2.5 wall arealfloor area
illuminance value.
The lumen method is based on the definition of average
footcandles over an area. The method modifies the funda-
mental equation of 1 fc = 1 lumen/sq ft to account for room
size and proportion; reflectance from walls, ceiling, and ~
floors; fixture efficiency; and reduction in output over time
~O"
due to dirt accumulation, deterioration of reflecting sur-
faces, and reduction of lumen output. JiUGHT
FIXTURE
j
~
<,
The lumen method requires the following information:
H
1. Room dimensions (to compute wall area and floor area)
H H
2. Height of fixtures above work plane
jPOTENTIAL
WORK PLANES
3. Reflectance levels of major surfaces (ceiling, walls, floor)
H OF INTEREST
4. An estimate of the light loss factor (LLF)
35" 5. Initial lamp lumens
6. A target illuminance level
The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the percentage of total
lamp lumens that reaches the work plane. As such, it has
nothing to do with the intensity of the fixture but rather
with the efficiency of the fixture (lumens emitted from the
NOTE
fixture divided by lamp lumens and the direction of the
lamp output-this direction of output is graphically repre- Anyone of these dimensions may be the cavity height (Hl.
sented by the candlepower distribution curve). For pur- which is the distance from the light fixture to the work
poses of this procedure, the plane of interest is invariably a plane of interest.
horizontal plane (typically either the floor or desk level).
therefore a fixture that throws the greatest percentage of CAVITY HEIGHT DIAGRAM
 Energy Efficiency in Lighting Design 49
GENERAL COMPLIANCE STRATEGY TRADEOFFS
Lighting can be desiqned both ~o use minimum energy and To realize design compliance with local energy codes with- Energy codes do not regulate lighting design or the amount
to realize environmental benefits such as reduced air and out significant redesign, observe the followinq process: of lighting in a particular space. For instance, a designer
groundwater pollution. Electric light sources more effica- could slightly reduce the lighting loads throughout an office
cious than traditional incandescent lamps have been devel- 1. Choose a general lighting system that uses one of these building by using efficient lighting equipment. With the
oped to. meet most lighting needs. The key to achiavinq sources: fluorescent T-8 with electronic ballasts, high- energy saved, an important space like the main lobby could
efficient design is knowing how and when to choose effi- wattage compact fluorescent with electronic ballast. or be illuminated in a less efficient manner, such as with
cient sources, luminaires, and controls. metal halide or HPS (high-pressure sodium). incandescent chandeliers, and the project would stilt com-
2. Make certain the lurninaire and room are reasonably effi- ply with the energy code.
cient. Use direct lighting for tasks whenever possible,
CODES and make room finishes light. especially ceilings. Tradeoffs are allowed among interior spaces in the same
building, but they are not allowed between interior and
The U.S. Energy Policy Act 01 1992 requires states to 3. Design to just barely meet IESNA recommendations for exterior lighting. In addition, tradeoffs are not allowed
develop codes that require efficiency in lighting design. each space. between buildings, even if they are owned by the same
Each code must meet or exceed the requirements of 4. For downlighting, wall washing" and other traditional company and stand on the same site.
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989. In 1996, although in many states incandescent applications, use compact fluorescent or
compliance was mandatory and enforced. some states had HID (high-intensity discharge) sources.
yet to adopt such a code, while others had not yet begun
enforcement. For federal government buildings. a version 5. Minimize the amount of track lighting by using recessed ENERGY-EFFICIENT
of 90.1 with more stringent values was in force. Progress fixtures or rnonoooints when 'possible.
LIGHTING CONTROLS
toward regulating energy efficiency in Canada was similar. 6. Use incandescent and halogen sources sparingly, confin-
ing them to necessary decorative lighting. DEVICE OR TYPICAL
METHOD OPERATION CREDIT*
All codes presently calculate allowed watts based on build- 7. Add advanced controls such as motion sensors and day-
ing type and area. Codes generally determine allowed inte- lighting dimming. These allow the reduction of actual Time clock Turns lights on and 0-10%
rior lighting watts in one of three wavs-s-roorn by room, by lighting watts and can help bring a design into compli- (with manual off at scheduled
area (groups of rooms), or for the entire building: ance with energy efficiency requirements. override readily times
accessible)
1. Room by room: Determine the specific use of each room Dimmer Reduces lighting 0%
and its net area. Multiply the area 01 each room by the power by manual
allowed power density (watts/sq It) adjusted lor the adjustment
room cavity ratio (RCRI. Add the wattage lor all rooms
together. Motion sensor Turns lights on and 15% (>250sq
011 based on space Itl to 30%
2. Area: Determine the use of major portions of a building use «250 sq It I
or renovation and the gross lighted area of each. Multiply
the gross lighted area by the allowed power density Daylighting Reduces interior 20%
(watts!sq It) lor each group 01 rooms by type. Add the controls lighting power (stepped( to
figures for all areas together. based on amount of 30% (continu-
daylight in space ous dimming)
3. Whole building: Determine the building type and the
gross lighted area for the entire building. Multiply the Scene preset Reduces average 10-20%
gross lighted area by the allowed power density (watts! dimming power by dimming
sq It I lor the entire building by type. combinations of
lighting systems
To find the total allowed watts for the interior of a building, Tuning Reduces lighting 10-15%
start with the total wattage as determined by one 01 the power by hidden
three methods above. Then subtract "credit" watts for adjustment
lighting controlled by advanced automatic devices such as LINEAR ROTARY OR TOUCH·PLATE Lumen Reduces interior 10-15%
daylighting or motion sensing and add other allowed watts. SLIDE PUSH ON/OFF CONTROL
if any. maintenance lighting power
CONTROL CONTROL
based on age of
An allowed lighting load can also be determined by using a lamps and cleanli-
building energy simulation program like DOE-2. However, ness of space
because the program's algorithm is based on the same DIMMING CONTROL DEVICES Combined Combinations of Up to 45%
power density assumptions as the allowed amount given systems the above are not
above, it is unlikely the value for lighting determined in this directly additive
manner will be significantly different.

Exterior lighting is governed less than interior lighting, and

I "The credit offered varies from code to code and may not
be available.everywhere.
under some codes it may not be governed at all. As welt.
energy codes in general do not regulate lighting watts in
dwelling units
footcandles desired x room area
ADDITiONAL CODE REQUIREMENTS NUM8ER OF LUMINAIRES
CU x LLF x lampslluminaire x lumensllamp
In addition to limiting lighting power in a building, lighting
energy codes also have other requirements. These vary by
state but may include the following: lumensllamp x lampslluminaire x CU x LLF
AVERAGE FOOTCANDLES
area 01 room (sq It)
1. Mandatory use of readily accessible switching in all
enclosed spaces. (Exceptions are allowed for spaces in
which this would be unsafe.) design watts (including ballast)
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It)
2. Use of multilamp or electronic fluorescent ballasts when- area of room
ever possible. where:
3. Separate switching lor daylighted and nondaylighted
CU = coefficient of utilization (percentage of light that actually reaches task)
spaces in building interiors.
LLF = light loss factor (time-dependent depreciation lactors)
4. Ability through switching or dimming to adjust lighting
levels in a space exceeding 100 sq ft and 100 watts. NOTE
5. Automatic shutoff controls for lights in spaces in larger See manufacturer's photometric tables or the Lighting
bUildings (usually larger than 5000 sq ft). Handbook 01 the Illuminating Engineering Society lor tables
6. Automatic shutoff controls for exterior lights. of values for CU. LLF, lurnens/lamps, etc

LIGHTING CONTROLS IN ENERGY-

EFFICIENT APPLICATIONS 50 x 25 x 40
NUMBER OF FIXTURES = 9.35 luminaires (use 9 or 10)
While most energy codes require switching for all spaces, 0.67 x 0.7 x 4 x 2850
some switch types control energy use better through auto-
matic switching and/or dimming. "Control credits" are
often offered by codes that permit the designer to reduce 9 x 111 10 x 111 0.999 W!sq It (9 luminairesl or
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It) or
the watts of all lights connected to certain automatic 25 x 40 25x40 = 1.111 W!sq It (10 luminaires)
devices; this arrangement allows the design to employ
more lighting watts and still comply with the energy code. TYPICAL EXAMPLES
Room size 25 x 40 It; ceiling height 9 It; illumination level CU = 0.67 (plastic lens)
50 lootcandles (IESNA category 101; 2 x 4 ft. recessed trol- Electronic ballast input watts = 111
lers with lour 32-watt T8 lamps 12850 im) each. LLF = .70

FORMULAS FOR AVERAGE LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacilic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
50 Workstation Lighting and Lighting Controls
DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF
PARTITIONS ON LIGHTING LEVELS
The illumination that reaches a desk tQP in q"direct lighting
system is a combination of light arriving directly from the
lighting fixture and indirectly via reflectance from various
··············<········~r····/··············
room surfaces. A partition not only interferes with this indi-
rect component of light but can drastically reduce the A·
potential direct component.

Consider the example shown in the accompanying dia- 42~ PANELS

grams: In diagram "A", the workstation is contained within
42 inch high panels. Extending "sightlines" (as if the desk
top could "see" the ceiling) from the center of the station
out to the ceilmq over the top of the panels, it can be seen
that in a 10 by 10ft workstation, a ceilingarea of 4,225 sq ft
(65 x 65 ft) has the potential for contributinq light to the
workstation. If the lighting fixtures are installed 8 ft apart.
/
there would be an average of 66 fixtures 14,225 sq ft ~ 18 x
/
8 ftll that could contribute light directly to the desk top. /

_ _li6~II_
If the same lOx j O tt workstation had partitions 60 in. tall,
the projected lines would enclose a ceiling area of 676 sq ft
(26 x 26 ttl This area would include only ten or eleven fix-
tures [676 sq'tt ~ (8 x 8 ftll. This 80% decrease in the num- "S"
ber of lighting fixtures that could possibly contribute light
directly to the desk top does not translate into an 80% drop
in light levels at the desk top. However, it will cause a sig- 60" PANELS
nificant decrease, the amount of which is influenced by fac-
tors such as the distribution pattern of the lighting fixtures
and the finishes of the partitions. PANEL HEIGHT COMPARISON

Clearly, task lighting is important to consider when parti-

tions are more than 42 in. high.
LIGHTING CONTROL CHOICES Lumen-maintenance controls allow lighting to be dimmed
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS FOR SPACES automatically when it is new and, through photoelectnc
WITH PARTITIONS Energy codes require readily accessible switching for all sensing, to be increased gradually as lamps age and lurni
electric lights. The National Electric Code requires switch- naires get dirty. The equipment for these controls is sirnila.
A rough approximation of the magnitude of the effect of
partition height on lighting levels can be calculated using ing at specific locations in houses. Traditional switches to that for daylighting, and most systems do both.
meet these requirements. Other lighting controls choices
the foHowing technique. (However, do not use this tech-
nique for totally direct lighting systems unless severallumi- are discussed here: Adaptation compensation controls (the opposite Clf daylight·
naires directly contribute light to the cublcle.) ing) increase interior light as exterior light incrases. Tun-
SWITCHING nels are classic applications for adaptation cOf'1ll)ensation,
1. Use the coefficient of utilization (CU) table for the fixture but the same principles carl be used to save energy in
Standard toggle switches are the most commonly used
to calculate the average illuminance at the top of the par- supermarkets.
lighting switches. Three-way and four-way switches permit
titions. Use the distance from the luminaires to the top of control from several locations. Choices include standard
the partitions as the cavity height. and use actual reflec- toggle switches and the more modern "decora" or paddle DEMAND MANAGEMENT
tance values except for the floor; use "0" for the floor switches. Electronic touch switches are also becoming Lighting can be dimmed 10-20% with little efhet on pro-
cavity reflectance. more common. ductivity but a profound impact on overall buildiilg load. By
2. Determine the transfer coefficient of a virtual ceiling sensing incoming electric service for peaks, lightng can be
luminaire: Use the distance from the top of the partition DIMMING dimmed when other building systems are pea.Jti3g in load
to the desk top as the cavity height Use the cubicle's The result is a ."flattening" of the energy use c~e, which
Manual dimming is popular in homes and many other
partition reflectance as the wall reflectance, and use the lowers electric energy cost.
spaces. To dim fluorescent lighting, use modern high fre-
effective ceiling cavity reflectance of the actual ceiling quency electronic dimming ballast systems. An energy
cavity above the top of the partitions. Use the table credit may be available for using manual dimming under
below to find the transfer coefficient. some conditions.
3. Multiply the illuminance from the first step (at the top of
the partitions) by the transfer coefficient to find the SCENE DIMMING
approximate average illuminance at the desk top. APPLICATIONS FOR
Scene dimming or multichannel preset dimming systems
are increasingly being used for spaces with four or more LIGHTING CONTROLS
independent dimming channels, such as restaurants, cus- Office buildings, Motion sensors in private-
tom-built houses, and boardrooms. Scene dimming sys- schools offices, classrooms, and
tems are like modern theatrical dimming in that there is a conference rooms
cross-fade between scenes, which are combinations of
preset dim light levels Time scheduling svsterre. for
open office areas, corridars,
halls, and lobbies
TIME SCHEDULING
Motion sensors in toilet lIJoms
Lighting controls that use clocks to switch lights on and off
and storage
on predictable schedules are the most commonly used
form of automatic lighting controls. Some energy codes Dayljghting in areas adj;mmt to
require automatic controls of this type as a minimum stan- windows or skylights
TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
dard. Controls may vary from individual "time clock"
Combined systems (e.g;..
CEILING 80 50 switches to programmable timers and large-scale energy
motion and daylightingl
management systems.
wherever logical
WALLS 50 30 10 50 30 to
OCCUPANCY SENSING Retail Time scheduling for steDl!'
RCR* windows, general and alilplay
Motion sensors can be used to control lights according to lighting
0 1.19 1.19 119 1.11 1.11 1.11 space occupancy. Passive infrared sensors are the most
commonly used; ultrasonic sensors are also popular and Motion sensing for stortilJe and
1 1.03 098 0.94 096 093 0.89 work better in spaces with partitions. Sensors have sensi- dressing rooms
2 0.89 081 075 0.83 0.78 0.73 tivity and timeout adjustments. Choose wallbox sensors Daylighting and lumen
with internal switches or dimmers for small rooms, ceiling- maintenance near skyli9ts
3 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.73 0.66 0.60 mounted sensors with remote relays for larger rooms. Mul-
tiple sensors can be used in the same room to ensure cov- Adaptation cornpensatree for
4 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.64 0.57 0.51 erage. general lighting
5 0.61 051 0.45 0.58 0.50 0.44 Industrial, Time scheduling in rnosnareas
Energy credits for using motion sensor systems are fairly
institutional
6 0.55 0.45 039 0.52 0.44 0.38 substantial, as these systems save quite a bit of energy in Daylighting near windows and
most applications. skylights
7 0.49 0.40 0.34 0.47 0.39 034
Motion sensing in restrecms.
8 0.45 036 0.30 0.43 0.35 0.30 DAYLIGHTING AND RELATED CONTROLS little used storage area&.
9 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.39 0.32 0.27 Daylighting systems use dimming or switching to reduce Outdoor Choices include photodK:tric
interior lighting when adequate daylight is present. In build- switches, motion sensees,
10 0.38 0.30 0.25 0.36 0.29 0.24 ings with windows near the work area, savrnqs can be sig- time switches, and manual
nificant, and most codes permit a substantial controls credit switches
""RCR-room cavity ratio for daylighting.

James Robert Benva. PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN

GENERAL
A luminaire IS any device that Includes a lamphoJder, a
means of electrification, and a support. Lighting fixtures are
luminaires that are permanently attached to a building.
Luminaires are characterized by the manner in which light is
distributed. Luminaire types are identified in the chart
below.
LUMINAIRE TYPES
TYPE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Direct Emits light downward.
Most recessed lighting
types, including downlights
and troffers, are direct lumi-
naires
Indirect Emits light upward. so it
bounces from a ceiling into
the space below. Many
styles of suspended lumi-
naires, sconces, and some
portable lamps provide indi-
rect lighting.
Diffuse Emits light in all directions
uniformly. This type includes
most bare lamps, globes,
and chandeliers and some
table and floor lamps.
Direct/indirect Emits light upward and
downward but not to the
side. Many types of sus-
pended luminaires, and
some table and floor lamps,
offer this type of lighting.
These luminaires can offer
mostly direct or mostly indi-
rect lighting.
Asymmetric For special applications. For
I AIRTIGHT INSULATED CEILING (AIC) down lights are for
instance, asymmetric
uplights are indirect lumi-
naires with a stronger distri-
bution in one direction, such
as away from a wall. Wall~
washers are a form of direct
luminaire with stronger distri-
bution to one side to light a
wall.
Adjustable Usually, direct luminaires
that can be adjusted to throw
light in directions other than
down. Examples are track
lights. floodlights. and accent
lights.
CHOOSING LUMINAIRES
DIRECT luminaires tend to be more efficient because they
distribute light directly onto the task area. They generally
create dark ceilings and upper walls, which can be dramatic
but can create discomfort from the high contrast.
INDIRECT luminaires generally create comfortable low-con-
trast soft light, which psychologically enlarges space. They
tend to be less efficient for task lighting.
DIFFUSE luminaires create broad general light that often is
considered glaring due to the lack of side shielding. They
are generally chosen for ornamental reasons or for utilitar-
ian applications.
DIRECT/INDIRECT luminaires are often a good compromise
between the efficiency of direct lighting and the comfort of
indirect lighting.
James Robert Benya, PE. FIES. IALD, Pacific Lightworks: Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinskv. Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LUMINAIRE STYLES
Downlights and troffers are discussed below; commercial
fluorescent fixtures, indirect and direct/indirect lighting sys~
terns, architectural lighting fixtures, and decorative lighting
are discussed on the following page.
DOWNLIGHTS
Downlights are often called 'cans' or 'tophats.' They are
principally used for general illumination in a wide range of
residential and commercial applications, especially in lob-
bies, halls, corridors, stores, and other finished spaces
Downlights can be equipped with incandescent, halogen,
low-voltage, compact fluorescent, or HID (high-intensity
discharge) lamps. There are several major types, which
accommodate varying source types, ceiling heights, pte-
num heights, room types, and beamspreads. These include
the follovvinq:
OPEN CONE: the cone of this type of down light shields the
lamp and develops a beam pattern.
OPEN BAFFLE: ridged baffles shield the lamp and minimize
glare.
OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL: an elliptical reflector allows a small
aperture of1ly; this beamspread is highly efficient.
LENSED (prismatic or fresnel): generally used outdoors or
in wet locations, the lens protects and seals the lamp com-
partment of this type of downlight.
DIFFUSER: a diffuser distributes light broadly. which is
especially useful in closets and showers.
ADJUSTABLE: adjustable downlights can be used as a
downlight or as an accent light.
PULLDOWN: this feature allows the light to be used as a
downlight or an accent light and permits a wide aim.
DOWNLIGHT RATINGS
Choice of a downlight depends on the applications for
which it is listed. The primary rating types are these:
THERMALLY PROTECTED IT) downlights are suitable for
all applications except direct concrete pour.
INSULATION-PROTECTED liP) downlights are used when
the fixture may come in contact with insulation. They are
designed to prevent fixture overheating.
INSULATED CEILING IIC) fixtures are used when the fix-
ture is intended to be in contact with insulation.
applications in which the fixture is in contact with insulation
and air leaks in the ceiling must be prevented.
DAMP LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to moist air but
not to direct water spray or rain.
WET LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to direct water
spray or rain.
SPA OR SHOWER fixtures are designed to be used in a
shower stall or over a spa.
CONCRETE-POUR fixtures are designed to be installed in
direct contact with concrete.
EMERGENCY fixtures are equipped with a backup battery
to produce light for at least 90 minutes during a power out-
age (generally available only for compact fluorescent lumi-
naires).
TROFFERS
Troffers are widely used in offices, stores, schools, and
other commercial and institutional facilities for general light-
ing in work and sales areas. They 'are the most common
type of fluorescent lurninaire.
OPEN OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL
CONE BAFFLE
DOWN LIGHTS
Luminaire Design 51
LENSED troffers use a plastic lens to refract light and dis-
tribute it in the desired area. The lens cuts off light distribu-
tion to minimize glare and protects lamps from breaking in
food preparation and service areas. Lenses ca~ contain
internal RFI shields for use in hospital operating and labora-
tory rooms. Lens troffers equipped with highly polished
internal reflectors offer very high efficiency.
PARABOLIC troffers have parabolically shaped aluminum or
plastic louvers that shield the lamp to improve visual com-
fort. These troffers offer sharp cutoff, which makes some
of them suitable for use in computer work spaces. "Para-
belies" generally refer to deep-cell louvers 6 in. or larger
across; "paracubes" are shallower troffers with smaller
cells. Larger cells are more efficient. but smaller cells make
it easier to hide the lamps.
Fixtures meeting IESNA recommendations for computer
work spaces are generally identified.
Most troffers are recessed and designed to be laid into
acoustic tile ceilings, with the fixture face matching the size
of the tile. The most common troffer sizes are 2 x 4 ft.
although 2 x 2 ft and 1 x 4 ft are also readily available. Other
sizes exist, often to match a specific ceiling (such as 20'x
60 in. fixtures for a 5-ft ceiling grid system). Different
mounting types are made, including the following identified
by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association:
NEMA "G": for fixtures in a standard exposed inverted T
grid.
NEMA "F": for fixtures furnished with a flange and designed
to be installed in an opening in plaster or wallboard.
NEMA "55·: for fixtures in a screw-slot inverted T grid.
NEMA "NFSG": for fixtures in a narrow face slot T grid.
NEMA ·Z": for fixtures in a concealed Z spline ceiling.
NEMA "Mr: for fixtures in a metal pan ceiling system.
Some recessed troffers are also designed to interface with
the building HVAC system: "Heat extraction' troffers have
vents in the top of the fixture to allow return air to be pulled
into the troffer, past the lamps, and into the ceiling plenum.
"Air-handling fixtures" have slots around the lens or louvers
to supply air to a room (by means of a special boot that can
transfer air to the supply air system) or to remove it (by con-
nection to a return duct).
Troffers can also be equipped with emergency battery
packs to power some or all of the lamps during a power
outage or emergency condition.
TROFFER RATINGS
Most troffers are rated for standard dry indoor applications
and must not touch insulation. Some special types include
1. Gasketed: can be damp or even wet rated.
2. Fire-rated: can maintain up to one hour ceiling rating in
certain rated ceilings.
3. Vandal-resistant: equipped with vandal-resistant lens.
4. RFI: lens troffers that are shielded from radio frequen-
cies.
5. Specially gasketed: rated for clean room applications.
Troffers can be equipped with most fluorescent technolo-
gies, including dimming, magnetic or electronic ballasts,
and T-12 or T-8Iamps. Special troffers are made for ceiling
systems like the linear metal slat system (4 in. wide).
Recessed troffer depth varies from 3 1/ 2 to more than 7 in.,
so troffers must be coordinated with other elements above
the ceiling.
PARABOLIC LOUVERED
t~j
' - - - ACRYLIC LENS
LENSED
TROFFERS
LIGHTING DESIGN
52 Luminaire Design
LUMINAIRE STYLES
Downlights and troffers are discussed on the previous
page. where the subject of lighting equipment is intro-
duced.
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
Several types of fluorescent direct luminaires appropriate
for general and utility lighting are employed as commercial
fixtures. Most utilize wraparound lenses or diffusers in
which the lamp is surrounded by the lens; either way, the
lamp is hidden from direct view while radiating light down-
ward and to the sides. Commercial luminaires are among
the lowest cost lighting fixtures and are typically used for
general and utility lighting in modest projects.
COMMERCIAL RATINGS
Most commercial fixtures are rated for dry locations. Some
have damp labels. Most can be equipped with a battery
pack for emergency power.
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
These fixtures generally have a utilitarian or functional
appearance. Fluorescent industrials have strip lights and
open fixtures with simple reflectors that are designed to be
surface-mounted or hung by chains or rods. HID (high-inten-
sity discharge) industrials include high bay down lights and
low bay downlights. Industrial fixtures are generally used in
factories and warehouses and increasingly in schools and
retail stores where a less-finished appearance is desired.
INDUSTRIAL RATINGS
Most industnal fixtures are listed for dry locations. Some
have finishes such as glass or porcelain that resist corrosion
caused by airborne gases or particles; others are made of
aluminum or plastic. Certain fixtures are specifically
designed for demanding environmental applications ranging
from wet or saltwater marine luminaires to explosionproof
products for use in petrochemical plants, grain storage, and
other unusual locations.
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Most indirect and direct-indirect lighting systems are
designed to illuminate offices and similar finished spaces
In almost all cases, the ceiling should be finished in white
paint or white acoustical tile, as the reflectance of the ceil-
ing plane is critical
Indirect lighting systems only produce uplight. Generally
they should be mounted at least 15-18 in. below the ceiling;
longer suspension lengths can improve uniformity but
potentially will decrease efficiency. To maintain adequate
clearance, ceilings should be at least 9 ft high
Direct/indirect lighting systems are intended to produce
some indirect lighting for its comfort and balance and some
direct lighting for efficient production of task lighting. Simi-
lar suspension length and ceiling height considerations
apply. The percentage of upliqht to downlight varies; gener-
ally the higher the ceiling, the greater the downlight per-
centage should be.
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEM RATINGS
Almost all indirect and direct/indirect luminaires an
intended for dry, relatively clean indoor locations. Many 01
these systems are designed to meet IESNA recommenda-
tions for lighting computer workspaces and are rated as
complying with either IESNA fANSI RP-1-1993 or IESNfI
RP-24-1989. These ratings are based on ceiling brightness
and uniformity criteria
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
Like downlights, architectural lighting fixtures are functional
and inconspicuous rather than decorative. They are used to
illuminate architectural shapes and forms.
WALLWASHERS come rn several types Eyelid wallwast-
ers essentially are downlights with an eyelid-shaped shie!o
on the room side. Recessed lens wallwashers resemble
downlights but use an angled lens to throw light more to
one side. Surface and semi-recessed lens and open wall-
washers, which throw light onto an adjacent wall, generally
work best; they can also be mounted to track. Downlight
wallwashers are designed to illuminate rather than scallop
an adjacent wall, although the light they provide is not good
enough for display purposes.
WALL GRAZING FIXTURES. sometimes called ·wall slots."
are used to illuminate walls in lobbies, corridors, and core
areas. They are especially suited for textured or polished
surfaces.

mr
ACCENT FIXTURESfocus light on art and building surfaces

~
Recessed accent lights appear as downlights but internally
permit rotalion and elevation of the light beam. Eyeballs
and pulldown accents resemble down lights that cannot be

wmnt:[
adjusted. Track lighting systems are specifically designed
for accent lighting of art and retail displays, with easy relo-
cation of lampholders along the track.
WRAPAROUND STRIP
INDIRECT
COVE LIGHTS provide uplighting from coves or other archi-

-.
tectural elements more efficiently than strip lights and with-
out socket shadows

~
6" TO 8"
TYP
SLOT TASK LIGHTS are specifically designed to illuminate a desk
area while minimizing veiling reflections.
CEILING
INDIRECT/DIRECT DECORATIVE LIGHTING
Lighting is the "jewelry of architecture" and, in many build-
14" MIN. FROM ing types, plays a significant role in building style, period, or
INDUSTRIAL HIGH BAY TOP OF LAMP
FLUORESCENT HID LAMP TO CEILING motif.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANDELIERS are ornate luminaires that generally com-
FIXTURES prise many small incandescent lamps to simulate the effect
of candle flames. Chandeliers are hung from the ceiling and
DIRECT are used for general illumination in dining rooms, foyers.
COVE and other formal spaces.
SUSPENDED
PENDANTS are also ceiling-hung decorative fixtures. In
INDIRECT, DIRECT/INDIRECT, AND general, the term is used for luminaires that are less formal
DIRECT LUMINAIRES than chandeliers, such as those used in offices or restau-
rants. Most pendant luminaires also use incandescent
lamps, although modern variations are available with HID
ROUND 4" TO 9" DIAMETER and fluorescent sources.
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
CLOSE-TO-CEILING luminaires are similar to pendants but
are mounted close to the ceiling to allow use in rooms with
conventional ceiling heights.

CHANDELIER PENDANT
~ OVOID
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/DOWN)
SCONCES are ornate or decorative wall-mounted lumi-

~
naires. Often they match an adjacent chandelier; in other
cases, they are the sole decorative lighting element
Sconces generally exhibit the widest range of styles, from
crystal sconces with flame-tip lamps to modern designs.
ELONGATED OCTAGON
(UP, DOWN, OR UP/DOWN) LAMPS are traditional portable luminaires generally used
for table or floor mounting. Torcheres are floor lamps
designed for uplighting. Most portable lighting uses incan-
descent or halogen sources, although compact fluorescent
options should be considered for commercial and hospital-

(~m_ oj
TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY RACETRACK OVAL ity applications.
SCONCE SCONCE (UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
LANTERNS are outdoor luminaires mounted to ceilings,
walls posts, or poles

DECORATIVE LIGHTING RATINGS

··V'· OR WEDGE
(UP ONLY) Lanterns are generally rated with wet labels. Most other
decorative fixtures are rated for dry indoor use, although a
few sconces also have damp or wet labels.

OPTIMAL FOR USE WITH

VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINAL
(UP/DOWN)
TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY
LANTERN CLOSE-TO·CEILING

DECORATIVE FIXTURES SUSPENDED LIGHTING SHAPES

James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
 Lighting for Office Spaces 53

ILLUMINATION CRITERIA DESIGN CONSIDERATiONS LIGHTING CRITERIA FOR OFFICES

LENSED SYSTEMS provide good basic light at the lowest OFFICE TYPE CCT 1 CRI'
The lighting levels given are average figures:
cost, are the easiest to install, and tend to be the most effi- Most office space 3500 or 4100K >70 CRI
1. Typical offices: 40-60 tc (400-600 lux) in an empty room cient. Most are not suitable for computer work in large
Executive office - 3000 or 3500K >70 CRI
2. Offices, mostly computer work: 20-40 fe (200-400 luxl open rooms.
Medical/dental office 3500 or 41 OOK >80 CRI
in an empty room with task lighting as needed.
PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS are more attractive and Art/graphiCS, dental 5000K >90 CRI
Offices, traditional paper tasks: 40-60 fc (40o-BOO luxl in better for larger rooms where computer work is under-
an empty room with task lighting at work locations to operatorv
taken. Walls should not be too dark.
provide 60-120 fc 1600-1200 lux) for specific tasks. LIGHTING POWER DENSITY
4. Conference and meeting rooms: 30-50 fe (300-500 lux) INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS, which provide a comfort- General office space 0.8 1.2 watts/so ft
in an empty room. able light, must be properly spaced to avoid light stripes on
Executive office 1.1-1.4 watts/sq ft
5. Lobbies and hallways: 10-20 fe 11 00-200 lux) in an the ceiling. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft and gener-
ally require the use of task and/or accent lighting. Medical/dental office 1.0-1.8 watts/so ft
empty room.
Drafting/accounting 1.4 2.0 watts/sq ft
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS must be properly space
spaced as well, but they offer a good balance between
VISUAL COMFORT PROBABILITY (VCP): This figure IS only Meeting rooms 1.0-1.6 watts/sq It
comfort and efficiency. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft
useful for comparing direct (troffer) lighting systems. A min- and tend to be more complex and costly than other lighting Lobbies and 0.4-0.8 watts/sq ft
imum of 70 is recommended. (Note that high VCP does not systems. hallways
guarantee visual corntort.) ----
Choose luminaires carefully, taking manufacturer's recom- lCCT-correlated color temperature
CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures (CCT) and the
mendations into account. 2CRI-color rendering index
color rendering index (eRI) suitable for common office uses
are shown in the accompanying table. ~ 10'-0" OR GREA~ SUSPENDED INDIRECT
(OR DIRECT/INDIRECT)
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Approximate design targets
using T8 lamps and electronic high frequency ballasts (not I I LIGHTING SYSTEM USED
FOR GENERAL OFFiCE
including task lights) are shown in the accompanying table. WORK WITH MODERATE
COMPUTER WORK
2'-0" TO 3'-0"

t-t

L~
I I ,

r~ D \
[',
'-;1
"
'
'I
-, L
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
1"--"- OPEN OFFICE '- - --'>-
NOTE
In this 10 x 10 ft office, two fixtures produce 50-60 fe on <. AREA STANDARD
2' X 4' CEILING GRID

the work area at 1.18 watts/sq ft. INDIRECT OR

DIRECT/INDIRECT
LIGHTING FIXTURES
In small offices, maximize comfort and efficiency by having
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
fixtures straddle the work area. Avoid placing a single over-
head fixture. Partial symmetry is better than checkerboard I NOTE
or other asymmetrical layouts. Maintain approximately 2-3 Using two lamps in every fixture, this layout produces 30- ing between rows can be made wider. At 12 tt. the design
ft from fixtures to side walls. Lensed fixtures and indirect 50 fc in 'an empty room at 1.22 watts/sq ft. Using one lamp, delivers around 2Q-40 fc. Suspension length is critical
lighting systems work best in small rooms. the design produces 15--30 fc at 0.6 watts/so ft. The spac-
SMALL OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT SUSPENDED INDIRECT AND DIRECT/INDIRECT SYSTEMS
s'~o"
2'-0" TO 3'-0"
l. l. RECESSED (OR SURFACE
1 1 MOUNTED) DIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEM USED
FOR MOST GENERAL OFFICE

I I
WORK, ESPECIALLY
PAPERWORK

I s'-o"

I I
I
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE OPEN OFFiCE
AREA STANDARD
In this 14 x 16 ft room, four two-lamp fixtures produce 25- 2' X 4' CEILING GRID
35 fc uniformly at 1.0B watts/so ft. If higher lighting levels DIRECT LIGHTING
are needed, as in a mailroom, use three-lamp fixtures. In FIXTURE, TYP
meeting rooms, consider adding task lights such as down-
lights or wall-wash luminaires. REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
In larger offices and work rooms, arrange fixtures as sym-
metrically as possible. Vary the spacing if necessary, for This layout produces 30-50 fc in an empty room using two watts/so ft. Increasing horizontal spacing to to
tt with three
example, from the standard 8 x 8 ft to 6 x 8 or lOx 8 ft. F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 0.92 lamps produces 40-60 fc at 1.22 watts/so ft. Also consider
Keep the long sides of fixtures within 2-3 ft of the wall. watts/sq ft. With three lamps, it produces 50-75 fc at 1.38 2 x 2 fixtures with two F32T8/U or four F17T8.
LARGE OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT GENERAL DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS

James Robert Berwe. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks: Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
54 Lighting for Office Spaces
CORRIDOR LIGHTING
In office buildings. corridors require reasonably uniform illu-
mination with minimum glare. Using ordinary troffers is
tempting but generally creates too much light beneath the
fixtures and not enough evenly distributed ligtlt

Downlighting is easy but tends to create deep shadows

and cavehke spaces. Mixing downlights and other lighting
I
sources, such as sconces or walfwashers. creates a more
attractive design with a better balance of brightness among
walls, ceiling, and floor.
so" 1 I
DOWNUGHTS
4---
Wall lighting is an alternative to downlights and sconces for NOTE
use in corridors. It enhances art and graphics and can reveal In this scheme, each round downlight uses 26 watts of larnps. Designs produce 10-20 footcandles (tc) at 06-0 7
wall textures, such as those of stone and brick. Grazing compact fluorescent light (either two 13-watt lamps or one watts/sq It.
lights can highlight polished or shiny surfaces such as gran- 28-watt lamp). Square down lights use two 16-18-watt
ite or wood

WALLWASHER /DOWNLIGHT /SCONCE

OJ
~-
- -
I Q t
0
--- j----I--- --

I I

'I I I 9 I-
I
I
I
I I I I
o
+--------s'Q"- -
I
so" --f-
o NOTE
In this arrangement, sconce quantity can be minimized by downlights each have two 13-watt lamps or one 26~watt
maintaining a nominal 8-ft either-or spacing. Sconces and lamp. Designs produce 10-15 fc at 0_6--D.7 watts/sq ft.

o o o
o o o

PLAN
NOTE
Fluorescent pendants and sconces produce general light.
Compact fluorescent downlights and wallwashers and halo-
gen art accent fixtures provide more specialized lighting
that showcases the architecture and artwork and creates
an atmosphere.
MAIN AND ELEVATOR LOBBIES
LOBBY LIGHTING
Lobbies offer a primary opportunity for use of creative or
decorative lighting. Pendants, ceiling fixtures, and sconces
NOTE
Although asymmetric, lighting one wall of a hall or corridor creates a floating ceiling; wallwashers (right) are better for
can both provide effective light and be an attractive ele- lighting art or graphics. While footcandles are about the
ment. potentially highlighting art or graphics. A wall slot same as in the two schemes above, power use increases
(shown at left) is best for textured or polished surfaces and to 1.2-1.5 watts/so ft to illuminate vertical surfaces.
REFLECTED CEILING PLANS FOR !==ORRIDOR LIGHTING
WALLWASHER
NOTES
1. The lighting load total in this plan 01 2_75watts/sq ft 15_25
watts/sq ft for halogen lamps) is not often reached
CON FERENCE
because, in most cases, not all fixtures are used simulta-
E -=:5 ( TABLE
neously.
2. Wallwashers produce vertical illumination at 30 tootcen-

~
are the primary lighting systems, supplemented by down- dies (Ie) on one short wall, using about .5 watts/sq It with
lights, wallwashers, and other architectural light sources. fluorescent lamps and 1.5 watts/sq ft with halogen

~
To most easily meet energy code requirements, use fluo- lamps.
rescent, compact fluorescent and/or low wattage HID
(high-intensity discharge) lamps instead of incandescent.
o 3_Downlights produce direct light at 10-15 Ie that IS con-
centrated downward, usually onto the table surface in a

Main lobbies are a most important venue for ornamental III conference room, Compact fluorescent fixtures require
0.5 watts/sq ft, while halogen fixtures require about 1.25
and decorative lighting design. Wall lighting is especially
useful for providing a sense of spaciousness and cheerful-
o f-lJ watts/so ft. The ability to the dim lights is a requirement
for most conference rooms.
ness. Art objects such as paintings or sculpture may require
accent lighting. rr 4. Sconces produce indirect light at appoximately 1Q....15
footcandles. Compact fluorescent lamps require 1 watt/
Architectural and decorative lighting sources are generally LJJ sq ft to light a room, while halogen lamps require 2.5
watts/sq ft.

used in combination in lobbies. Incandescent and halogen
lamps are often preferred for specific luminaire types, such
as art display lights. However, whenever possible, use of
~
5. Incandescent and halogen light sources are often used In
o board and other meeting rooms. When a building houses

{-D~GHT
more efficacious fighting sources such as fluorescent or a number of conference rooms, it is best to use fluores-
HID fixtures is recommended. cent sources to avoid overspending in the overall building
energy budget

LIGHTING FOR CONFERENCE

AND MEETING ROOMS SCONCE
A combination of lighting systems works best in meeting
rooms. Uplights from sconces or pendants produce gen-
eral, ambient light. Downlights illuminate the table. Wall-
washers light presentation or art walls. Although the
potential combined lighting power is high, preset control
systems minimize simultaneous use.
AVERAGE CONFERENCE ROOM LIGHTING PLAN

James Robert Benva. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN

SPECIAL LIGHTING
ISSUES FOR OFFICES
Lighting for computer use. task lighting. and wall lighting
are among the specialized lighting issues in office design.
Ughting for Office and Commercial Spaces 55
Lighting power density: Listed below are approximate
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA
design targets for whole stores, including back of house.
FOR COMMERCIAL SPACES These targets are based on HID (high-int.ensity discharge)
The lighting levels given are average figures for these com- systems of TB/compact fluorescent lamps and electronic
mercial spaces: high-frequency ballasts. including display lights.

COMPUTER LIGHTING
Lighting for computer workspaces is becoming increasingly
specialized. There are four distinct approaches to thiS' sort
of design:
1. Parabolic troffers optimized for computer spaces: By
meeting specific cutoff and distribution specifications.
some parabolic and small-cell louvered direct lighting fix-
tures provide lighting acceptable for concentrated com-
puter workspace applications. These lighting systems
are generally fairly efficient but tend to create spaces
with dark upper walls and ceilings.
2. Indirect suspended lighting: Indirect lighting systems
that illuminate ceilings uniformly are also considered
good for computer workspaces. General indirect lighting
tends to be comfortable but bland. Supplemental task
lighting is usually necessary.
3. Direct/indirect lighting: Some direct/indirect lighting sys-
tems have been optimized for illuminating computer
workspaces, providing the advantages of the two lighting
systems just described. The greatest disadvantage of
these direct/indirect systems is cost.
4. Intensive CADD workspaces: CADD workspaces are the
most demanding of all computer workspaces. Neither
parabolic nor indirect lighting, even if optimized for com-
puter workspaces, is acceptable. Task-only lighting sys-
tems or very low levels of general light are needed. The
unusual requirements of these spaces are often resolved
by creating a cavelike space and letting employees
manipulate lighting levels and types with switches and
dimmers.
1 Grocery store, general light: 70-90 footcandles (fcl, or Grocery , .4-2.0 watts/sq It
700-900 lux, in an empty room, which will result in aver- Wholesale 1.0-1.4 watts/so It
age center-of-aisle illumination of 50 fe.
General merchandise , .2-' .8 watts/sq It
2. Wholesale merchandise: 30-50 fc (300-5oo lux) in an
Department store 2.0-3.0 watts/so ft
empty room with display lighting added as needed. For
spaces with warehouse-style shelving, use 30-50 fc in Specialty retail 1.8-3.5 watts/so ft
aisles but take shelving into account. Jewelry, china 2.5-4.5 watts/sq It
3. General merchandise: 40-60 fc (400-600 luxl in an
empty room with display lighting added at key locations
to provide 70-100 tc (700-1000 lux) for secondary mer- DESIGN OPTIONS FOR GENERAL
chandise displays and 150-300 fc (1500-3000 lux) for pri- COMMERCIAL LIGHTING
mary displays.
FLUORESCENT STRIP LIGHTS AND LENS TROFFERS pro-
4. Boutique and specialty retail stores: 20-30 Ie (200-300 vide basic light for the lowest cost and are the easiest to
lux) in an empty room for general lighting. Display lighting install. They tend to be the most efficient, as well, but
is added throughout to provide 70-100 fc for most mer- appear budget-minded.
chandise and 150-300 Ie (1500-3000 lux) for primary dis-
plays. HID INDUSTRIAL-STYLE FIXTURES also provide goqd
5. Beck-of-house storage and stock areas: 10-20 fc (100- basic light at low cost but appear budqet-conscious. They
200 lux) in an empty room. can be used to create a warehouse motif in a retail outlet.
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS appear more expen-
The correlated color temperature (CeT) and color rendering sive and suggest higher quality merchandise. They should
index (CRII measurements for light can be used to help be used in conjunction with valances and/or other perime-
specify lighting fixtures: ter and display lighting.
Wholesale and grocery 3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI SUSPENDED DIRECT. DIRECT/INDIRECT. AND INDIRECT
SYSTEMS require ceilings taller than 8 ft. These lighting
Boutique/specialty 3000 or 3500K > 80 CRI types playa major role in the appearance and style of a
General merchandise 3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI space and are generally chosen to reinforce a specific mar-
Jewelry. art 3000 or 5000K> 90 CRI keting motif.

TASK LIGHTING
STRIP LIGHTING ~ 12'-0" TROFFER
For use under cabinets or shelves, continuous fluorescent SHELVING ......,
LIGHTING
task lights are generally the best choice. Good task lights
offer the ability to dim or alter the distribution of light to
minimize veiling reflections. 1\_L
Table lamps and task lights produce localized task illumina-
- - - - -- - - ---- -
tion using a portable luminaire. The area of influence is I
small but proper location can achieve a successful result. - - -- - - - - -
Use compact fluorescent lamps whenever possible.

WALL LIGHTING
Office spaces generally require supplemental wall lighting - - -- - - -- - - -- -- -
to compensate for the lack of wall lighting provided by most I
general liqhtinq systems. Wall grazing and wallwashing are - - -- - - -- - - -- -- -
two methods used to accomplish this lighting task.
I
FINAL TOUCHES
- Ii
Many offices are furnished with partition-style systems fur- -
niture. In this case, best results are obtained by coordinat- I
ing lighting and furniture plans. Try to use fluorescent
lamps of consistent color. -
- - -f - - -- - - -- -- -
I-

(
'- GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID
CEILING, 12'-0" OR MORE HIGH

STRIP LIGHTS/STRIP TROUGH LIGHTS GENERAL SALES AREA: 2' X 4' GRID
CEILING, 12'·0" OR MORE HIGH

I
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE
LIGHTING I , 12'<>"
, TROFFER LIGHTING

I
I
I
I I NOTES
I I I 1. Strip lights and strip trough lights are common in large
Id 0 0 retail grocery stores and many mass merchandise stores.
The layout illustrated (above left) produces 60-60 fc in an
empty room using two F96T8 lamps in a strip light or
open trough in continuous rows at 1.15 watts/so ft.
o Lights usually run perpendicular to shelving to allow rear-
~ rangement. but parallel lighting is preferable when
shelves are fixed.
2. Industrial-style lights are commonly used for lighting
warehouse-style discount stores. The layout shown at
left produces 30-40 tc in an empty room using one 100-
0 0 0 watt metal halide lamp in an industrial-style luminaire at
WALL SLOT WALLWASHER 0.85 watts/so It. Using a , 50-watt metal halide lamp. the
LIGHTING LIGHTING lighting level is about 40-60 tc at 1.27 wattsrsq ft.
NOTE
A grazing light such as a wall slot is appropriate for illumi-
II 3. Trofters in lay-in ceilings are common in the discount
retail industry and serve as general purpose lighting for
hardware and general merchandise. The layout above
nating interior core walls in open office spaces. but wall- produces 60--70 fc in an empty room using four F32T8
washers or sconces can be used as well. Wall slot lighting <; lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.15 watts/sq
GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID
accentuates the wall texture and enhances polished sur- CEILING, 14'-0" OR MORE HIGH ft. With high light level ballasts. this arrangement pro-
faces. Wallwashers accentuate wall pigment and work best duces 80-100 fc at 1.58 watts/so ft.
for ordinary wall finishes with artwork hanging on them. INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING

WALL LIGHTING

James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
56 lighting for Commercial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS
FOR DISPLAY LIGHTING
TRACK LIGHTING,s the most popular and commonly used
display lighting system. Use halogen, fluorescent, or high- IE;---~---:---;------;---~-------:v WALL DISPLAY
WITH NICHES
intensity discharge (HID} display luminaires. I<----k-------i'----7I<::-----+----"7k-------i'---7f---OII
RECESSED DISPLAY LIGHTS are not as flexible as track I
lights but can be concealed better. This category includes
adjustable accent lights and wallwashers. Sources include I VALANCE LIGHTING
WHERE NECESSARY
halogen, low-wattage HID, and compact fluorescent
I
DISPLAY MONOPOINT LIGHTS are adjustable I,ghls
installed at fixed locations. I
VALANCE LIGHTING rs used for clothing and other displays I WALL DISPLA Y
WITH SHELVES
in which a niche is created. Full-sized fluorescent lamps
work best for the application. I
DISPLAY CASE LIGHTING is similar to valance lighting I
except the light is built into the display cases to illuminate
the task. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent, or low voltage I LOCATIONS OF
MONOPOINTS OR
incandescent or tungsten halogen lamps are used. Fiber- TRACK UGHING
optic lighting systems may be useful in certain situations. I HEADS

Among these options, track lighting offers the greatest ver-

I
satility and the lowest installed cost. However, most
energy codes count track light wattage by the foot rather
I
TRACK LAYOUT
than by the fixture. This makes it advisable to use other dis-
play lighting methods whenever possible so track lights can
I LINE (IF TRACK
IS USED)
be used where really needed. I
TRACK OR MONQPOINT I
WALL
SHELVING
I DOWNLIGHTS AT
POINT'OF-SALE
I
/ I I
/ I I FLOOR
DISPLAY, TY?
I \~:=t ~ I
I
I \ ~ I V·
\ \ / I CEILING (GENERAL

I
I \\ / /\vf-FLOOR
/ Vi DISPLAY
LIGHTING FOR
CEILING NOT
SHOWN)

/
I
STORE ENTRY

REFLECTED CEILING PLAN

LAYOUT OF DISPLAY LIGHTING

NOTE
0
The maximum angle of elevation for lighting is 45 except DRESSING ROOMS the top of the window, and possibly along the bottom of
when walls are being lighted. the window as well. Provide outlets for portable lighting
Good lighting helps sell clothing. For higher quality stores, inside the window.
VALANCE provide attractive light with diffuse illumination of the cus-
LIGHTING ~ tomer; avoid downlights and track lighting. In lower cost
OTHER SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
and trendy stores, place the emphasis on fixture style and
survivability. Use high color rendering or special purpose fluorescent
lamps for meat cases, fabrics, and similar demanding mer-
STORE WINDOWS chandise. For fine jewelry, consider high color rendering
index, high color temperature fluorescent lamps and/or
Use high-wattage track lighting and/or low-voltage accent blue-filtered halogen lamps to achieve 41 00-5000K.
/ lighting. Run track vertically along the window sides, across

/
WALL DISPLAY
/ WITH NICHES DISPLAY LIGHTING FOR STORES
LIGHT SOURCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPLICATIONS
I DISPLA Y CASE

~
Tungsten halogen
/ LIGHTING
(for greatest energy efficiency
use halogen infrared reflecting
/ IHIRllampsl
o sizes/wattages
I lighting, downlrghts
Full-size fluorescent lamps
(primarily T81
Compact fluorescent
(including high power T·5 twin
tube)
Compact hid
(low-wattage metal halide and
white high-pressure sodium are
main choices)
TYPICAL DISPLAY LIGHTING
Low cost. ready availability,
excellent color, excellent
beam control, dimmability,
availability in wide range of
Low cost. ready availability,
very good color, dimmabil-
itv, energy efficiency, long
lamp life
Low cost. ready availability,
very good color, dimmabil-
itv. energy efficiency, long
lamp life
Energy efficiency, very
good beam control, long
lamp life, good to very
good color
Not enerqv-etticient. short
lamp life
Very poor beam control.
care required when used in
cold environments
Poor beam control, care
required when used in cold
environments
High cost. not dimmable,
limited range of sizes and
wattages
Recessed accent lights,
track and monopoints.
waHwashers of all types,
portable lighting, low volt-
age lighting, showcase
Valance lights, showcase
lights, some types of wall-
washers
Wallwashers of all types,
some types of floodliqhts.
downlights
Recessed accent lights.
track and rnonopoints.
wall washers of all types,
portable lighting, down-
lights

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pac.fic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
 Lighting for Schools 57
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA Lighting power density: Listed are approximate design tar- TROFFER SYSTEMS, lensed or parabolic, provide good,
gets using T8 lamps and electronic high-frequency ballasts acceptable light at low cost and are commonly used in
The lighting levels given are average figures: or hiqh-intensitv discharge (HID) systems (not including schools. Recessed lighting minimizes vandalism and is effi-
task lights): cient.
1. Classrooms with traditional paper tasks: 40-60 footcan-
dies 140G-B00lux) in an empty room. Classrooms 0.8-1.2 W/sq ft SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT and INDIRECT SYSTEMS
2. Classrooms with mostly computer work: an average of Lecture halls 1.2-2.0 W/sq ft are favored for better lighting comfort and are suited for
2D-40 footcandles 120D-400 lux) In an empty room with spaces with ceilings higher than 9 ft.
Arts and industrial education 1.2-1.8 W/sq ft
task lighting as needed.
Gymnasiums (pnmarv-secondary) 1.2-1.6 W/sq ft INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING SYSTEMS are often used in
3. Art, music, industrial. mechanics, and laboratory class-
Commons and hallways 0.4-0.8 W/sq ft industrial education, arts, gymnasium, and other spaces
rooms: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 lux) in an empty
requiring plentiful, inexpensive, durable lighting. If using
room, with task lighting as needed.
HID sources, provide quartz auxiliary lamps on some fix-
4. Lecture halls: 20-40 footcandles (fe) task illumination tures or an independent instant-on lighting system.
DESIGN OPTIONS
dimmable to 5 fc with cutoff for video/film presentation.
5. Hallways. commons (not including work spaces): 10-20 More information about these lighting systems is available Choose luminaires carefully, considering manufacturer's
footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room. in the section on lighting for offices. recommendations.
6. Libraries: in active stacks, 20 footcandles minimum verti-
cal illumination; for reading rooms, card files. and cata-
logs, 50-70 fc in an empty room; computer files and
computer study/carrell areas, 20-40 fc in an empty room.
IX LIGHT ABOVE
CHALKBOARD SUSPENDED INDIRECT/DIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEM USED
7. Gymnasiums: general illumination of 50 footcandles (500 FOR GENERAL STUDIES WITH
lux) throughout; significantly higher levels may be
required for high school or college sports that will be
/ LIMITED COMPUTER WORK

televised.
Il Il Il Il Il\.
STANDARD
8. Typical administrative offices: 4G-B0 footcandles 1400- 2' X 4'
600 lux) in an empty room. CEILING
GRID
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA I~ ~ I~ I~ ~

Visual comfort probability (VCP) is useful only for comparing

LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ
- TYPICAL
direct (troffer) lighting systems. A minimum of 70 is recom- DESK
LOCATION
mended. INote that a high VCP does not guarantee visual I I
comfort.)

The correlated color temperature ICCTI and color rendering

I I, III Il III III Il
index ICRI) measurements for light can be used to help I I
specify lighting fixtures:
~ ~

~
Most classrooms 3500 or4100K > 70 CRI '~ ~ ~ I~ I~

Commons, lunchrooms 3000 or 3500K > 70 CRI

LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ
Medical/dental classes 3500 or 41OOK> 80 CRI SUSPENDED
Art/graphics classes 4100-5000K> 80 CRI -: DIRECT/INDIRECT
LIGHTING FIXTURE

IL-J IL-J '-----' 1'-----' 1'-----' - 'WINDOW

WALL
16'-0" TO 22'-0"

-t t REFLECTED CEILING PLAN

NOTE
A layout with four F32T8 lamps and an electronic ballast in watts/sq ft. The direct/indirect fixtures are designed for tra-
each suspended classroom fixture produces 40-50 fc in the ditional classrooms. An indirect lighting system might be
I seating area and 20-30 vertical fc on the chalkboard at 0.97 used in a computer classroom.

I 0
0
0 l SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS

I I
RECESSED (OR
I ~ <,
I SURFACE MOUNTED)

r DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEM

I
0 0
1 I
(TROFFER) USED FOR MOST
CLASSROOMS, ESPECIALLY
USED FOR CLASSIC
STANDARD
2' X 4' lIIf
PAPERWjRK

CEILING
I I GRID

I- -1 TYPICAL
DESK
I I LOCATION

I I

~ 0 0 :9
N
~
I <, . /
'"
0
l-
I
I
.z,
:9 I H - - - + - - - - + - - - . j - - - - - f - - - - f - - - + - - - - + - L DIRECT LIGHTING

L 0 0 io
J FIXTURE (TROFFER)

WINDOW
WALL
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN

REFLECTED CEILING PLAN

NOTE NOTE light level ballast, it can also produce 40-50 fc at 1.09
watts/sq ft.
In a 10,000 sq ft gymnasium, average lighting would be 40- This layout. suitable for traditional classrooms, produces
50 footcandles at 0.95 watts/sq ft provided by 400-watt 50-60 fc in an empty room using three F32T8 lamps in a
For computer classrooms, use computer-optimized para-
metal halide fixtures. lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.29 watts/sq ft. With a low
bolics and dimming.
GYMNASIUM LIGHTING CLASSROOM WITH TROFFERS

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN
58 lighting for Industrial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS
INDUSTRIAL HID DOWNLIGHT SYSTEMS provide good
acceptable light at low cost and thus are frequently used in
industrial spaces. High-bav downlights are specifically
suited for mounting heights greater than 20 ft. Low-bay
downlights generally have lower wattage and are best for
mounting heights less than 20 ft. Aluminum reflectors and
prismatic glass or acrylic reflectors direct most light down-
ward, although some light is directed upward in certain
luminaires. Special aisle-Iiqhters and other types are avail-
able.
FLUORESCENT SYSTEMS are useful for mounting heights
up to about 20 ft. They require more fixtures than HID sys-
tems but provide more uniform Irght with softer shadows;
use electronic ballasts to eliminate stroboscopy. Fluores-
cent systems make good task lights for work stations.
SPECIAL APPLICATION LUMINAIRES come in hundreds of
different types, each optimized for a specific job, work sta-
tion, environment, or hazard. Examples include explosion-
proof, vapor-tight, and paint booth luminaires.
Choose luminaires for specific applications carefully, taking
into account manufacturer recommendations.
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRtTERIA
ATMOSPHEREiENVIRONMENT: The amount and type
dirt and other airborne particles present in an application
can affect luminaire selection. For spaces where hazardous.
corrosive, or explosive vapors or dust are present, specia'
lighting equipment is generally required.
SAFETY: Backup quartz auxiliary lamps are needed for high
intensity discharge (HID) systems. Where rotating machin
ery is used, take precautions to prevent strobosopic prob
lems by using fluorescent lighting systems or rotating
phases of power.

CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures ICCT) and the

NEITHER SPACING X NOR Y color rendering index (CRI) suitable for industrial uses are
SHOULD EXCEED ABOUT 1.8
TIMES THE MOUNTING HEIGHT '\
listed here:
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA

-t--_x--t ) The lighting levels given are average figures:

1. Industrial manufacturing-general: 3D-50 footcandles

Heavy industry, storage
Most industrial
Most warehouse
2100
3000
2100
to
to
to
5000K
5000K
5000K
>20
>50
>20
CRI
CRI
CRI
1300-500 lux) in an empty room with task lighting as
Precise assembly 4100 to 5000K > 70 CRI

I 1/ needed.
2. Industrial manufacturing-assembly and rough inspec- LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Listed are approximate

o 0- tion: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 luxl in an empty room. design targets using HID systems or T8 lamps and elec
tronic high-frequency ballasts (not including task lightsl:

J
3. Industrial manufacturing-fine assembly and moderate
inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-7CO lux) in an empty
room with task lighting as needed to achieve 100-200 Warehouse 0.2--D.5 W/sq ft
footcandles (fc) depending on type of work. Light industrial 0.8-1.2 W/sq ft
4. Industrial manufacturing-specialized: refer to the IESNA Precision industrial and inspection areas 1.2-1.8 W/sq ft

o 0--
Lighting Handbook.
5. Lunchrooms and break areas: 20-30 fc 1200-300 luxl in an
empty room.
6. Hallways and circulation areas (excluding work spaces):
Storage areas
Lunchrooms and hallways
0.1--D.3 W/sq
0.8-1.0 W/sq
ft
It

o HID

LUMINAIRE-O
10-20 footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room.
7. Warehouses: with high stacks, 20 footcandles minimum
vertical illumination on stacks; for general use, 2G-40 fc in
an empty room.
8. Storage areas: general illumination of 5-10 footcandles SUSPENSION
150to 100 luxl. CABLE~

FLUORESCENT
LAMP
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN

NOTE
TANDEM 8'-0" LAMPS
A low-bay layout using HID lighting requires the fewest (THREE 16'-0"
LONG FIXTURES)
luminaires. HPS offers the longest lamp life and lowest
maintenance costs. Metal halide lighting is preferred for vis-
ibility and color rendering.
HID LOW-BAY LAYOUT 18'-0" HIGH
sHELVING UNITS

ROWS SHOULD BE SPACED (X) UP TO

ABOUT 1.5 TIMES THE MOUNTING
HEIGHT WITH GAPS UP TO ABOUT
1.0 TIMES MOUNTING HEIGHT
I"
I
l
I
A--l
I I
I"-l
I I
APERTURED
REFLECTOR

I I G I I I I FLUORESCENT DOWNLIGHTING
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
<;>
I I 'o I I I I
x ~

I I I I I I BALLAST
I I I I I I HOUSING

I I I I I I
I I I I I I
FLUORESCENT
LUMINAIRE \ L J L J L_J
DOWNLIGHTS

REFLECTED CEILING PLAN REFLECTOR

..y=F=~~::;:;--\-.--HID
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN LAMP
NOTE
NOTE
In the left aisle shown. two 250-watt HPS aisle lighter
Fluorescent luminaires offer superior color and flicker-free down lights illuminate the shelving units at 0.6 W/sq ft. In CLEAR
operation with electronic ballasts. No warmup time, instant the right aisle. the task is performed by fluorescent F96T8/ GLASS
restriking, and long lamp life are other advantages of this HO lamps at 0.5 W/sq ft. The fixture mounting height is LENS
lighting type. about 18 ft above finished floor.
FLUORESCENT LOW-BAY LAYOUT ACTIVE AISLE LIGHTING FOR HID DOWNLIGHTING
WAREHOUSES

James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN

GENERAL
Outdoor lighting systems include a wide variety of lighting
types used to illuminate buildings, parking areas, roads,
landscapes, signs, and other outdoor areas.
STREET AND ROADWAY L1GHTING
Four significantly different lighting systems are used to ifiu-
minate roads and streets (and often large parking lots). All
employ high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps:
Standard roadway lights, called cobraheads, are usually
mounted to a mast arm and suspended over the road-
way at mounting heights of 25-40 ft.
2, Sharp cutoff roadway lights, called shoeboxes. are spe-
cifically designed to minimize light pollution and trespass.
They are typically mounted between 20 and 40 ft.
3. Traditionally shaped post lights often have a particular
theme or design. They are usually less than 25 ft high.
4. High mast lights consist of multiple high-wattage lamps
atop poles 60-120 It high.
Outdoor Lighting Systems
SHARP CUTOFF FLOODLIGHTS resemble shoebox park-
ing lot luminaires with characteristics of Type IV distribu-
tion. These luminaires are designed to be elevated slightly
in front to throw light farther. Sharp cutoff floods are espe-
cially good for car lots and sports lighting near residential
districts where light trespass must be avoided.
LIGHT TRESPASS AND POLLUTION
LIGHT TRESPASS occurs when outdoor night lighting
encroaches onto adjacent properties. Trespassing light is
often annoying and can be quite offensive. Some cities
have ordinances designed to prevent light trespass,
although few of these are competently written.
LIGHT POLLUTION occurs when light is emitted upwards
into the night sky. It both wastes energy and causes light
pollution, a condition in which the upward light strikes dirt
and airborne pollution and obscures the view of the night
sky. Some municipalities and counties with important
observatories have developed lighting ordinances that regu-
late light sources, cutoff, and hours of operation in an
attempt to make astronomy more possible.
59
LIGHTING INFORMATION SOURCES
The best general purpose reference document for Iightmg
information is the IESNA Lighting Handbook, published by
the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America in
New York. IESNA Recommended Practices provide in-
depth information on specific applications, for example.
office lighting, roadway lighting, and residential lighting
Additional information on new and evolving lighting tschnol-
ogies is available from Advanced Lighting Guidelines, a pub-
lication of the U.S. Department of Energy from Battelle
Pacific Northwest National Labs, and from Specifier
Reports, published by the Lighting Research Center at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
Additional information on design and applications can be
found in a number of textbooks on the SUbject of architec-
tural lighting design, landscape lighting, and related topics.
Popular lighting industry publications offering current
projects and industry news include Lighting Design and
Application, Architectural Lighting, Lighting Dimensions,
and Architectural Record Lighting Supplement.

Both light trespass and light pollution can be minimized or

~
LUMINAIRE FOR
FREEWAY
prevented by using sharp cutoff equipment and careful
INTERSECTIONS design practices. For street and roadway lighting, this
AND VERY LARGE means using shoebox luminaires, including decorative lumi-
PARKING LOTS naires that employ shoebox-style optics. For floodlighting,
COMMON EXTERIOR
LIGHTING TYPES
mm
I
this means using sharp cutoff floodlights and special sports
lights equipped with louvers and visors to prevent upward TYPE USE
light. These high-performance lights require careful layout
U M IN A IR E FOR MOST Bollards Walkway and pathway light-
ROADS AND PARKING LOTS to meet design criteria.
ing. A typical bollard is 42-48
in. high and uses a lamp
LUMINAIRE
LUMINAIRES FOR STREET ranging from about 35-watt
FOR MALLS, AND PARKING LIGHTING to 1On-watt HID (high-inten-
\ BUILDING sity discharge!.
o ft=:j ENTRIES,
CATEGORY USE
AND FORMAL
'"o STREET
LIGHTING
Type I Roads and streets
where the lumi-
I- naire is mounted
o in the median or
'" ~ c::::::: 0 :> suspended over
o the road center.
I- Spacing is 6-7
-0 in MHO Step lights Walkway and stairway light-
ing from adjacent retaining
'" walls. The light is mounted at
Tvpe II Roads and streets or below the rail height
where the turni-
naire is mounted
above the road but

HIGH MAST SHOEBOX OR

COBRAHEAD
DECORATIVE
LUMINAIRE
CQ:) to the side. Spac-
ing is 5-6 MH."
Well lights, direct burial Illumination of trees and
ON MAST ARM ON POLE
lights structures from below.
I Tvpe III Roads and streets
These are concealed
uplights.
where the lumi-
STREET AND ROADWAY LIGHTING
naire is to the side

Q
and not above the
LAYOUT OF STREET AND PARKING LOT LIGHTING. Most road; also used
luminaires for street and parking lighting are categorized for parking lots.
according to the lighting patterns they create on the Spacing is 4-5
ground. Types I-V are described in the accompanying chart. Landscape lights Includes a wide variety of
MH.' low-level lights, such as path,
Computer point-by-point calculations are recommended. planter bed, and wallwash
Tvpe IV Parking lots and lights and uplights in several
However, it is possible to layout roadway and parking lot
lighting using isolux curves (similar to those illustrated), service areas styles. For residential land-
requiring a forward scapes, most lighting sys-

Q
making sure the overlapping footcandle lines achieve at
least 25% of the intended average footcandle level. throw distribution. tems are low voltage (12V
typically) for ease of wiring
and safety.
AREA FLOODLIGHTING
Floodlighting is used to illuminate exterior fields, lots, yards.
docks, and other similar areas. Special care is often needed
to minimize light trespass and light pollution. Type V Parking lots.
Spacing is 3-4 Parking garage lights Parking garages. These are a
Floodlights are described by their light distribution. The MHO unique type of HID luminaire

G)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
designed specifically for the
developed a system in which floodlight beams are mea-
low concrete ceilings of
sured in degrees of vertical and horizontal distribution, then garages. They typically are
rated from 1 (very narrow field anglel to 7 (very wide field
100- to 175-watt fixtures.
angle!.

GENERAL PURPOSE FLOODLIGHTS are usually made in

rectangular boxes and typically have wide distributions (5V "MH-multiples of mounting height.
x 6H or 6V x 7Hl. Applications include work yards, general
security and sports lighting. and building floodlighting. OTHER COMMON TYPES
Lamps are usually HID from very low wattage (35 W) to OF EXTERIOR LtGHTING Sign lights Illumination of signs. These
1.000 watts, but some floodlights use compact fluorescent Exterior luminaires are designed specifically for many out- are designed to be mounted
and halogen lamps. door lighting applications. Some of the more common below and in front of a sign
types are described in the accompanying chart. and to illuminate upwards
SPORTS LIGHTS are designed to throw narrow to medium evenly.
wide beams (NEMA 2H x 2V to NEMA 4H x 4V). Most Choose outdoor lighting with consideration for the ele-
sports lights are round with standard 4QO..1500 watt HID ments and for the threat of vandalism or other damage.
lamps mounted in an axial position to create a round beam. Some luminaires are composed of plastics or cornposite
Some advanced designs use special double-ended metal materials to resist damage and corrosion. Also keep in mind
halide lamps (150Q..2000 watts) for more precise optical temperature extremes and the minimum starting tempera-
control with less trespass. ' tures of the lamp and ballast.

James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
Mark Rea, ed., IESNA Lighting Handbook (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 19931

LIGHTING DESIGN
60 Site Lighting
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA
Thelighting levels given here are average figures
Parking lots with pedestrian cross-traffic: from 0.8 fe in
places with low activity to 3.6 fc in places with a high
level of activity; uniformity of 4:1
Parking lots with minimum pedestrian cross-traffic: from
0.5 fc and uniformity of 4;1 in places of low activity to 2.0
fe with uniformity of 3:1 in places of h"lgh activity.
Sidewalks and bikeways: from 0.2 fc with 10:1 unifor-
mity in residential areas to 1.0 fe with 4:1 uniformity in
commercial areas.
4 Building entrances: from 1.0 fc near inactive entrances to
5.0 fe at active entrances
Outdoor industrial areas: 0.2 fe for storage and dump
areas; 2.0 to 5.0 fe for active loading, unloading, and
rough work areas; 10 to 20 fc for work areas such as pas-
senger loading, gas pumps, and railroad hump areas.
6. Outdoor sports: from 5 fc for recreational sport areas to
150 fc for major league baseball. ReIer to the IESNA
Lighting Handbook for more information
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
COLOR OF LIGHT: White light sources like metal halide,
fluorescent. and compact fluorescent luminaires are recom-
mended for sports, most applications involving pedestrians,
and situations that require color discrimination. Light
sources that provide poor color, such as high-pressure
sodium fixtures, may be better suited for security lighting,
Tungsten sources, including halogen fixtures, offer excel-
lent color rendition but poor energy efficiency and short life.
STARTING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURE: Fixtures Short 'pedestrian" poles: similar to parking lot luminaires
should be able to start and operate at the lowest expected these poles are 8~ 15 ft high and use lower wattage:
temperature on a site. Minimum starting temperatures for lamps. Spacing is 4-6 times the mounting height.
common sources are shown in the accompanying table. Low level 'bollards": these are typically 42-48 in. high
Spacing is about 4 times the height of the bollards.
LIGHT TRESPASS: Minimize the light shining onto adjacent
Step lights recessed into retaining walls
properties by uSing sharp cutoff lighting. Maximum mount-
ing height for a fixture is a function of the cutoff angle. 4. Building-mounted wall brackets (wallpacks}.
Keep in mind the overhang of adjacent buildings Canopies
LIGHT POLLUTION: Minimize light pollution by preventing and soffits can serve as locations for recessed lighting to
stray upward light. Use cutoff luminaires. illuminate walks near the building foundation
MINIMUM STARTING
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
FOR PARKING AREAS TEMPERATURES
COMMON LIGHT MINIMUM
Poles between 12 it and 40 ft high are most commonly SOURCES TEMPERATURE
used for parking areas because they provide good accept-
able light at low cost. Pole spacing is generally about 4 Tungsten (incandescent, halo- Nolimit
gen)
times the mounting height; optimum pole heights are 15-
20 It lor spacing along every aisle and 30-40 It lor spacing MH, MV HID Lamps -20°F
along every other aisle.
HPS lamps -40°F
High mast poles higher than 40 ft (up to 100 ftl can be used Fluorescent HO -20°F
to light large parking areas economically. Poles must be Fluorescent T12fTB O"F'
equipped with lowering devices for servicing luminaires.
Compact fluorescent _10°F'
amalgam 126-32-42 wi
Floodligh~s mounted onto buildings are often a low-cost
alternative to mounting poles. To minimize light trespass, Standard compact 32°F
the farthest distance from the building to the edge of the fluorescent
lot or Illuminated area is about 5 times the mounting height.
"These temperatures are with specific low temperature
ballast; with standard ballast, the temperature may be as
DESIGN FOR WALKWAYS high as 50°F.

Walkways away Irom a building are usually illuminated by

SURVIVABILITY: Choose fixtures that are physically strong
and resistant to vandals and the weather and environment. the parking lot lighting system. But near the building (or in
areas like a park when there is no parking lot nearby) other
lighting should be added. Consider these options:

NOTE PERIMETER OF PARKING LOT, USE POLE-

MOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH ONE
In a parking area, typical spacing of 17-ft fixtures is about 68 250 WATT FIXTURE (ON TYPICAL
It across by 60-70 It across. Sides of buildings are good 17'-0" HIGH POLE)
places to mount lights to illuminate side drives. Bollards are / /'
used near visitor parking to "dress up" the entry. 4TIMES· /'
HEIGHT / _
OF POLE

4 TIMES HEIGHT
OF POLE

MIDDLE OF PARKING LOT, USE POLE-

MOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH TWO
250 WATT FIXTURES (ON TYPICAL
17'-0" HIGH POLE)

STEP LIGHTS (RECESSED)

"PEDESTRIAN* UGHT POLES

SIMILAR TO PARKING LOT
LUMINAIRES (USE LOWER
WATTAGE LAMPS)

12' TO 40'
HIGH

BUILDING·MOUNTED
LIGHTS SIMILAR TO
PARKING LOT
LUMINAIRES:
4 TO 6 TIMES ILLUMINATES DRIVES
HEIGHT AND SIDEWALK
OF POLE
INACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE
TO HAVE 1.0 FC, AVERAGE, LIGHTING

ACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE

TO HAVE 5.0 FC, AVERAGE. LIGHTING

LIGHTS IN SOLLARDS ILLUMINATE WALKS

NEAR ENTRY AND HELP SIGNIFY ~ENTRANCE"

DRIVES AND PARKING AREAS NEAR A BUILDING

James Robert Benya, PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado

LIGHTING DESIGN

GENERAL
Ample daylight is available throughout most of North Amer-
ica for lighting interior spaces during a large portion of the
working day. Daylight is often used for ambient lighting but
may be used for critical visual tasks as well, in each case
supplemented with electric light as needed. Daylight is
thought by most to be psychologically desirable. and there
is growing evidence that it is biologically beneficial and can
contribute to enhanced task performance. The variability of
the intensity and color of daylight over time stimulates the
visual senses, and the view and visual connection with the
outdoors that accompanies many daylighting designs is
almost universally desired. Proper use of daylight can help
reduce unnecessary energy use for electric lighting and
cooling, if the electric lighting system is controlled with on-
off switching or dimming.
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Daylight has always been an important element of architec-
tural design, and in the era before cheap electric light it was
often a major determinant of a building's form. In buildings
today daylighting strategies are used in a variety of con-
texts, both as a strategy to define the quality of experience
in an architectural space as well as in a more utilitarian role
to reduce unneeded use of electric lighting.
Daylighting usually supplements or complements an elec-
tric lighting design, so it is essential that the two be fully
integrated. For a given building program and climate, it may
be feasible and desirable to create spaces in which the pri-
mary light source is daylight. In others, electric lighting will
be the primary source, supplemented by daylight. The deci-
sion to make daylight the primary source will directly influ-
ence other design decisions such as the size of the floor
plan, the arrangement of spaces within the floor plan, and
the overall massing and configuration of the building.
Designs intended to maximize daylight use will either pro-
vide perimeter access to each space or utilize low-rise
designs that allow skylights to provide daylight. Atriums
and light courts can provide some useful daylight in low-rise
buildings of two to five stories. The best strategy for day-
lighting in high-rise buildings is to ensure that no spaces on
the floor plan are more than 30 It from a daylighting source.
DESIGN PROCESS
To be successful, daylighting requires the integration of all
major building systems. Daylighting issues should be well
defined in the programmatic or schematic phases of design
and monitored through construction to occupancy. Early
planning is essential, since it may be difficult and costly to
add features later in design development. Many architects
and lighting designers are skilled in resolving daylighting
design issues and trade-offs. However, in designs that
push the state of the art, present unusual conditions, or
have quantitative performance expectations that must be
met, it may be appropriate to use a daylighting consultant
with expertise in many of the computer-based tools now
available (see discussion below, Design and Analysis
Tools).
Although critical design decisions related to plan and sec-
tion will be determined early, many seemingly small deci-
sions are made in the final stages of design and bid
preparation that can influence the success of a daylighted
space. These include issues such as interior finishes, furni-
ture specifications, and installation details for controls. After
construction is complete, most daylighting systems involv-
ing controls and operable systems should be calibrated and
commissioned. The final step in the process is to ensure
that facility managers and occupants understand the opera-
tion of the complete system.
LIGHT PATHS TO A WqRK SPACE
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
Daylighting 61
SOURCE LIGHT SHELF
The origin of all daylight is the sun but the light may reach a H = HEIGHT
work space via a nun:ber of paths. Direct sunjqht is intense
and vanes substantially as the sun's position changes 1~
throughout the day (up to 10,000 tootcanoles (fell. Daylight IH
from a clear sky can be 10 to 25% of the intensity of direct
sunlight 11000-2500 fc). Daylight under partly cloudy condi-
tions can be highly variable; daylight under full overcast
conditions can be 5 to 10% of sun conditions 1500-1000fcl.
Data on daylight availability for various cities and building
'-----------'-'---' -t
orientations can be found in several references. Daylight 3H
availability at locations in the United States is influenced by
latitude and weather patterns. Traditionally overcast cli-
mates such as Seattle may have sunshine only 40% of the REDIRECTED DAYLIGHT PENETRATION
year while regions like Palm Springs, California, have sunny INTO A SPACE
conditions for 90% of the year.
A window of a given size will provide the most daylight
deep in a space when it is located as high as possible on
Exterior conditions (ground, trees, water, adjacent build-
the wall. Light-eolored walls and ceilings maximize the day-
ings) can all influence interior daylight levels. In some cases
light levels in the rear of a space. Deeper spaces need
the architect can control these conditions to enhance day-
light levels. Nearby trees will filter daylight and adjacent larger windows to provide more light but larger windows
buildings may obstruct the view of the sky and block direct have other drawbacks. The uniformity ratio between the
daylight level in the front and back of a room becomes
sun. In built-up urban environments, windows on lower
larger as the room becomes deeper and should not exceed
floors of buildings adjacent to multistory buildinqs will
a ratio of 10:1. A splayed window reveal will reduce glare
receive little useful daylight. The south facade of a light col-
ored building that is struck by direct sunlight can become a and ease the transition from bright exterior to darker inte-
rior. Sloped ceiling surtaces may improve daylight utilization
very bright light source for the north facing windows of an
adjacent building. but their biggest benefit is typically the greater ceiling
height at the perimeter. Interior walls and partitions will
reduce daylight levels. Use of light colors or glazed interior
Orientation has a major impact on available daylight and
influences the degree of difficulty in controlling sunlight on partition walts will help mitigate this undesired impact.
a facade. North orientations in most North American loca-
Distribution of daylight in a space can be greatly improved if
tions receive direct sunlight only in the early morning or late
it is introduced from multiple apertures-for example, win-
evening in summer. South facades have the longest expo-
sure to direct sun. Given the high altitude angle of the sun dows on two sides of a space, or windows and cleresto-
ries, or windows and skylights. In low-rise buildinqs,
in summer, sun control on the south facade is readily
diffusing skylights are an effective way to daylight a space.
addressed with properly sized overhangs. In winter low alti-
The skylights are diffusing and their spacing is optimized
tude sun must be controlled by shades, blinds, or other
based on ceiling height. More elaborate toplighting sys-
means. Low altitude direct sun on east and west orienta-
tems can utilize a variety of roof monitors or clerestories.
tions causes glare and cooling problems and is the most dif-
ficult to control. Exterior vertical fins or interior vertical
blinds provide control but allow some view.
Not only does the intensity of daylight and sunlight vary but FULL HEIGHT WINDOW
the color or appearance varies as well. The characteristic
yellow-white of direct sunlight becomes' redder as the sun
moves lower in the sky and travels through more air mass.
The north sky on a clear day can be deep blue, a result of
scattering processes in the atmosphere. Cloudy 'and hazy
skies typically have a uniform white appearance. Daylight is
a full-spectrum source that, notwithstanding its variability,
will faithfully render the color of most materials, something
that not all electric lamps can do. The sun and sky are pow-
erful sources of ultraviolet light that can damage pigments
in paintings and turnishinqs. Design in light sensitive appli-
I cations such as museums must pay particular attention not
only to the UV characteristics of daylight but also to the vis- LlGHT·COLORED
ible light portions, which are responsible for some fading. , ROOM SURFACE
Certain glazing options will reduce these negative effects of -,,
light to acceptable levels. , -,
-,
ENVELOPE AND ROOM DESIGN .... ......................
Building envelope and room design details can be thought
of as the light fixture that controls the distribution of day- ~~~~.;~~~~~~ ~-----
light in a space. Envelope decisions include the size, shape,
and location of the fenestration and the type of glazing and
shading system. Room geometry, size, and surface proper-
ties also influence achievable daylight levels.
There are practical limits to room size beyond which con-
ventional window systems are ineffective. The depth limita-
tion of a daylighted zone with windows becomes a
fundamental constraint and design determinant. for
designs that use diffuse daylight from the sky, clouds, or
surrounding environment, it is difficult to provide adequate
daylight when the depth of the space is more than 1.5 or 2
times the height of the head of the window. (Designs that
redirect daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using light
shelves or light redirecting glazings might be able to extend
this to 3 times the ceiling height.)
H = HEIGHT
~ ...-, _~RELATIVE INDICATOR
r "'"
::: '-( OF LIGHT LEVEL
L..---------'-='=---
IH
-t
!~~ ( DEEP OVERHANG
-"~,---~~---+
2H l
'I
DIFFUSE DAYLIGHT PENETRATION RELATIVE INDICATOR OF LIGHT
INTO A SPACE LEVELS WITH VARIOUS DESIGNS
LIGHTING DESIGN
62 Daylighfing
H '" HEIGHT 5 "" SPACING S < 1.5 H
LIGHT LEVELS WITH SKYLIGHTS
--'~SOUTH ~:g~F
jo~i:'M
TOPLIGHTING SYSTEM TYPES
GLAZING AND SHADING DESIGN
Selection of a glazing system can have a tremendous
impact on the performance of a daylighting system. The
glazing controls the amount of light admitted, its intensity,
and its directionality as it enters a space. The challenge is to
admit adequate light to achieve illumination objectives with-
out creating glare or causing overheating or large cooling
loads. Numerous glazing systems are available to control
solar gain and the transmittance, distribution, and color of
light.Conventional clear and tinted gJazings are still offered
but low-E coated glass or plastic and spectrally selective
low-E glazings are becoming more popular. These glazings
reduce winter heat loss and reduce cooling load in summer
with little additional loss of daylight. They are excellent for
admitting daylight but glare control must be provided with
shading systems. In an insulating glass unit, both low-E and
tinted glazings can be used to optimize performance. Highly
reflective glass with very low transmittance has a role in
highly glazed facades with limited sun control options, but
occupants complain about poor views through these glaz-
ings on overcast days or at night. Glazings with a frit layer
provide some sun and glare control.
Some new options available to designers promise greater
optical control capability. Prismatic glazings can redirect
light, and between-glass elements can provide varying
degrees of light control and solar control.
Adequate control of sun and glare is often difficult to pro-
vide with glazing selection alone. Architectural shading
solutions are typically part of the exterior facade. Other
shading devices can be positioned outside the glazing,
between glazings, or at the interior surface. Shading svs-
terns can be static or operable, controlled either by occu-
pants or with motorized, automated controls. Shading
systems that are intended to block sunlight alone can be
dark, but light-eolored systems should be used if the intent
is to provide diffuse daylight. Overhangs, fins, shade
screens, venetian blinds, vertical blinds, miniature louvers,
and roller shades are commonly used systems. Operable
systems are often preferred because they can take advan-
tage of the variability of sunlight and daylight. In open plan
offices it may be desirable to use motorized, automated
shading controls; in sif1gle-person offices it is likely that the
occupant will use the shading controls as needed.
ttr
OVERHANG LOUVERED OVERHANG
OVERHANG WITH LOUVERS
111
LIGHT SHELF AWNING VERTICAL
LOUVERS
WINDOW SHADING DEVICES
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
LIGHTING DESIGN
New types of light redirecting systems such as prismatic
glazings provide shading at a task location by redirecting the
sunlight to the ceiling. Light shelves can also provide shad-
Ing as well as some control of daylight levels and light distri-
bution. Simple, flat light shelves with white, diffuse
surfaces will provide some shading near the window and
brighten the ceiling near the window but will not redirect
light deep into a room, The size, shape, location, and sur-
face properties of light shelves will have a significant influ-
ence on their ability to redistribute light in a space.
EXTERNAL BLINDS INTERNAL INTERNAL
BLINDS BETWEEN BLINDS SHADES
GLASS
SHADING DEVICES NEAR GLAZING
SURFACE
SKYLIGHTS AND SLOPED
GLAZING
Light distribution from skylights is intrinsically more uniform
than that from windows. Skylight solutions range from sim-
ple vacuum-formed plastic domes to sophisticated, multi-
layer glazing products. Skylights in work areas with office
tasks should provide diffuse light so that its distribution is
relatively uniform. Nondiffusing glazings will result in visual
hot spots and glare. Light diffusion can be achieved by
using diffusing plastic bubble skylights, high transmission
glazing with a diffusion screen below, some of the fritted
glasses or laminates with diffusing layers, or exterior shad-
ing systems. Light wells provide a transition from the roof
plane to the lower ceiling plane or the space below. The
geometry and surface properties of the wells determine the
total light loss. Light wells can reduce the amount of light
entering a space from as little as 10% to as much as 85%.
Splayed wells with high reflectance finishes are the best
performers. Adequate daylight in most climates is provided
with skylight areas of about 4 to 8% 'with relatively high
transmittance glazing. Larger areas with proportionally
lower transmittance will work as well. A completely glazed
roof or sloped glazing may be used but the transmittance of
the glazing should be about 5%. The importance of control-
ling heat gain depends in part on the occupancy of the
space and the climate. In most skylight and sloped glazing
designs, safety codes require laminated glass or alternative
safety solutions; consult code authorities or manufacturers.
CLEAR ~ DIFFUSING
TINTED
/ lighting levels in a small-scale model placed outdoors will
/ be the same as the full-size building space (assuming the
I model faithfully reproduces all of the parameters that influ-
/ ence light levels, such as geometry and surface reflec-
/ tances), It is important to account for the effects of
DAYLIGHT DISTRIBUTION WITH
SKYLIGHT TYPES
EFFICiENT
INEFFICIENT
LIGHT WELL
LIGHT WELL
LIGHT WELL DESIGN
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
INTEGRATION AND CONTROLS
Because people respond to the overall luminous environ-
ment, it is important that electric lighting and daylighting be
designed and specified as a well-integrated system. The
overall lighting concept includes the controls used to man
age the electric lighting system. Many designers behevr
that an indirect lighting system that illuminates the ceihr.:
and wall surface is a better complement to a daylighteu
space than a direct lighting system. Such an indirect ambi-
ent system might be used with task lights to produce
higher illuminance levels where needed. Electric lightin~;
sources may be chosen for their compatibility with colo'
temperature in a daylighted space, their ability to dim, anc
the ability to quickly restart if switched off
A well-daylighted space will only save energy if lighting can
trois are used to turn off or dim electric lighting. For most
systems the control options are on-off switching, multilevel
switching, or dimming. Dimming is the preferred strategy
because it changes light levels smoothly, often mak.n.
changes in electric light levels unnoticeable in the space
Oaylighting controls may also be combined with othe
forms of lighting control to achieve even greater energy
savings. To guarantee energy and cost savings, automatic
controls are preferable to manual controls, although occu
pants should be able to override any automatic system
Switching or dimming systems must be designed with care
to capture daylighting savings. The layout of circuits for fix
tures must be coordinated with the pattern of available day
light. These zoning issues are more important in open plan
spaces than in perimeter single offices. Photocell sensors
in automatic control systems must be properly located in
the space, and the entire control system must be calibrated
after installation. A users' manual for occupants is recom
mended.
TOTAL BUILDING ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
Final daylighting design decisions must account for the
interaction of other systems, such as heating and cooling
impacts of the glazing and the cooling impacts of electric
lighting use. Although the specifics vary with climate and
other building design and operation details, the general
trend of the lighting-HVAC trade-off is well known. It is use-
ful to estimate the energy savings as a function of ..ettec
tive aperture" (EAl. defined as the fraction of the wall that
is glazed (window-to-wall ratios, or WVVR) times the visible
transmittance (Tv) of the glazing system. An EA of .35 or
greater is adequate to provide large daylighting savings;
higher levels increase cooling loads with only minimal addi-
tional lighting energy savings. Optimal EA values for sky-
lights are even smaller; an EA of .05 provides substantial
energy savings.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOLS
Since many critical architectural decisions that affect day-
lighting solutions occur early in the design process, it is
essential that the design consequences of those decisions
be predictable. It is also important that the design intent of
a daylighting solution be communicated to all members of
the design team so that decisions made later in the process
will support and reinforce the original intent. Relatively sim-
ple changes late in the process, ranging from a change in
paint color to improper sensor position, can have a signifi-
cant impact on the success of a daylighting plan. However,
a number of tools are available to help predict the perfor-
mance of a daylighting system.
Physical Scale Models: Since lighting scales perfectly, day
partitions and furnishings, which can significantly influence
light levels. The continuous variability of the outdoor sky
also must be accounted for when trying to compare results
of successive measurements. One alternative is to use
simultaneous measurements in side-by-side models. In all
model measurements, care must be exercised in construc-
tion details, and accurate light measurement equipment
must be used.
Software: Computer-based tools are increasingly used to
estimate daylight levels and their impacts. Some calculate
lighting and daylighting quantities only; others calculate day-
lighting as part of a complete building systems energy anal-
ysis. The most sophisticated lighting tools are linked to
CAD software. They use either radiositv or raytracing tech-
niques to produce photorealistic images that are not only
quantitatively accurate but also assist the designer in under-
standing the qualitative aspects of daylighting design under
a variety of sun and sky conditions. Some whole building
energy simulation tools also model daylighting impacts
Those that can account for the hourly operational character-
istics of light sensors and shading device operation can
assist with understanding the lighting and thermal trade-
offs involved in developing efficient building designs
 Principles of Sound 63
GENERAL
Sound is energy produced by a vibrating object or surface
and transmitted as a wave through an elastic medium. Such
a medium may be air (airborne sound) or anv solid common
building material, such as steel. concrete, wood, piping, gyp-

y))
sum board. etc. (structure-borne sound). A sound wave has
amplitude and frequency.

The amplitude of sound waves is measured in decibels (dB).

The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale based on the loga-
rithm of the ratio of a sound pressure to a reference sound SOUND
pressure (the threshold of audibility). The values of a logarith- SOURCE
mic scale, such as the decibel levels of two noise sources,
cannot be added directly. Instead, use the simplified method
described in the table immediately below: FREQUENCY

Difference between CH 2-3 4-9 >10

sound levels (in dBI SOUND AND FREQUENCY
Add this number to 3 2 1 0
higher sound level
FREQUENCY SUBJECTIVE REACTIONS TO
For example, 90 dB + 20 dB = 90 dB; 60 dB + 60 dB = 63 dB. RANGE OF OCTAVE BAND CENTER CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL
OCTAVE (Hz) FREQUENCY (HZ) CHANGE IN CHANGE IN
The frequency of sound waves is measured in Hertz (Hz, also SOUND LEVEL* APPARENT LOUDNESS
known as cycles per second) and grouped into octaves (an 22-44 31.5
octave band is labeled by its geometric center frequency). An 44-88 63 1 to 2 Imperceptible
octave band covers the range from one frequency (Hz) to
88-175 125 Barely perceptible
twice that frequency (f to 2f). The range of human hearing
covers the frequencies from 20 to 16,000 Hz. Human hearing 175-350 250 5 or 6 Clearly noticeable
is most acute in the 1000 to 4000 Hz octave bands 350--700 500
10 Significant change-twice as loud
The human ear discriminates against low frequencies in a 700--1400 1000 (or hall as loud)
manner matched by the A·weighting filter of a sound level 1400--2800 2000
meter, measured in dBA, or A-weighted decibels. This is the 20 Dramatic Change-four times as
most universally accepted single number rating for human 2800--5600 4000 loud (or a quarter as loud)
response to sound. 5600--11,200 8000 *Measured In decibels (plus or minus)

FREQUENCY OF COMMON SOUNDS

TYPE OF SOUND FREQUENCY OR PITCH (HZ)

LOW FREQUENCY MIDFREQUENCY HIGH FREQUENCY

16
I
31.5 63 125
l
250
I OCTAVE"I
500 1000
I
2000 4000 8000 16000
'j
31500
Low pedal stop on organ
••
Highest note on piano

Range of human speech

.-
Area of most speech intelligibility

Ballast hum from fluorescents and

harmonics

Desktop computers with disk drive

I
.- .1
•
Office equipment (printers, typewriters,
telephones)

Trucks, buses

Human hearing

·Octave-a frequency ratio of 2:1

TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS

ENVIRONMENT
SOUND SUBJECTIVE
LEVEL (dBAI EVALUATIONS OUTDOOR INDOOR
140 Deafening Near jet engine and artillery fire
130 Threshold 01 pain Jet aircraft departure (within 500 ttl -
120 Threshold 01 leeling Elevated train Hard-rock band
110 Jet Ilyover at 1000 It Inside propeller plane
100 Very loud Power mower, motorcycle at 25 ft, auto horn at 10ft Crowd noise in arena
90 Propeller plane flyover at 1000 ft, noisy urban street Full symphony or band, food blender, noisy factory
80 Moderately loud Diesel truck at 40 mph at 50 It Inside auto at high speed, garbage disposal. dishwasher
70 Loud Heavy urban traffic Face-to-face conversation, vacuum cleaner, electric typewriter
60 Moderate Air-conditioning condenser at 15 ft, near freeway auto traffic General office
50 Quiet Large transformer at 100 ft Large public lobby, atrium
40 Bird calls Private office, soft radio music in apartment
30 Very quiet Quiet residential neighborhood Bedroom, average residence without stereo
20 Rustling leaves Quiet theater, whisper
10 Just audible Still night in rural area Recording studio
0 Threshold of hearing

Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
64 Sound Absorption Properties of Materials
GENERAL NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT

WAWNNL
All materials and surfaces absorb some sound greater than The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is the arttbmet« aver- ~ ~~~~I M EN
SOUND-
0% and less than 100%. The percentage of incident sound age of the absorption coefficients, a, at four designated tre- ABSORBIN(,
energy that is absorbed by a material, divided by 100, equals quencres: 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2,000 Hz. These . -. MATERIAL
the coefficient of absorption, designated a. which ranges frequencies have been selected because they represent the
middle range of most representative sound sources perti-
TYPE A MOUNTING ~ --
from 0 to .99. The coefficient varies as a function of fre- TEST ROar-.'
quency, Hz. nent to architectural applications. Because the NRC value is

Any material can be tested in a proper laboratory to deter-
mine its ex values, as per ASTM C423. Some tests give val-
ues greater than 1.0. but this is an anomaly caused by the
testing procedure; such values should be corrected to be not
more than 1.0, since no material can absorb more than
100% of the incident energy that strikes its surface.
~:::::
meant to be only a general indication of a material's effi-
ciency at absorbing sound, it is rounded off to the nearest
.05 value and often represented as a .10 range (for example,
50 to .60). NRC ratings can never be less than 0 or greater
than 1.00. The following formula can be used to compute
the NRC for a particular application:
TYPE D MOUNTING
NRC = (a250 + a500 + a1000 + a2000)/4

SOUND ENERGY ABSORPTION SAMPLE DERIVATION OF NRC

MECHANISMS MOUNTING
1.0
FRAME OR
There are three mechanisms by which sound energy is FIXTURE
absorbed or dissipated as it strikes a surface. In all cases,
sound energy is converted to heat. although never enough
heat to be felt. z
o
.80 ? .- MOUNTING

·37 V
;: DEPTH
o,
POROUS ABSORPTION entails the use of soft, porous,
..fuzzy" materials like glass fiber, mineral wool, and carpet. 'o"
The pressure fluctuations of a sound wave in air cause the
fibers of such materials to move, and the friction of the
III
W
-c / NRC=
.65 + 72 + .80 + .83
4
-
-
75

fibers dissipates the sound energy. IL

o
V
I- 0.5
TYPICAL VALUES FOR POROUS Z I
W TYPE E MOUNTING
ABSORPTION iJ 37 .32
iL TYPICAL MOUNTING TYPES
10 IL 30 V
~
W
GJ.ss FIBER o /" ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE PER
U 2~ MOUNTING ASSEMBLY
I--"" "
z
o l---- " V NRC-
25 + .30 + _87 + .32
4
- .30 1.0
;:
ll. V /'
/
'o"

--
SAME MATERIAL
o
III
W / V 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 z
o
TYPE E MOUNTING "--------
,................ ;'"
o"
IL

I- 0.5
Z
W / /
1/
ACOUSTICAL
TILE

/'
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)

SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
ii:
'o"
III
m ".. -- / r-,
o"
U
iL
IL
W -r /
The sound-absorbinq coefficients for a given material may
vary depending on the thickness of the material. how it is
supported or mounted, the depth of the air space behind the
IL

t- 0.5
Z
/
PERFO~~
-,
8 l/ / r'--CARPET
material, and the facing in front of the. material. In general.
thicker porous materials absorb more sound; the air space
w
U
/ FACING

"
"
../
V behind a material will increase the absorption efficiency,
especially at low frequencies; and thin facings degrade high
iL
IL A
.
W
frequency absorption. o I-- TYPICAL ACOUSTICAL
~ U MATERIAL: TYPE A
o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 MOUNTING ASSEMBLIES " MO,NTINi

OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN HZ)
PANEL ABSORPTION involves installation of thin light-
weight panels like gypsum board, glass, and plywood.
Sound waves cause panels to vibrate. Sound absorption for
a panel is greatest at that resonant frequency.
TYPICAL VALUES FOR PANEL ABSORPTION
10
For consistency in comparing test results, there are set stan-
dards for the mounting assembly used in testing absorbent
materials. These mounting conditions should be reported o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
along with any and all test data so that the data accurately
reflect field conditions. Mounting types A, D, and E are typi- OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
cal for standard sound-absorbing materials. A numerical suf-
NOTE
fix is used to specify the mounting depth in millimeters; for
example, E-400 indicates mounting type E with a 400 mm Acoustical performance varies with mounting assembly and
airspace (a typical 16 in. plenum). Mounting types are speci- facing.
fied by ASTM E795.

SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS

z NRC
o TYPICAL DATA/MATERIAL t25 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 HZ 4000 HZ
;:
n, Marble .01 .01 01 .01 .02 02 .00
'o"
III Gypsum board, 1/ 2 in. 29 .10 .05 .04 .07 .09 .05
m
"o
IL
/ ' THIN GLASS
Wood, 1 in. thick, with air space
behind .19 .14 .09 .06 06 .05 .10
I- 0.5
Z
W
U
I Heavy carpet on concrete .02 .06 .14 .37 .60 .65 .30

iL
IL
W
o
.>: ~ V Acoustical tile, surface-mounted
Acoustical tile, suspended
.34
.43
.28
.38
.45
.53
66
.77
.74
.87
.77
.77
.55
.65
u
I \ "r-... LIGHTWEIGHT
WOOD PANELS Acoustical tile, painted (sst.) .35 .35 .45 50 .50 .45 .45

" ~ -, J I--J Audience area, empty, hard seats .39

--
.15 .19 .22 .38 .30 .30
---j
Audience area, occupied, upholstered
seats 39 .57 .80 .94 .92 .87 80
o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 Glass fiber, 1 in .04 .21 .73 .99 .99 .90 .75
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz) Glass fiber, 4 in. .77 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .95
CAVITY ABSORPTION entails the movement of air pressure Thin fabric, stretched tight to wall 03 .04 .11 .17 .24 .35 .15
fluctuations across the narrow neck of an enclosed air cavity,
such as a space behind a perforated panel or a slotted con- Thick fabric, bunched 4 in. from wall .14- .35 55 .72 .70 65 .60
crete masonry unit. also called a Helmholtz resonator. The
natural frequency at which the resonator most efficiently NOTE
absorbs sound is related to the volume of the cavity, the size This table gives representative absorption coefficients at or extrapolate from similar constructions. All materials have
of the neck opening, and the presence of any insulation in various frequencies for some typical materials. To deter- some absorption values that can be determined from
the cavity. mine values not provided here, refer to manufacturer's data proper test reports.

Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
 Room Acoustics 65
GENERAL UJ
U SOUI"JO ABSORPTION
SOUND ABSORPTION
The total sound absorbing units (a) provided by a given mate- Z 83>3 2>8 1 11l 8 3 >8 2 >a 1
UJ
rial are a function of the absorptive properties (0;) and surface CCJ -'
W
UJUJ m
area (S) of that material as defined by the formula 11l u, >
U
-,
-' UJw
a = S" W 0::-' INDOORS)
W
o

-
in which a = sabins (units of sound absorption), S = surface
Ql \ a,
area (measured in sq m or sq ttl. and a = the coefficient of
8o --"'0 ~

absorption.
~
·6
~ a,
...i
w
>
'j
~ j1-
The total sabins in a room can be determined by adding ...i \ az
w az o
together the sabins of all the surfaces. which vary as a func- > Z
w ·12 " ' - SHORTER

~
tion of frequency. Since most materials absorb more high~ -' :J
frequency sound waves than low-frequency ones, it is typi- o NOISE REDUCTION
a3
a11l REVERBERATION

-,
8 TIME
~6~~gl~~SORPTION ~
Z
cal to find more sabins in a room at high frequencies than at :J g! OUTDOORS
3
low frequencies. a
~
11l

In general, sound energy that is not absorbed will be ( OUTDOORS

w
0::
reflected, thus surfaces with low coefficients of absorption
can be used to encourage sound reflection when appropri-
ate. o 20 40 80 SOURCE
0= DISTANCE FROM SOURCE STOPS TIME, IN SECONDS
PROPERTIES OF SOUND SOUND OVEij: DISTANCE SOUND OVER TIME
The sound properties distance and time are described here: NOTE NOTE
The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the lower The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the
DISTANCE
the noise levels {approaching the drop-off with distance out- shorter the reverberation time.
Outdoors, sound drops off 6 dB each time the distance from doors)
a source is doubled (Inverse Square Law). Indoors, the re-
flecting sound energy in a room reaches a constant level as a PROPERTIES OF SOUND
function of the sound absorbing units (saoins) in the room.
The noise level in a room can be reduced by adding more
absorption, as shown in this formula: AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF The reverberation time for the sample room with an acousti-
cal tile ceiling is calculated as follows:
a
Noise reduction (NR) = 1 log a2/a1 ABSORPTION
One measure of the quality of sound in a room is the aver-
RT = .049V/a = .049 x 9000 cu ft/699 = .63 sec
TIME age coefficient of absorption (or average noise reduction The average coefficient of absorption (a.) in the sample room
Outdoors, sound ceases when the source stops. Indoors, coefficient-NRC) for all surfaces combined, as determined changes significantly from sample 1 to sample 2. The room
sound energy lingers and this decay is called reverberation. by this formula: with a gypsum board ceiling is rather live and noisy, while
the room with an acoustical tile ceiling is comfortable, with
The reverberation time (Rn is defined as the length of time, a = alS
wen-controlled noise. The calculations that show this follow:
in seconds, it takes for sound to decay by 60 dB. Reverbera-
in which ft. = the average coefficient (at a given frequency or
tion time is directly proportional to the volume of a space
average NRC), a = the total sabins (sound absorbing units), Belore: a = alS = 243/2700 = .09
and inversely proportional to the units of absorption (sabins)
in it. as expressed in this formula and S = the total surlace area in the room (metric or English Aher: ii= a/S = 699/2700 = .26
units; be consistent).
RT = KV/a
in which RT = reverberation time in seconds, K = .161 (if vol- As determined by using the average coefficient of absorp-
ume is in m 3) or .049 (if volume is in cu ttl. V = volume in m 3 tion, the quality of sound in a room can be evaluated as .1,
or cu ft. and a = total absorption in sabins (metric or English .2, or .3. A room with an average coefficent of .1 is rather
units). "live,." loud, and uncomfortably noisy; one with an average
coefficient of .2 is comfortable, with well-eontrolled noise;
Shorter reverberation times greatly enhance speech intelligi- and one with .3 is rather ..dead," suitable for spaces in
bility and are imperative in listening environments for people which the emphasis will be on amplified sound, electronic
with hearing impairments and for rooms with live micro- playback, or a live microphone for teleconferencing.
phones for teleconferencing.
CALCULATION OF AVERAGE COEFFICIENT
I OF ABSORPTION
SOUND ABSORPTION (Sample at 1000 Hz)
Sound-absorptive- materials (such as acoustic tile, glass fiber,
wall panels, carpet, curtains, etc.) can be added to a room in SAMPLE
order to control or reduce noise levels or shorte-n reverbera- ROOM~ i
tion time. Noise control is especially helpful when the noise
sources are distributed around a room, as in a gymnasium,
classroom, or cafeteria. OUTDOORS

While sound-absorptive materials can be added to any sur-

face in a room, the greatest area available for coverage is
usually the ceiling. Because many soft porous materials are
>o0t / / / l , ""
~
fragile, they should not be located on surfaces that are sus-
ceptible to abuse. For these reasons, sound-absorptive ma-
terials are often installed on ceilings.
><>"
See the accompanying chart for guidelines on the use of
sound absorption treatments. 2~~~
The volume of this sample room is 9000 cu ft (l x w x h).

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF SOUND SAMPLE CALCULATION 1

ABSORPTION SURFACE MATERIAL AREA (50 FT) c a
ROOM TYPE TREATMENT Floor Carpet 600 sq ft .37 222
Ceiling Gypsum board 600 sq It .01 6
Classrooms, corridors and Ceiling or equivalent area;
lobbies, patient rooms, labo- add additional wall treatment All 4 walls Gypsum board 1500 sq It .01 15
ratories, shops, factories, if room is quite high Total 2700 sq h - 243
libraries, private and open
plan offices, restaurants The reverberation time for the sample room with a gypsum
board ceiling is calculated as follows:
Boardrooms, teleconferenc- Ceiling or equivalent area;
ing rooms, gymnasiums, are- add wall treatments for fur- RT = .049V/a = .049 x 9000 cu 1t/243 = 1.8 sec
nas, recreational spaces, ther noise reduction and
meeting and conference reverberation control and SAMPLE CALCULATION 2 INDOORS
rooms eliminate flutter or echo SURFACE MATERIAL AREA (50 FT) o. a NOTE

Auditoriums, churches, etc. Special considerations and Floor Carpet 600 sq h .37 222 Outdoors, sound waves expand spherically, becoming more
(list) complex applications dispersed li.e., quieter) over distance and time. Indoors,
Ceiling Acoustical tile 600 sq tt .77 462 sound waves reflect off surrounding surfaces, building up
All 4 walls Gypsum board 1500 sq ft .01 15 energy so sound drops off less quickly over distance or time.
Total - 2700 sq tt - 699 SOUND PATTERNS

Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
66 Transmission Loss Properties of Materials
GENERAL
The property of a material or construction system that blocks
the transter of sound energy from one side to another is
transmission loss (TL), which is measured in decibels (dB).
Specifically, TL is the attenuation of airborne sound trans-
mission through a construction during laboratory testing
according to ASTM EgO. Transmission less values range
from 0 to 70 or 80 (or higher). A high TL value indicates a
better ability to block sound; that is, more sound energy is
"lost" as the sound wave travels through the material
Sound transmission class (STC) is a single number rating
system designed to combine TL values from many frequen-
cies. STC values for site-built construction range from 10
(practically no isolation, e.g., an open doorway) to 65 or 70
(such high performance is only achieved with special con-
struction techniques). Average construction might provide
noise reduction in the range of STC 30 to 60.
the same weight The transmission loss tends to increase
about 5 dB for each doubling of the airspace between
wythes (minimum effective space is approximately 2 in.).
Resilient attachment of surface skins to studs or structural
surfaces provides a similar benefit, as do separate wvthes
ABSORPTION: Use of soft, resilient absorptive materials in
the cavity between wvthes. particularly for lightweight stag-
gered or double stud con~truction, increases transmission
loss slgn!flcantly. Viscoelastic (somewhat resilient but not fully
elastic) materials. such as certain insulation boards, dampen
or restrict the vibration of rigid panels such as gypsum board
and plywood, increasing transmission loss somewhat. Follow
manufacturer-recommended installation details.
NOISE REDUCTiON
Noise reduction (NR} depends on the properties of a room
and is the actual difference in sound pressure level between
two spaces. It is the amount of sound blocked by all inter
vening sound paths between rooms, including ttfIe cammal
wall but also the floor, ceiling, outside path, dOOJl'5. etc
Noise reduction also depends on the relative siZ!eof a room
If the noise source is in a small room next to a ilJrge receiv
ing room {like an office next to a cvrnnasrumn. the nois.
reduction will be greater than the TL oertorrnsnceot the we
alone because the sound radiating from the ccrJJnmon wa
between office and gym is dissipated in such a tlirge space
On the other hand, if the noise source is in a largJeroom next
to a small one (as from a gym to an office ne»l door). the
noise reduction will be far less than the TL of thte wall alone
because the common wall, which radiates sourna is such a
large part of the surface of the smaller room. AnlarJjustment
for this ratio, plus the contribution of the absorptive finishes
in the receiving room, enters into the catculatioa of act;
noise reduction between adjacent spaces.

-.
It is very difficult to measure the STC performance of a sin- GRAPHIC TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE COMPOSITE TRANSMISSION LOSS
gle wall or door in the field because of the number of flank- (COMBINING TWO DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS)
ing paths and nonstandard conditions. Field performance is
measured with noise isolation class (NIC) ratings, which
cover effects from all sound transfer paths between rooms.

DERIVATION AND USE OF THE STC CURVE

tg

<.
To determine the STC rating for a particular construction, the !: 2

I~
STC curve shown in the accompanying figure is applied over
the transmission loss (Tl) curve for a laboratory test of the
G
z
construction. The STC curve is then manipulated in accor- Z

~
dance with prescribed rules to obtain the highest possible w

"""
a. PERCENT OF TOTAL AREA OCCUPIE[
rating. The procedure states that the TL curve cannot be o BY DOOR, WINDOW OPENING

,'' ' <,

more than 8 dB less than the STC curve in anyone-third 0: 4
octave band, nor can the TL curve be more than a total of 32 o <; <, 50%
5
dB less than the STC curve (average of 2 dB for each of 16
one-third octave band frequencies). Any values from the TL
~ <, <,
c 6
............20 <, <,
z

------- --
curve that are above the STC curve are of no benefit in the 7
rating. The object is to move the STC curve up as high as 3' r-, <,
8 <, r-, r-,
<i
possible and to read the STC rating number from the point
where the STC curve at 500 Hz crosses the TL curve o
o
9
10 --- "- <,
r-, ~
<,
o
r--
~
The STC curve has three segments: the first segment from u,
o
i'- r-,
l'--I'-

--
125 to 400 Hz, rises at the rate of 9 dB per octave (3 dB per
I--
~ t---- r- r-- r-,
-
..J
one-third octave); the second segment, from 400 to 1250 t::
Hz, rises at the rate of 2 dB per octave (1 dB per one-third
20
I---
octave); and the third segment, from 1250 to 4000 Hz, flat.
~ r- r--r-- r-
~ ~~
:J
..J

~ ~
- t--
r-- -f::::: f:: f::::: r-
~ r-
TRANSMISSION LOSS

- s-.
u, 30
~ '-~
Design of construction and materials for high transmission o
loss builds on three principles:

MASS: Lightweight materials do not block sound. Sound

transmission through walls, floors, and ceilings varies with
..J
t:: 40

50
--- t--
r----::::::::: ~
~~
the frequency of sound, the weight (or mass) and stiffness
F- <,
of the construction, and the cavity absorption. Theoretically, 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
the transmission loss increases at the rate of 6 dB per dou- dB TO BE SUBTRACTED FROM TL OF WALL TO OBTAIN TL OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
bling of the surface weight of the construction. A single solid
panel behaves less well than the mass law would predict
since the mass law assumes a homogeneous, infinitely resil- NOTES combining the TL (or STC) values of the corneonents or
ient material/wall. the wall alone, in accordance with the chart attJlve.
1. When a wail or surface of a room is made up of two or
more different structures (e.q., a window in an outside 2. Note that small gaps and cracks such as the pm:imeter of
SEPARATION: Improved TL performance without an undue
wall or a door in an office). the TL performance (or STC) an ungasketed door can dramatically degrade, ale perfor
increase in mass can be achieved by separation of materials.
of the composite construction should be evaluated by mance of a high TL construction.
A true double wall with separate unconnected elements per-
forms better than the mass law predicts for a single wall of
SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC) RATING CURVE
BENEFIT OF AIRSPACE IN IMPROVING
TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL)

z>-
w
:i'
w 301-----+--+--+-----1'----+----1 STC RATING VALUE
.......
> ....... i.--
o
[CD AIRSPACE, IN IN 6·· /
:i''''
~~ 201----+---+--+--1----+--:>--"'1
/

~~
3··
V
X
o0: V
a.
a. 1/
-c

125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)

NOTE
If two layers of dense material are separated by an airspace
(rather than being continuous), they create two independent
walls. The improvement in transmission loss depends on the
size of the airspace and the frequency of sound., Avoid rigid ~
~
0
00
8~ ~
~
2_ N8 ~
N
2~ 8~ 8~ g~ 8m Q
0
00
N
8~ 80 0
~
0 8N 80 Q
0
8~ 80
ties between layers in all double waH construction. The graph
above indicates the approximate improvement in TL when a
~ - - N N ~ ~ ~ m 00
wall of a given weight is split into two separate walls ONE-THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (HZ)

Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
 Sound Isolation and Noise Reduction 67
SOUND ISOLATION CRITERIA GENERAL
SOUND ISOLATiON REQUIREMENT One of the most common goals in the design of sound isola-
RECEIVER ROOM (MIN.) FOR ALL PATHS BETWEEN tion construction is achievement of acoustical privacy from a
SOURCE ROOM OCCUPANCY ADJACENT SOURCE AND RECEIVER neighbor. This privacy is a function of whether the signal
from the neighbor is audible and intelligible above the ordi-
Executive areas, doctors' suites. personnel Adjacent offices and STC 50-55 nary background noise level in the environment.
offices, large conference rooms; confidential pri- related spaces
vacy requirements Privacy index := noise reduction + background noise
Normal offices, regular conference rooms for Adjacent offices and simi- STC 45-50
group meetings; normal privacy requirements lar activities Noise reduction is measured as a field performance where it
is evaluated and given an STC value. Background sound lev-
Large general business offices, drafting areas, Corridors. lobbies. data STC 40-45 els from steadv mechanical heating and ventilating systems.
banking floors processing; similar activi- a constant part of our environment, are measured in accor-
ties dance with ASH RAE standards by a set of uniform curves
called noise criteria (NC) ratings. These NC curves are con-
Shop and laboratory offices in manufacturing labo- Adjacent offices; test STC 40-45
stantly refined, so check the latest ASH RAE quides.
ratory or test areas; normal privacy areas, corridors
Mechanical equipment rooms Any spaces STC 50-60+ 1 Normal privacy, in which you are aware of a neighbor's activ-
ity but not overly distracted by it, can usually be achieved
Multifamily dwellings Neighbors (separate occu- with a privacy index of 68 or higher. Confidential privacy, in
pancy) which you are aware of the neighbor, usually requires a pri-
Bedrooms Bedrooms STC 48-55 2 vacy index of 75 or higher.
Bathrooms STC 52-58 2
Kitchens STC 52-58 2 A quiet environment with little or no natural.background
Living rooms STC 52-57 2 sound (from HVAC systems) between neighbors requires a
Corridors STC 52-58 2 higher degree of sound separation construction to achieve
Living Rooms Living Rooms STC 48-55 2 the same privacy as that in a noisier environment with louder
Bathrooms STC 50-57 2 background sound.
Kitchens STC 48-50'
School buildings Adjacent classrooms IMPACT NOISE DESIGN CRITERIA
STC 50
Classrooms Laboratories STC 50 Floors are subject to impact or structure-borne sound trans-
Corridors STC45 mission noises such as footfalls. dropped objects, and scrap-
Large music or drama area Adjacent music or drama ing furniture. Parallel to development of laboratory sound
area STC 60 3 transmission class (STC) ratings for partition constructions is
Music practice rooms Music practice rooms STC 55 3 the development of an impact insulation class (lie). This is a
single-number rating system used to evaluate the effective-
Interior occupied spaces Exterior of building STC 35-60" ness of floor construction in preventing impact sound trans-
Theaters. concert halls. lecture halls. radio and 1V Any and all adjacent Use qualified acoustical consultants to assist in mission to spaces beneath the floor. The current lie rating
studios the design of construction details for these critical method is similar to the STC rating.
occupancies
Testing for IIC ratings is a complex procedure using a stan-
1 Use acoustical consultants when designing mechanical connections between layers or, preferably, structurally dard tapping machine. Because the machine is portable, it
equipment rooms to house equipment other than that independent" room-within-a-room" construction. The level cannot simulate the weight of a person walking across a
used for air handling (e.g., chillers, pumps, and compres- of continuous background noise, such as that provided by floor. Therefore, the creak or boom footsteps cause in a tim-
sors) and heavy manufacturing areas that house equipment the HVAC system or an electronic masking system, has a ber floor cannot be reflected in the single-figure impact rat-
that generates noise at or above OSHA allowable levels or significant impact on the quality of construction selected ing produced from the tapping machine. The correlation
generates high vibration levels. and must be coordinated with the other design parame- between tapping machine tests in the laboratory and field
ters. performance of floors under typical conditions may vary
2 Ratings depend on nighttime, exterior background levels
greatly, depending on the construction of the floor and the
and other factors directly related to the location of a build- 4 Ratings depend on the nature of the exterior background
nature of the impact.
ing. Grades I, II, and III are discussed in "Guide to Airborne, noise-its Ievet, spectrum shape. and constancy-as well
Impact, and Structureborne Noise Control in Multifamily as the client's budget and thermal considerations. Use Often the greatest annoyance caused by footfall noise is the
Dwellings:' HUD TS-24 (1974l. qualified acoustical consultants for analysis of high noise low-frequency sound energy it generates, which is beyond
3 The STC ratings shown are guidelines only. These spaces outdoor environments such as airports, highways (espe- the frequency range of standardized tests. Sometimes this
typically- require double layer construction with resilient cially those with heavy truck traffic), and industrial facilities. sound energy is near or at the resonant frequency of the

1~ MIN.
I 1" MIN.
building structure.

++ SEPARATE WOOD OR
METAL STUD WALLS
ON SEPARATE FLOOR
++ GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
Whenever possible. to stifle unwanted sounds use carpet
with padding on floors in residential buildings and resilient,
suspended ceilings with cavity insulation. For especially criti-
cal situations, such as pedestrian bridges or tunnels, hire an
PLATES OR TRACKS
xlJ:-'::""'9tt- FURRING acoustical consultant.
AVOID
BACK·TO· BACK XL-JC-=""'=tT- CMU WALL Slamming doors or cabinet drawers are other sources of
WALL OUTLETS impact noise. If possible. bureaus should not be placed

BATT INSULATION.
~v'\;X7\;;ti::::;;:::::;!+-CHANNEL
R ESILIENT directly against a wall. Door closers or stops can be added to
cushion the impact of energy from a door so it is not
3~THiCK MIN, imparted directly into the structure. Common sense arrange-
STUD WALL WITH ments can help minimize problems in multifamily dwellings.
2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
INSULATION For example, kitchen cabinets should not be placed on the
other side of a common wall from a neighbor's bedroom.
DOUBLE STUD WALL DOUBLE WALL--CMU AND STUD
CONSTRUCTION NOTES
>4---------- CMU WALL 1. Edge attachment and junction of walls. partitions, floors,
ISOLATION BOARD and ceiling can cause large differences in transmission
~ FINISH FLOOR
loss (Tl) performance. The transverse waves set up in

PLYWOOD
~~~~!j~~i .----~~P:;D C SUBFLOOR
continuous, stiff, lightweight walls or floors can carry
sound a long distance from the source to other parts of
the structure with little attenuation. Curtain walls, thin
concrete floors on bar joists, and wood framed structures
~~L.------~~°ci~~~EF~::~NG are particularly SUbject to this weakness.
- - - - - - WOOD FRAMING
ISOLATOR 2. Properly designed discontinuities such. as interrupted
floor slab/toppings are helpful in reducing structural flank-
-, 4. ~ STRUCTURAL
BATT
INSULATION ing.
FLOOR
3. A resilient (airtight) joint between exterior wall and parti-
RESILIENT WOOD FURRING tion or partition and floor can appreciably improve TL
HANGER 4. Continuous pipes, conduits. or ducts can act as transmis-
sion paths from room to room. Care must be taken to iso-
FRAMING
CHANNELS late such services from the structure.

\ { " - , . . - - - . INSULATION

2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD

FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION--CONCRETE FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION-WOOD

TYPICAL HIGH SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION

Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
.68 Mechanical System Noise and Vibration Control
GENERAL RECOMMENDED BACKGROUND NOISE CRITERIA FOR TYPICAL
Mechanical system noise, as a major component of acous- OCCUPANCIES
tics in modern buildings, must be addressed in developinq A-WEIGHTED
mechanical design and acoustical goals. TYPE OF SPACE USES NC RATING RANGE DECIBELS
Sensitive listening spaces Broadcast and recording studios, con-
Background sound levels from mechanical systems are mea- NC-15 to NC-20 25 dBA
cert halls
sured and evaluated by means of noise criteria (NC) ratings
as well as by actual A-weighted decibel levels The noise cri- Performance spaces Theaters, churches (no amplification),
teria curves provide a convenient way of defining the ambi- video and teleconferencing (live NC-20 to NC-25 30 dBA
ent noise level in terms of octave band sound pressure microphone)
levels. The NC curves consist of a family of curves that General presentation spaces Large conference rooms, small audi-
relate the spectrum of a noise to the environment being toriurns. orchestral rehearsal rooms,
specified. Higher noise levels are permitted at lower fre- NC-25 to NC-30 35 dBA
movie theaters, courtrooms, meeting
quencies since the ear is less sensitive to noise at these lev- and banquet rooms, executive offices
els. The complete octave band frequency of an acceptable
ambient noise level can be specified with one NC number. Quiet areas Offices, small conference rooms,
classrooms, private residences, hospi- NC-30 to NC-35 40 dBA
Mechanical equipment creates noise and vibration from the tats. hotels, libraries
rotation of the equipment motor. Four aspects of the noise Public spaces Restaurants, lobbies, open plan
NC-35 to NC-40 45dBA
and vibration to be addressed are described here: offices and clinics
Service and support spaces Computer equipment rooms, public
MACHINE NOISE: Sound isolation requirements for the circulation areas. arenas, convention NC-40 to NC-45 50 dBA
walls and floors of a mechanical equipment room depend on floors
the type of equipment to be housed and the sensitivity of
adjacent spaces. Chillers can be extremely loud, requiring
double walls and extra thick floor slabs. Air-handling units NOISE CRITERIA SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL TABLE*
may only require regular wall construction, perhaps STC 50
systems. Major secondary sound paths are duct penetra- SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (DB)
NC
tions, open curbs under rooftop units, and doors; all potential CURVE 63 Hz 125 HZ 250 HZ 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 HZ 4000 HZ 8000 Hz
sound paths must be controlled.
NC-70 83 79 75 72 71 70 69 68
FAN NOISE: Rotation of the fan motor and the fan itself gen- NC-65 80 75 71 68 66 64 63 62
erates noise, which is transmitted along the duct path (both NC-60 77 71 67 63 61 59 58 57
supply and return) to the listening space. Typical fan noise
control elements include package silencers (inserted into a NC-55 74 67 62 58 56 54 53 52
straight run of duct, often at the wall of the mechanical NC-50 71 64 58 54 51 49 48 47
equipment room) and internal acoustical duct lining (glass
NC-45 67 60 54 49 46 44 43 42
fibers adhered to the duct walls). The degree of fan noise
attenuation can be determined by calculations based on the NC-40 64 57 50 45 41 39 38 37
size and sound power levels of the fan, the length and con- NC-35 60 52 45 40 36 34 33 32
figuration of duct runs, the attenuation of the duct systems,
NC-30 57 48 41 36 31 29 28 27
the number and type of diffusers, and the room finishes in
the listening space. NC-25 54 44 37 31 27 24 22 21
NC-20 50 41 33 26 22 19 17 16
AIR NOISE: Movement of air through a duct generates tur-
bulence, which creates noise. For sensitive spaces and quiet NC-15 47 36 29 22 17 14 12 11
noise levels, the airflow must be at low velocity (hence the "For convenience In uSing norse criteria data, the table lists the sound pressure level (SPU In decibels for each NC curve.
need for large ducts) with smooth inlet and outflow condi-
tions. For extremely quiet noise levels, air velocities at dif-
NOISE CRITERIA CURVES
fusers or terminal devices may need to be below 400 fpm.
Volume dampers to control flow for such spaces are critical; 20 75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800
keep dampers 10ft from diffusers, and avoid opposed blade 75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800 9600
dampers at diffusers. A simple duct layout that provides 90
even distribution of air to all diffusers in a room can eliminate
many problems (see preferred duct layout below).

VIBRATION ISOLATION: Rotating equipment generates vi-

bration, which can travel through a structure and be radiated 80
as noise in a distant location. Vibration isolation may entail
use of neoprene pads, spring isolators, or inertia bases,
depending on the size and power of the rotating equipment,
SUBJECTIVE
the proximity of sensitive spaces, and the stiffness of the
supporting structure. Piping attached to rotating equipment,
iL EVALUATIONS
='- 70
especially chilled water piping, must also be isolated from 0
OJ
the structure to prevent transmission of sound energy. The W
effectiveness of a vibration isolator depends on the static <r
deflection of the isolator under load; lower frequency ~ VERY
mechanical equipment rotation requires greater static de- -' NOISY
flection isolation to be effective. W 60
>
W
-'
/ DIFFUSER. TYP w
<r
::J
Ul
/ / DUCT, TYP. Ul
W 50 NOISY
<r
CL
0
Z
::J
0 -----r:OOERATELY
Ul 40
0
Z
JNOISY
"
<D
W
>
"
I-
U
30 QUIET
0

20
VERY
QUIET
FAN

NOTE
10
All diffusers are equidistant from the fan. The system is self-
balancing. The duct layout does not need volume dampers. 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES (HZ)
PREFERRED DUCT LAYOUT

Doug Sturz; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN

GENERAL
Performance spaces are rooms in which good hearing condi-
tions are particularly critical to the use of the space and
exchange of aural information. Such spaces include class-
rooms, lecture halls, recital halls. theaters. cinemas. concert
halls, churches and synagogues. Critical design of a perfor-
mance space may require assistance from an acoustical con-
sultant. but the primary tools at the architect's direction are
outlined here:
LOUDNESS
Audience and performers should be in the same space, and
any sound generated by a speaker or musician should be
projected efficiently to the audience and captured within the
space. The "sending end" of the room (i.e., the stage)
should be acoustically hard. Walls near the performer should
be angled or splayed to enhance projection and prevent
"flutter echoes" at the stage. Walls and ceilings where the
audience sits should be hard so they can reflect sound,
unless absorptive treatment is needed to eliminate problem-
atic reflections or focusing or to reduce reverberation time
(RT)for particular program needs.
QUIET
Good hearing environments should maximize the signal-to-
noise ratio; in other words, in addition to the desired signal
being well projected (see loudness), unwanted noise should
be eliminated. To accomplish this requires very low back-
ground sound levels INC-20 perhaps) from mechanical
equipment. Sound lock vestibules eliminate intrusive noise
from a lobby and allow latecomers to enter without acous-
tical interference to the show, and carpeted aisles help
reduce footfall noise. Noise from exterior environmental
sources should also be considered. Avoid lightweight roofs,
which will transmit rain noise.
SPACIOUSNESS
Because of the lateral configuration of our ears, sound sig-
nals that are slightly different in each ear allow the listener to
hear an acoustical quality called spaciousness, which is usu-
ally highly desired, especially for classical music. This sense
of spaciousness can be enhanced if the distribution of sound
through a large hall is diffused. and the ear literally hears
reflections from many facets of the side and rear walls. This
diffusion can be enhanced by protrusions and angled sur-
faces on the side walls.
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
Refer to the accompanying charts on optimum reverberation
times and preferred volume/seat ratios. Room volume and
area of absorption can be calculated to predict RT. The big-
qest design factor aHecting RT is ceiling height. The relation-
ship between the volume of a hall and the number of seats
is often a good approximation of sound quality in the room.
In wide halls with high ceilings,seats in the center of the
orchestra often suffer from lack of early reflections. Reflect-
ing canopies or arrays over the front rows can bring reflected
sound to these seating areas, which otherwise may suffer
from poor articulation. Often. seating at the rear of the bal-
cony does not experience this problem, and these seats
have excellent acoustics.
PREFERRED VOLUME/SEAT
RATIOS
VOLUME/SEAT
SOUND QUALITY
3
CU FT M OF SPACE
Less than 200 Less than 6 Quite dead, suitable for
speech and cinema
300 to 350 8to 10 Good for music
Greater than 500 Greater than Good for organ music only,
14 too reverberant for speech
ARTICULATION
Much of the clarity of sound that audiences need for speech
intelligibility and clear musical attacks comes from the sound
reflected off hard suriaces that reaches listeners within 50
to 80 milliseconds of the direct sound (which always reaches
the listener first). To enhance articulation of acoustics in a
hall, the design must ensure there are enough surfaces to
reduce the time gap between the initial (direct) sound and
these early reflections; the initial time delay gap should be
less than 50 milliseconds. Sound travels 1120 fVsecond lin
SI units. 333 m/secondl. so the initial time delay gap for
prime seating locations should not exceed 50 ft (13 mJ.
OTHER FACTORS
Following are several other features to be considered when
designing performance spaces.
FOCUSING
Focusing concentrates sound waves in one area. causing
"hot spots" where the sound is louder or unnatural in qual-
ity. Concave surfaces either in plan or section can present
major focusing problems if they are not identified and
treated.
Performance Spaces 69
SEATS
The largest area of sound-absorbinq surface in a perfor-
manee hall is the seating. If the seats are made of a sound-
reflecting material (wood, vinyl. plastic. etc.), their absorptive
properties will change dramatically when they are occupied.
since a person introduces about 5 sabins for each seat
which significantly affects reverberation time. Use of uphOI~
stered seats or pew cushions makes the RT similar whether
the seats are empty or fully occupied and will never make
the empty hall RT more dead than it would be when fully
occupied.
BALCONIES
Balconies bring additional persons into a given volume and
create more intimacy between audience and performer
However, seating under a balcony can be cut off from the
main volume of sound if the balcony overhang is too great. A
reasonable rule of thumb is that the overhang depth should
not exceed the height of the opening (greater ratios are
acceptable where live music is not part of the program).
ORCHESTRA PIT
The surface over the orchestra pit should be angled to
project sound out to the audience but diffuse so that some
energy is reflected back to the performers on stage. The
front wall of the orchestra pit should be a hard surface so the
front rows of the audience do not hear direct sound and so
that more energy is reflected back to the performers on
stage. Also. both the front and back walls may need to be
treated with movable curtains to vary and control the degree
of sound reflected off these surfaces.
SOUND SYSTEM
Electronic sound systems may be used for amplification
(making the source louder for a big hall), for playback or
recorded material, or for both. Depending on the source, the
loudspeakers used to distribute the sound should be located
at the center slightly in front of the speaker (for speech
amplification) or on the left and right sides (for musical ste-
reo playback or amplification of the orchestra pit). Additional
loudspeakers may be needed under a balcony or at the rear
of the hall to cover the upper balconies. Special effects loud-
speakers are added around the hall as needed. The sound
control location must be well placed within the audience
area covered by the loudspeakers. Additional transmitters
using infrared signals or FM radio signals can be used to
meet ADA requirements.

OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIMES AT MIDFREQUENCIES (500-1000 Hz) FOR PERFORMANCE SPACES

/ INCREASED ARTICULATION AND INTELLIGIBILITY • INCREASED BLENDING

MUSIC
l.iturgical-orchestra. chorus, or organ *
Classical symphony
Secular choral works
Opera
Contemporary orchestral works. recital. and chamber music
"Semiclassical" concerts and choral groups with sound systems
Musicals and operettas
Rock concerts

SPEECH AND MUSIC

Churches*
General purpose auditoriums
High school auditoriums
Small theaters
Movie theaters
SPEECH
Lecture and conference rooms
Playhouse (intimate drama productions)
Elementary classrooms
Recording and broadcast studio (speech only) ~

0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.2 '.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 26 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)

*May go up to 8 seconds in reverberation time NOTE

The breadth of RT range for each room type is a function of
the room volume: the larger the room volume. the closer to
the longer end of the range and vice versa.

Carl Rosenberg. AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
70 Open Plan Office Acoustics
MAXIMUM SPACING
GENERAL OF OFFICE WORKERS I
CLOSE ENOS
-/----. - OF BARRIER
Open plan offices can provide great flexibility in office arrange-
ments and work flow. However. because .workstations or
cubicles do not have full-height partitions. noise can be a oJ i
major problem in such offices. The extent to which speech is 7~
distracting depends on the degree to which it is intelligible. An
-t-
overheard conversation can be annoying or distracting, while
I
an inaudible murmur is not. When desig.ning open plan I
offices. the need for communication between workstations I SOUND
should be evaluated in light of work functions and practical I ABSORBING
separation. I CEILING
I
Speech intelligibility and acoustics in an open plan office can I PARTIAL
be rated in terms of an articulation index (All. which is a I HEIGHT
measure of the ratio between a signa! (a neighbor's voice or OFFICE I TREAT BARRIER
WORKER. TYP REFLECTING
intrusive noise) and steady background noise (ambient noise I
PATHS
from mechanical equipment, traffic, or electronic sound I
masking). AI values range from near 0 (very low signal and
relatively high noise; no intelligibility or good speech privacy) PLAN SECTION
to 1.0 (very high signal and low noise; excellent communica-
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS FOR SOUND CONTROL IN OPEN OFFICES
tion or no speech privacy). When communication is desired
(e.g., in classrooms or teleconference rooms), it is preferable
The sound should be evenly distributed throughout the may be necessary on some barriers or reflecting surfaces
to have a high AI so people can hear well. In an office, how-
office so no areas are louder than others. In addition, the (e.g., walls, file cabinets).
ever, it is preferable tv have a low AI so people can be freed
sound should not vary in the open plan area by more than 3
from distraction and will be better able to concentrate. Aver-
decibels in any octave band. Masking sound should be nei- Carpet helps reduce footfall and impact noise and is a great
age noise requirements for various office functions are
ther too loud nor too quiet, perhaps between 45 and 50 dBA. benefit in open offices. Finally, voice levels should be kept to
shown in the accompanying chart.
It should be loud enough to cover intrusive noises but never a minimum; even the best acoustical treatments cannot pre-
loud enough to be distracting in itself. Conference rooms vent disturbances caused by loud voices.
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI) FOR and private offices, which require lower levels of background
OPEN PLAN OFFICES noise, should have plenum treatments so they are shielded All the factors outlined in the paragraphs above are interre-
AI VALUE NOiSE REQUIREMENTS from direct exposure to the masking sound. lated. For example, doubling the distance between adjacent
workstations will reduce a nearby conversation by 5 dBA
>.65 Good Necessary when communication Normal air conditioning and ventilation could generate while raising the height of a 5-ft barrier to 6 ft may reduce
communication is desirable (conference rooms, enough background noise to mask sound between offices, the sound path over the top by 3 dBA. Changing from a min-
classrooms, auditoriums, etc.) but this sound source is not well designed for this purpose. erai-fiber acoustical ceiling tile to a glass-fiber ceiling tile may
.35 Freedom from Reasonable work conditions not Most office buildings use variable volume air distribution, so reduce reflected noise by 5 dBA. Adding sound masking
distraction requiring heavy concentration or noise from the HVAC system may be erratic and uneven in may change the ambient level by 10-20 dBA.
speech privacy; hear and under- distribution and change over time and season. The preferred
stand neighboring conversations solution is to install an electronic sound masking system An acoustics consultant can evaluate proposed layouts and
.20 Normal Occasional intelligibility from a materials as part of the design process. The acoustical out-
speech neighbor's conversation; work Sound masking systems comprise a noise generator, an come of a design should be analyzed before construction. As
privacy patterns not interrrupted equalizer to shape the sound spectrum properly. amplifiers, a rough initial guideline, offices in which freedom from dis-
and loudspeakers hidden above an accessible acoustical tile traction is the only criterion will require highly efficient
<.05 Confidential Aware of neighbor's converse- ceiling. Such systems generate a broadband, pleasant sound- sound-absorbing ceilings and an electronic background
speech privacy tion but it is not intelligible ing, evenly distributed masking noise. The sound in the ple- masking sound at levels between 45 and 50 dBA. For normal
num filters down through the ceiling and provides an even speech privacy, these conditions should be augmented by
blanket of sound that will mask the intrusive sound from a keeping workstations 8-10 ft apart and adding partial-height
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS neighbor. Avoid untreated sound leaks if! the ceiling such as barriers at least 5 ft high, with increased attention to office
Low AI ratings for open plan office spaces can be achieved openings for return air; these become noticeable "hot layout and reflecting sound paths. Confidential privacy
in three primary ways: by blocking sound, by covering (mask- spots" and draw unwanted attention to the sound from the requires higher partitions and more attention to related
ing) sound, and by absorbing sound. ceiling. Masking sound from two channels can improve spa- details and is extremely difficult to achieve in an open plan.
tial uniformity. Ceiling height and plenum conditions (fire-
BLOCKING SOUND proofing, beams, ducts, etc.) will determine loudspeaker
Partial-height barriers or partitions are necessary to block spacing and location. Electronic sound masking should be
direct sound transmission between workstations. The barri- professionally designed and installed.
ers must be high enough and wide enough to interrupt the
line of sight between a source and a receiver; hence, the ABSORBING SOUND
first 4 ft or so of barrier height do not help speech privacy at The ceiling in an open plan office is the most important sur-
all. Barrier heights of 5 ft are a minimum requirement for face to treat with highly efficient sound-absorbing material.
acoustical separation, and heights of 6 ft are typical for nor- Glass-fiber ceiling panels often have NRC values of .85 or
mal privacy. The barrier should be able to block sound at higher and are the preferred material for open plan spaces.
least as well as the path for sound traveling over the barrier, Regular mineral-fiber acoustical panels have typical NRC val-
which means a minimum laboratory sound transmission ues of about .55-.65. Hard sound-reflective materials such as
class value of 24. Barriers or screens should extend to the exposed structure or gypsum board will dramatically reduce
floor or leave only an inch or so open at the bottom. There privacy and raise annoying sound levels in an office. Most POOR LAYOUT
should be no open gaps between adjacent panels. Barriers ceiling tile manufacturers provide extensive NRC data for
may need to have sound-absorbing facings to reduce reflec- their products and have special products with high absorp-
tions to the next workstation. tive performance for use in open plan spaces. Materials
must also be selected for their ability to reflect light.
COVERING SOUND
The character and level of background sound is perhaps the Most sound-absorbinq materials are measured in a reverber-
most important acoustical design consideration for an open ation chamber in accordance with ASTM C 423 to determine
plan office. A modest level of background or ambient sound their random incidence sound-absorption coefficients (a) and
will cover, or mask, annoying, intrusive sounds. The masking from these data, manufacturers tYPically report the noise
sound must be pleasant and neutral with an even tonal spec- reduction coefficient (NRCI. The NRC value is a good first
trum (like the sound of a comfortable ventilation system) approximation of the ability of a material to absorb sound
that drops off at the high end of the frequency range. There from the human speech range. For office acoustics, how-
should be no pure tones or annoying characteristics (like the ever, a more useful value is the ability of a material to absorb
hum of a fluorescent light bellast). sound at an incident angle of 40-60 0 from a flat ceiling and at FAIR LAYOUT
frequencies weighted to reflect the relative contribution to
BACKGROUND SOUND LEVEL FOR OPEN speech intelligibility. Therefore, a more effective tool for
PLAN OFFICES evaluating the effectiveness of ceiling materials for sound
50 r----r-..,-.=:-r-,--,---,--, absorption is the speech absorption coefficient (SAC), which
..J
W can be calculated from standard sound absorption coeffi-
> cients as follows:
W 40
..J
W SAC= l:10·06a250+ 0.15a"oo+ 0.24aHXlO + 0.32u2000 + 0.23ct.woo1
0:
:0 30
Ul~
Ul"
OTHER FACTORS
wo.
0:'" 20 Arrange offices so that entrances are offset. and eliminate
0.0 direct line of sight or an open view through doorways from
ON
ZW one workstation to another. Workstations should be 8-10 ft
:00: 10
apart so voice levels are adequately reduced over distance.
om
Ul~ Higher ceilings can help reduce noise transfer. Light fixtures
in the ceiling plane should not have hard lenses or be placed PREFERRED LAYOUT
31.5 125
63 250 1000 4000 directly above a partition because the fixture can then act as
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz) a mirror for sound across the barrier. Absorptive material OPEN OFFICE CONFIGURATIONS

Christopher Savereid; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
 Electronic Sound System Design 71
GENERAL 1---11
Sound systems are used primarily to provide better listening
I
conditions through sound amplification that increases the
loudness of a sound source. Secondary uses of sound sys-
IMICROPHONES II SOUND
MIXER
I·
tems include recording and playback of audio signals, distri-
bution of audio signals to remote locations. and satisfaction
I IN
OUT
I
of ADA requirements for provision of assistive listening sys- I I
tems for hearinq-impaired individuals. IN
I LOUDSPEAKER
I
Sound systems are recommended in all places of assembly,
including auditoriums. churches, classrooms. and lecture
halls with more than 60 seats; large conference rooms;
courtrooms; legislative chambers; and sports arenas. partic-
I
I
IN
fff I
I
ularly if these facilities will be used by inexperienced speak- IN OUT
ers. Sound amplification systems should not be used as a I ASSISTIVE
L:STENING
I
substitute for good room acoustical design. The sound sys-
tem equipment chosen, its location in a space, and the I SYSTEM I
reproduction quality it provides depend on the acoustical
L -.JL _ .;
properties of that space.
INPUT SIGNAL SIGNAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT AMPLIFIERS OUTPUT DEVICES
Sound amplification systems should be used when one or SOURCES
more of the following conditions occur: (1) the room volume
exceeds 50,000 cu ft; (2) the distance between source and BASIC SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEM
farthest receiver exceeds 50 ft indoors and 25 ft outdoors;
(3) the receiver is located beyond 70 0 horizontally from the
source; (4) the room reverberation time exceeds 1.5 sec; l.------t-- LOUDSPEAKER
and (5) the ambient noise levels are greater than NC-40 SYSTEM
indoors or 55 dBA outdoors.

TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS

Sound systems are designed to serve a wide variety of func-
tions, program types, and spaces. The primary functions are
voice and music reinforcement, assistive listening, paging
and emergency announcements, sound masking, and audio
recording/playback.
ELEVATION SECTION

VOICE AND MUSIC REINFORCEMENT CENTRAL CLUSTER

Voice and music reinforcement systems amplify the spoken

word or a music program. Voice reinforcement systems are
used in virtually all places of public assembly, but use of
music reinforcement systems is usually restricted to audito-
riums, amphitheaters, arenas, and churches. Loudspeaker
locations are dictated by ceiling height and stage layout.
Spaces with ceiling heights greater than 25 It normally have
a large "central cluster" loudspeaker system located above
and forward of the stage. Low-eeiling spaces, such as class-
rooms or under balconies in a theater, normally have small
(4- or 8-in. diameter) ceiJing-mounted loudspeakers in a "dis-
tributed" speaker layout. Music reinforcement typically uses
large loudspeakers located on either side of the stage, either
set on the floor or hung from the building structure.
ASSISTIVE LISTENING
Assistive listening systems provide localized sound rein-
forcement. to listeners who have difficulty hearing the pro-
gram. These systems are used to comply with ADA re-
quirements. An electrical output from the sound system is
routed to a transmitter, either FM or infrared. which radiates
a modulated audio signal that is picked up by a receiver car-
ried by the listener. A small in-the-ear headset is connected
to the receiver.
PAGING AND EMERGENCY
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Paging and emergency announcement systems distribute
voice or alarm signals. Codes may require that emergency
announcement systems be dedicated. use equipment certi-
fied by Underwriters Laboratories (ULl, or be capable of
operating from emergency power sources. The audio pro-
gram is transmitted via a distributed ceiling loudspeaker sys-
tem in a 70.7-volt configuration.
SOUND MASKING
Sound masking systems radiate pink noise, the frequency
content of which is adjusted to make speech less intelligible,
thus increasing speech privacy. These systems are com-
monly used in open office environments, where partial-
height workstations may make speech privacy difficult to
achieve. Loudspeakers in a 70.7-volt configuration are lo-
cated in the ceiling plenum, and the sound radiates through
the ceiling tile into the space below. Precision adjustment
and tuning of sound masking systems is crucial to their
acceptance by employees.
AUDIO RECORDING/PLAYBACK
Audio media recording/playback systems provide for amplifi-
cation of sources such as audiotape or compact disc (CD).
These systems can function as an element of a larger sound
system or they can stand alone. Recording systems use
electrical output from the sound system to record the pro-
gram content to cassette tape or digital audiotape (OAT).
Reproducing systems amplify sound from signal storage
media, such as cassette tape, OAT, CD, digital video disc
(DVO), tape carts. message repeaters, or from a distant ori-
gin. such as radio or 1V transmissions.
LOUDSPEAKER
. SYSTEM
ELEVATION
SPLIT CENTRAL CLUSTER
rm rm.-
/ \ / \ " - - LOUDSPEAKER
I SYSTEM
\ / (RECESSED)
\ /
V /
ELEVATION
DISTRIBUTED CEILING
LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM TYPES
LOUDSPEAKER INSTALLATIONS
To provide good sound coverage, loudspeakers must be
properly integrated into the architectural design of a space.
Most spaces have an optimum loudspeaker configuration
that should be examined before exploring other options.
Loudspeakers can be recessed behind architectural ele-
ments. assuming a suitably large opening with acoustically
transparent grille cloth is provided.
The major loudspeaker installations include central cluster,
split cluster, and distributed ceiling types.
CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
The central cluster loudspeaker system is located just for-
ward of center stage and elevated a minimum of 20 ft above
floor level. Separate low frequency and midjhigh frequency
loudspeaker components, either individual horn systems or
multiway loudspeakers, are used. Listeners must have line-
of-sight relationships to loudspeakers in order to receive
good sound coverage.
Central cluster systems are not recommended for spaces
with ceiling heights less than 20 ft due to sound level differ-
ences between the front and rear of the space. Advantages
include low cost and naturalness of reproduction because of
the inability of the ear to localize sound in the vertical plane.
<,
<;
<,
-<,
<,
<,
<;
<;
<;
<,
<;
SECTION
/ \ / \ / \ / \
/ V V V \
/
/
SECTlON
SPLIT CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
The split central cluster loudspeaker system is similar in
design and operational concepts to the central cluster sys-
tem, but separate loudspeaker clusters are located at stage
right and stage left locations, as might occur in a church with
a separate pulpit and lectern or in a music reinforcement
system. Each loudspeaker cluster is designed to cover the
entire listener seating area. When the talker is at the stage
right location, only that loudspeaker operates, likewise for
the stage left location. This system provides greater source
localization than the central cluster system since it uses the
ability of the ear to localize sound in the horizontal plane.
DISTRIBUTED CEILING LOUDSPEAKER
Distributed ceiling loudspeaker systems use 4-, 8-, or 12-in.
diameter, full-fange, transformer-eoupled cone loudspeakers,
typically in a 70.7-volt configuration installed in the ceiling
plane. These systems are normally used in spaces with a ceil-
ing height less than 20 ft. The size of the loudspeaker de-
pends on the ceiling height and whether the system will be
used for voice or music reproduction. In spaces where the
unamplified source to receiver distance exceeds 30 tt. it is
often necessary to electrically delay the signal to the loud-
speaker so the listener hears the unamplified sound first, fol-
lowed in several milliseconds by the sound from the amplified
ceiling loudspeaker. The signal processing technique of this
system type helps to preserve source localization.

Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
72 Electronic Sound System Design
SOUND SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Sound systems comprise input signal sources, signal pro-
cessing equipment to alter the properties, of the signal,
amplifiers to increase weak signal levels, and loudspeakers
to convert electrical signals to acoustical signals.
MICROPHONES
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves
into electrical AC voltage corresponding to the acoustical
characteristics of the source. Microphones can be classified
by type, transducer element, or polar pattern. The major
microphone types are thin profile lectern, performer's hand-
held, boundary layer, and lavaliere,
LINE LEVEL SOURCES
routed from these enclosures to audio wall plates that con-
nect to input and output devices. Normally, metal conduit is
used to minimize signal interference and to protect cables
ELECTRICAL POWER
REQUIREMENTS
Sound systems should have dedicated power circuits sepa-
rate from other building electrical services. The major electri-
cal power load comes from the amplifiers, which can easily
exceed the power requirements of all other sound system
components by a factor of 100. When computer-controlled
sound systems are used, provide electrical power surge pro-
tection and a source of uninterruptible power.
2"
AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOMS
Equipment rack enclosures are often housed in a dedicated
audio equipment room. In this case, clearance should be left
around the enclosures to permit maintenance work. When
power amplifiers create a large sensible heat load, audio
equipment rooms may require fOlced air cooling
Locate audio equrpment rooms as close as possible to the
microphones and loudspeakers to minimize cable length
Often a separate equipment room is required so the power
amplifiers can be located close to the loudspeakers.

..
AIR
'\/ "\~ DIAMETER

III/
VENT.
Line level signal sources include audio formats such as mag-
TYP.
netic tape, audio and optical discs, video, telephonic devices,
and radio. These sources are classified as recorded audio
(magnetic tape. audio discs, and optical discs) or real-time
audio (videoconferencing, telephone, and radio), o

~,(/
..
io
SOUND MIXERS 0
I-
Sound mixers combine the electrical output of microphone
and line level sources into a composite output Signal for dis- {;>

-;
;,
tribution to other components of the sound system. Sound
mixers are classified as manually operated or automatic
hands-off types. Manually operated mixers require place-
ment in the same sound field the audience experiences so DIAMETER
the operator can properly adjust the sound system. Auto- HANDHELD BOUNDARY LAYER
matic microphone mixers control turning on/off of micro- PERFORMER'S MICROPHONE
phones, adjusting gain. and routing of signals. MICROPHONE 2'-0"

SIGNAL PROCESSING
2'·0"
Signal processing equipment provides the means for altering
the frequency. magnitude. delay time, and distribution of
audio signals received from the mixer. Signal processing AUDIO EQUIPMENT RACK
equipment includes frequency equalizers, crossovers, signal
delay lines, and distribution amplifiers. These items can be EQUIPMENT RACK
2'-0" ENCLOSURE
discrete components, or computer-eontrolled digital signal
processing (DSP) can be used to execute their functions.

AMPLIFIERS
ACCESS
SPACE AT
-'-1: 2 0
FRONT~-+--.........,r
Amplifiers increase the voltage of the audio signals received : .1
from the signal processing devices and distribute the stron- 1--'--!---1---T
ger signal to the loudspeakers. Amplifiers are configured as
either low impedance output for driving 4,8, or 16 ohm loud-
speakers or as 25, 70.7. or 100 constant voltage output driv-
ing transformer-eoupled loudspeakers.
WALL 2··0"
LOUDSPEAKERS
Loudspeakers convert electrical AC voltage into sound PLAN
waves. Sound reinforcement loudspeakers have either full- NOTE
range cone drivers, commonly used for ceiling distributed THIN PROFILE LAVALIERE
systems, or multiway loudspeaker systems with separate LECTERN MICROPHONE Plan for space at each side, in front of, and behind equip-
low frequency and midlhigh frequency drivers. Typically, MICROPHONE ment rack enclosures to allow for maintenance and access
midjhigh frequency systems use compression drivers con-
MICROPHONE TYPES AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOM
nected to a horn system to provide controlled directional

f
sound coverage output. ~4" DIAMETER
BACKBOX
I ~ / COMPRESSION
INFRASTRUCTURE -/' DRIVER

0~=----''''))I ~:~FREQUENCV
TRANSFORMER
Sound system equipment is normally installed in standard
19-in. wide equipment rack enclosures. Signal cables are
LOUDSPEAKER

.~y/;~>
FINISH
CEILING

FULL-RANGE CEILING LOUDSPEAKER COMPRESSION DRIVER WITH HORN

HIGH-FREQUENCOY
HORN 8"
AUTOMATIC MICROPHONE MIXER
LOW·FREQUENCY

~"
LOUDSPEAKER

'-.......''-....~,

HORN LOADED
MANUAL MIXER LOW-FREQUENCY LOUDSPEAKER MULTIWAY LOUDSPEAKER

SOUND MIXERS LOUDSPEAKERS

Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
 Crime Prevention through Environmental Design 73
GENERAL WELL-LIT ENTRY WITH
CLEARLY MARKED UNIT
LOCKABLE WINDOWS
Crimes such as vandalism, terrorism, burglary, shopliftinq, NUMBER DEFINES
FROM DWELLING
employee theft, assault, and espionage endanger lives and SURVEY DEFINED
PRIVATE REALM OF UNIT
threaten the built environment. Despite this, security as a COMMON AREAS
design consideration has often been inadequately
addressed and poorly funded. Now. however, in many juris-
dictions police authorities require security plan reviews as
part of the building permit process in the same way they
review life safety and fire prevention plans.
LOW LEVEL
Security design is more than bars on windows, a security PLANTING BUFFERS
UNIT FROM SIDEWALK
guard booth, a camera. or a wall. Security involves the sys-
tematic integration of design, technology, and operation for
the protection of three critical assets-people. information.
and property. Protection of these assets is a concern in all
building types and should be considered throughout the
design and construction process, from programming, sche-
matic design. design development, preparation of construc- RECESSED
tion documents, and bidding, through construction. ALCOVE AND
LEVEL CHANGE
The most efficient, least expensive way to provide security HELP DEFINE
UNIT BOUNDARY
is during the design process. Architects called on to
address security and crime concerns must be able to deter-
mine security requirements, know security technology, and 'x'--...//O:::--~- LIGHTING AND
understand the architectural implications of security needs. DESIGN CURB
COLUMN DEFINE
ENTRY PORTAL
TO DETER
Designing without security in mind can lead to expensive INAPPROPRIATE
retrofitting, which may require more security personnel TRAFFIC
than security equipment designed in from the start. As COLLECTIVE
well, installation of retrofit security equipment can distort SEMIPRIVATE
key building design elements and inhibit building function. ARE~/
Most important, planning without security can lead to sue-
cessful claims against owners, architects, and building
managers.

The process of designing security into architecture is ' - PLANTS

known as crime prevention through environmental design BUFFER
AND LOW
(CPTED). It involves designing the built environment to WALL DEFINES
reduce the opportunity tor and tear of stranger-to-stranger CHANGE IN COLLECTIVE
predatory crime. This approach to security design recog- TEXTURE AND SEMIPRIVATE
nizes the intended use of space in a building and is different ESTABLISHMENT AREA
from traditional crime prevention practice. which focuses OF SETBACK
on denying access to a crime target with barrier techniques CREATE TRANSITION
such as locks, alarms. fences. and gates. CPTED takes FROM PUBLIC TO SETBACK CREATES
SEMIPUBLIC AREA SEMIPUBLIC AREA
advantage of opportunities for natural access control. sur- BELONGING TO " ' - PUBLIC AREA
veillance, and territorial reinforcement. It is possible for nat- RESIDENTIAL CLUSTER
ural and normal uses of the environment to meet the same
security goals as physical and technical protection meth-
ods.
SECURITY LAYERING OF SPACES

CPTED strategies are implemented by
1. ELECTRONIC METHODS: mechanical security products.
target-hardening techniques, locks, alarms, CCTV, gad-
gets
2. ARCHITECTURAL METHODS: architectural design and
layout site planning and landscaping. signage, circulation
control
3. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS: manpower, police, secu-
rity guards, receptionists. doormen, and business block
watches
CPTED STRATEGIES
CPTED CONCEPTS
Concepts involved in crime prevention through environ-
mental design are described below.
DEFENSIBLE SPACE
Oscar Newman coined the expression "defensible space"
as a term for a range of mechanisms. real and symbolic bar-
riers. strongly defined areas of influence, and improved
opportunities for surveillance that combine to bring the
environment under the control of its residents.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
Natural access control involves decreasing opportunities for
crime by denying access to crime targets and creating a
perception of risk in offenders. It is accomplished by
designing streets. sidewalks. building entrances. and neigh-
borhood gateways to mark public.routes and by using struc-
tural elements to discourage access to private areas.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
A design concept intended to make intruders easily observ-
able, natural surveillance is promoted by features that maxi-
mize visibility of people, parking areas, and building
entrances. Examples are doors and windows that look onto
I streets and parking areas, pedestrian-friendly sidewalks and
streets, front porches, and adequate nighttime lighting.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
Physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence.
In this setting, users develop a sense of territorial control,
while potential offenders perceive this control and are dis-
couraged from their criminal intentions. Territorial reinforce-
ment is promoted by features that define property lines and
distinguish private spaces from public spaces such as land-
scape plantings, pavement design, gateway treatments,
and fences.
MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE
Operational and management concepts that maintain build-
ings and facilities in good working order and that maintain a
standard of care consistent with national and local stan-
dards contribute to the security effort. Equipment and
materials used in a facility should be designed or selected
with safety and security in mind.
LEGITIMATE ACTIVITY SUPPORT
Legitimate activity for a space or building is encouraged
through use of natural surveillance and lighting and archi-
tectural design that clearly defines the purpose of the struc-
ture or space. Crime prevention and design strategies can
discourage illegal activity and protect a property from
chronic problem activity.
ADA AND BUILDING SECURITY
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) affects
architecture, life safety design, and building security tech-
nology dramatically. Sample regulations are listed below.
For specifics. please see the act itself.
Instructions for access control card readers must be pro-
vided in braille for the visually disabled.
2. Door hardware, such as handles, pulls, latches, locks,
and other operating devices, must be shaped so they are
easy to grasp with one hand. Lever, push-type, and U-
shaped mechanisms are acceptable, knobs are not.
3. Elevators must have visual signals to indicate when each
call is registered and answered. Elevator doors must
remain open for at least 3 seconds.
4. Regulations require counters to be 28 to 34 in. off the
floor.
5. Alarm systems for evacuation must provide warnings for
the blind, deaf, and nonambulatory staff of the building.
Announcements must be louder than 15 dB but not
exceed 120 dB for 30 seconds. Visual alarms must flash
and be tied into the emergency power circuit. Fire alarms
should also incorporate visual strobes to alert individuals
who are hearing impaired.
6. ATM controls must be at least 15 to 54 in. high and have
operating instructions in braille. Night deposit mecha-
nisms must not require a tight grasp (no knobs).
7. Security vestibules must be accessible to individuals in
wheelchairs. A maneuvering clearance of at least 4 ft
must be provided.
Areas affected by ADA requirements for building security
include vaults. safety deposit box rooms. front desk
counters, security desk and information counters, control
rooms, life safety equipment safe-refuge areas, turnstiles
and security screening checkpoints, all door and locking
hardware, and access control devices.
ACCESS ELEVATOR
CONTROL CONTROLS
""O"J
FLOOR N
LEVEL
"
SECURITY CONTROLS FOR ADA

Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida

BUILDING SECURITY
74 Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
PROJECT-RELATED SECURITY 3. Determine the threats to the project. cations: organizational (people strategies). electronic (tech
a Consider threats from sabotage, espionage, terrorrsm, nology and hardware), and architectural (design ami
EVALUATION
street crime, disgruntled employees, workplace vio- circulation patterns). These classifications should be comic
Security needs for an architectural project should be deter- lence. among others. ered for eacl: level of defense or security layer:
mined early, preferably as part of the programming and
needs definition stage. Surveys of similar existing opera- b. Consider the value of the assets to be protected, the , First level--outer perimeter and site
tions and interviews with personnel at these sites can help objectives of potential aggressors, the perceived
deterrence of security measures, and the risk level at 2. Second level-c-buildinq exterior
identify security concerns. .~-
the site. 3. Third level-s-interior control and point security
Once a client, owner, or security consultant has identified 4 Determine what modes of attack may threaten the In defensible space, these security layers are defined as
the security objectives of a project, the architect must project. Among those to be considered are these: public. semipublic. semiprivate. and private spaces.
ensure the design supports these objectives. Basic deci- a _Covert entry
sions about circulation, access, building materials, fenestra-
b. Insider alone LIGHTING FOR SECURITY
tion, and other design features can support or thwart overall
security aims. The architect's role is to incorporate the c. Insider with others
Security lighting does not prevent or stop crime, but it car
basic security requirements and programmatic objectives Bombing help owners protect people and property. Good pedestriar
into the project e. Surveillance lighting offers the natural surveiHance people need to fee'i
f. Demonstrations comfortable walking ahead or across a parking lot to their
cars. Lighting can prevent surprises from jump-out crimi-
PROJECT DESCRIPTION g. Aerial attack
nals or g'lve pedestrians the opportunity to request assis
The first step in determining site-related security require- h. Standoff attack tance, to turn and go another way. or to retreat.
ments is to identify the location. building type, style of oper- i. Theft. burglary, robbery
ation, and economic aspects of the project. Security levels j. Destruction Security lighting goals should be to achieve a uniform, can
(high-low) can be defined by determining which areas, sistent level of light on both pedestrian and vehicular paths
k. Contamination of travel. Lighting is critical for the illumination of street anc
items of equipment, buildings, and activities and personnel
are most sensitive or vulnerable, I. Unauthorized entry building names and numbers for effective response by
5. Determine the severity of the potential attacks. Which of police. fire, and emergency personnel. Design lighting to
the following would the perpetrators be most likely to avoid light intrusion into residential settings.
SITE SELECTION AND use?
EVALUATION FOR THREATS The quality of lighting may be an important security feature
a. Tools
True-color, full spectrum light rendition can help with identi
AND VULNERABILITY b. Weapons fication of vehicles and persons. Car lots and gas stations
Security objectives should be considered when choosing a c. Explosives are examples of building types where metal halide lumi-
site. For example. crowded sites can make it difficult to pro- 6. Determine the vulnerability of the site. considering the naires are used for tul! spectrum light rendition.
vide an adequate buffer around the perimeter or to control state of the following security measures at the site:
and check on-site circulation NOTES
a. Security force capabilities
b. Penetration delay 1. Proper beam control saves a system from glare. loss of
Once a site has been selected, the crime prevention
light energy. and light intrusion.
through environmental design (CPTED) and security analy- c. Detection capabilities
sis process can identify measures to overcome any security 2. Fixtures should be installed to cast a light pattern over a
d. Assessment capabilities broad horizontal area rather than a tall vertical area.
deficiencies. The architect should consider conditions on
and off the site. including topography; vegetation; adjacent e. Access controls 3. Light surfaces reflect light more efficiently than dark sur-
land uses; circulation patterns; sightlines; potential areas for f. Procedural controls faces.
refuge or concealment; existing lighting conditions; and the g. Mission requirements 4. Keep in mind the line of sight between the location of a
types and locations of utilities, including -their vulnerability light fixture and objects that may cast a shadow. Careful
7. Identify the constraints that will affect what security
to tampering or sabotage. placement will avoid dark. corners behind doors, trash-
measures are implemented:
cans, and other features.
Steps for determining the threats to and vulnerability of a a. Financial
project and site are outlined here: b. Operational
8. Determine the protection required for the project: RECOMMENDED
1. Identify a mission statement for the project. LIGHTING LEVELS (IN
a. Where is security critical?
a. Identify the assets to be protected. LUMENS) BY BUILDING TYPE
11At the outer perimeter?
b. Determine what is to be protected according to the ...J ...J
categories of people. property, and information 2) At the inner perimeter? s
U
...J
« ~
f-
c. Determine the replacement value of the information 3) At the asset?
a: a: z
and property to be protected. b. What security measures will be implemented? w f- W
:;: III 0
2. Determine how critical security is to the design of the 1) Barrier/delay :>
:;: III
project. 2) Detection 0 w
0 Z
a. Analyze the mission of the project. 3) Assessment u a:
b. Determine present posture/operation positions. Entrances 10 5 5
4} Access control
c. Determine the ease with which the property and infor- Interiors 30-100 30 10
5) Command and control
mation to be protected could be replaced. Bathrooms 30 30 30
61Manpower
d. Analyze the value of what is to be protected. Elevators and stairs 20 20 20
7) Security procedures
Public spaces 30 30 -
Private spaces 20 20 20
SECURITY LAYERING
Self-parking 1.0 1.0 1.0
Once the risks, threats. and vulnerabilities of a project have
Attendant parking 2.0 2.0 2.0
been assessed, analyze the security measures that could
be used for the project. The choices fall into three classifi- Sidewalks 0.9 06 0.2

( L I G H T SOURCE

ENTRY
LIGHT

PARKING

RESIDENTIAL RESIDENTIAL

COMMERCIAL
l
1
ADJACENT
--.----.-.------r~
COMMERCIAL
I
. - -..
ADJACENT
PROPERTY ZONING PROPERTY ZONING

LOW LIGHTING SOURCE TALL LIGHTING SOURCE

CLASSIFICATIONS FOR VARIOUS SECURITY LIGHTING FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY

LEVELS OF DEFENSE

Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami. Florida

BUILDING SECURITY

A SYSTEMS APPROACH
TO SECURITY
An interdependent arrangement of security barriers, tech-
nology systems, and security response capabilities yields a
responsive and complete security delivery system.
The physical security process primarily consists of fences,
building walls. inner walls and doors, and safes and vaults.
The proliferation of electronic security devices and sys-
tems. coupled with rapid and substantial advances in the
capabilities of these systems, has resulted in a wide array
of choices in security technology. To choose effectively
among these. architects must gain a basic understanding of
the principles and applications of crime prevention through
environmental design (ePTED). security design, and opera-
tional security.
Use of alarmed surveillance systems can greatly reduce
property loss. Reports have shown that even when actual
breaking and entering incidents have increased, the amount
of property stolen has decreased. This is due in part to the
use of alarms, perimeter protection, and intrusion detection
systems. However, Integrated systems-those that
employ the proper procedures, equipment, and people in
combination-are the most effective.
In general. the security response capabilities at a particular
facility depend on the efforts of the on-site security team.
However, architects must design buildings that permit
security staff to respond efficiently to incidents requiring
their action.
SENSOR SECURITY SYSTEMS
Sensor security systems are commonly designed to protect
perimeters or to monitor interior space.
PERIMETER SENSOR SYSTEMS may include the following
features: continuous line of detection, in-depth protection,
complementary sensors, alarm combination, priority
schemes, clear zone, site specific system, sensor confiqu-
ration, tamper protection, self-test compatibility, suitability
for physical and environmental conditions, integration with
video system, and integration with barrier delay.
Physical and environmental conditions that affect exterior
sensors include topography, vegetation, wildlife, back-
ground noise, climate and weather, and soil and pavement.
The conceptual design stage of a perimeter sensor system
involves identifying targets, defining threats, establishing
security requirements, and developing basic security fea-
tures.
The final design stage requires defining the clear zone sur-
face, determining sensor locations. completing system
engineering and specifications, locating perimeter fencing,
and designing power and signal distribution.
Tasks in the construction stage include procuring materials,
performing surveys, installing conduit and wiring, applying
surface material, and installing outer fences and sensors.
Operation tasks are maintenance, testing, training, and doc-
umentation.
INTERIOR DETECTION SYSTEMS offer in-depth protection,
detect intruders in time for adequate response, detect tam-
pering, and are able to self-test. As well. they must be prop-
erly installed (no loose mountings, wiring in conduits,
sensors in proper location for detection).
ENTRY VESTIBULE
LOCATION
OF SENSORS
SAMPLE LAYOUT OF INTERIOR
SENSORS . SECURITY SYSTEM
Randall L Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami, Florida
TYPES OF SENSORS
AND CONDITIONS OF USE
ULTRASONIC MOTION DETECTORS are used when air
turbulence is low and when there are external noise
sources that could affect a motion detector that radiated
energy outside of the protected area. Use low frequency
detectors if audible noise is not objectionable.
MICHOWAVE MOTION DETECTORS are used when air
turbulence is present in the protected room and when
there are no potential false alarm sources outside of the
room and in the field of the detector.
PASSIVE INFRARED DETECTORS are used when air turbu-
lence is present in an area or point to be protected. Tem-
perature changes do not affect this type of device, but
abrupt changes in light level may cause false alarms.
DETECTORS FOR ROOM BOUNDARIES are used when
detectors are needed to give the earliest possible warning
of an intrusion. They are used only in conjunction with
space detectors for the interior of a room; vibration detec-
tors, acoustic detectors, break beams, and breakwires are
suggested.
MULTIPLE SPACE DETECTORS are used jointly when
detectors are not affected in the same measure by external
noise sources and when false alarm rates can be reduced
drastically while still maintaining a reasonable probability of
detection.
Multiple space detectors are used singly when one type of
detector can protect one part of a room and another detec-
tor can protect another part of a room because external
noise sources are specifically located.
VIBRATION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence,
acoustical noises, and motion outside the room are,
present. These devices are best suited to protect room
boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
ACOUSTIC DETECTORS are used when light air turbu-
lence, vibration, and motion are present outside the room.
These devices are most effective in protecting room bound-
aries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
THERMAL DETECTORS are used to detect temperature
rises in small enclosures such as vaults when an intruder
uses a torch or burning bar to gain entrance. This device
would normally be used in a system that includes other
types of intrusion detectors.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON SENSORS
Environmental conditions that affect interior sensors
include the electromagnetic energy, nuclear radiation,
I acoustic energy, thermal energy, optical effects, seismic
phenomena, and meteorological conditions.
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
The following statements describe features of a good
access control system:
1 They cannot be bypassed.
2. They allow observation by a protective force guard.
3. They protect the guard.
4. They block passage until access and material control
procedures have been performed.
5. They provide secondary inspection of those who cannot
pass the automated inspection.
6. They accommodate peak loads.
7. They accommodate vehicles and people.
8. They perform access and material control.
9. They are under surveillance by a central alarm station.
10. They are designed for both entry and exit.
CARD TECHNOLOGIES
BAR CODE cards have a series of vertical or horizontal
stripes and spaces printed in a manner that represents
coded data. The spaces between the stripes are read opti-
cally by a photodetector cell.
EMBOSSED CARDS exhibit pattern codes that are raised or
indented in the card's surface and read by their relative
position in the card reader.
HOLLERITH CARDS have a pattern of small holes punched
into the card that presents specific data to the card reader.
This card can be read optically or mechanically. The optical
reader depends on the light patterns passing through the
holes, while the mechanical reader uses electric reed,
brush, or switch contacts to read the coded patterns.
Security Systems Design 75
INFRARED CARDS depend on encoding information with
varying density patterns that are read by infrared detectors
The patterns are optically detected and not visible to the
human eye.
MAGNETIC SLUG CARDS have magnetic slugs or metal
pieces embedded or layered in them; they are read by mag-
netic sensing devices. Also known as shim cards, they are
generally limited to a single code, making them most suit-
able for parking operations.
MAGNETIC STRIPE CARDS have stripes or layers of a mag-
netic material embedded between layers or on a card's sur-
face in vertical columns or horizontal rows. Areas or
patterns on this magnetic material can be magnetized in
coded patterns and read by magnetic sensing devices.
OPTICAL MEMORY CARDS depend on varied transparency
densities arranged in rows, columns, or spots. These pat-
terns are read by a system of light sources and photodetec-
tors.
PROXIMITY CARDS incorporate embedded or laminated
RF circuits that utilize electrically tuned circuits that reso-
nate when activated by a transmitfer sweeping through the
RF range. A receiver picks up the resonating frequency and
activates the code deciphering system. Unlike other access
cards, the proximity card can be worn or carried and
detected at various ranges depending on the design capa-
bilities of the system.
SMART CARDS contain an onboard computer chip and a
power supply, normally a lithium battery capable of storing
up to six pages of text.
WATERMARK MAGNETIC CARDS contain small oxide par-
ticles physically oriented into zones of varying widths. The
particles are set while the iron oxide slurry is still fluid: the
binary structure spacing of this computer-generated pattern
is then oven-eured to create an unalterable 10- or 12-digit
code number but leaving another layer of the magnetic
stripe available for encoding soft conventional data.
WIEGAND CARDS utilize magnetically embedded unstable
ferromagnetic wires formed in a permanently tensioned
helical twist. The wiegand card reader uses a magnetic coil
that picks up the flux reversal characteristics of the wires
and converts them to binary pulses.
VIDEO SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
The major components of a video system are the camera,
lens, and mount; lighting system; transmission system;
synchronization system; video switching equipment; video
recorder; video monitor; and video controller.
TRANSMISSION
MEANS (COAXIAL
OPTICAL. 2-WIREl
VIDEO
MONITOR
PRINTER
VIDEOCASSETTE
RECORDER
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A VIDEO
BUILDING SECURITY
76 Security Design Strategies
GENERAL
Basic security design strategies for building perimeters,
interiors, lobbies, stairwells. loading docks. and roofs are
outlined here. Also given are specific strategies for practic-
ing crime prevention through environmental design
(CPTED) and for addressing the need for bomb resistance.
BUILDING PERIMETER
1. Reduce the number of stairwells that exit to the outside.
2. Make the exit through the lobby whenever possible.
3. Entries should funnel people toward the control point.
4. Don't place any entries behind the control point.
5. Define public vs. private areas.
6 Project the image of a secure building.
INTERNAL AREAS
1. Place occupant services within protected floor space.
2. Control access to critical operation areas.
3 Provide buffer/reception zones In executive areas
4. Provide multiple paths of entry/exit for executives.
5. Consider creating safe havens in senior executive
offices.
BUILDING LOBBY
1. Position the control point between the entry and access
to other floors.
2. Move flow past control point.
3. Place restroorns in public areas.
4. Make it possible to secure the lobby level
COMMON STAIRWELLS
1. Designate stairways for emergency use only whenever
possible.
2. Prevent access to floors from the garage and public
areas.
3. Place stairs so they exit into the lobby.
4. Use internal stairwells for floor-to-floor transit.
LOADING DOCKS
1. Restrict access to authorized personnel.
2. Control access from the dock into the building.
3. Provide comfort area for drivers on the dock.
4. Make it possible to close off the dock
5. Place dumpsters within controlled dock area
6. Give vehicle staging a separate area
10. Limit the number of facility exit doors based on opera-
tional necessity and fire loading regulations.
11 Clearly mark site entrances with signs that indicate visi-
tor and vendor processing points
12. Establish physical control over loading docks, equip-
ment sheds, boiler rooms, and trashbins
13. Provide adequate lighting and surveillance of employee
and visitor parking lots.
14. If possible, separate employee and visitor parking.
15. Provide tenants with the means to control their own
office areas.
16. Provide reception personnel with a means of covertly
signaling duress situations.
17. Establish a uniform means of identification and access
for multitenant sites.
18. Utilize primary and secondary authentication methods
for access to highly sensitive areas.
19. Clearly delineate employee, visitor, vendor, and contrac-
tor status on badges along with the locations and times
they are allowed access.
20. Design floor layout plans with security in mind
STRATEGIES FOR BOMB
RESISTANCE
Key defensive architectural design considerations for bomb
resistance are listed here:
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building as far
from the building as possible.
2. Use poured-in-place reinforced concrete for all framing,
including slabs, walls, columns, and roofs.
3. Roof and base slabs should be at least 8 in. thick, exte-
rior walls 12 in. thick, and columns spaced no more
than 30 It apart.
4. Use seismic detaili.ng at connection points.
5. Reinforce floor slabs and roofs using a two-way rein-
forcing scheme.
6. Design windows that comprise no more than 15% of
the wall area between supporting columns.
7. Reduce the flying glass hazard by using a plastic mylar
coating on the inside face of the windows.
8. Install specially designed blast curtains inside the win-
dows to catch pieces of glass, while permitting the air-
blast pressure to pass through the curtain.
SPECIFY HIGHER
SECURITY FEATURES
FOR WINDOWS
ADJACENT TO
CANOPY
9. Design artistically pleasing concrete barriers as planters
or works of art and position them near curbs at a dis
tance from the building
10. Design buildings in a simple geometric rectangular lay
out to minimize the defraction effect when blast waves
bounce off If-shaped or L-shaped buildings and cause
additional damage.
11 Drastically reduce or eliminate ornamentation on build
ings that could easily break away and endanger building
occupants or pedestrians at street level. All external
cladding should be of lightweight materials to minimize
damage if they become flying objects after an explo
sian.
PARKING GARAGES
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Garages should be attended or monitored openly with
cameras and sound monitors marked with signs.
2. Place all pedestrian entrances adjacent to vehicle
entrances.
3. Stairwells should be visible, without solid walls.
4. Place elevators close to the main entrance so the entire
interior of the elevator is in view when the doors are
open.
5. Elevators must not have permanent stop buttons.
6. Design the ground floor to provide a view of the garage
use wire mesh or stretch cable.
7. Limit access to no more than two designated, moni-
tored entrances.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. All elevators should be monitored by cameras and
sound or clear materials should be used for the entire
car.
2. Replace retaining walls with stretch cable railings for
maximum visibility.
3. Parking areas and driving lanes should be well lighted
MANAGEMENT
1. Prohibit free access to adjacent buildings without direct
monitoring.
2. Designate public and private parking spaces.
3. Operate during hours similar to those of local busi-
nesses.
4. Secure the garage when it is closed.
ELEVATOR MONITORED
BY VIDEO CAMERA WITH
SOUND PICK·UP
~e,",u,)

ROOFS BUILDING
SIGNAGE
1. Minimize entry points onto the roof (CLEAR
VIEW, AT
2. Minimize entry via skylights by using multiple mullions
LEAST
Solid or fixed diffusers in the light weI! can also prevent 6" HIGH)
access.
3. Protect roof equipment, such as HVAC cooling towers,
from vandalism with roof enclosures with lockable lou-
vered doors spaced far enough from the equipment to
allow proper ventilation.
4. Restrict the height of parapets to allow for surveillance
from the gro.und.

ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
STRATEGIES
1. Establish a physical boundary separating public from pri-
vate property.
2. Design vehicular and pedestrian traffic patterns to maxi-
mize natural surveillance of arrivals and departures.
3. Clearly indicate primary and secondary entrances for
employees, as well as a primary entrance for visitors.
4. Ensure that visitors will be processed at the main recep-
tion area before they proceed to secondary areas of the
facility.
5. Erect physical barriers to separate public reception from SHAFT WALLS
private office areas. AND WALLS OF
6. Establish physical and electronic control over exterior and ELEVATOR CABS
SPECIFIED WITH
interior access points. DESIGN COLUMN TO PROHIBIT TRANSPARENT
7. Compartmentalize and electronically control access to CLIMBING BY AVOIDING MATERIALS FOR
DECORATIVE FEATURES SUCH VISIBILITY TO
critical areas such as computer rooms, executive areas, AS WROUGHT IRON AND
power and telephone closets, and other restricted areas. ADJACENT PUBLIC
RUSTICATED MASONRY SPACE
8. Physically separate shipping and receiving areas.
9. Restrict access to inventory storage areas ROOF AND CANOPY DESIGN ELEVATORS

Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP: Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.; Miami, Flonda

BUILDING SECURITY

EXTERIOR OF BUILDING
SHOULD BE WELL LIT
/
/
/ \
./--
--/
~/L
/
/ \
-;L _
/ \..;L-~----,c-'\
/
NOTE
Clear visibility should be maintained from store to sidewalk,
street, parking areas, and passing vehicles. Window signs
should cover no more than 15% of any window area.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY
COMMERCIAL SECURITY
Designing safe stores and malls is critical to ensuring
strong business draw and retention. Commercial security
measures and design must protect the patrons. property,
and business information of a business.
COMMERCIAL STOREFRONTS
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Locate cash registers in the front of the store near the
main entrance.
2. Clearly mark public paths.
3. Signs should direct patrons to parking and entrances.
4. There should be no easy access to the roof.
5. Shops with rear parking lots should have rear entrances.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Plan for good visibility: Windows should face rear parking
lots. Signs in windows should cover no more than 15%
of the window area. Interior shelving and displays should
be no higher than five feet. Unobstructed views should
be available from the store to the street. sidewalk, park-
ing areas, and passing vehicles.
2. The building exterior should be well-lighted.
3. Loading areas should not create hiding places.
4. Drainage retention areas should be visual amenities, a
landscaped pond or smaller waterway rather than a
fenced area, but to be secure they should be visible from
nearby buildings ano streets.
5. All entrances should be under visual surveillance or mon-
itored electronically.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Where possible. mark property boundaries with hedges,
low fences, or gates.
2. Distinguish private areas from public spaces.
3. Identify shops with wall signs for those parking in the
rear.
4. Specify awnings over rear doors and windows.
COMMERCIAL SHOPPING MALL
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Use signs to mark public entrances clearly
2. Clearly mark sidewalks and public areas with special pav-
ing and/or landscaping.
3. Separate loading zones from public parking zones; desig-
nate limited delivery hours.
4. The parking garage should provide no exterior access to
adjacent rooftops.
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Alias Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
Commercial, Office, and Industrial Security Strategies
WINDOWS SHOULD
BUILDING SIGNAGE FACE REAR
PARKING AREA
FOR SURVEILLANCE
COMMERCIAL
_ BUSINESS
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
, . Make restroom doors visible from main pedestrian areas
and keep them away from outside exits.
2. Parking areas should be well lighted. Use high-intensity
lighting in parking garages to minimize hiding places. In
addition, all levels of the parking garage should be visible
from the street or ground floor.
3. Loading areas should not create dead-end alleys or blind
spots.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Define property perimeters with landscaping, post-and-
pillar fencing, and gates.
2. Keep the number of entrances as low as possible and
make them obvious and celebrated.
MANAGEMENT
1. Assign close-in parking for nighttime employees.
2. Help business associations work together to promote
shopper and business safety.
I building tenants should have security technology availability
COMMERCIAL DRIVE-THROUGHS
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Locate ATMs in front of banks facing main roads or as a
drive-through in the drive-in teller lanes.
2. Place the ordering station for a restaurant within sight of
the restaurant interior.
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Office building security focuses on the safety and security
of people, goods, and services. Office building security can
assume a high or low profile based on the type and number
of building users.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Clearly define public entrances with walkways and signs.
2. Accentuate building, entrances with architectural ele-
ments, lighting, and landscaping and/or paving stones.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Place restrooms where they can be observed from
nearby offices.
2. All exterior doors and hallways should be well-lighted, as
well as all parking areas and walkways.
3. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding
places.
4. Windows and exterior doors should be visible from the
street or to neighbors.
5. All four facades should have windows.
6. Do not obstruct windows with signs.
77
AWNING
WITH
LIGHT
BUILDING
SIGNAGE
PARKING
\ AREA
\
-----\---~
7. Windows and doors should have views into hallways-
including peepholes and vision panels.
8. Assign parking spaces to each employee and visitor.
9. Parking areas should be visible from the windows; side
parking areas should be visible from the street
10. Keep shrubbery below 3 ft and tree branches at least 10
ft above the ground for good visibility.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Define the perimeter with landscaping or fencing.
2. Design fences to permit visibility from the street.
3. Make exerior private areas easily distinguishable from
public areas.
4. Position a security and/or a reception area to screen all
entrances.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Industrial enterprises need to protect the assets in their
facilities. Special security consideration must be given to
receiving and outgoing areas to reduce theft. Individual
for continuous monitoring and supervision of their space.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Avoid creating dead-end spaces.
2. Make site entrances easy to secure.
3. Control entrances to parking areas with fences, gates,
or an attendant's booth.
4. Parking should be assigned by shifts and planned so
late workers have the close-in spaces.
5. Restrict access to railroad tracks.
6. Plan storage yards for vehicular access by patrol car.
7. Avoid access to roofs via dumpster, loading docks.
poles, stacked items, etc.
8. Delivery entrances should be separate, well-marked,
and monitored.
9. Place employee entrances close to employee parking
and work areas.
10. Separate nighttime parking areas from service
entrances.
11. Avoid providing access from one part of the building
into other areas.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. All entrances should be well-lighted, well-defined, and
visible to public and patrol vehicles.
2. Parking areas should be visible to patrol cars, pedestri-
ans, parking attendants, and/or building personnel.
3. Position the parking attendant for maximum visibility of
the property.
4. Give reception areas a view of parking areas
5. Use walls only when necessary.
6. Blind alleys, storage yards, and other out-ot-the-vvav
places should not offer hiding places.
BUILDING SECURITY
78 Residential Site Security Strategies
GENERAL PORCHES. _ - SIDEWALK SCALE LIGHTING
SIDEWALKS. ETC I \
Designing CPTED (crime prevention through environmental ENCOURAGE
design) and security features into residential buildings and r \ STREET DESiGNED TO DISCOURAGE
INTERACTION J CUT-THROUGH TRAFFIC
neighborhoods can reduce opportunities for and vulnerabil- \
BETWEEN /
ity to criminal behavior and help create a sense of commu- NEIGHBORS
nity. The goal in residential design is to create safe dwelling ~ OPEN GREEN SPACE
places through limited access to properties, good surveil- I OBSERVABLE FROM
lance. and a sense of ownership and responsibility. NEARBY HOUSES

SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLINGS v'~----STREETLAMP

LIGHTING (PROVIDE
NATURAL ACCESS ADEQUATE DISTANCE
CONTROL AND SURVEILLANCE FROM TREES)

, Use walkways and landscaping to direct visitors to the

proper entrance and away from private areas FENCE TO
PAVING TREATMENTS. BACKYARD
2. All doorways that open to the outside as well as side- ARCHITECTURAL
walks and all areas of the yard should be well-lighted. TREATMENTS.
ETC. DEFINE
3. Make the front door at least partially visible from the
PUBLIC FROM
street and clearly visible from the driveway. PRIVATE ZONES
4. Windows on all sides of the house should provide full
views of the propertvThe driveway should be visible
flam the front or back door and from at least one win-
dow.
5. Properly maintained landscaping should provide good
views to and from the house.
HOUSE
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Front porches or stoops create a transitional area
between the street and the house
2. Define property lines and private areas with plantings,
pavement treatments, or fences.
3. The street address should be clearly visible from the
street with numbers a minimum of 5 in. high and made
of nonreflective material.
··PAVING TREATMENTS
DEFINE SUBDIVISION
LOW LANDSCAPING AND TRAFFIC CALMING
SUBDIVISIONS DEFINES PROPERTY
LINES WITHOUT CREATING ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL BLIND SPOTS OR HIDING PLACES FEATURES DEFINE
SUBDIVISION (PROVIDE
1. Limit access to the subdivision without completely dis- ADEQUATE LIGHTING)
connecting it from neighboring areas. However, try to
design streets to discourage cut-through traffic
2. Paving treatments, plantings and architectural design
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL
features such as columned gateways can guide visitors DESIGN-PLANNING FOR SUBDIVISIONS
away from private areas.
3. Locate walkways where they can direct pedestrian traffic
BUILDING SIGNAGE 5" HIGH
and remain unobscured. (MIN.) WITH 70% CONTRAST PRIVATE PUBLIC
FROM BACKGROUND ZONE ZON..=E __

r
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Landscaping should not create blind spots or hiding
places.
ARCHITECTURAL
2. Locate open green spaces and recreational areas so they FEATURES, LIGHTING,
can be observed from nearby houses. ETC. ACCENTUATE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
3. Use pedestrian-scale street lighting in areas with high
pedestrian traffic.

TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Design lots, streets, and houses to encourage interaction
between neighbors.
2. Accent entrances with changes in street elevation, differ~
ent paving materials, and other design features.
3. Clearly identifv residences with street address numbers
that are a minimum of 5 in. high and well-lighted at night.
4. Property lines should be defined with post-end-pillar
fencing. gates, and plantings to direct pedestrian traffic.
5. All parking should be assigned.
MULTIFAMILY DWELLINGS
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Balcony railings should never be made of a solid, opaque
material or be more than 42 in. high.
2. Define parking lot entrances with curbs, landscaping,
and/or architectural design or a guard booth; block dead-
end areas with a fence or gate.
3. Hallways should be well-lighted, and elevators and stairs
should be centrally located.
4. Common building entrances should have locks that auto-
matically lock when the door closes.
5. Limit access to the building to no more than two points
No more than four units should share the same entrance.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Make exterior doors visible to the street or neighbors,
and ensure they are wetl-lighted.
2. All four building facades should have windows. Site
buildings so the windows and doors of one unit are visi-
ble from those of other units.
I
(-----
3'-0" +-_·-tIH
MAX.
PROPERTY LINES DEFINED a-o" SIDEWALK lSTREET
AND REINFORCED BY (PREFERRED)
FENCING AND LANDSCAPING
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL
DESIGN-PLANNING FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
3. Assign parking spaces to each unit and locate them next
to the unit. Designate special parking spaces for visitors. 1. Define property lines with landscaping or post-and-pillar
4. Parking areas and walkways should be well-lighted. fencing, but keep shrubbery and fences low to allow vis!
bility from the street.
5. Recreation areas should be visible from a multitude of
windows and doors. 2 _Accent building entrances with architectural elements
and lighting and/or landscape features.
6. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding
places. 3. Doorknobs should be 40 in. from window panes.
7. Elevators and stairwells should be clearly visible from 4. Clearly identify all buildings and residential units witf
windows and doors. In addition, they should be well- well-liqhted address numbers a minimum of 5 in. high
lighted and open to view-not hidden behind solid walls. 5. Common doorways should have windows and be key
8. Shrubbery should be no more than 3 ft high for clear visi- controlled by residents.
bility and tree canopies not lower than 8 ft 6 in 6. Locate mailboxes next to the appropriate residences.

Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Secunty Design, Inc, Miami, Florida

BUILDING SECURITY
 Site Security Planning for Terrorism 79
SITE SECURITY PLANNING AND DISTANCE SHOULD BE
GREAT ENOUGH SO THAT
DESIGN CRITERIA COLLAPSE OF THE TOWER
TOWER FACILITY
The safety and security of a building, its site. and its users DOES NOT AFFECT THE
should be an important design criteria, similar.to such OTHER FACILITIES
CENTRAL FACILITY
health and safety issues as structural integrity, accessibility,
and fire safetv Increased threats to people and property
from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and street POTENTIAL THRE~.T / /
crime make it important to identify security issues and
establish a plan to manage the risks. SECURE. ->

SERVIC:ERIMETER. T Y P . \ / . / / / /
SECURITY ASSESSMENT
An assessment of the security requirements should be BUILDING ./
made as early as possible. preferably as part of the pro-
/
gramming phase and certainly before the design phase. /

Determining the security requirements is mainly a matter of

managing the perceived risks. Although the assessment is

~:.j~t//::'~~:CEPT'ON
the owner's responsibility, the architect should ensure that
the security requirements have been identified before the
design begins. Failure to identify security issues will surely
result in design changes, delays, and cost increases for

1
both the owner and the architect.
././ ._<. FACILITY
100'·0", ./././'~ . .
MIN. "'>'""'-
The security assessment will answer four questions:
/

~~~~~~I~"""',
./ POTENTIAL
1. What are the assets-persons, places, information, prop- ././././/100'-0". MIN. THREAT
erty-that require security protection?
2. What are the criminal or other threats-street crime,
<, /
workplace violence, terrorism, sabotage-against which <, /
the assets must be protected? , 'J
/

3. How vulnerable are the assets to the threats (e.g., if

workplace violence is identified as a threat. can unautho-
rized persons enter private work spaces unchallenged)?
4. What countermeasures are required to mitigate the
threat (e.g., is the circulation pattern designed to channel
visitors through controlled site-access portals)?
The cost of achieving the correct level of site-based protec-
non may be very high, depending on the nature of the pro-
tected assets and the perceived threatto them. After the
recommended countermeasures have been identified,
organize them according to their priority and ask the owner
to select those that are prudent and cost-effective for the
project. In the case of federal projects (and many state and
local government projects as well), the assessment results
in the assignment of a defined level of protection (LOP).
with specific countermeasures attached to each level. See
the discussion below of the GSA Security Standards.
Risk assessment and security design are especially relevant
in schools, hospitals, airports, office buildings, and multi-
family apartment buildings. In recent years, terrorists have
targeted such buildings because of their: "architectural vul-
~erability," ~o it is clearly important to address security
Issues in their design.
SECURITY LAYERING
One way to think about security requirements IS as a layer-
ing process The first layer, the site perimeter of the prop-
erty, is the first. not the last. line of defense. The U.S.
Department of State seeks setbacks of at least 100 feet for
new buitdinqs. ~nd even at that distance securing the
perimeter IS difficult in most urban settings. The building
skin of the structure is the next layer. Sensitive areas within
~ building are deeper layers requiring protection, and.
finally. at the center of all the layers. are the particular per-
sons. information, or property that may require point pro-
tection. . 2. CCTV monitoring
GSA RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
SECURITY STANDARDS
In response to bombings of federal office buildings. the fed-
eral government has developed security standards for all of
its facilities, and an interagency security committee has rec-
ommended their adoption as government-wide standards.
These standards, known as the GSA Security Standards.
encouraqe a defensible space/crime prevention through
en~lronmental design (ePTED) approach that clearly
defines and- screens the flow of people and vehicles
through various layers of public and private space. Edges
and boundaries of a property should clearly define the
desired circulation patterns and movements. Various
screening techniques can be used to separate legitimate
u~~rs of a building from those who are looking for opportu-
runes to commit crime, workplace violence, or acts of ter-
rorism.
The security standards also address the functional require-
ments and ~esired application of security glazing, bomb-
resistant design a0d construction, landscaping and planting
designs, site lighting, natural and mechanical surveillance
opportunities (e.q.. good sight lines. no blind spots, window
placement. and proper applications of CelY). The recom-
mendations are further subdivided according to whether
they should be implemented for various levels of security.
For example, a level-one facility might not require an entry
control system whereas a level-four -facility would require
electronic controls with CClY assessment.
Several state and local governments also have reviewed
the standards and applied them to new construction. Con-
sult local and state authorities for specific requirements.
The standards take a balanced approach to security, consid-
enng cost-effectiveness, acknowledging acceptance of
some risk, and recognizing that federal buildings should not
be bunker- or fortress-like. but open. accessible, and attrac-
tive. Prudent, rather than excessive, security measures are
appropriate in facilities owned by and serving the public.
The architecture and engineering team should address the
following issues for renovations or new construction on any
federal building (and often for state and local buildinqs):
SECURITY PLANNING
1. Security risks and needs of building tenants
2. Mylar film on exterior windows
3. Blast standards for current projects and new construc-
tion
4. Design standard for blast resistance and street setback
for new construction
PERIMETER AND EXTERIOR SECURITY
1. Parking area and parking controls
3. Lighting. including emergency backup
4. Physical barriers
ENTRY SECURITY
1. Intrusion detection system
2. Upgrade to current life safety standards
3. Screen persons as well as mail and packages
4. Entry control with CCTV and electric door strikes
5. High-security locks
INTERIOR SECURITy
1. Employee 10, visitor control
2. Access to utilities
3. Emergency power for critical systems
4. Location of day care centers
APPLtCATION OF GSA SECURITY
STANDARDS TO ALL BUILDING TYPES
Many of the issues addressed in the GSA standards apply
to all building types. Among the important security design
issues are establishment of (1) hierarchies of public and pri-
vate spaces; (2) traffic patterns of the site and the building;
and (3) opportunities for natural observation of surround-
ings. Hierarchies of space should proceed from open, pub-
100'·0", MIN.
lic areas, to semipublic. to semiprivate, to private spaces.
Areas unassigned- in the hierarchy become a sort of ..no
man's land," left unmonitored and unprotected. Traffic pat-
terns of pedestrians and vehicles onto the site and into
buildings should be carefully thought-out and controlled.
And. finally. all buildings should be designed so that users
have a good, unobstructed view of their surroundings.
The following design and planning considerations address
both low- and high-threat situations. If neither a high nor a
low threat is specificed, then the design consideration
applies to both situations.
PLANNING
1. Vehicular control
• Low threat: not required
• High threat: install barriers to stop a vehicle of a speci-
fied size
2. Perimeter vehicle inspection
• Low threat: not required
• High threat: install sally port with vehicle arrest device
3. Site lighting
4. Signage to control site circulation
5. Landscaping
• Avoid dense landscaping in both low and high threat.
6. Minimize the number of entrances to a building.
• Secure entrances when building is not in use.
• Clearly identify the function of each entrance (e.g.,
employees only, deliveries. etc).
7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground
floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and
skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unautho-
rized access and funnel movement along desired paths.
8. Control access for servicing and deliveries.
9. Use graffiti-resistant exterior finishes and/or landscape
with creeping vines.
PARKING
1. Inside the building
• Low threat: government vehicles, building employees.
• High threat: government employees who need security
2. On-site controlled
• Low threat: no restriction
• High threat: 100-ft standoff
3. Parking on adjacent streets
• Low threat: government and key employees only
• High threat: use structural features to prevent parking
4. Parking on adjacent properties
• Low threat: 5-ft standoff
• High threat: 10o-ft standoff
Site Security Planning for Terrorism continues on the next
page.

Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D., CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc., Miami, Florida
Anth~ny DjGr~gano: Applied Research Associates: Washington, D.C.
Amencan Societv for Industrial Security; Alexandria, Virginia

BUILDING SECURITY
80 Site Security Planning for Terrorism
Site Securitv Planning for Terrorism is continued from the FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING 2. Design concrete barriers as flower planters; positior
previous page. them at curbs, spaced less than 4 ft apart.
1. Secured water supply
3. Build new buildings in a simple, geometric, rectanqul.
PARKING (CONTINUED) 2. Dual fire pumps (electric and diesel)
layout to minimize the "detraction effect" when bias'
5. Parking facility security systems • Not required in low- or high-threat projects waves bounce off U-shaped or L-shaped buildings caus
3. Secured standpipe connection ing additional damage.
6 Minimize the number of entrances to a building
4. Reduce or eliminate ornamentation on buildings, an
• Functions of the entrances should be clearly identified ELECTRONIC SECURITY use lightweight materials for exterior cladding. During "
(e.g., employees only, deliveries, visitors)
1. Operational control center, fire command center, and bomb blast (or even a hurricane). such ornamentation I~
• Secure entrances when the building is not in use security control center located together likely to break away from the building and may iniur«
7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground building occupants or pedestrians at street level.
• Low threat: not required
floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and 5. Eliminate potential hiding places near the facility.
skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unautho- 2. Backup control center
6. Provide unobstueted views around the facility.
rized access and funnel movement along desired paths. • Low threat: not required
7. Site the building within view of other occupied facilities
8. Control access for servicing and deliveries. • High threat: locate in manager's or engineer's office
8. Locate assets stored on site but outside of the buildinc
9. Use graffiti-res~stant exterior finishes and/or landscape 3. Electrical utility closets, mechanical rooms, and tele-
within view of occupied rooms of the facility. ~
with creeping vines. phone closets
9. Minimize signage that indicates what assets are on the
• Low threat: entry with key should be maintained, with
SITE property.
some method of noting times of entry and departure,
1. Generous wiring and backup power such as marked by a watchman's clock system 10. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the build
ing.
2. Intrusion detection devices • High threat: access to mechanical, electrical, and tele-
communication rooms should be authorized, pro- 11. Minimize the number of vehicle access points.
3. Boundary penetration sensors and motion detection sys-
tems grammeG, and monitored at the security control center '2. Eliminate or strictly control parking below Luildings.
through preidentification of maintenance personnel
4. Access control systems 13. Locate parking as far from the building as practica:
4. Elevator recall (while still addressing ADA spaces and proximity), and
5. Contraband, weapons, and explosives detectors
5. Door lock place parking within view of occupied rooms or facili
6. Credential readers and positive personnel identification ties.
systems • Low-threat: key-locked security keying system
14. Illuminate the building exterior and other areas where
7. Security control and information display systems • High-threat: high-security keying system with elec-
assets are located.
tronic locks
15. Secure access to power and heating plants, gas mains
EXTERIOR ENTRANCE 6. Intrusion detection
water supplies, and electrical and phone service.
1. Lobby • Low threat: magnetic reed switches with optional sen-
sor to detect breaking glass
• Protection from forced entry
2. Employee entrances • High-threat: same as for low threat, with balanced CONCLUSION
magnetic contact switch set and sensor to detect
• Same as lobby The design of a building can significantly affect how secure
breaking glass
it .is from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and other
3. Garage and service entrances 7. Monitoring cnmes. The goal for architects is to use architectural design
• Vehicle arrest devices • Low threat: commercial central station features and elements in a manner that enhances a build-
• High threat: on-site, proprietary security control center; ing's security without compromising its aesthetics and
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING functionality. While there are instances in which a fortress-
review roof intrusion detection
Except for lighting (#5) and vehicle access control (#61. like structure is the only solution to various security issues,
B. CClY in many cases a simple, well thouqht-out plan will yield the
none of the following is necessary in low-threat projects.
• Low threat: not required best results.
1. Exterior connector for emergency power 9. Duress alarms
2. Exterior surveillance • Low threat: install in key public contact areas, execu-
tive offices, and garages as needed MORE INFORMATION
3. Emergency generator
4. Protected utilities and feeders • High threat: same as low threat 1. GSA security standards: www.gsa.gov/pbs
5. Adequate lighting (including site lighting) 2. American Society for Industrial Security; \'V\'VW.asison
SUMMARY OF KEY DEFENSIVE line.com
6. Vehicle access control (parking) ARCHITECTURAL SITE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS FOR BOMB RESISTANCE 3. CPTED: www.cpted-secunty.com
7. Emergency communications (parking)
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building that is 4. National Criminal Justice Reference Service: www
8. CClY (parking) ncjrs.org
as far from the building as possible. Setbacks of 100 It
are desired. 5. Illumination Engineering Society of North America (secu
rity lighting): W\NW.iesna.org

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SELECTION MATRIX

DETECTION MAJOR CAUSES OF NUISANCE ALARMS
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Source. BaSIlJ. Steele, Amencan Society for Industnal Securitv. Alexandna. Virginia

Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
Anthony DiGreggario; Applied Research Associates; Washi"'gton, D.C.

BUILDING SECURITY

DESIGN GUIDELINES
Each commercial development project will have its own set
of requirements. This outline is intended as an overview of
the subjects the architect, engineer, and owner should con-
sider when planning a small to medium commercial devel-
opment.
LOCAL PLANNING REGULATIONS
As with all new projects. the designer should research the
laws. codes, and ordinances that govern development in
the jurisdiction. This may include municipal, township.
county, state. and federal regulations as they pertain to land
and building development.
ZONING
Confirm that the zoning classification of the property per-
mits the intended use. For example, to build a warehouse
the tract of land would have to be zoned for industrial use.
The zoning classification also determines what level of
development is allowed on a particular tract of land.
BUILDING CODES
The architect should find out what relevant codes/laws
require in regard to life safety, welfare, and accessibility.
These requirements should provide minimum criteria by
which to measure the design and construction of a project.
The intended use and type of construction will dictate
allowable heights and areas.
Codes vary around the country, so architects must consult
the local government for all applicable codes/laws and local
amendments. Pertinent laws include the BOCA, UBC,
SBCC, NFPA, ASHRAE, ANSI. and the ADA universal
accessibility law.
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
Environmental issues such as wetlands preservation,
potential groundwater contamination, and preservation of
native flora and fauna should be considered. Local groups
can provide information regarding local environmental
issues.
DRAINAGE EASEMENT ~ -r-,
MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
<
PARKING
PROPERTY SURVEY~~ "-1
BUILDING SETBACK L1MIT~
N 82° 79' 20~
266.00'
SITE DEVELOPMENT DIAGRAM
Greenfield Architects, Ltd.; Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Commercial Site Development
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
A geotechnical engineer should be retained at the inception
of a project to provide a thorough subsurface investigation
of the property. The key information provided by such a sur-
vey includes the following:
Soil quality/type: Soils are described, ranging from their
composition to drainage.
2. Bearing capacity: A variety of field and/or laboratory test-
ing, considered in conjunction with anticipated structural
dead loads, goes into analyzing how a planned building
wilt react to the soil conditions on a site. Settlement is
one issue to be considered here.
3. Foundation recommendations: The geotechnical engi-
neer uses analytical data about the soil quality/type and
the bearing capacity of the soil to make recommenda-
tions regarding the most efficient/cost-effective founda-
tion system.
LOT COVERAGE
Zoning laws regulate the amount of physical construction
that can occur on a given piece of land. Physical construc-
tion covers buildings and paved, impervious surfaces (e.g.,
sidewalks, blacktop). Another measure affecting the allow-
able building footprint is building setback, the distance that
must exist between a structure and the property line. Build-
ing setbacks are typically described in terms of front, rear,
and side yards; rights-of-way; and property easements.
Local municipal ordinances describe required setbacks,
which vary based on location and intended use.
PROPERTY SURVEY
Property surveys verify the property boundaries, street
lines, contours, pertinent landmarks, rights-of-way, and
easements (construction restrictions) of a piece of property.
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
When properties share a common storm water basin, local
authorities can hold easements to allow for storm water
drainage across multiple properties. Drainage easements
are not required when individual property owners are
responsible for storm water management.
N82° 19'20~W
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264.86' SERVICE ACCESS
W
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WATER MAIN
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
81
MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
The maximum height buildings on a particular site can
reach is usually defined in terms of both stories and feet
above the finished grade. These criteria are set by local
ordinance and building code.
PARKING REQUIREMENTS
Parking requirements typically are a function of intended
use and building size le.g., one space per 250 sq It of build-
ing areal. In suburban office park planning, this is com-
monly the governing factor when maximizing buildable area
on small and constricted sites.
UTILITIES
The architect must determine which utilities are required,
which are available, how site access will be designed, and
where the utility lines will enter the building. Utilities
include water, sewer, gas, electric, and telephone.
BUILDING ENTRANCE
Public exposure, topography, orientation, and parking
should Q€ considered in designing and siting the main
entrance. To maximize a building's presence on the site
and help orient users, the main entrance should be obvious
and easily visible. Site topography and the intended use of
the bUilding will determine orientation of the entrance, with
consideration of sun angles and views. The main entrance
should be readily recognizable from the main parking area.
TRAFFIC SURVEY
A typical traffic survey analyzes traffic patterns, densities,
generators, and peak periods. This information is used to
determine the guidelines/procedures required to provide
safe and effective flows of vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Local governing agencies determine the scope and extent
of survey required.
SERVICE ACCESS
Architects must consider vehicular service access to both
the site and the building. Site design and building orienta-
tion must allow for maneuverability of service, delivery, and
sanitary vehicles.
LOT COVERAGE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
UTILITIES
GEOTECHNICAL
ANALYSIS
TRAFFIC SURVEY
82 The Town Planning Process
INTRODUCTION
The following pages provide the essential elements of
town design. Included are an abstract, a set of diagrams,
and criteria for town and community design.
Site planning for development projects should be a sequen-
tial process that begins with information gathering and
ends with detailed design drawings. The process involves
three stages: analysis. design. and implementation. The
chart below indicates a planning process; however, this can
vary to accommodate the specifics of a particular project.
Physical site characteristics, urban or suburban location,
and community criteria modify the process. The site plan-
ning process includes both architect and landscape archi-
tect and. in some cases, biologists, civil engineers, and
others. An integrated approach to site development and
architecture helps create a quality environment. The text on
this page is presented as a checklist for structuring a
project.
CLIENT CONTACT AND INPUT
The first step is contact between the client and the site
planner. The client may have some development objectives
based on financial capabilities and market feasibility. It is
important for the site planner to obtain all client data rela-
tive to planning the site.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Site planning covers a variety of situations from rural and
suburban to high~ntensity urban.
TOWN PLANNING PROCESS
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNIN, AND URBAN PLANNING
There is substantial literature on planning sites and design·
ing neighborhoods of all densities. Recent publications dem-
onstrate a return to the basic town planning principles that
have produced orderly community design throughout histo-
ry.
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Early in the planning process, contact community groups
with an interest in the proposed project. Such efforts yield
useful information for community design and are particu-
larly important when a proposed project is adjacent to exist-
ing development. Compatibility issues are typically resolved
with community participation.
One method of involving the community is the "eharrette."
a participatory planning process with a limited time frame,
usually one day to a week, in which residents, municipal
staff, elected leaders, and others participate in the physical
design of a project. The planner receives local information
useful for the design, and individuals and groups bring their
interests to bear at the beginning of the design process,
thereby expediting final approvals.
REGIONAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL
PLANNING
Some areas of the country have established regional agen-
cies for intercommunity issues, such as water manage-
ment, transportation, population studies, and pollution
control. Some communities have adopted regional planning
guidelines.
State and/or federal criteria can also affect projects.. State
plans may address broad issues applicable to large sites or
impose constraints on sites involving issues of statewide
concern. Also, some states require environmental impact
statements for large-scale projects. The U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers is responsible for environmental review of pro-
posed dredge and fill operations in navigable waters and
wetlands. The Federal Flood Insurance Program establishes
minimum elevations for potential flood areas. Other state,
regional, and local authorities also may oversee the protec-
tion of air and water quality and other environmental issues.
LOCAL PLANNING INFORMATION
The planner must collect local planning information. Per-
sonal contact with planning and zoning agencies is impor-
tant in order to comprehend local criteria. Following is a list
of information to review.
PLANNING DOCUMENTS
Many communities have adopted comprehensive plans
that indicate the particular land use and intensity of the site.
In addition, information on the availability and/or phasing of
public services and utilities, environmental criteria, traffic
planning, and population trends can be found in most com-
prehensive plans. Some communities require that rezoning
meet the criteria provided in their cOmprehensive plans.
In addition to the comprehensive plan, communities may
also adopt neighborhood or area plans that refine the com-
prehensive plan as it relates to a particular locale. Many of
these studies stipulate specific zoning categories for indi-
vidual parcels of land.
URBAN DESIGN PLANS
Some communities have adopted urban design plans for
creating a harmonious physical environment. These docu-
ments may range from conceptual to those that incorporate
specific requirements. Some provide bonuses in land use
intensities for incorporating urban amenities such as plazas
and squares. There may also be criteria for retrofitting exist-
ing areas, a critical need in American cities where a sub-
stantial amount of urban area is deteriorated or developed
incoherently.
ZONING
Land zoning prescribes the intensity and type of land use
allowed. A zoning change is required if the planned project
differs. Regulations often need to be modified to allow
good community design. Common examples of regulations
discouraging good urban form include excessive setbacks
and restricted mixed-use development.
PUBLIC WORKS STANDARDS
Local public works criteria significantly affect the design of
large sites. Roadway layout, cross sections, and drainage
are typical requirements. Excessive roadway standards
designed for automobile convenience, with little regard for
the pedestrian are typical of today's public works regula
tions. Such standards should be modified to allow cohere-.
neighborhood design,
PUBLIC SERVICES AND UTILITIES
Other information that may require additional researc'
includes
1. Availability of potable water, including local and state reg
ulations on wells
2. Availability of public sewer service, access to trunk lines,
and available increases in flow. If sewage lines are not
immediately available, determine projected phasing of
these services, as well as alternatives to sewage collec-
tion and treatment, including septic tanks.
3. Access to public roads, existing and projected carrying
capacities, and levels of services of the roads. (State am
local road departments can provide this inforrnation.)
4. Availability and capacities of schools and other public
facilities, such as parks and libraries
SITE ANALYSIS
Site analysis is one of the planner's major responsibilities
All the on- and off-site design determinants must be evalu-
ated before design begins. For details, see the following
pages on environmental site analysis.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
At the program development stage, background research,
citizen input, and site analysis are combined with client
input and synthesized into a set of program strategies
Basic elements for program development include market
and financial criteria; federal. state, regional. and local plan-
ning information; local political climate development costs;
the client's objectives; and site opportunities and con-
straints as developed in the synthesis of environmental site
determinants. Balancing the various determinants will lead
to an appropriate approach to site development. Consider
dwelling unit type, density, marketing, time phasing, and
similar criteria, as well as graphic studies of the site, to
finalize the program. Develop clear graphic representations
of design concepts to present to the client and others who
may have input to the process. If the project cannot be
accomplished under the existing zoning or public works
requirements, requesting a regulatory change becomes a
part of the program.
ALTERNATIVE PLAN
PREPARATION
Once the program has been accepted by the client, develop
several design solutions to meet the program objectives
When an alternative has been accepted, develop it into the
preliminary plan. This plan should be relatively detailed,
showing all spatial relationships, infrastructure, landscap-
ing, and other relevant information.
PUBLIC REVIEW
A zoning change requires public review. Some communi-
ties require substantial data, such as impact statements
and other narrative and graphic exhibits, while others may
require only an application for the zoning change. Local
requirements for changes can be complex, and it is impera-
tive that the planner and the client's attorney are familiar
with local criteria.
FINAL DESIGN PLANS
At this stage, the preliminary plans are refined into final site
development plans that include fully dimensioned draw-
ing'S, landscape plans, and site details. Final development
plans also include drawings prepared by the engineer or
surveyor, such as legal plats and utilities, street, and drain-
age plans. Upon approval, final design plans are recorded in
the public records in the form of plats. Homeowner associa-
tion agreements, deed restrictions, and similar legal docu-
ments must also be recorded, and they become binding on
all owners and successive owners, unless changed legally.
Bonding may be required for infrastructure and other public
facilities. In some instances, the planner may develop spe-
cific design standards for the total buildout of the project

EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY
RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
2630_15'
60
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/.
./ /'
/' LARGE
229.46 AC
--DISTANT VIEW OVER
REGIONAL PARK
DEVELOP VIEW AS MAJOR
FOCAL POINT
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
SURVEY DATA
The first step in any site analysis is the gathering of physical
site data. An aerial photograph and an accurate survey
showing the following information are basic to any site anal-
ysis process:
1. Scale. north arrow, benchmark. and date of survey
2. Tract boundary lines
3. Easements: location. width, and purpose
4. Names and locations of existing road rights-of-way on or
adjacent to the tract. including bridges, curbs. gutters.
and culverts
5. Position of buildings and other structures such as foun-
dations, walls. fences. steps. and paved areas
6. Utilities on or adjacent to the tract-location of gas lines,
fire hydrants, electric and telephone poles, and street
lights; and direction, distance to, and size of nearest
water mains and sewers and invert elevation of sewers
7. Location of swamps. springs, streams, bodies of water,
drainage ditches, _watershed areas, flood plains, and
other physical features
8. Outline of wooded areas with names and condition of
plant material
9. Contour intervals of 2 to 5 ft, depending on slope gradi-
ents, and spot elevations at breaks in grade, along drain-
age channels or swales, and at selected points as
needed
Considerable additional information may be needed,
depending 'on design considerations and site complexities
such as soil information and studies of the geological struc-
ture of the site. Federal regulations for wetland mapping
and conservation may also be relevant.
SUBURBAN SITE ANALYSIS
The site analysis is a major responsibility of the site planner.
The physical analysis of the site is developed primarily from
field inspections. Using the survey, the aerial photograph,
and. where warranted, infrared aerial photographs, the site
designer, working in the field and in the office, verifies the
survey and notes site design determinants. These should
include. but not be limited to, the following:
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz; Miami, Florida
Environmental Site Analysis
O L D CUTLER ROAD
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL SITE
I (
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65
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.,/ PROVIDE PEDESTRIAN \
./ /' /' L1NKA~G~E====/,
r how they would affect the proposed building. This is par-
KUGETRACT
(UNDEVELOPED)
PREVAILING BREEZE
1. Areas of steep and moderate slopes
2. Macro- and microclimatic conditions, including sun
angles during different seasons; prevailing breezes;
wind shadows; frost pockets; and sectors where high
or low points give protection from sun and wind
I 3. Solar energy considerations. If solar energy appears fea-
sible, a detailed climatic analysis must be undertaken
considering factors such as detailed sun charts; daily
averages of sunlight and cloud cover; daily rain aver-
ages; areas exposed to the sun at different seasons;
solar radiation patterns; and temperature patterns
4. Potential flood zones and routes of surface water runoff
5. Possible road access to the site, including potential con-
flicts with existing road systems and carrying capacities
of adjacent roadways (usually available from local or
state road departments)
6. Natural areas that from an ecological and aesthetic
standpoint should be saved; all tree masses with name
and condition of tree species and understory planting
7. Significant wildlife habitats that would be affected by
site modification
8. Soil conditions relative to supporting plant material,
areas suitable for construction, erosion potential, and
septic tanks, if relevant
9. Geological considerations relative to supporting struc-
tures
10. Exceptional views; objectionable views (use on-site
photographs)
11. Adjacent existing and proposed land uses with nota-
tions on compatibility and incompatibility
12. Potential noise sources, particularly noise generated
from traffic that can be mitigated by using plants, berm-
ing. and walls and by extending the distance between
the source and the receiver
URBAN SITE ANALYSIS
Although much of the information presented for suburban
sites may apply equally to urban sites, additional site design
criteria may be necessary. The urban environment has
numerous design determinants in the form of existing
structures, city patterns, and microclimatic conditions.
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
83
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Air movement: Prevailing breezes characteristic of-a
region may be greatly modified by urban high-rise struc-
tures. Predominant air movement patterns in 'a city may
be along roadways and between buildings. The place-
ment, shape, and height of existing buildings can create
air turbulence caused by micro air movement patterns.
These patterns may influence the location of building ele-
ments such as outdoor areas and balconies. Also, a build-
ing's design and placement can mitigate or increase local
wind turbulence.
Sun and shadow patterns: The sun and shadow patterns
of existing structures should be studied to determine
ticularly important for outdoor terraces and balconies
where sunlight may be desirable. Sun and shadow pat-
terns also should be considered as sources of internal
heat gain or loss. Building orientation, window sizes, and
shading devices can modify internal heat gain or loss.
Studies should include daily and seasonal patterns and
the shadows the proposed building would cast on exist-
ing buildings and open spaces.
3. Reflections: Reflections from adjacent structures such as
glass-clad buildings may be a problem. The new building
should be designed to compensate for such glare or. if
possible, oriented away from it.
URBAN CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS
1. Building typology and hierarchy: An analysis of the partic-
ular building type (residential, commercial, public) relative
to the hierarchy of the various building types in the city is
useful in deciding the general design approach of a new
building. For example, public buildinqs may be dominant
in placement and design. while residential buildings are
subdominant. It is important to maintain any existing
hierarchy that reinforces visual order in the city. Any pre-
dominant architectural solutions and details characteristic
of a building type incorporated in the new building's
design can help maintain a recognizable building type.
2. Regional character: An analysis of the city's regional
architectural characteristics is appropriate in developing a
design solution that responds to unique regional charac-
teristics. Regional characteristics may be revealed
through unique architectural types, through vernacular
building resulting from local climatic and cultural charac-
teristics, and from historically significant architecture.
Historic structures should be saved by modifying them
for the proposed new use or by incorporating parts of the
existing structure(s) into the proposed design.
3. City form: The delineation of City form created by road
layout. location of major open spaces, and architecture-
created forms should be analyzed. Elements that delin-
eate city form should be reinforced by architectural
development solutions for a particular place within the
city. For example, a building proposed for a corner site
should be designed to reinforce the corner through build-
ing form, entrance, and design details. A building pro-
posed for midblock may be a visually unifying element
providing connection and continuity with adjacent build-
ings. Sites at the ends of important vistas or adjacent to
major city squares probably should be reserved for
important public buildings.
4. Building scale and fenestration: It is important to analyze
building scale and fenestration of nearby structures
Reflecting, although not necessarily reproducing, such
detailing in the proposed building can provide visual unity
and continuity in the architectural character of the city.
One example is the use and placement of cornice lines
to define the bLiilding's lower floors in relation to adjacent
buildings. Cornice lines also can define the building's
relationship to pedestrians in terms of scale and use.
5. Building transition: Sometimes it may be appropriate to
use arcades and porches to provide transition between
the building's private interior and the public sidewalk.
Including them may be especially worthy if adjacent
buildings have these elements.
6. Views: Important city views of plazas, squares. monu-
ments, and natural features such as waterfronts and
parks should be considered. It is important to design the
proposed structure to enhance and preserve such views
for the public and for inhabitants of nearby buildings, as
well as incorporating them as views from the proposed
buildinq.
84 Environmental Site Analysis
[=05% _1015%
~5'10%
SLOPE
SCATTERED _ MATURE MIXED HARDWOOD
GROWTH _ AND COASTAL MARSH
(ALONG LAKE EDGES)
MIXED HARDWOOD--
YOUNG
VEGETATION
ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ANALYSIS
PROCESS
If a site has numerous environmental design determinants,
~he. ~ite pla.nner may analyze each environmental system
individually In order to comprehend the environmental char-
act.af of the ~ite more clearly. This can be a complex pro-
cess, and a Site planner/landscape architect with expertise
in environmental analysis should be retained to coordinate
such an effort.
By preparing each analysis on transparencies, the site plan-
ner can use the overlay approach. Values are assigned to
each sheet based on impact. ranging from areas of the site
where change would have minimal effect to areas where
change would result in severe disruption of the site. In
essence, the separate sheets become abstractions with
values assigned by the site planner and associated profes-
sionals. As each sheet is superimposed, a composite devel-
ops that. when completed, constitutes the synthesis of the
environmental design determinants. Lighter tones indicate
areas where modification would have minimal influence
darker tones indicate areas more sensitive to change. Th~
sketches shown simulate the overlay process. The site
planner may give greater or lesser weight to certain param-
eters depending on the particular situation. In assigning val-
ues that help determine the site design process, the site
planner should consider such factors as the value of main-
taining the functioning of the individual site systems, the
uniqueness of the specific site features, and the cost of
modifying the site plan
Following is a Jrstof the environmental design determinants
that, depending on the particular site, may be considered
and included in an overlay format:
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharm, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
~ SANDY LOAM
~ SILTY CLAY LOAM
SOILS
r - - l MINIMAL IMPLICATIONS
~ IF MODIFIED
~I
LAKE
COMPOSITE
1. SLOPE: The slope analysis is developed on the contour
map; consideration should include the percentage of
slope and orientation of slope relative to the infrastruc-
ture and land uses.
2. SOIL PATIERNS: Consideration may include the analysis
of soils by erosion potential, compressibility and plastic-
ity, capability of supporting plant growth, drainage capa-
bilities, possible sources of pollution or toxic wastes,
septic tank location (if relevant), and the pro- posed land
uses and their infrastructure.
3. VEGETATION: Consideration of indigenous species (vat-
ues of each in terms of the environmental system)
includes size and condition, the succession of growth
toward climax conditions, uniqueness, the ability of cer-
tain species to tolerate construction activities, aesthetic
values, and density of undergrowth.
4. WILDLIFE: Consideration of indigenous species includes
their movement patterns, the degree of change each
species can tolerate, and feeding and breeding areas.
5. GEOLOGY: Consideration of underlying rock masses
studies the depth of different rock layers and the suitabil-
ity of different geological formations in terms of potential
infrastructure and building.
6. SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WATER: Consideration of
natural drainage patterns covers aquifer recharge areas,
erosion potential, and flood plains.
7. CLIMATE: Consideration of rrucrocfimatic conditions
includes prevailing breezes (at different times of the
year), wind shadows, frost pockets, and air drainage pat-
terns.
_ORGANIC
SEVERE IMPLICATIONS
IF MODIFIED
COMPUTER APPLICATION
The above process is labor intensive when developed by
hand on individual sheets of mylar; however, this particular
method of environmental analysis is easily adaptable to the
CAD (computer-aided drafting) system. Commercial draft-
ing programs suitable for the overlay approach are readily
available. Simplified, the method is as follows:
1. A map, such as a soil map, is positioned on the digitizer
and the information is transferred to the processor
through the use of the stylus. One major advantage to
the use of a computer is that the scale of the map being
recorded will be transferred to the selected scale by the
processor. A hatched pattern is selected, with a less
dense pattern for soil types that would have minimal
influence and more dense patterns for soil types more
sensitive to change. Once this information is pro-
grammed into the computer, it is stored.
2.The same process is repeated for development of the
next overlay; for example, vegetation. Once again any
scale map may be used. This process is repeated until all
overlays have been stored. At any time one or all over-
lays can be produced on the screen.
3.The individual overlays or any combination of overlays can
be drawn on mylar with a plotter. If appropriate for the
particular analysis, the plotter will draw in color. The
resulting overlay sheets take considerably less time than
by hand and may be more accurate. Other benefits are
that the site can be studied directly on the computer
screen and any part of the overlay can be enlarged for
greater detail.
4.The overlay process can be recorded by videotape or by
slides from the screen for use in presentations.
 RurolVillogeDesign 85

SITE ANALYSIS MAP

Locate natural, cultural, and scenic features first. These

include manv buildable areas, such as farm fields. pastures,
meadows. and mature w@dland: special teatures, such as
stone walls, springhouses, cellar holes and views into and
out o{ the site: and unbuildable areas, such as steep slopes.
wetlands, springs, streams, and ice ponds.
MEADOW

CONVENTIONAL LAYOUT OR
..YlELD Pr AN"
Sketch an unimaginative but legally correct conventlonal
lavout to demonstrate the density that could realistically be
a;hieved on the site and, by comparison, to show local offi-
cials and abutters how ditferent a rural village approach is
The sketch here shows how, under 1 .s-acre zoning, a 520-
acre site would ordinarily be checkerboarded into 300 lots,
each with a required minimum area of 60,000 sq ft, leaving
HILGIDE
no open space whats@ver. PASTURE /

VILLAGE PLAN

Desagningthe developmenl as a traditional village,with lots SITE ANALYSIS MAP

ranoinq from 5000 sq h to 1 acre, achreves slightly greater
aen-siti on less than one{ua.ter of the land and presefres
nearlv 4OO acres. This layout is based closely on the site
analysis map, with the village located to avoid disturbing
the woodlands that provide the only natural habitat in this
larqelv aqricultural community. Ihe most specral site fea'
turEs are protected by designrng around them. Nine "con'
seryancy lots." varying in area from 20 to 60 acres, are
limited to one principal dwelling plus tvvo accessory units.
This assures significant open space around the perimeter of
this 3oGlot village. Permanent conseryation easements
protect these lands from Iunher subdivision and preserye
the 1 50 acres of undivided open space and its trail system,
which connects the old springhouse to the lakeshore and
leads back to the schoolYard. This open space could be
owned by the village government, a local land trust, or a
homeown€rs' association (with automatic membership and
authoritv to place liens on properties of members who lail
to pay their dues). Rural views outward from three village
streets have also been preseryed, with open countryside
terminating their vistas. Terminated vistas are also provided
by three large public or semipublic buildings (churches,
libraries. etc.) positioned at the ends of several str€ets.

CONVENTIONAL LAYOUT

WOODED

.]'r-
_
s\oPE THE
COMMONS
TRAIL -;/fr
MARSH
\il/
(=r.,i:
\ \-Ll

'BROOK

NORTH
MEADOW

RURAL VILLAGE OESIGN

FandallArendt,MRTPI;NaturalLandsTrust:Media,Pennsylvania
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie;Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,

A
PLANNING
AND URBAN
COMMUNIry,
SITE, I
 86 Elementsof Urbonism
THE NEIGHBORHOOD. THE
DISTRICT, AND THE CORRIDOR
The tundamental elements 01 urbanism are the neighbol
hood, the district, and the corridor. Neighborhood"s
iie
urbanized areas with a fuil and balanced iange of human
activity. Districts are urbanrzed areas organizled around a
predominant activity. Neighborhoods and distrjcts are
con-
nected and isolated by corridors of t.ansportation or open
space.
Neighborhoods, districts, and corridors are comotex urban
elements Suburbra. In co4trast, rs the result oi srmplistrc
zoning concepts that separate activities into residential sub_
divisions, shopping centers, o{fice parks, and open space.
THE NEIGHBORHOOD
Cites.and towns are made up of multip'e neighborhoods_A
neighborhood isolated in the landscape is a village.
The nomenclature may vary, but there is general agree
ment regardrng rhe physical composition of a neighbor
hood. The neighborhood unit of the 1929 New-york
Regional Plan, the quartiet identified. by Leon Krier, tradi-
tiona' nerghbo'hood desrgn {TNDt. and transttorienled
development (TODI share sjmrlar attr butes. The population,
conliguration, and scale may vary, but all of these models
propose the following:
1. The neighborhood has a center and an edge. This combi_
nataon of a focus and a limit contributea to the social
identity of the community. The center is a necessity, the
edge less so. The center is always a public space_a
squa.e, a green. or an important street intersection_
l@ated near the center of the urbanized area, unless
compelled by geography to be elsewhere. Eccentric loca_
tpns are justified by a shoreline, a transponation corri-
dor, or a promontory with a compelling view.
The center is the locus of the neighborhood,s public
buildrngs. Shops and worlplaces are usualty here, espe_
crally In a vtllage. In lhe aggregalrons of neighborhoods
InaI create towns and cities, relail butldings and work_
places
_areoften at the edge, where they Can combine
wtth others to draw cuStomers
The edges of a nerghborhood vary In character. In vil
lages, the edge rs usually defined by tand designated tor
cultivation or conservation of its natural statel ln urban
areas, the edge is often defined by rail lines and boule-
vards, which best remain outside the neighborhood.
AREA: PREFERABLE I60ACRES
TO HOUSE ENOUGH PEOPLE TO
BOULEVARO
AN URBAN NEIGHBORHOOD (PART OFA
platerZyberk,Kamat
Duany.Elrzabeth Zaharin,
tskandar
Shafie;Miami.Ftorida
,",iirfltT?l;fl;r,les
u
A
SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
2. The neighborhood has a balanced mrx of activ[ies: The strJcture ot.the distnct parallels lhat ot the nerghb,
shops, work, school, recreation, and dwellinos of all hood An rdenti{iable locus encourages o.ientat,oi o
lvpes Thrs 's oa.lrcularty use{ut t6r ygga9. old lro tow identity. Clear boundaries facilitate thelormation of spec
income populations who, in an automobile based eovi- taxrng or management organrzations. As in the neighbo
ronment, depend on others for mobility.
hood,_the character of the public spaces creates a comm..
The neighborhood provides housing for residents with a nrly ot users. even if they reside elsewhere Interconnectp
variety of incomes. Affordable housing types include circulation encourages pedestrians, supports transit viab
oacKyaro apartments, apartments above shoos. and
rty. and ensures security. Districts benefil from transit sv:
apa.lmenl buildtngs adiacent lo workplaces. tems and should be located within the regional network
3. The optimal size of a neighborhood isrL mile from center
to edge, a distance equal to a tive-minute walk at an easy THE CORRIDOR
pace. lts ljmited area gathers the oooulation within walk-
The corridor is the connector and the separator of neighbor
Ing drstance o{ many of its daily needs. hoods and districts. Corridors include natural and lec-hnica
The locatron of a transit stop within walking distance of components ranging from wildlife trails to rail lines The
most homes increases the likeiihood of rts use. Transit_ between ts not the haphazardly residual space remainrn(l
onented neighborhoods create a regional network of vtf outsrde subdivisions and shopping centers in suburbia. lt i
lages. towns, and cities accessible to a oopulation unable a crvrc etement characterized by its visible continuity an.j
10 rely on cars. Such a system can provtde the mator cul. bounded by neighborhoods and districts, to which ii pro
lural and social institutions, varrety of shopprng, and vides entry.
broad Job base lhat can onlv be suppo(ed by itrJiarger
populatron ot an aggregation of nerghbo'hOOOs The transponation corridor's trajectory is determined by its
4. The neighborhood consists of blocks on a network of anlensity. Heaq/ rail cotridors should remain tanoeni t.
small thoroughfares_Streets are laid out to c.eate blocks towns and enter only the industrial drstricts of citiei. Lio,
ot appropriate building sites and to shorten pedestrian rarl and trolley corr,dors may occur as boulevards at ih.
routes. An interconnecting street pattern provides multi_ edges of neighborhoods. As such, they are detailed fo
ple routes, drffusing traffic. This pattern keeps locat lral. pedestnan use and to accommodate building sites. Bus cor
trc otl regtonal roads and through tralfrc ofl local srreels ndors may pass into neighborhood centers on conventional
streets.
Neighborhood streets ot varying types are detailed to
provrde equitably for pedestrian comiort and automobile
The corridor may also be a continuous parkway, providing
movement. Siowing the automobile and increasing
long.distance walkrng and bicycling trails and nitural hab
peoestfian actrvtty encourage lhe casual meetings lhat
tat. Parkway coiridors can be formed by the systemal,.
rorm lne bonc,s ot communitv.
accretion of recreational open spaces, such as parks
5. The neighborhood gives priority to pubtrc space and to schoolyards, and golt courses. These continuous sDace5
appropriate location of civic buiidrngs. public spaces and can be part of a larger network, connecting urban oper
public buildings enhance community identity and toster space wth rural surroundings.
civic pride. The neighborhood plan creates a hierarchy ot
useful publc spaces: a formal square, an informal pirk,
ano many ptaygrounds.
THE DISTRICT
The district is an urbanized area that is functionally specjal_
ized. Although disrricts preclude the fuil range of aciivities
of
.a reighblrhood, they are not the sjngle-aclivity zones of
suburbia. Rather, multiple activities support its primary
identity. Typically complex examples are thearer disrricts,
caprtal areas, and college campuses. Other districts accom_
modate large-s€le transportation or manufacturing uses,
sucn as arrpons, container terminals, and refineries
o
E
.U
5
o
TOWN) A RURAL NEIGHBORHOOD (A VILLAGE)
 RegionolTypes 87

GENERAL
ln its short hrstory as a discipline, regional planning has gen-
erated a substantial number of models, usually presented
as dragrams. Redrawrng thp main lYpes 'n a standard
graphic form reduces options to a few fundamental mod-
els. Most regional plans are hYbrtds of these few.

Most cities expand through incremental decisrons, not by

following clear regional plans. But even when lollowed
closely, such ptans tend to be implemented in distoned
form, due to pressures from natural and man-made condts
tions. The diagrams of each planning model to the right are
accompanied by examples of their application to actual
praces.

GARDEN CITY/NEIGH BORHOODS,

TOWNS AND VILLAGES
This is the ancient natural pattern. A cleady defined core
city, composed of neighborhoods, is surrounded by towns
and villages that are separated by open landscape. ldeally,
each element is relatively sell-sufficient. This historical pat-
tern has been oveMhelmed as mechanical transponation
has permitted the city to absorb the surrcJnding landscape
and to erase its neighborhood structure.

A rationalization of this pattern, designating fixed green-

belts and creating independent new towns (garden cities),
was proposed by Howard, and restructurtng the core ctty
into selfrontained neighborhoods was proposed by
Saarinen and Perry. MADISON I993 TO\^/NS AND VILLAGES

The garden city has been the underlying concept for subur-
ban growth, although its current form is unrecognizably
degenerated. With the late arrival o{ the office park into the
residential/retail suburb, the functional elements of the city
are now available in the suburb, and the core city has lost
its importance. As @nceptualized by Fishman and Garreau,
this regional pattern is no longer centroidal. The automobale
is able to move equally in all directions. although it tends to
reinforce maior intersections. These intensified points sup-
port commercial developmenl, around which residential
areas ousrer.

This automobile model can be made pedestrian{riented by

traditional neighborh@d development (TND), which recon-
figures the activities of the shopping center, office park,
and housing subdivision into the form of towns and vil-
lages. Of the three models described, this is the one most
in{luenced by market conditions.

LINEAR CITY/CORRIDORS AND

WEDGES
,
The linear city evolved wrth the advent of lhe streetcar. t
Moving along defined axes, the streetcar extended the
boundaries of the centroidal city, creating corridors whose
width was limited by the walking distance to the tracks.
The arrival ol the automobile. with its ability to go any-
where, destroyed the disciplined edges of the corradors,
creating undif{erentiated sprawl.

The remedial model (corridors and wedges) was conceptu-

alized by Olmsted and MacKaye. Through legislation. the BALTIMORE I95O LINEAR CITY
urban tabric is channeled along the lransportation axes
while wedges of open landscape are preserued between
these corridors- The wedges are ideally continuous, formed
by an irregular agglomeration of valuable natural features.
This is the model m-st influenced by ecological concerns.

TRANSIT-ORIENTED DESIGN
This pattern emerged naturally with the advent of the rail-
rmd. Moving along a single axis like the streetcar, but
unable to stop as frequently, the railroad creates nodal
Doints ot commercial develooment with residential settle-
ment around them. The advent of the automobile permitted
the expansion of these settlements beyond any limit, con-
suming the landscape.

This model was rationalized and modernized bv Calthoroe

and Kelbaugh as transit{riented design (T.O.D.). The
T.O.D. creates nodes at interyals most etficient for rail
transportation. These mixed-use areas, limited in size by
walking distance, are usually surrounded by a residential
hinterland connected to the rail syst€m by feeder bus. The
commercial uses aod other businesses at the nodes mav
not oller all the seruices that would make the area self-suf-
ficient (i.e., a town). However, together, several areas
linked by rail may b€ self-sutticient.

This is the model most influenced bv the requirements oJ

transportation.

PORTLAND 2O2O TRANSIT.ORIENTED DESIGN

Garv Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Platerzyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie. Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

PLANNING
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
SITE, fl
 88 PlonTypes

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MWWMM
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lm-]F24576=741
tmtlh_tuztl\ dllb_Lnl

ADVA NTAG E S
1. Excellent directional orientation
2, Lot shape controllable
3. Street hierarchy with end blocks tor through traffic
4. Even dispersal of traffic through the grid
5. Srraight lines enhance rollng terrain
6. Efficient doubleloading of alleys and utjlities
AOVA NTAG ES
A DVANTAG ES
1. Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
1 . Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
2. Even dispersal oI traffic through the grid
2. Even dispersal of traffic through the network
3. Diagonals respond to the terrain
3. Diagonals respond to terrain
4. Diagonals interrupt monotony of the grid
4. Intrinsically interesting by geometric variety
D ISAOVANTAG ES 5. Controllable shape oI blocks and lots

1. Uncontrollable variety ot blocks and tots 6. Efficient double-loading of alleys for urilities
DI SA OVANTAG ES
2. High number ol awkward lot shapes 7. Diagonal intersections spatially well defined
'|
Monotonous unless penodically interrupted
3. Diagonal intersections spatially ill defined OISADVANTAGES
2. Does not accommodate environmental intetruptions
3. Unresponsive to steep terrain I Tends to be disorienting

ORTHOGONAL GRID GRID WITH DIAGONALS DIAGONAL NETWORK

ADVA NTAG E S ADVANTAG ES A OVA NTAG ES

1. Street hie.archy wtrh long routes for through traffic
2. Even dispersal of traffic through nerwork
3. Intrinsicallyinteresting by geometrrc vaflery
4. Responsive to terrain
5. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
6. Short streets. terminated vistas
O I SADVANTAG ES
1. None
1. Intrinsicallyinteresting by deflecting vistas
2. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
3. Highly responsive to terrain
4. Even dispersal of traflic through the network
O I SADVA N TAG ES
1. Little directional orientation
2. Uncontrollable variety of lots
3. No natural hierarchy of streets
1. Street hierarchy with collectors for through traffic
2. Controllable variety of blocks and lots
3. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
4. Haghlyresponsive to p terrain
DISADVANTAGES
1. Concentration of traffic by absence of network

ORGANIC NETWORK CURVILINEAR NET\/VORK DISCONTINUOUS NET\^/ORK

Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Ehzabeth plaler.Zybert Kamal Zaharin. lskandar Shafie,

Rafael Diazj Miami. Florida
The Crntas Founrain

u
.2 1

SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING
 BlockTypes 89

GENERAL
The urban plan must be assembled of blocks betore build-
ing frontage and landscape types are assigned. The disposi-
tion of blocks has distinct socioeconomic implications.
wm wq
THE SQUARE BLOCK % wq Wq &
Thistypewas an earlymodellor plannedsettlements
in
America. panicularly in Spanish colonies. lt was sometimes
ass@iated with agricultural communities, providing four
% u
large lots per block, each lot with a house at ats center. % %
When the growth ot the community produced additional
subdivision, replatting created irregular lots (Fig. 1). While % &
this may provide a useful variety, it is more often regarded
as a nuisance bv a societv accustomed to stdndardized W %
products. A lurther disadvantage is that dtscontln-uous rear
iot lines make alleys and rearaccess utilities impractical. %
-
b d wd %
Despite these shortcomings, the square block is usetul as a
specialized type. When platted only at its perimeter, with
the center left open, it can accommodate the high parking
% d wd
requirements of certain buildings. The open center, well
insulated from tratfic, may also be used as a common gar-
d e e o r a p l a y g r o u n d( F i g . 2 ) .

I, SQUARE BLOCK 2. SQUARE BLOCK

THE ORGANIC BLOCK

This typ€ is characterizedby its irregularity;its variationsare
unlimited.The originalorganicblock was the subdivisionof
residualland between well-worn paths (Fig.3). lt was later
rationalizedby Olmsted and Unwin to achievea controlla-
ble, picturesque effecl and to negotiate sloping terrain
gracefully.The naturalisticblock, despite its variety,gener
ates certain recurringconditionsthat must be resolvedby
sophisti€ted platting.At shallow curyes, it is desirableto
have the facades follow the frontage smoothly. This is
achievedby keepingthe side lot lines perpendicularto the
frontageline (Fig.4-1).At the same time it is important{or
the rear lot line to be wide enough to permit vehicular
access(Fig.4-2).At sharpercurves,it is desirableto have
the axis of a single lot bisect the acute angle (Fig.4-3). In
the event of excessiveblock depth, it is possibleto colo-
nizethe interiorof the bl@k by meansof a close (Fig.4-4).

t
T

3. ORGANIC BLOCK 4. ORGANIC BLOCK

THE ELONGATED BLOCK

The elongated bl@k overcomes some of the drawbacks of
the square block. More efficient and more standardized,
elongated bl@ks provide economi€l double-l@ded alleys,
with short utility runs, to eliminate the uncontrollable vari-
able ot lot depth and maintain the option ot altering lot
width. By adiusting the block length, it is possible to reduce
cross streets toward rural edges or to add them at urban
centers. This adiustrent alters the pedeslrian permeability
of the grid and controls the ratio of street parking to building
capacity. The elongated bl6k can "bend" somewhat along
its length, giving it a limited ability to shape space and
negotiate slopes {Fig. 6).

Unlike the square block, the elongated block provides two

distinct types of frontage. Residential buildings are placed
on the.quieter sides of the block (Fig. 5-l). Commercial
buildings can be set on the short end of the block, platted
to face the busy street: the amount ot parking behind these
properties is controlled by the variable depth {Frg.t2).

5. ELONGATED BLOCK 6. ELONGATED BLOCK

Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlaterzyberk,Kamal zaharin. lskandar Shafie: Miami, Florida

The Cintas Foundation

A
-1
|
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
SITE, U
 90 Open Spoce Types
GENERAL
Public open space provides ofientatton, hierarchy, and com
munal structure to a neighborhood. The specialtzed open
spaces shown he'e are denved tron the elonoated biock
types. They cdn atso be adtusted to frr borh iquare and
organic block types.

LANE
Children otten make lanes behind houses into informal olav
grounds. The paved surface in front of garages is conve,
nrent for ball games Lanes are particularlysuccessful when
they are designed ro eliminate lhrough traffic (right). Garage
apartments provtde superyision.

PLAYGROUND
Playgrounds can be easily extracted from any block by
assrgnrng ane or several lots to this use. There should be a
playground within 500 ft of every residence. The plav-
ground should provide both sunny and shaded play areas,
as well as an open shelter with benches tor parents. plav
grounds must be fenced, lockable, and lit. if thev are not to
become a nuisance at ntght.

NURSERY
A nursery can be inserted in the middle of a block. awav
from major lhoroughtares. It requires a |mrted amount of
parkrng but substantial vehicular drop{ff space. The
attached playground should be securely fenced and have
both sunny and shaded areas. Children's games may be
noisy, so it is advisable to locate nurseries where adjabent
houses are buffered by outbuildings.

CLOSE
A close is a space shared by buildings inside the block. lt
may be pedestrian, or it may have a roadway loop around a
green area. lts minimum width must coincide with emer-
gency vehicle turning standards. The close is a superior
allernative lo the cul{e-sac, as the locus is a green rather
than pavement. lt is especially recommended for commu-
nal subgroups such as cohousing or assisted-living cot-
tages. the close provides additional frontage for deep
square and organic blocks.

ATTACHED SQUARES
are greenspacesthat providesettingsfor civic
Squares
buildings and monuments, which are located at the center
or edge o.f the square. Buildings play a part, but the space is
largely deliaed bV iormal tree ptantrng. Squares should be
marntained to a higher standard than playgrounds and
oarks

DETACHED SQUARES
Squares detached on all sides by roads are particularlv for
mal. Srnce adjacent buildings provrde much of the popu,a- OPEN SPACE TYPES
tron that uses a public space. detached squares are less
likely to be used than other types. This separation atso lim-
rts the mount of natural security provided by adjacent win,
dows. The delached square remains approp.ate as a
means to symbolically enhance important places or jnstitu_
!ons.

OPEN SPACE TYPES-DETACHED SQUARES

Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Elizabeth PlatetrZyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shatie; Mjami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

'al

U SITE,
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
PLANNING
 OpenSPoceTYPes 9l

MARKET PLAZ-A
Plazas are public spaces that are prrmarily paved rather lhan
green. They can sustain very intense use by crowds and
even by vehicles. Parking lots should be designed as plazas
that happen to have cars on them, rather than as single pur-
pose areas. A smaller shoppang center can be transtormed
into a town center if it has been designed so at can be
seamlessly attached to the block system and detailed as a
praza.

CIVIC PLAZA
Civic buildings are often no larger than the private ones that
surround them. and their legibility as more important buil+
ings cannot depend solely on architectural expression
Their setting within the block system must communicate
their elevated status. Sites on squares or at the termina-
tions of avenues are ideal but not always available. Thus
the most dependable technique is to organize and detail the
parking areas ol civic buildings as plazas.

GREEN
The green is an urban. naturalistic open space. Lke the
square, it is small. civic, and surrounded by buildings. MARKET PLAZA CIVIC PLAZA
Unlike th€ square, it is in{ormally planted and may have an
irregular topography. Greens are usually landscaped with
trees at the edges and sunny lawns at the center. Greens
should contain no structures other than benches, pavilions,
and memorials; paths are optaonal.

PARK
Parks are naturalisticopen spaces, like greens, but larger
and tess tended. They are most successlulwhen qeated
from virginw@dland. Parkshave grassYareasonly periodi-
€llv. A knoll or a pond can be used as an imponantorganrz-
ing featlre. Parks exist within the urban {abric of large
cities, but their inherentsizeusuallyputs them at the edges
of towns and villages,Parksmay be edged by publicdrives
or by houses on very large lots, as long as connectionsto
publicpaths occur at every block.

BUFFER
The buffer has the basic elements of a green, with the
added purpose of buffering the impact o{ traftic from a
highway or boulevard.Shown is a small lot development
fronting a green. On the opposite side are larger lots on
which houses are placed further back from the roadway
edgo as anotherbufter technique.

GREEN

z-'. O O

PARK BUFFER

Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizaberh Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

A
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE, I
 92 BuildingTypes
GENERAL
The traditlonal increment for platting lots in Norlh America
has been the 50Jt. width This subdivision dtmension was
ef{icient for many years, creating 2s-ft rowhouse and shop-
tront lots. as well as 50-, 75, and 100Jt lots suitable for
houses. Howevei, the advent of the automobile added a
set of dimensional constraints that requ;red new platting
standards. The 50 ft width is wastelul. sinc€ the basic
increment of efficient parking is the double row at 64 ft.

The 64Jt increment, when divided by four, provides the

absolute minimum rowhouse lot of 16 ft, which allows one
car to be parked with additional room for pedestrian Das-
sage. The minimum side yard lot is 32 ft. The minjmum
perameter yard lot is 48 ft. The 64-ft lot elficiantlv grovides
for the high parking requrrement of shopfronts, apartments,
and oft'ce buiidJngs

The platting module of 16 1t corresponds to the traditional

measure of the rod. Plaiting in rods, without knowing what
building types will occupy the lots, maintains flexibility and
D
ensures maxlmum denstty through parking efficiency. 4 RODS 3 RODS 2 ROOS

Four building types acaommodale the common residential, COURTYARD BUILDING

retarl, and workplace uses of urban life. Some buildinos_
however, cannor be categonzed lyoologically. Buildi;gs
dedicated to manufacturing and transportation mav be dis_
torled by large-scale mechanrcal traiectories. Civic burld-
Ings. which must express the aspirations of the institutions
they embody, should also be exempt from the discipline o{
tvoe-

COURTYARD BUILDING
This type of buildingoccupiesall or most of the edges of its
lot and definesone or more privatespacesinternally.This is
the most urbanof types as it is abteto completeiyshield
the privaterealmfrom the publicrealm.lt is commonin hot
clrmates,but its attributesare usefuleverywhere. Because
ol its ability to accommodateIncompatrble activttiesin
close proximity,it is recommendedlor workshops,hotels,
and_schools. The high securitythe boundaryprovidesis
usetul for recolonizingcrime-proneurbancores.

B c o
SIDE YARD BUTLDING 3 RODS 3 RODS 2 RODS 2 ROOS
This type ol buildingoccupiesone side of the lot. with the SIDE YARD BUILDING
primaryopen spaceon the other side. The view of the side
yard on the street front makes this buildingtype appear
freestanding,so it may be interspersedwith perimeteryard
buildingsin less urbantocations.lf the adiacentbuildingis
alsoa side yardtype with a blankpartywall. the open sp;ce
can be quite private.This type permitssystematiccli;atic
onentation. with the longsideyardelevationfacing the sun
or the breeze.

REAR YARD BUILDING

Thistype of buildingoccupiesthe front of its lot, full width,
leavingthe rearportionas a privatespace.This is a rela-
tively urbantype appropriatefor neighborhood and town
centers.The buildingfacadedefinesthe edgeof the pubtic
space.while the rearelevationmay reflectdifferentfunc-
lonal purposes.In its residentialform, this type is repre
sentedby the rowhousewith a reargardenandoutbuilding.
In its commercialform, the depth of the rear vard can con-
parkrngfor retailandotltceuses.
tainsubstanttal

B D
PERIMETER YARD BUILDING 4 ROOS 2 RODS L 5 RODS 1 ROD
This buildingstandsfree on its lot. with substantiallront REAR YARD BUILDING
andrearyardsandsmallersideyards.lt is the leasturbanof
the types, so it rs usuallyassrgnedto areasaway from
nerghbo.hood and town centers.Thisbuildingtype is usu_
ally residential,
but when parkingis containedwithin the
rear yard atlends itself to limited oflice and boardinguses.
The rear yard can be secured for privacyby lenceJ and a
well-placedoutbuilding.The front yard is intendedto be
semipublic and visuallycontinuouswith the yardsof neigh-

W
,4 %
bors.The illusionof continuityis usuallydegradedwhin
garagetrontsare alignedwith the facades,as carsseldom
pullin beyondthe d.iveway.To avoida tandscape
cars,garagesshouldbe set backa minimumof one car,s
of parked
length from the facade or entered srdeways through a
walled forecourt
%
Wry
ru
3 RODS 3 RODS

PERIMETER YARD BUILDING

Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elzabeth plaleczyberk KamalZaharin,IskandarShafie;Miami,Florida

The Cintas Foundaton

u
A
SITE,
COMMUNlry,AND URBANPLANNING
 SpotiolDefinition 93

GENERAL
Building delineates public space in an urban setting Suc'
cessfufsoatial delinition is achieved when bounding build-
inos are alioned in a drscrp|ned manner and the defined
spice doesiot etceed a certarn herght-to-wdth ratro

Alrgnment occurs when burldrng lacades coopelate lo

deiineate thb oublic space, as walls form a room Uiban
buildrna aniculalron lakes place prrmarily in lhe venical
olane o-rfacade. lf appendages such as porches, balconres,
bay windows, and loggias do not obliterate the primary sutr
face of the facade, they do not destroy alrgnment

The herght-towidth ratio of the space generales spatral

enclosure, which is related to the physiology o{ the human
eve. lf the width of a public space is such that the cone ol
vision encompasses less street wall than sky opening, the
degr€e of spatial enclosure is slight. The ratio of 1 incre-
ment of height to 6 of width is the absolute minimum, with
1 to 3 being an effective minimum if a sense oJ spatial
enclosure is to result- As a general rule, the tighter the ratlo,
the stronger the sense of place and, often, the higher the
real estate value. Spatial enclosure is particularly tmportant
for shopping streets that must compete with'shopping
malls, which provide very eflective spatial definition. In the
absence of spatial definition by lacades, disciplined tree
planting is an alternative. Trees aligned for spatial enclosure
are necessary on thoroughfares that have substantial lront
yards. PROPORTIONS OF BUILDTNG HEIGHT TO PUBLIC SPACE

NOMENCLATURE
THE FRONTAGE LINE
The lot boundary that coincides with a pubiic thoroughfare
or public space. The trontage line may be designed inde-
p€ndently of th€ thoroughfare, to create a specific sense of
place.

FACADE
The vertical surface oI a building set along a lrontage line.
The elevation is the vertical sudace set along any other
boundary line- Facades are subiect to control by building
height, setback lines, recess lines, and transition lines. Ele-
vations are only subiect to building height and setback
Iines.

SETBACK
BY FACADE BY RECESS LINE
The mandatory distance between a frontage line and a
facade or a lot line and an elevation

BUILOING HEIGHT
The detined limit to the venical extent of a building The
buildrng herght should be stated as a numbel of stotres, ,l
J
rather ihan iprescribed dimensron. Thrs prevents the com-
pression of internal ceiling heights. Height may be deter-
mined by density and view and not by the requirements of
soatial definit;on, which are addressed bY the recess lrne

RECESS LINE
A line prescribed tor the lull width ol the tacade, above
which the facade is set back. The recess line effectively
delines the enclosure of public space. lts location as deter-
mined bv the desired heighctcwidth ratio of that space,
compatibility with the average height of existing buildings,
or provision for daylighting at the street level.

TRANSITION LINE TECHNIQUES OF DELINEATING PUBLIC SPACE

A tine prescribed for ihe full width ot the facade, expressed

bv a variation ol material or by a limited proiection such as a
cornice or a bal@ny. The transition line divides the lacade,
permitting shopfronts and signage to varY over time with-
out destroying the overall composition.

CURB LINE

SECTION

DEFINITIONS

GaryGreenan, AndresDuany Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin. lskanda. Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

A
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE, u
 94 FrontogeTypes
GENERAL
Buildrng type is independent of frontage type For example.
a c o u r l y a r d b u r l d t n g m a y h a v e a n a , c d d e . a S n o p l r O n t .a
sloop. of a porch as rts frontage lype Irontaqes can be
ranked trom most urban to most rural.

ARCADE
The facade overlaps the sidewalk, whtle the storefront
remains set back. This type is excellent for retail use, but
only when the sidewalk is fully absorbed so the pedestri€n
cannot bypass the arcade. An easement for public use of
private property is required. ARCADE

%
SHOPFRONT
The facade is aligned directly on the frontage line, with the
entrance at grade. This type is conventional for sidewalk
retail lt is often equipped wjth an awning or a porch. A
transition line should separate the signage from the facade
above. The absence of a setback and elevation from the
srdewalk prevents residentjal use on the ground floor,
although it is appropriate above.

STOOP
SHOPFRONT
The facade rs al,gned drrectly on the trontage Lne, with the
lfsl lloor elevated to achieve some ptivacv for the win_
dows. I his type is suitable for resrdenlial usei such as row_
nouses and apartment buildings. An easement may be
necessary to accommodate the encroaching stoop. This
type may be interspersed with the shopfront.

FORECOURT
The facade is set back and replaced by a low wall at the
trontage line. The forecourt thus created is suitable for oar-
dens, vehrcular drop{ffs, and workshop loading and sior-
age. jt should be used sparingly ano in conju;ction with
STOOP
lhe shopfront and sloop types, as a contrnuous bltnd wall is
boring and unsafe tor pedestrians Tree canopres within the
lo.ecourt should overhang the sidewatk

DOORYARD
The facade is set back from the frontage line. with an ele-
vated garden or terrace between. This type can effectively
buffer residential quarters from the side;alk, while remoJ_
rng the yard from public use. The terrace, when roofed. is
suitable for restaurants and cafes, as the eye level of ihe
srtter is level with that ot passersbv.

FORECOURT
PORCH AND FENCE
With an encroaching habitable porch, the facade is set back
substantially from the frontage line. The porch should be
wrthrn a conversational distance of the sidewalk. A fence at
the frontage line marks the boundary of the yard.

FRONT LAWN
The lacade is set back substantially from the frontage line.
l ne ront tawn thts creates should be unlenced and vrsually
continuous with adjacent yards. The ideal is to simulate
buildings sitting in a rural landscape. A front porch is usuallv
not appropriate, since no social interaction with the street i; DOORYARD
pol.ible at slch a distance.The large setback can provide a
butler trom heaw traffic, so thrs type ts sometimes founcl
on boulevards.

PORCH AND FENCE

FRONT LAWN

AndresDuany,ElizabethptatetrZyberk,
Gary^Greenan, KamalZaharin.lskandarShalie;Miami,Florida
The CinlasFoundarion

4
tl
SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
 LondscopeTyPes 95

GENERAL
The urban landscape is a set of rnterdependent elements
that creates a controlled sense of place. lt includes thor
oughfare 1ype, building type, frontage type, and the form
and disgosition of landscape.

Public landscaping plays many roles above and beyond that

of ornamentation:

1. To correct inadequacies of spatial definition caused by

buildrng trontages. Planttng steady rows of trees at the
edges usually reduces the herght-to-wrdth ratio of the
street space. Grids of trees are used to fill gaps left by
unbuilt lots and surface parking.
2. To adiust the microclimate by providing the appropriate
level of shade or sun for buildings and sidewalks. For
thoroughfares running east-west. this may involve the
use of asymmetrical Planting.
3. To suppon the intended urban or rural character of the
public space. Selecting approprrate speqes and varyrng
the species planted, as well as the regularity of their dis-
position, can alter the landscape significantly.
4. To create a pleasing visual composition, being careful to
mask the aesthetic failure of certain buildings as well as
to reveal the successes. Consider seasonal changes ot
each species.
5. To create a harmonious whole of specific character by
coordinating public and private plantings. Selection RESIDENTIAL ROAD
RURAL ROAD
should vary, to ensure resrstance to pests, but not resuit
in an incoherent collection o{ specimens. Native species
should Dredominale to reduce maintenance, with an
emphasis on species that support wildlite compatible
with human senlement.

RURAL ROAD
This type is appfopriate for buildings at the edges of the
neighborhood and along parks and greenbelts. There is no
public planting line. The tree species should be episodic,
but in coherent clusters. There are no curbs; the drainage is
by open swale. Bicycle paths may be paved in asphalt.

RESIDENTIAL ROAD
This type is appropriatefor housesoutside of neighborh@d
centers. Since the frontage usually includes a substantial
setback. the tree canopy may be quite wide. The rural
aspect may be supported bY planting several species in
imperfect alignment.Roadsare detailedwith open swales'
and, where possible,drainageis through percolation.

RESIDENTIAL STREET
Thistype is appropflatefor residentral
buildingsat neighbotr /
'
h@d and town centers I rees ale in continuousplanlrng
strips, since the sidewalkdoes not require unusualwidth.
Planta singlespeciesof tree in steadyalignment.A thin.
venical canopy is necessary to avoid nearby building
facades.This type is dimensionally interchangeable with
the commercialstreet tYpeand may alternatein correspon- RESIDENTIAL STREET COMMERCIAL STREET
dence to the building facade. Streets are detailed with
raisedcurbs and closedstorm drainage.

COMMERCIAL STREET tl
tl
This type is appropriatelor commercialbuildingsat neigh- tl
borh@d and town centers.Trees are confinedby individual tl
plantingar€s, creatinga sidewalkof mximum width with
tl
areas accommodatingstreet furniture. Plant a single spe-
cies of tree in steadyalignment.CIeartrunks and high cano-
pies ar6 necessary to avoid interference with shoplront
signageand amings. Streetsare detailedwith raisedcurbs
with closed storm drainage.

AVENUE
This type is appropriatefor approachesto civic buildings.
The general principle is a thoroughfareof limited length,
with a substantialplantedmedian.At town cente.s,the
median may be wide enoughto hold monumentsand even
buildings.In residentialareas,the medianmay be planted
naturalisticallyto becomea parkwayor green.

BOULEVARD
tl
This type is appropriatefor hightapacity thoroughlaresat ll
neighborh@dedges.The detailingis similarto that of a
commercial street. The effect of the mediansis to segre-
gate the slower traffic and parking activity, al the edges,
from through traffic,at the center.
AVENUE BOULEVARD

Gary Greenan. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

A
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
SITE, I
 96 ThoroughforeNomenclqture
GENERAL
Thoroughlares are endowed with two attribules: caoacrtv
and chardcler Capacrty refers lo the number ot vehtcles
that can move safely through a segment within a given

ffi
time. lt is physically manifested by the number of lanes and
their width and by the centerline radius, the curb radius,
and the super elevation of the pavement Character relers
to a thoroughfare's suitability for pedestrian activatiesand a
variety of building types. Character is physically manifested
by the thoroughfare's associated building. trontage, and

mwl
landscape types and sidewalk width.

Convenlional traftic engineering practice uses terms such

'arterial,"
as "collector" and whjch denote only capacity.
This is too simplistic and tends to create an environment
inhospitable lor pedestrians The following nomenclatu.e
more adequately describes the combination of caOacitvand
character necessary to create true urbanism_

W' NOMENCLATURE
HIGHWAY:A Iong{islance,mediumspeedvehicular corri-
dor that traversesopen country.A highway shouldbe rela-
NK
tively free ol intersections,drivewavs, and adiacent
buildings;otherwisert becomesa stilp, which tnterferes
with trafficflow. (Relatedtermsincludeexpressway,
a high
speed highwaywith intersectionsreplacedby grade sepi-
ration,and patkway.a hrghwaydesignedwrth narura'istrc
landscaping, partiallyaccommodatedwtthin a wtde and
varyingmedian.

BOULEVARD:A longdistance.medium speed vehicular

corridorthat traversesan urbanizedarea. lt is usuallvlined
by parallelparking,wide srdewalks,or side medianspianted

ffi
wth trees.Euildingsuniformlylinethe edges.

AVENUE;A shoniistance, medium speed connectorthat

trav€rsesan urbanarea.Unlikea boulevard, its axisis termi-
natedby a civicbuildingor monument.An avenuemay be
concervedas an extremely elongated square. {A related
term is all6e, a rural avenue spatially defined by trees
alignedon either side but devoidof buildingsexcept at the
Iermrnus.,

m^HWAp DRIVE:An edgebetweenan urbanand a naturalcondition,

W
usuallyalonga waterfront,park.or promontory.One side of
tho drive has the urbancharacterof a boulevard,with side-
walk and buildings,while the other h6 the aualitiesof a
parkway,with naturalisticplantingand ruraldetailing

STREET:A small-sele, low speed local connector.Streets

provide frontagefor high-densitybuildingssuch as offices,
v-at\:+G<"
-
shops, apartment buildings, and rowhouses. A street is
urbanin character,with raisedcurbs. closeddrainage,wide
u )\:\----l,^ sidewalks,parallel
parking,treesin indjvidual
plantingareas,
and buildingsalignedon shortsetbacks.

ROAD:A small-scale,low speed connector.Roadsprovide

lrontagefor lowiensity buildingssuch as houses.A road
tends to be rural in character with open curbs, ootional
parking,continuousplantrng.narrowsidewalts, and butld-
ings set well back.The ruralroadhas no curbsand is lined
by pathways,irregulartree planting,and uncoordinated
buildingsetbacks.

ffi
ALLEY:A narrowaccessroute servicingthe rearof build-
ings on a street- Alleys have no sidewalks,landscaping,or
buildingsetbacks.All€ys are used by trucks and;ust
accommodatedumpsters, They are usuallypaved to their
edges. with center drainagevia an jnvened crown.

LANE: A narrow access route behind houses on a road.

Lanesare ruralin character,with a narrow strip of pavingat
lhe center or no paving.While lanes may not be necesslry
with front-loadedgarages,they are stjll usetul for accom-
modating utility runs, enhancingthe privacy of rear yards,
and providingplay areasfor children.

PASS,AGE: A very narrow, pedestrian{nlv connector cut-

ting between burldrngs.Passages provrde shortcuts
through long blocks or connect rear parkrngareaswrth
street frontages.Passagesmay be rooled ovei and linedbv
shoofronts.

PATH:A very narrow pedestrianand bicycleconnectortra-

versinga park or the open country.Pathsshouldemerge
from the sidewalk network. Bicycle paths are necessa-.y
along haghwaysbut are not requiredto supplementboule-
vards, streets, and roads,where slower traffic allows shar-
ing ol the vehicularlanes.
ROADS, LANES, PATHS
STREETS, ALLEYS, PASSAGES
MORE RURAL
MORE URBAN

Andres Duany, Elizabethplater?yberk, KamalZaharin, lskandar Shafie: Miami. Florida

Gary,Greenan,
The CintasFoundation

4
u SITE,
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
 ThoroughforeTYPes 97
GENERAL
Caoacrtv and character are combined and adJusted to
achieve a complete series of useful thoroughfare types-. The
series rs best regarded In pairs: keeping the trghtof-way
wdth (B O.W) constant. each oair illustrates one type surl
able in two wavs, one for a relativelY rural condition and an-
other suitable for a more urban condition.

BOULEVARD HIGHWAY

' ' 'vaRtEs'

zo'urru zr' 24' 20'MlN

130 MtN R O.W

130 R.O.W

H IG HWAY
AOULEVARD

MAIN STREET AVENUE

11
ffi
zo' 4o'MrN. 20'
80'MlN. R.O.W.
AVENUE
MAIN STREET

STREET

+_+__++
lo 40' lo
lttlll
lffi-r
5' t4' 22'
60'R.O.W.
14' 5'

60'R.O.W

ROAD
STREET

MINOR STREET RURAL ROAD

{ nn
L#J
2 LANES
J I
%:m2
tttl tlttl
ffi lffi
5 t3 19 MlN. 13
IO' 30' lo'
50 R.O.W.
50' R O.W.

MINOR STREET RURAL ROAO

PASSAGE
+3;;-

PASSAGE PATH

MORE URBAN MORE RURAL

ChesterChellman,P.E.:Ossipee,New Hampshire
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie:Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan.Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
The Cintas Foundation
4
SITE, PLANNING
AND URBAN
COMMUNIry, |l
 98 TrodilionolNeighborhoodDesign
INTRODUCTION
The traditional neighborhood development (TND) ordinance
produces compact, mixed-use, pedestrian t{endly commu
nities. lt can be incorporated in municipal zoning ordjnances
as an overlay or aS a separate districl. lt is intended to
ensure the following conventrons
i'if.Tll
Traditional neighborhoods share the following characteris-
tEl
tics:

1. The neighborhood's area is limited to what can be tra-

ffi COMMERCIAL

versed in a 1o-minute walk-

2. Residences, shops, workplaces, and civic buildings are % HIGH RESIDENTIAL

located in close oroximitv

3. A hierarchy of streets serves the pedestrian and the auto-
mobile equitablv.
m LOW RESIDENTIAL

4. Physicallydefined squares and pa.ks provide places for

formal social activity and recreation. ffi
5. P.ivate buildings torm a clear edge, delineating the street
space_
6. Civic buildings reinforce the identity of the neighborhood,
providing places of assembly {or social, culturat. and reli-
grous aclrvfles.
Traditional neighborhoods pursue certain social oblectives:

1. To provide the elderly and the young with independence

of movement by locating most daily activities within
walking distance
2. To minimize traffic congestion and limit road construction
by reducing the number and length of automobile trips
3. To make public transit a viable alternative to the automo-
bile by organizing appropriate building densities
4. To help citizens come to know each other and to watch
over their collective security by providing public spaces
such as streets and squares
5. To integrate age and economic classes and form the
bonds of an authentic community by providing a full
range of housing types and workplaces
6. To encourage communal initiatives and suppon the baf
anced evolution of society by providing suitable civic
buildings

SPECIAL DEFINITIONS
Terms used in a TND ordinance may differ in meaning from
their use in conventional zoning ordinances:

ARTISANAL USE: Premises used for the manufacture and

sale of items that are made employing only handwork and/
or table-mounted electrical tools and creating no adverse
impact beyond its lor.

BLOCK: The aggregate of lots and alleys circumscribed bv

public use tracts, generally streets.

EUILDING HEIGHT: The height measured in stories. Attics

and raised basements do not count against building height
limitations.

CITIZENS'ASSOCIATION: The organization o{ owners of

lots and buildings associated under articles. The articles
shall reference an approved master planj set standards lor
building location, construction, and majntenance; orovide
for maintenance on public trdcts: and provide for the con.
struction of new civic buildings by an ongoing special
assessment.
FACADE: The building wall parallel to a frontage line.
FRONTAGE LINE: The lot line that coincides with a street
tract.
GREEN EDGE: A continuous open area surrounding the
neighborhood proper. The area shall be preserved in perpe-
turty as a natural area, golf course,
or growing or playing
fields, or it shall be subdivided into house lots no smaller
than 20 acres each.
LIMITED LODGING: Residentiat premises providing no
more than eight rooms for short-term etting and food ser-
vrces before noon only.
LIMITED OFFICE: Residential premises used for business
or professional services, employing no more than four fulf
trme employees, one of whom must be the owner.
LOT: A separately platted portion of land held privatelv.
TND LANO ALLOCATION
MEETING HALL: A building designed for pubtic assembly,
containing at least one room with an area equjvalent to 10
sq ft per dwelling, or 1300 sq ft, whichever is greater.
NEIGHBORHOOD PROPEE: The built-uo area of a TND
including blocks, streets, and squares but excluding green
edges.
OUTBUILDING: A separate building, additional to a principal
building, contiguous with the rear lot line, having at most
two stones and a maximum habitable area of 450 sq ft
Outbuildings may be residential retail units. Outbuildings
are exempt from building cover restrictions or unit counts
PARK: A public tract naturalistically Iandscaped, not more
than 10% paved, and surrounded by lots on no more than
50% of its perimeter.
PROHIBITED USES: Uses not oermitted in rhe standard
zoning ordinance, as well as automatic food, drink. and
newspaper vending machines and any commercial use that
encourages patrons to remain in their automobiles while
receiving goods or services (except service stations).
SHAREDPARKING:A parkingplace where daylnightor
weekday/holidayschedulesallow the use of parkingspaces
by more than one user, resultingin a 25yo reductionof the
reouiredsoaces.
SOUARE:A publictract, spatiallydefinedby surrounding
buildings,with frontage on streets on at least two sides
Commercialuses shallbe permitted on all surroundinglots
STORY:A habitablelev€lwithin a buildinqno more than 14
ft in height from lloor to ceiling.
STREETLAMPS:A light standardbetween10 and 16 tt in
heightequippedwith an incandescent
or metalhalidelighl
source.
STREET TREE:A decrduoustree that resrstsroot pressure
and is of provenviability,in the regionwith no lessthan 4
in. caliperand 8-ft cleartrunkat the time of planting.
STREET VISTA:The view, framedby buildings,
at the termr,
nationof the axis of a thoroughfare.
TRACT:A separatelyplatted portion of land held in com
mon, suchas a thoroughfare,
a square,or a park.

Gary Greenan,Andres Duany, ElizabethPlater-Zyberk,

Kamal Zaharin, lskandar ShaIie: Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation

A
tUl
SITE,
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING

GUTDELINES FOR TRADITIONAL
AND USE
A1.GENERAL: (a) The TND shall be avail-
able as an overlay option for Iand devel-
opmenl rn all land use and Toning
categories except industrial. (b) A TND
requires a minimum parcel of 40 contig-
uous acres and a maximum of 200
acres. Larger parcels shall be developed
as multiple neighborhoods withpach In-
dividually subject to the provisions of
the TND.
42.PUBLIC: (a) Includes streets. squares.
parks, playgrounds. andthe like. (b) Civ-
ic use lots may be placed within tracts
designated lor public use. (c) Large-
scale recreational uses such as golf
courses. schoolyards, and multiple
game fields are located only at the edge
of the neighborhood.
A3.ClVlC: (al Contains community build-
ings such as meeting halls, libraries,
post offices, schools, child care cen-
ters, clubhouses, religious buildings,
recreational facilities, museums. cultur-
al societies, visual and performance arts
buildings, municipal buildings. and the
like.
A4.COMMERCIAL:(a) Containsbuildings B4.COMMERCIAL:
Drimarilvfor businessuses, such as re-
tail, entertainment,restaurant,club, of-
fice, residential, lodging, antsanal,
medical, etc. (b) At least 25yo of the
buildingarea is designatedfor residen-
tialuse.
(a)Containsbuild- 85 HIGH RESIDFNTIAL: (a) A minimum ot
A5.HIGHAESIDENTIAL:
ings tor residentialuse, limited office
use, cafes, retail, lodging,and artisanal
uses. {b) All of the buildingarea above
ground flooris designated lor resi
the
dentialuse. (c)Outbuildingsare permit-
ted.
(a)Containsbuild- 86.LOW RESIDENTIAL:(a) A maximum of C6.LOWRESIDENIIAL:(a)Buildingsare builtout D6.LOWRESIDENTIAL:
46.LOW RESIDENTIAL:
ings lor residentialuses, includangart
studios,limited offices, limited lodging,
and the like. (b)All of the buildingarea
abovethe groundfloor is designatedfor
residential use. (c) Outbuildingsare
permatted.
(a)Contains
buildingstor
AT.WORKPLACE:
uses such as corporateollice, light in-
dustry,artisanal.warehousing,automo
tive.and the like.
Platerzyberk,
GaryGreenan,AndresDuany,Elizabeth
The CintasFoundation
TrqditionolNeighborhoodDesign vv
NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN
LOTS AND BUILDINGS STREETS AND PARKING
LAN D ALLOCATION
Bl.GENERAL: la) Similar land use categorres Cl.GENEBAL: (a) All lots share a f rontage line wth GENERAL: (a) All streets termrnate at other
face across streets; dissimrlar categories a street or square- (b) The main entrances ot all streets. (b) Streetlights are provided along all
abul al reailot hnes (b) Th€ average perim' buildings except outbuildings are on a street or thoroughfares at 35- lo 50 ft intervals. (c) On
eter of all blocks within the neighborhood square. (c) Stoops, open colonnades, and open street parking is allowed on all local streets
does not exceed 1300 ft. For block faces porches may encroach into the front setback. ld) Parking lots are located behind or beside
longer than 500 ft, an alley or pedestrlan (d) The sides of buildrngs at corner lots are sim- building facades. (e) Parking lots and garages
path provides through access. ilar to their tronts. are not adracent to street intersections, crvlc
use lots, or squares and do not occupy lots
that terminate a vista. {f) Shared parking re
duces local parking requirements.
B2.PUBLIC: {a) A minimum o{ 57o of the neigh- C2.PUBLIC: (al Balconiesandopen colonnades are D2.PUBLIC:{a) Parkingsharedbetween public
borhood area or 3 acres (whichever is permitted to encroach up to 5 ft into thorough- and privateuses is encouraged.
greater) is permanently allocated to public {ares and other tracts. Such encroachments
use. (b) Each neighborhood contains at shall be orotected bv easemenls.
leasl one square, not less than one acre in
size. close to the center. (c) No portaon ot
the neighborhood is more than 2000 lt
from the square. (d) At least half the perim-
eter of squares, parks, and waterfronts
{ace streets. (e) At least a quarter of the pe-
rimeter of waterfronts, goll courses, green-
belts, and other natural amenities face
Streets.
83.ClVlC: (a) A minimum of 27o ol the neigh- haveno heightor set- D3.ClvlC: (a)The majority(75yo)of the off-street
C3.ClVlC:{a)Civicbuildings
borhood area is reserved for civic use. (b) backlimitations. parkingtor civic structuresis behindthe build-
Civic lots are within or adjacent to squares ings.
and parks or on a lot terminating a street
vista. (c) Each neighborhood has a minr
mum of one meeting hall and one child care
lacilitv.
(a)A minimumof 27oand C4.COMMERCIAL: (a) Buildings are built out to a D4.COMMERCIAL:(a)Lots front streets no more
a maximum ol 309o ol the neighborhood minimum of 807o of their frontage at the front- than four laneswide; parallelparkingand side-
areais designatedtor comrercial use. (b) age line. (b) Buildings have no required setback walks minimum 15 ft wide. (b) Rear lot lines
Commerciallots havea maximumfrontage from the side lot lines. (c) Buildings do not ex- coincidewith an allev. {c} Streets have curbs
ot 32 ft. (c)A maximumof lour lots may be ceed four stories in height and are no less than with a radiusat intersectionsof 5 to 15 ft. (d)
consolidatedto constructa single building. two stories in herght When fronting a square, Street trees are alignedon both sides of the
buildings are no less than three storles In street at 35- to 5Gft interyals;when open col-
height. (d) Building coverage does not exceed onnadesare provided,no street trees are nec-
709o of the lot area. essary.{e)The majority(75yo)of the off-street
parkingis behindthe buildings.
Cs.HlGHRESIDENTIAL: (a)Buildingsare builtout D5.H|GHRESIDENTIAL: (a)Lots frontstreetsno
2O9o and a rrCximum ot 607o of the neigh- to a minimumof 70% oI theirfrontage, at a con- more than three laneswide, with parallelpark-
borhood area is designated for high resi- tinuousalignmentno furtherthan 10 ft from the ing and sidewalks minimum 15 ft wide. (b)
dential use. (b) High residential lots have a lrontageline. (b) Buildingshave no requrred Street trees are alignedboth sides ol streets
marrmum f rontage of 16 ft. (c) A maximum setbackfrom sidelot lines.(c)Buildings do not at 35- to 50-ft inteNals. (c) Rearlot linescoan-
of eight lots may be consolidated for the exceedfour storiesin heightand,when fronting cide with an alley. (d) All off-street parkingis
purpose of constructing a single building a square, are no less than three stofles rn behindthe buildings.
containing one or more residential units. height. (d) Buildingcoveragedoes not exceed
50% of the lot area.
(a) Lots front roadsno
60% of the neighborhoodarea is designat- to a minimum of 40% of their frontageat a con- more than two laneswide with optionalparal-
ed tor low residentialuse. (b) Lots havs a tinuous alignmentno Iurtherthan 30 ft from the lel parking and sidewalks minimum 6 ft wide.
maximum frontage of 64 ft. (c) A maxi- frontagelin€. (b)Sidesetbacksare no less than {b) Street trees ar€ installedon both sides ol
'I the street at no more than 50-ft intervals. (c)
mum of two lots mav be consolidatedfor 0 ft in aqgregat€and may be allocatedto one
the purposeo{ constructinga single build- side. Buildingsare set back no less than 20 ft Rearlot lines mav coincidewith an alley. (d)
ing. from th€ rear lot line. Outbuildingshave no re- All ofl-street parking is to the side or reat ot
quired setback. (c) Buildingsdo not exceed the building. Where access is through the
three storiesin height. (dl Buildingcoverage frontage, garages or carpons are located a
d@s not exceed 50% ol the lol area. minimum of 20 ft behindthe facade.
BT.WORKPLACE: (a)A minimumof 27oanda CT.WORKPLACE: {a) Euildings are built out to a DT.WORKPLACE: (a) Lots front streets as wide
maximum of 30% of the neighborhood minimum of 707o ol their fronlage at a continu as necessary to accommodate truck traffic.
for workplaceuse. (b) ous alignment no {urther than 10 ft from the (b) Street trees are aligned on both sides ol
areais designated
Lots havea maximumfrontageof g ft. (c) lrontage line. (b) Buildings have no setbacks the street at 35. to 5Gtt intervals. (c) Rear lol
A maximumof four lots may be consolidat- from side or rear lot lines. (c) Buildings do not lines coincide with an allev. (d) All oll-streel
ed for the purposeof constructinga single exceed three stories in height. {d) Building cov- parking is to the side or rear of the building.
building. erage does not exceed 70yo ot the lot area. (e)
Lots are separated from other use tYpes al the
side and rear lor lines by a wall of between 3
and I ft high.
KamalZaharin'lskandarShafie;Miami,Florida
4
PLANNING
ANDURBAN
COMMUNW,
SITE, U
 REMOVE FOR
- PUBLIC STREET F|REappaRATUs
n I l
ACCESS
\ _\ -- L
L]
'
L] L\
| \_-
--eounno
l -' -w- !
\-{f
PAVED SURFACE
DESIGNED TO
SUPPORT LOAD
OF FIRE
APPARATUS
e#
+* +
'll
"

fiffiIffifl
l'
ro'.o"rorz'.o"
WITH MIRRORS
1-

J
swtNc GATE

DE , SAC

FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS ACCESS OBSTRUCTIONS DRIVE\^/AY LAYOUTS

Fire apparatus (i.e., pumpers, ladder vucks, tankers) should Bollards used lor traffic control and Jences tor securitv Long dead ends (grealer than 150 ft) can cause time con
have unobstructed access to buildings. Check with local tire should allow suffrcient open road width tn4 for access bv suming. hazardous backup maneuvers. Use t-turns, culsde
department for apparatus turning radius (R), length (L), and frre apparatus. Bollards and gates can be secured by stan- sac. and curved driveway layouts to allow unimpeded
other operating characteristics. Support systems embed- dard fire department keyed locks (check with department access to buildinos.
ded in lawn areas adjacent to the building are acceptable. having iu.isdicrion).

RESTRIcTEo AREAs
Buildings constructed near clilfs or steeo slooes should not
reslr'ct access by tire apparatus to only one side of the
building. Grades greater than 10% make operation of fire
apparatus difficult and dangerous. Avoid parking decks
abutted to buildings. Consider pedestrian bridge overs
Insteao.

FIRE OEPARTMENT RESPONSE TIME

FACTOR
Site plannrng factors that determrne response trme are
sireet accessibility {curbs, radii, bollards, T-turns. culsde-
sac, street and site slopes, street furniture and architectural
obstructions. driveway widths), accessibility for fir€fighting
(fire hydrant and standpipe connection layouts, outdoor
lighting. identi{ying signs), and tocation (city, town, village,
farm). Check with local codes, fire codes, and fire deo;rt-
ment for area regulations.
STREET FURNITURE AND
ARCHITECTURAL OBSTRUCTTONS
Utilitypoles can obstructuse oI aerialladdersfor rescue
and fire suppressionoperations.Kiosks,outdoorsculoture,
lountains,newspaperboxes,andthe lke canalsoselously
imp€de fire fightingoperations.Wide podium basescan
prevent ladder access to the upper stories of buildings.
Canopi€sand other nonstructuralbuildingcomponentsc;n
also preventfire apparatusoperationsclose to buildings.
ORIVEWAY WIDTHS
For full extension of a€rial ladders at a safe climbing angle
(e). sufficient driveway width (W) is required. Estimate the
required width in feet by: W = (H-6) cote + 4, where pre-
ter.ed climbing angles are 60 to 80". Check with local fire
department for aeri3l apparatus operating requirements.
including widrh of aerial device with stabilizing outriggers
extended.

HIGHLIGHT REFLECTANCE
COLOR FOR MAX. VISIBILITY
ZONE OF MAX.
LIGHT INTENSITY BONNET

"STEAM€R"
CONNECTION
FACING STREET

PAVEMENT RING

FUNGE

OUTDOOR LIGHTING FIRE HYDRANT AND STANDPIPE FIRE HYDRANT PLACEMENT

CONNECTION LAYOUT
Fire hose connections should be at least 1 5 in. above grade
Streets that are properly lighted enable fire tighters to Locate tire hydrants at street intersections and at interme- Do not bury hydrants or locate them behind shrubs or other
locate hydrants quickly and to position apparatus at night. diate points along roads so that spacing between hydrants vrsual barriers- Avoid locations where runoff water and
Avoid layouts that place hydrants and standpipe connec- does not exceed capability of local fire jurisdiction. Hydrants snow can accumulate. Bollards and fences used to protect
tions in shadows. In some situations, lighting firtures can should be placed 2 to 10 ft from curb lines. Siamese con, hydranls from vehicular traffic musl not obstruct fire fight
be integrated into exterior of buildings. Alt buildings should nections lor standpipes should be visible, marked consorcu- ers access to hose connections. "steamer" connection
have a str@t address number on or near the main ously, and be adtacent to the pnnctpal vehicle access point should usually face the side of arriving fire apparatus.
entrance. to allow rapid connection by lire fighters to the pumping
engrne.
SUFFICIENT SEPARATION KEY VALVE FUMMABILITY
ACCESS F|NING TANK (UKE) NUMERAL (IN
DISTANCE FROM ASSEMBLY LOCATION IN
EXPOSING FIRES CURB AOX
REACTIVITY NUMERAL
/ GUTTERAT 6' (IN YELLOW)
GRAVITY BELow roP
\
ESSURE I TANK \=-*- - HEALTH NUMERAL
AD ---.1 (IN BLUE
ELEVATION OF
zl I
DISCHARGE
t.5 L SPECIFIC HAZARD
BUILOING SYMBOL (E.G . DO
OUTLET
NOT USE WATER)
RISER
TRENCH AROUND WHITE BACKGROUND
CONTAINING
AOTTOM PERIMETER . SUPPLY AND SIGN OR PLACARD
PIPING
FOR POROUS
DRAINPIPE
(.. OUTLET LINE
WHITE NUMBERS ON COLOR
IRCUUTING LINE SUBOIVIDER, BACKGROUND ALSO ACCEPTABLE
GRAVITY TANK ON-SITE LAKES NFPA 7O4 DIAMOND SYMBOLS
Gravity tanks can p.ovide a reliable source of pressure to Man-made and natural on-site lakes are used for orivate fire Standard diamond symbols provide information fire fighters
building standpipe or sprinkler systems. Available pressure lighting in suburbs. on farms, and at resorts A prped suppiy need to avoid injury from hazardous building contents. zero
head increased by 0.434 psilft increase ol water above tank system to a dry hydrant is preferred for its quantity, flexibil- {0) is the lowest degree of hazard,4 is highest. Locate sym,
discharge outlet. Tank capacity in gallons depends on fire ity, better maintenance, and accessibilitv. Man-made lakes bols near building entrances. Correct spatial arrangement
hazard, water supply, and other factors. Tanks require oeri- with roservoir liners can be berm-supoorted or sunk in the for two kinds of diamond symbols are shown. Consider
odrc maintenance and protection agalnst freezing during ground. Lakes and ponds are natural water supplies depen- integrating symbols with overall graphics design ol building
cold weather. Locations subject to seismic forces or high dent on the environment. See local codes, fire codes. and (Refer to "ldentification of the Fire Hazards of Materiats."
wtnds requrre specjal consideration Gravitv tanks also can fire departments tor on-site lake regulations. NFPA No. 704, available from the National Fire Protection
be integrated within building design.
Association.)

D. L. Collins and M. David Egan, P. E., College of Architecture, Clemson University; Clemson. South Carolina
Nicholas A. Phillips, AIA; Lockwood Greene; New york. New york

A
1 SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING

FLOOD DAMAGE MANAGEMENT
Flood hazards are caused by building in flood-prone areas.
Fl@ds cannot be prevented, but the damage they wreak on
man-made Droperties can be managed, either by altering
the flood potential of an area or by avoiding construction in
lo€tions subiect to flooding. Historically, flood damage
management in the United States has locused on the
former management lechnique, attempting to diven floods
with structural flood controls-dams, levees, and channel
modilications. However, such flood control measures have
proved unsatisfactory over time.
Structural flood control proiects have tended to encourage
development in high hazard areas. often without appropri-
ate land use planning. When a storm exceeds or violates
the design parameters of a tlood control structure, the dam-
age that results from a flood can exceed what would have
@curred if the structure had not been built. For example,
tl@dplain invasion often occurs where lwees have been
built with the intention ol reducing damage to agriculture.
Although in some regions levees have reduced the number
of high-frequency floods, in general they cause conditions
tavorable for their own failure by altering erosion patterns
and increasing stages.
Recognition of the cost of development in high{isk areas.
the uneven distribution of flood hazards on lhe landscape,
and the natural and beneficial values of floodplains have led
to more common adoption of nonstructural flood hazard
managemenl techniques. In particular, land use manage-
ment and modified building practices are finding wide-
spread acceptance.
Information on flood damage management and floodplain
and wetland conseryation is available from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Natural Haz-
ards Research Applications and Information Center, the
U.S- Army Corps o{ Engineers, the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, the National Park Service, and state and local
ag€ncres.
FLOOD HAZARDS
Most flood damage is caused by weather conditions such
as hurricanes, fronts associated with midlatitude cyclones,
thunderstorms, and melting snow packs. These conditions
interact wtih surface leatures such as tloodplains, coasts,
wetlands, and alluvial lans. resulting in floods, mudslides.
and erosion. Geologic phenomena such as eanhquakes
may also trigger floods.
Weather and climate in{ormation is available from the
National Climate Data Center. regional climate research
centers, ?nd state climatology oftices. Geologic and hydro
logic information is available from the U.S. Geological Sur
vey and state geological and geographical surveys.
FLOOD.PRONE AREAS
FLOODPLAIN: The relatively flat area within which a river
moves and upon which it legularly overflows.
Rivers typically meander over their floodplains, eroding the
cutbank and redepositing sediments in accretion zones
such as point bars, meander belts, and natural levees.
Channel shifting may be extreme in alluvial fans. Coastal
tl@dplains, which include barrier islands, shores, and wet-
lands. hav€ the same relationshio to the sea that riverine
tloodplains have to rivers.
WETLANDS: areas characterized by lrequent flooding or
soil saturation, hydrophytic vegetation {vegetation adapted
to suryival in saturated areas), and hydric soils (soil whose
chemical comDosition re{lects saturation). Wetlands are
oiten found in flmdplains but are more restrictively detined.
FLOOD TYPES
Floods may be classified by their l@ations or physical char-
actenstrcs.
RIVERINE FLOOD: great overflows of water from a river
channel onto a floodplain caused by precipitation over Iarge
areas, melting snow, or both. Over-bank flow is a normal
geophysical event that @curs on average every two years
for most rivers.
HEADWATER FLOOD: a riverine llood that results from
precipitation directly in a basin
BACKWATER FLOOD: a riverine flood caused by high
stages on downstream outlets, which prevent drainage
from tributary basins or even reverse the flow.
COASTAL FLOOD: overflows onto coastal lands bordering
an @ean, estuary, or lake. Coastal lloods are caused by tsu-
namis (seismic sea waves). hutri€nes, and northeasters.
Mattie Fincher Coxe: Eaton Rouge, Louasiana
FLASH FLOOD: a local flood of great volume and short
duration. Flash floods di{{er from fiverine floods in extent
and duration. Flash tloods gene.ally result from a totrentjal
rain or "cloudburst" covering a relatively small drainage
area. Flash tloods may also result from the failure ot a dam
or sudden breakup of an ice jamb.
FLOOD RISKS
Flood risk is usuallv exoressed as the estimated annual fre-
quency with which a flood equals or exceeds a specified
magnitude. The llood risk for a future period of time is the
ioint probabiljty of the occurrence of the annual flood risk.
For example, il a hous€ is situated at the "100-year Jlood"
elevation (1 yo annual exceedance frequency). then its tlood
risk for a 3o-year period is 26% or approximately a one in
four chance it will be llooded to the specified depth or
greater.
STANDABD PROJECTED FLOOD (SPF): a flood that may
b€ expected from the most severe combination of meteo-
rological and hydrological conditions characteristic of the
geographic area in which the drainage basin is located,
excluding extremely rare combanations.
SPFs are used in designing dams and other facilities with
high damage potentaal.
PROBABLE MMIMUM FLOOD {PMF): the most severe
flood that may be expected lrom a combination of the most
critical meteorological and hydrological condations reason-
ably possible in a drainage basin. (This term is not a statisti
cal concept.)
PMFS are used in designing high-risk flood protection
works and in siting structures and facilities thal must be
subject to almost no risk of flooding.
LAND UsE IN FLOOD ZONES
Land use management is the most effective method of
managing flood damage. State control of land use in hazard-
ous areas, authorized by tha policepowers clause of the
U.S. Constitution, is usually delegated to local planning and
zoning boards. L@al, state, and federal governments also
regulate ecosystems essential for flood damage manage-
menl. such as wetlands, coastal dunes, and mangrove
stands. Land use management often includes setback reg-
ulations, which attempt to limit flood-related erosion dam-
age. Regardless of regulations imposed by the
government, developers should evaluate building sites for
their intrinsic suitability for the intended use.
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requires that
participating local governments adopt minimum lloodplain
management plans based on data provided by the federal
7
3 insurance administrator. The NFIP does not require local
governrents to adopt land use or transponataon plans that
require prelerential development of hazar*tree areas or
prohibit development of land in high hazard areas. New
construction in coastal zones is required to be located land
FLOODPUIN
\ RIVER
SEDIMENTS /
)
ACCRffION
ZONE
INVERTED RIVER VALLEY
INTERFLUVE FLOODPUIN
SPECIAL
---.:F=---
RIVER
SEDIMENTS -./ FILL
DIRECTION OF MEANDER -
V.SHAPED RIVER VALLEY
ControlofFloodDqmoge l0l
ward of the reach of the mean high ttde. Local land use and
development or floodplain management plans that are
more stringent than NFIP requirements supersede NFIP
requirements. The NFIP divides riverine floodplains into
flmdway and floodway fringes for land use management.
Coastal floodplains are divided into coastal high-hazard
areas and coastal fringes. Land uses in these areas should
always be verifred with local agencies.
FLOOOWAYS
Floodwavs include the channel of a watercourse and those
portions of the adjoining tloodplain required to permit the
passage of a llood of specified magnitude at no more than
a specified level above natural conditions. The NFIP
requires lloodways to be large enough to accommodate
floods with a 17o annual exceedance frequency (100-year
flood) without causing an increase in water levels of more
than a soecified amount (1 ft in most areas). Some localities
obiec.t to the acceptability of increased flood levels this
NFIP requirement implies. lnstead, they define the flood-
wav as the area inundated bv floods with a 4yo annual
exceedance frequency (25-year lloodi.
Uses oermitted in a floodwav are those with low llood dam-
age potential thal do not obstruct flood {lows or require
structures, fill, or storage of materials or equipment. Fill is
prohibited, and most structures are strongly discouraged.
The following uses are generally permitted:
FUNCTIONALLY DEPENDENT USES: facilities and struc-
tures that must be located close to water in order to func-
tion, such as docking and port facilities and shipbuilding and
repair lacilities. Water supply and sanitary sewage treat-
ment plants must be floodproofed il they must be leated
adjacent to bodies ol water.
AGRICULTURAL USES: general farming, pasture, outdoor
plant nurseries, horticulture. viticulture, truck farming, for-
estry, sod farming, and wild crop harvesting.
RECREATIONAL USES: golf courses, tennis courts. driving
ranges, archery ranges, picnic grounds, boat launching
ramps, swimming areas, parks. wildlife and nature pre-
seryes. game farms, fish hatcheries. shooting preserves,
target.ranges, trap and skeet rang€s, hunting and fishing
areas, and hiking and horseback riding trails.
INCIDENTAL INDUSTRIAL-COMMERCIAL USES: loading
areas, parking areas, and airport landing strips (except in
flash flood areas).
INCIDENTAL RESIDENTIAL USES: lawns, gardens, parking
areas. ano play areas-
FLOODWAY FRINGES
Floodway fringes are the portion of the regulatory floodplain
outside ol the floodway. Floodway fringes are treated as
slorage area {or flood waters. Where permitted, prop€rty
owners on each side of the floodplain may obstruct llood
tlows equally.
INTERFLUVE
BASE FLOOD
ELEVATION
MEAN SEA
(NGVD I 929)
INTERFLUVE
FLOOD HAZARD AREA
EROSION ZONE
A
FLOODDAMAGECONTROL 1l
 102 ControlofFloodDqmoge
Uses permitted in floodway fringes include those permitted
in floodways and elevated or otherwise flood-proofed struc-
tures. Prohtbited or strongly discouraged uses include facilts
ties for storing materials that are toxic or flammable or
explosrve In water, vital lacilities such as hosDitals and civil
defense or rescue facilities, and facilities that are difficult to
evacuate, such as nursing homes and prisons.
FLOOD INSURANCE
RATE ZONES
The NFIP is a program intended to reduce federal expendi-
tures for flood disaster relief. lt provides flood damage
Insurance as an incentive Io. communities to adopt flood,
plain management regulations, especially those governing
floodplain obstructions and building practices in floodplains.
NFIP minimum standards require a low level of flood dam
age management based on historic conditions.
States and localities may establish standards higher than
NFlPas, in which case these supersede NFIP standards. For
example, other governments may control land use in haz-
ardous areas, regulate runof{, have freeboard requirements,
or base regulatory flood elevations on historic floods that
exceeded the base flood or on the oroiected effects ot
future development. The NFIP Community Ratang System
provides insurance rate reductions as an incentive to adopt
higher standards.
The NFIP bases Flood Insurance Rate Zones on the fre-
quency of flooding and the presence of storm surge and
waves. Local governments are typically required to regulate
building practices in A and V zones as a condition of eligibil-
ity for flood insurance.
The most important requirement in A and V zones is that
the tirst floor of new buildings be buill equal to or higher
than the base flood level, which has a 1 yo chance of beino
equaled or exceeded in any grven year ( l 0Gyear flood). Thi
base flood is the still water height for riverine floods. For
the Atlantic Coast and the Gull of Mexico, the base flood
includes storm surge plus wave crest height because of
northeasters and hutricanes. The base flood for the Pacific
Coast includes astronomical rides plus wave run-up caused
by tropical cyclones and tsunamis. For maior lakes, the
base flood includes seiche (sloshing be€use of wind, seis-
mic activity, and storm surge). The base flood elevation
{BFE} is the height of the base flood in reference to mean
sea level as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical
Datum ol 1929 {NGVD 1929).
Local communities may adopt regulatory flood datums
(RFD) in place ot base llood elevations. RFDS are the base
flood plus a lreeboard. a factor of safety expressed in feet
and used to compensate for uncenainties that could con-
tribute to greater flood height than that computed for a
base flood. Freeboard allows for hazards excluded from
consideration in tiguring the base llood and uncertainties in
analysis, design. and construction. Severe structural subsid-
ence, increases in floods because of obstructions in the
floodplain, urban runoff, or normal climatic variability, as
well as long-term increases in sea level and storms, are
olten excluded from consideration in determining base
flood levels. Urban conditions. low accuracy base maps,
and unplanned development are other common sources of
uncertainty that justif y f reeboard.
Some qommunities require up to a 3-ft lreeboard to com-
pensate for inaccurate flood insurance rate maps (FlRMs).
The margin of error of base maps may be estimated as plus
or minus one-halt of the contour interual. Most FIRMs are
developed from maps with a contour interyal of 5 ft, and a
margin of error ol -2 12 lt. Field survey maps with a con-
tour interval of 2 ft or less are used in some communities;
the smaller interyal reduces the uncertaintv of the risk and
the need for freeboard.
The NFIP classifies land either as special flood hazard areas
(SFHA)--*righJrequency f lood, {l@d-related erosion, and
mudslide zones{r low-risk and undetermined flood haz-
ard zones. Zone names that include actuarial risk factors,
such as A1-A30 and V'l-V30, are being replaced by AE and
VE designations with flood depths.
a zoNEs (A, AE, At -A3O, .AO, AH, AR, A99)
Zones A and AE (formerly A1-A30) are highjisk riverine
areas susceptible to inundation bv the still-water base
flood. AO zones are areas of shallow flooding (1 to 3 ft)
without detined channels, usually sheet flow on sloping ter-
rain. AH zones indicate shallow flooding, usually with water
ponding. AR zones are areas in which structural flood pro-
tection is deficient. A99 zones are areas in which structural
fl@d protection syslems are near compteron.
The finished floor of the lowest habitable level of resi-
dences, usually including basements, must be elevated to
the base flood elevation in zone A. Flood-resistant residen-
Mattie Ann Fincher: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
A
I FLOODDAMAGE CONTROL
tral basements are permitted only in communjties that
meet special NFIP flood criteria and adopt special local stan-
dards tor their design and construction. Commercial struc
tures must be elevated or otherwise floodDrooted to the
BFE.
B ZONES
B zones indicate areas subject to inundation by floods with
an annual exceedance frequency greater than the base
tlood with less than a 0.2% annual exceedance frequencv
{500-year flood). B-zone designations are not used on
recent FIBMS because of the lack of statistical valadityof
mosl estimates of 500-year {loods and the false perception
that they are generally safe. On some maps I zones are
shown as shaded X zones-
c zoNEs
C zones, including all areas that are not in zones A. B, or V,
are not necessarily flood tree. They may include low{isk
interfluvial regions (areas of a watershed above the natural
floodplain), moderate-risk floodplain between the interfluve
and the regulatory floodplain, areas with localized nonriver-
ine flooding. high{isk areas with small contributing drainage
areas, and floodplains with structural flood protection that
may be sub,ect to low frequency catastrophic floods.
D ZONES
D zones are areas of possible blt undetermined flood haz-
ard.
x zoNEs
X zones includeall areas not in zonesA or V, combiningB
and C zonesfound on older maps. On some maps.X zones
that wer€ tormerly B zones and X zones within levee sys-
tems are shaded.
v zoNEs (v, vE, vt-v3o, vo)
VelocityzonesV and VE (formerlyV1-V30)are coastalhigh
hazardareasidentified as susceptibleto inundationby the
base flood, includingstorm surgeswith high velocitywaves
greater than 3 ft. Generally,zone V indicates the inland
extent of a 3-ft breakingwave, where the still-waterdepth
during the loGyear flood decreasesto less than 4 ft. VO
zones are proposed alluvial fan zones with high velocity
shallowflow (1 to 3 ftl and unpredictableflow paths.
Elevation and structuralrequrrements are most stringentin
coastalhigh hazardareas.Fillbelowbuitdingsis p.ohibited.
lf construction is permitted by the local government.the
lowest horizontalstructuralmember of the lowest habitable
floor must be built above the base flood elevation.Rioid
framesor semirigidtrameswith gradebeamscanresisrihe
impact of storm surge and waves. Semrrigidframes with-
GENERI\L LIMITS OF FLOODPROOFING
METHOD
NOTE
Information presented is general and warrants caution. Time availabl€ for warning may be severely limited by a llood's rate of rise
COASTAL FRINGE
PRIMARY
COASTAL DUNES AND BEACHES
out grade beams should be used only in areas not subiecl
to potential scour Freestanding pole struclures are unsafe
large rotations develop at moment connections, causrn.i
deflection of pilings under sustained lateral loads that can
lead to collaose.
Destruction of coastal dunes and wetlands dramaticaltv
Increases the Inland reach of storm surge and waves and
increases the severity of tlood damage. Buildings mav be
destroyed it dunes and wetlands are inadequatelv oro
tected, even it they contorm to legal building requirements
E AND M ZONES (E, M}
E zones are areas adjoining the shore of a lake or other
body of water that are likely to suffer flood-related erosion
M zones are areas with land surfaces and slopes of uncori
soirdated material in which the history, geology. and climate
indicate a potential for mudflow. Setbacks and special buitd
ing requirements are used in E and M zones.
SOURCES
CoastalConstructionManual IFEMA-55).Dames & Moore
and Eliss& Nvitrav.lnc.. 1986.
Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA)-s4).Washinoton.
D C AmeflcanInstituteot Archilects,1984
Elevating to the Wave Crest Level: A Benefit: Cost Analysis
(Fl46),Shaelfer& Roland,Inc..1980.
Federal Emergency Management Agency. Answers lo
Questions About the National Flood lnsurarce Program
(FlA-2).,
Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency. The Fl@dway:A
Guide tor Cffimunity Pemit Officials. Community Assis-
tanceSeriesNo.4. Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
FloodLoss ReductionAssociates.Fl@dplain Management
Handb@k.U.S.Water ResourcesCouncil.1981.
Fbodpr@fing Nonresidential Structures {FEMA)-102).
B@kerAssociates.Inc.,1986.
Hayes, W. W., ed. Facing Geologic and Hydrolagb Haz-
ards: Eafth-Sciene Considentions. Washington, D.C.l
U.S.GeologicalSuruey,198 1.
Pemit Olticials' Handbook tor the National Fl@d lnsurance
Prognm. 3rd ed. Baton Rouge LouisianaDepartment of
Transponationand Developm€nt,1993.
WARNING REQUIREMENTS
Advance warnang
of floodgatesin openings
hr
installationof closures
tme
to higher ground
evacuatron trme requrred
COASTAL OCEAN<ONSTRUCTION PROHT gtTED
HIGH HAZARD
DUNES
 VehicleDimensions 103
GENERAL
, l
ln setting design paramelers. the designer assumes that all
vehicles present are "design vehicles." Design vehicbs are ' lf-t
ll -t
selected to represent approximately the 85th percentile vehi- ACCESSIBLE LIff-\
cle in a range from smallest to largest. In the recent past, \ _
small or comoact ca. stalls were often separated from large or \ A-_-,---J
standard stalls in parking designs. However, a deciine in
l" To 3'-o ;F_i- ACCESSIBLE 3 -s ro 4 - r o" -J-\_L_W_L
smaller car sales and the increasing use ol light trucks, vans,
and utility vehicles (LTVUS) for personal transportation have Llff
made small{aronly stalls ineffective as a design l@1. There vt/HEELCHAIR LIFT VAN
fore, while smll car and large car design vehicles-as well as a
composite encompassing both small and large-have been
given here for relerence, parking design must be based on a
composite passenger vehicle that includes not only cars but
light trucks, €ns, and sporvutility vehicles.

BOAT TRAILER

a"To 14'

PASSENGER CAR
RV-CONVENTIONAL TRAILER

LIGHT TRUCK
RV_FIFTH WHEEL (PICKUP-BASE)

RV_FOLDING TRAILER SLIDE-IN CAMPER

/

SPORT/UTILITY STRETCH LIMOUSINE SHUTTLE VAN

DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

LENGTH WIDTH HEIGHT WH EELBASE OV€RHANG FRONT OVERHANG REA.R
(L) (H) (wB) (oF) (oR) GROSS \NEIGHT

(FT-rN.) (LB)

Small carl tt0 5-7 4€ 8€ 24 4S 2850

Composite passenger | 6,9 64 Gl0 9-5 3-O 6000
Light truck | 7-9 6€ 64 11{ 2-9 4-0 8600
e3 G10 10{ 2,9 4-0 4600
Sporvutilityvehicle r6{ 64 6-2 g 3{ 3-8 6000
Wheelchair lift van (oersonal use) l7€ 6€ 8{ 2-6 3-8 6000
Boat trailer 204 8{ 6-O See detail 3-0 8{ 4000
lrarler 214 7-O 9,0 See detail 3-0 124 5000
RV-fifth wheel (pickup-based) 34{ 8-6 t24 8{ 224 12-2 3500
RV*folding trailer r6{ 7S 5-O 8€ 1-6 1500
prckupcamper 18-1 10{ 7-3 2900
limousine 24-6 6-0 5-O 1ffi 44 5-0 9000
van (11 passengersl 2M 6-6 &10 3{ 5-6 I 1,000
lsmall 2 A composite passenger vehicle is a design vehicle that utility vehicles. lt is the vehicle for which a parking {acility
car classes 5 through 7 per Parking Consultants
Council (PCC). encompasses passenger cars, light trucks, vans, and sporv should be designed.

lnc.;Indianapolis.
Mary S. Smith.P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, lndiana

AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING fl
 r04 VehicleDimensions

']

CLASS A M()TOR HOME INTERCITY/CHARTER BUS

CLASS B MOTOR HOME

CLASS C MOTOR HOME ARTICULATED BUS

PARATRANS ITIS H UTTLE BUS scHooL

AMBULANCE VAN FTRE TRUCK_AERIAL

PARAMEDIC UNIT FIRE TRUCK_PUMPER

DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

LENGTH WIDTH HEIGHT WH EELBASE OVERHANG FRONT OVERHANG REAR
VEH ICLE (L) (w) (H) (wa) (o F ) (oR) GROSS WEIGHT
( F T - tN . ) (LB)
30-0 80 204 44 m | 7.000
ClassB motor home {vanconversion) 204 6-8 8-6 2-6 m 9000
Class C motor home (van cutaway) r9{ 7-6 9{ t{ 2-6 5€ 11 . 0 0 0
ParatransiVshuttle
bus {20 passengers) 25! 6-10 8-9 30 11.000
lntercitv/charter bus 404 86 2G6 9-0 lo€ 41,OOO
Citybus* 40{ 8€ 11,2 25-O 74 8{ 47.000
Articulated bus' 60{ 8-6 1G4 See detail 8-6 50.000
School bus 40{ 8{ 10{ 22-O 8,0 t0{ 41,O@
van 19-10 G8 9S 2-A s 9400
Paramedic unit 22.$ 7-8 96 132 2-A 74 r1.500
truck--pumpel 31-0 8-O 9-8 18-8 5-0 7-5 35.000
lruck-aerial 45-9 8{ 10-2 20-3 6-2 19-4 52,000
*Generally in
conformance with standards of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (MSHTO)

Mary S. Smith. P.E; Walke. Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis. Indiana

4
II AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
 VehicleTurning
Rqdii r05

(
lt I
f-t
i{/
Il
||l
irl
COMPOSITE CAR INTERCITY BUS GARBAGE TRUCK

(-_\

',L'/

BOAT TRAILER AMBULANCE VAN FIRE TRUCK-PUMPER

MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS FOR DESIGN VEHICLES (FT-IN.)

MIN. TURNING OUTSIDE FRONT INSIDE REAR STRAIGHT LANE CURVED LANE INSIDE CURB TANGENT
EHICLE TYPE RADIUS (RT) RADTUS (Ro) RADIUS (R,) wtDTH (Ws) wrDTH (\|r'r) RADIUS (R) LENGTH (T)

Composite private vehicle 24-o 2ffi 1ffi o{ 13€ 12$ 24-7

Wheelchair lift van 24-9 2GA 0{ 125 14-0 244

Eoat trailel 244 24-11 &5 { 1 6 11 G10 60-9

tratler 23-10 254 5-7 { 1&4 4-l
Motor home 39-7 42+ 27$ -o 19{ 234 41-2
limousine 32-7 34-10 23-8 -o 14-6 2G2 34t
van 24-10 145 t1{ 13-6 13-4 29-7
ParatransiUshuttle
bus 2+2 26-1I -o 13€ 13-4 294
'17-10 18-7 60{
bus 35-3 23-5 4
ty bus 424 466 244 124 274 214 60{
bus 38{ 43{ 14{ { 22-O 1t{ 624
Schoolbus 41-9 436 297 -0 t7-8 2+3 564
Garbagetruck 31-O 334 20€ 24 t4€ 18€ 38-0
Ambulancevan 24-9 27-2 -o r3-5 13-5 294
unrl 28-5 3G.10 18€ "o 156 33-0
truck-pumper Jb-t I 41-O 27-7 -o | 6-4 244 444

Source: American Association of State Highway and Trans-
portation Officials (MSHTO).
N OTES held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of
the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on
1. Minimumturn radiiat lessthan 10 mph. driveways and roadways.
{columns,walls,light poles,etc.)shouldbe
2. Obstructions

Inc.;lndianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Indiana

AUTOMOBILES, AND PARKING

ROADS, u
A
 106 VehiculqrDesignpolometers
GENERAL neers can be u\ed as a toot for adaplrng desrgns to the spe-
Public skeets and highways are designed to accommodate a crlrc needs ol use's Level ol servrce (LOS) A whrch rs rhe
most comiortable, allows vehrcle movement with little or no
vanety ot vehicles, up to and including SemitrAler trucks. LT
When private driveways and roadways will only serve pas-
constrarni. As the level of service decreases, from A to D,
the comfort level decreases. LOS D is the minimum dimen-
/
senger vehicles, it may be appropriate to use smaller dimen,
srons In some instances. Nonetheless, be certain Drivate
sion for safe maneuvering of a vehicle at low speed. I
roads are wade enough to allow passage o{ fire and emer-
The level ot serv(ce selected for a particular application
gency vehicles.
should rellect lhe needs oi the users and ol the owner ot a
'level property. Make adiustments according to the local vehicle
The of seryice" approach employed by traffic engi, sazeand mix and any concerns pa(icular to the location.

COMPARISON OF LEVELS OF SERVICE

LEVEL OF SERVICE LOS D LOS A
Typeof users Familiar.young adults Unfamiliar, elderly
Length of stay Long-term Short term
Turnover Lessthan2 per day More than 5 per dav
Type of generator lndustrial Retail
Location Urban .Fural
lmage Spec office Corporate headquarters CONCAVE

smail cars High Low

TRANSITION SLOPES
light tfucks, vans, and uttlrty vehrcles Low High

RECOMMENDED DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR VEHICULAR CIRCULATIONI

DRAWING
LOS C LOS B LOS A
Lane width, straight

One lane2 10'{' 11 ' - 0 ' lt{

Multiple lanes 9'{' 9'S' 10'-0' r0'€'

Clearanceto obstructions c ONE-WAY
Radius,turning(outsidefront wheel) R1 24'o', 30',0' 36'{', 42'4'
Lane width, turning4,b
One lane tJ t
Each additional lane r2'-0' 12'4'
Circular helix4.6

Single-threadedT
Outside diameter Do 60'4' 74'-O' 88'-0' 102'4'
Inside diametef Dr 24',4' 36'{' 48',-0' 60'{' NONCONCENTRIC TWO.WAY
Double-threadede
LANE WIDTH (TURNING}
Outside diameter Do 80'{' 95' 0' 11 0 ' { ' r25'-0'
lnside diameter9 Dr M\0' 57'-0' 70'{' 83'{'
ramp slope s 16Vo 14yo l2v. 1jvo
ansrtronlength t- 10'-0' | 1'-0' t2'-0'
Gated/controlled widthlo 8'-9' 9{' 9',3'
Source:Mary S Smith, Parkng Structures:Planning,Design,Maintenance and Repair, 2d ed. (Chapman and Hall, 1996).
1 The design parameters recommended 5 For all levels of
are for design service, use a 20Jt lane to allow room to
speedsrangingfrom 10 mph (LOSD) to 2b mph {LOSA). pass a brokendown vehicle. per AASHTO '1990 figure
Additionaldimensionsfor parkingaccessaislesand lurn- 1 1 1_23.
ing bays are providedon the AGS page on parkingdesign 6 The
diameters given measure from outside face to out-
parameters.
side face of the walls (6-in. walls assumed).
2 For all levelsof service,use a 1
s-ft laneto make room lor 7 Turning radii/iane width
,ncreased 3 ft because of multiple
passtnga brokeniown vehicle_
Turns.
3 The clearancegiven is from
the edge of a lane to a wall, 8 Decrease
3 lt 6 in. to provide 2o-tt lane in order to leave
column, parkedvehicle, or other obstruction,as cited in ADDED 3'.O' FOR
room to pass broken-down vehicles.
American Associationof State Highway and Transporta- 9 Ramp slope, MULIIPLE TURNS
tion Officials,A Policyon Geometiic Designof Higiways minjmum lane width. and clearance to walls (TO OUTSIDE)
and sr/eers (r gg0l IASHTo 19901,figure 11 t,25. control dimensions for double-threaded helix.
a The dimensionsgiven for l0
LOS D are {rom AASHTO'1990 The dimensions given assume a straight approach to lane;
figure 111-23, exceptthe clearancecited in that figure has check turns into lanes with temolate.
beenreducedto 2 ft, per tigure111-25.

FULL HELIX

ROADWAY AND RAMP WIDTHS CIRCULAR HELIX (TURNING)

Mary S. Smith, P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,

Inc.j Indianapolis,
lndiana

fl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
 Drivewqysqnd Roqdwqys 107
dure for developing any drive configuration, given the design NOTE
GENERAL
vehicle and its turning radii (R). The tangent (TG)dimension is tor Rr Br, Ro, Wq, Wr, and Tc, see lhe AGS page on vehl
Veh,cledimensaons are shown on the AGSpageon design an approximate minimum required for transition from one
a proce- cle tuinrng ridrr. Fbr L. OB. and W. see lhe AGS page on
vehicles.The U-shaDeddriveshownhereillustrates turn direction to another. design vehicles.

UNLOADING
AREA -
L

BUS WILL NOT BE

STRAIGHT AT STOP
UNLESS TANGENT {TC)
OIMENSION IS
PROVIOED BETWEEN
RADII

I O',-O" I o'-o"
RADIUS RADIUS

LP+
r---
CENTERLINE OF STREfl

U-SHAPED DRIVE PRIVATE ROADS INTERSECTING

PUBLIC ROADS

INTERSECTIONS AND DRIVES

+-r +
I

CENTER
ON DOOR

l/'\
i" \.1
FORWARD
/

R"/t

CUL-DE-SAC DIMENSIONS

SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR

DRTVEWAY LAYOUTS (FT-rN.)
90' IN_BACK OUT (ICAR}
8-9 9{ r0{ 11{ 124
25-D 24$ 234 23-O 224
STRAIGHT IN_BACK OUT
9{ 10{ 124 r6{
NOTE 26{ 254 23€ 24.o
NOTE
Use this three-maneuver entrance for single car garages 34 24 3-0
only when space limitations demand it. The drawing is based The R values for vehicles intended to use these culsde-sac
on dimensions tor a large car. 144 14-5 14€ 204 should not exceed Rb.

PRIVATE DRIVE\iVAYS :TO RESIDENTIAL GARAGES CULS-DE-SAC

lnc.;Indianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers. Indiana

A
ROADS,AND PARKING
AUTOMOBILES, I
 108 PorkingDesignPorometers

r3s .O'
+301O"

+2O-o

+lO'-O tr

TWO TURNS AT 360" TO TOP ON E.WAY

TURNS IN PATH OF TRAVEL

+: + -- sc + t+
FLOOR TO FLOOR
I ooD L|NES i
f I

I
5 \,,
LLjlll_uilfl|i||tI
if-tilfnT ttilTiflTtlf . ' z \
| |
=

NOTE
lf the bay run is greater than the "small car" dimension, pre
vide a short circuit to help traffic flow.

CLEARANCES FOR VEHICLES SHORT CIRCUIT IN LONG BAY

RECOMMENDED DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR WAYFINDING

AND USER-FRIENDLINESS IN PARKING FACILITIES
LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

DESIGN STANDARD FOR D c B

Maximum walking distance
Within parking lacilities
Surtace lot r400'{' 1050'{' 700',0' 350 -0'
Structure 1200'{' 900'-0' 600'{' 300'-0'
From parking to destination
Climaterontrolled 5200',0' 3800'{' 2400'4', 1000'4'
Outdoors, covered 2000 -0' 1500 -0' 1000'-0' 500 -0'
Outdoors. uncovered r600 -0' 1200'-0' 800'{' 400'-0'
Height from floo.to-floorI
Longspan,posttensioned 9',S' r0'€' 116'
Longspan,precast 10'-6' l1-6' 1 3€ '
Percentage of parking spaces on flat lloors ovo 300/o 60v" 90%
Parkingramp slope 6.57. 6qo 5.57. 5vo
Number of 360" turns to top 7 5.5 4 2.5 TURNING BAYS
Short circuit in long run {SC) 400'-0' 350!0' 300'{' 250',4'
Travel distance to 750'-0' 600'{' 450 -O' 300{'
Number of spacessearchedor compartment KEY TO DRAYI/INGS
Angled 1600 1200 800 400
Perpendicular 1000 750 500 250
Radius,turning(R 24'-O' 26'-0' 28',4' 30 -0'
Turning bays, clear (T)5
One lane 17-0' 18',3'
Two lanes, concentric6 26'S', 24',4' 31 -0'
Two lanes, nonconcentric 29'{' 34'{'
Source: Mary S. Smith, Parkng Structures: Planning. Design. Maintenance, and Repair,2d ed. (Chapman & Hall. 1996)
lMinimum venical 4 Due to lower
clearance for van accessibility is 8 ft design speeds, the turning radius in parking
2 in.. which .equires minimum fl@rtefloor heights per areas is less than that required for throughrirculation ele-
LOS C. ments.
2 A short 5 Clear between face
circuit in a long run is used to shorten the exit path. of columns, curbs, or obstructions:
3 In check clearance at back of parking stalls with turning tem-
one-way designs. it is necessary to continue on the
inbound travel path before conneclion to the outbound prare.
path. 6 lf flow is largely in
one direction, the turning bay for a twc
lane, concentric design can be reduced by 3 ft.

Mary S Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana

u
A

AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
 PorkingSpoce Dimensions r09
pARKING spAcE t OV
DlMENsloNs rrt--tru.) "f
ALL LEVELS OF SERVICE
OF CURB
i1
VEH ICLE
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION WALL OFFSET OVERHANG STRIPE OFFSET
1G3
13-8

SP

1--"
75
90
LEVEL OF SERVICE A

STALL
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MODULE AISLE INTERLOCK

0 8,9 14-Oz 0-o

0 8,9 424 25-0' 0{ )
45 24 49{ 14-10
50 I l-c 50€ 2-10
55 0-8 51-9 15-7 2S
60 0-1 53-4 22 KEY
65 9€ &6 174 110 e = angle of park SO = stripe oflset
70 9-4 55-9 18-5 A = aisle width SP = stripe projection
75 9-'l 57-O l9l 0 i = interlock reduction SW = stallwidth
90 8-9 61-O 260 0{ OV = overhang VP = vehicleprojection
M = module WO = wall offset
LEVEL OF SERVICE B
SL = srall length WP = srall projection
STALL
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MODULE AISLE INTERLOCK BASIC LAYOUT DIMENSIONS
0 8$ 30{ 13{r 0{
0 86 40{ 234r 0{
t2-o 48{ 13-10 3{
50 I t-l 49€ 2-9
55 10-5 5G9 2-5
60 9-10 524 15€ 2-2
65 95 53€ 1il 1 - 10
70 9-1 54-9 17-5 1-5
75 8-10 56{ 1810
90 8€ 6r 254 04
LEVEL OF SERVICE C

STALL NOTE
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MOOULE AISLE INTERLOCK
Stalls adjacent to columns must be wider to provide the
0 8-3 28€ 124', 0{ same level of service of turn.
0 8-3 21-03 0,0
SHORT SPAN CONSTRUCTION
45 11 - 8 474 12-10 2-11 DETAILS
50 10-9 48€ 23
55 4$9 13-7 24 NOTES
60 96 51-4 146 1. Parkingstallsfor a design vehicle6 ft 4 in. wide and 16 ft
I in. long shouldhave a stripe prcjectionof 16 ft 3 in. and
65 9-1 52$ 154 1-9 parallel stalllengthof 20 ft 9 in.
70 8-9 53-9 rG5 Smalkar€nly stalls (7 ft 5 in. wide by 15 ft long) should
75 8€ 5il l7-10 only be used at constrained lGtions or in remnants of
space. The number of these stalls should not exceed
90 8-3 59{ 24.o 0{ 10% of total parking capacity at a site.
LEVEL OF SERVICE D Angles between 76 and 89" are not recommended for
one-way design because these angles permit drivers of
STALL smaller cars to back out and exit the wong way.
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MO DU LE AISLE INTERLOCK
Angled parking is not recomrend€d for use with twe
0 8{ 274 t1{' 0{ wav aisles as drivers often attemot to make a U-turn into
35-O r 9{r 04 stalls on the other side of the aisle.
0 8{
Add 1 ft to the module for surface parking bays without
45 I 1-4 4m 10 2-10 curbs or other parking guides (freqrent poles or columns
50 tG5 47-6 2-2 2-7 or walls) in areas with frequent heaw snowfall.

55 9-9 48-9 -7 24 To maintain the same level of seruice (LOS), reduce the
module (M) by 3 in. for each additional inch in stall width
60 93 5G4 3€ 24 (SW) while maintaining minimum aisle width (see toot'
65 8-r0 516 1€ notes 2 and 3 to accompanying chan), For example,
I ft I in. @ 90'on 61-ft module = LOS A
70 8$ 52-9 t5 14
9 ft 0 in @ 90'on 60-ft 3-in. module = LOS A
75 8-3 54{ 6-10 l{
Columns and light poles may protrude into a parking mod
90 8-O 58{ 234 0{ ule a combined maximum of 2 ft as long as they do not
' All dimensrons are rounded to the nearesl rnch. affect more than 25yo ot the stalls in that bay For exam-
ple, a 2-ft encroachment by a column on one side of the
2 These are minimum aisle widths for one-wav traffic at each levelof seryice
aisle or 1 ft each from columns on both sides is permissi-
3 Figures given are widths for twcway traffic. ote.

Mary S. Smith. P.E.j Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana

4
AUTOMOBILES, AND PARKING
ROADS, 1
 I l0 PorkingLofEntryqnd ExitDesign
GENERAL
ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guide
gorurc.
lines for Buildings and Facilities,36 CFR 1 191. July 26, 1991 I
requires all cashier booths in new construction (and in alter-
ations that result in the removal of existing islands) to be
accessible "to and through" the door This mandate is found i
under the requirements for employee work areas or sta- o
tions. A booth can meet this requirement if it is recessed in ii!
the pavement so the interior floor is at the same elevation as
the driving lane. An accessible cashier booth can also have a
curb ramp and appropriate latch side clearance for the rear
swinging d@r. I
b
ADMG recommends-but d@s not require-that at least
one booth be a fully accessible workstation {have a s-ft DffECTOR
LOOP, TYP,-\
drameter wheelchair turning space, adjustable counter, ac
cessible controls, etc-). A booth can meet this requirement I
with accessible doors on both sides, which allows T turning I
movemenls.

:
KEY TO DRAWINGS o
TERM ABBREVIATION @
SYMBOL

Autogate AG
.- | 316" I
Ticket dispenser TD
E NTRAN C E O R E X I T W I T H
E A D E R ONLY
CARD

Card reader CR ENTRANCE \^/ITH TICKET DISPENSER

-I t - l t___l #-
tul
RAMP (USE HANDRAIL
IN LiEU OF FURES
TO KEEP ISGND
"Lot full" sign tcl
LFS 6" DIAMffER WIDTH TO A MINIMUM)
GALVANIZED I ol
{ STEEL PIPE tul
lal
FILLED WITH
roop tol
T----1 CONCRETE
l<l
L___J I't-
ll
10'x 10" x 5/s"
Bollard l 0- a ll 1
:
o WIH FOUR 3A-
DIAMETER
z |
=l I PUTFORM AT
BOOTH FLOOR
EXPANSION
ANCHORS (ALL elf-
Nt I
HEIGHT o

"l:l '
GALVANIZED)

%- NEOPRENE l=l
PAD lil RECESS BOOTH IN
lt ln l ISUND SO FLOOR
IS LEVEL WITH TOP
SEAUNT ALL
AROUND lz -[- OF ISUND AT DOOR
l=l ?
lt sgl l BOLURD. TYP.

NOTE 6L
Place bollards so they are plumb
N
PIPE BOLLARD EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE CASHIER
BOOTH AND CARD READER

h /////////,/
P

ta
tI \N
-+
lt tl-N\
J---rj--rr t
-
,+
I --tl + +-
RECOMMENOED PI.AN WITH INAOEQUATE TURNS

+t
5ECTION AT BOOTH RECOMMENDED PUN

EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE CASHIER

BOOTH PARKING LOT ENTRY CONFIGURATIONS

Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.;Indianapolis,
Indiana

A
tUl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
 PorkingLotDesign ill
sw*r'-o"-\, l tvP+t-o

,/-i-wHEELCHAIR
I / I RAMP - LIGHT
PEDESTRIAN
io.o
RADIUSI POLE

NN
PEDESTRIAN I STALL

: RADiUS
LIGHT TRAVEL OV

o
1-
l URGER

ii
o OFT
3','6

5', O"
' RADiUS
SIDEWALK
PEDESTRIAN
TRAVEL *
lu
,l) - to-o"
RADI6
FACE OF b+
c UJ

l''
I
o

SMALL LOT WITH ONE.WAY TRAVEL MULTIBAY LOT WITH TWO-WAY ENO AISLE

LOT DESIGNS WITH ISLANDS

20010"

._::":':'

r)*
+
l+

t-)
tl
LJ
:
l+
,l+
I]
l:
: -=>
rT----\
l,
ltl

j+
:+
)
J

ANGLED PARKING
NOTES
1I PARKING
N OTES
1. GPA = 200 ft x 56.33 ft x 2 = 22,532 sqlr 1. GPA = 200 ft x 60.5 It x 2 = 24.200 sq lt
2. Capacity = 80 vehicles 2. Capacity = 80 vehicles
3. Efficiency = 22,532 sq fV80 vehicles = 281.7 sq fvspace 3. Etliciency = 24,200 sq ftl80 vehicles = 302.5 sq ruspace

SMALL LOT DESIGNS

0'.6- RADIUS, TYP. -\

ISUND
TYPE I\
ISUNO
TYPE II KEY TO DRAWINGS

ii
-#
CONCRETE BUMPERS CREATE
TIPPING HAZARD AND ARE
NOT RECOMMENDED

TYPICAL PARKING BAY,WITH ISLAND TYPES

Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.:lndianapolis,
lndiana

A
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING I
 112 PorkingLotDesignGuidelines
CONSIOER DEEPER ASPHALT VEHICUUR TRAFFIC BUILOING ENTRY
OR REINFORCED CONCRETE CONTROL SIGNS.
PAVING AT AREA WHERE CAUTION STRIPES,
HEAVY VEHICLES ( F I RE TRUCKS SPEED HUMPS OR PASSENGER/LOADING ZONE
BUSES, FTC ) ARE COMMON SPEED AUMPS
AVOIOING CURBS AND WHEEL STOPS SPECIAL UNOSCAPE AND
ALLOWS EASY SNOW REMOVAL PAVING DESIGN EMPHASIS
AND REDUCES PEDESTRIAN AT MAJOR ENTRANCE
IRIPS AND SLIPS

ACCESSIBLE
PARKING AREA AND
RAMP CLOSE TO ENTRY

LANE /

*^;t;;;==-
INTERMEDIATE
ISUND. TYP

PARKING AISLE
ORIENTED
NOTE TOWARO
DESTINATION
Confirmrequirements TRAFFIC FLOW
for fire lanesadiacentto buildings.
Consultlocalcodes {BUILDING ENTRY)
GOMMERCIAL PARKING ARRANGEM ENT

NOTES ON OESIGN GUIOELINES

1. Determine an e{Iicienl means of laying out the parking lot of landscaping, consider the screening capabilities of plants.
{see vehicle and parking space dimension data on other Low branching, densely foliated vees and shrubs can soften
AGS pages on parking). A smaller paved area costs less the visual impact of large parking areas. High branching can-
to build and maintain, of{ers a shorter walking distance opy trees do not creale a visual screen at eye level but do
from car to building, lessens water runoff problems, and provide shade. When possible, create islands large enough
leaves more space for site landscaping. to accommodate a mixture of cancpy trees, fiowering trees,
2. Provide safe and coherent site circulation routes. evergreen trees, shrubs, and flowers. Consider using ever-
greens, and avoid plants that drop fruit or sap.
3. Provide access tor tire rescue and mass transit vehicles.
Consult local requirements.
4. Parking lots should offer direct and easv access for peo
ple walking between their vehicles and the building
entrances. Pedestrians usually walk in th6 aisles behind
parked vehicles; aisles perpendicular to the building face
allow pedestrians to walk to and from the building with-
out squeezing between parked cars. Walking areas
should be graded to prevent standing water.
5. Accessible design is now mandatory. requiring desig-
nated parking spaces and curb ramps near building AT SIOEWALKS
entrances. See AGS page on accessible curb ramps and
passenger loading. SPEED BUMP
6'.0' MIN, FOR TREE PUNTING
(CAN BE REDUCED IF SHRUBS
LANDSCAPING AND GROUND COVER ONLY)
Plants in parking areas can help relieve the visually over-
whelming scale of large parking lots. To maximize the ef{ect
5!O
Y''
F|RE UNE:
(CHECK
27:O" TO 30 -O"
LOCAL COOES)
,iv1'
CONSlOER SBADE.TOLERANI
GROUND COVER, STONE.
OR HARD SURFACE
SPEED HUMP
AT PUNTING AREAS AND BERMS
N OTE *See the AGS pages on design vehicle
dimensions for per
Use of a speed hump eliminates the need for an accessible pendicular dimension of overhang; adjust for angled parking
curb ramp.
AUTOMOBILE OVERHANG
FIRE LANE SPEED CONTROL DEVICES REQUIREMENTS

Mary S. Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana

4
U AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
 il3
+35 -O',
+3O'-O"
NOTES
+25 .O"
1. Floorto flry crrculation In a parkrng structure is typrcally
provrded either by parkrng ramps or express ramps
+20'-O" ithose
without parking) or a combination of both.
2. Almost all ramp systems are based on helical patterns,
whether a lully circular express helix or a combination of
strarght runs and turning bays at the end.
3. The two fundamental helical panerns a,e the srnole_
threaded helix, which rises one fuil floor rn each 360; of
revolutaon, and the double-threaded helix, which rises
two floors with each complete revotutron.
SINGLE.THREADED HELIX 4. Express helices can be either single threaded or double
threaded. Parking ramps can also be configured in single-
and double-threaded patterns.
+3O-O" +3O'-O
5. On a site that can accommodate two parking modules in
width but is short (less than 200 ft), a single-threaded
helix can be used only with tweway traffic flow and 90"
+2O -O
parl(ng.
6. Application of a twebay single-threaded helix arranoe,
ment may be limited by the desirable number of turis,
spaces passed, etc. of the selected level of service and/
+ I O'-O" + | O'-O" or by flow capacity considerations.

o
o
DOUBLE.THREADED HELIX

HELIX.SHAPED PI\RKING BAYS DOUBLE.THREADED CIRCULAR HELIX

TWO-WAY FLOW
TWO.BAY SINGLE-THREADED HELIX

/ NOTES
1. The twobay double-threaded helix can be taller and
accommodate more spaces than the two-bav sinole-
threaded model: however, it requires a longer srte (tfpi-
cally more than 200 ft in length). Because thrs desrgn
may offer less desirable wayfinding and user-friendlineis
to unfamiliar users, it is most often used for predomi-
nantly employee parking.
2. A two-bay double-threaded helix may have either one-
way or tweway traffic flow. The former has one up and
one down route, while the latter provides two up routes
and two down ones.

TWO.WAY FLOW
TV\/O-BAY DOUBLE.THREADED HELIX

NOTES
'1.
The split-level design is a modification of the singte-
threaded helix in which the parking bays are flattened and
spe€d ramps are used to accomplish a vertical rise. split-
level parking structures may have either two-wav or one-
way traffic flow.
2. Although they provide a level lacade, split-level parking
structures have a number of disadvantaqes. The main
ones are loss ot stalls (compared to a typrcal twebay sin
gle-threaded helix), difficult design for turns and speed
ramp. and poor efficiency (the square footage of parking
area per stall is roo high).

SPLIT LEVEL

Mary S. Smith,P.E,, WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,

lnc.; Indianapolis.
lndiana
WilliamT. Mahan,AtA; SantaBarbaia,California

4
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING I
I l4 PorkingStructureDesign
NOTES
,-J,
/t'-
-
1. On wider sites, a combination ol sloped parking bays a!rc
flat bays in single-threaded patterns can provlde leve
facades with superior wayfinding and user-lriendliness
These facilities may be limited primarily by height (too
much height yields an excessive number of turns) or flon
capacity {the number of spaces passed on the path ol
travel).
2. On longer sites. single-threaded helices can be combined
in a camelback helix to provide one-way traffic llow. This
one way llow offers better wayJinding tor unfamiliar
users than a double-threaded helix. However, because
there are more turning bays, the efficiency (sq fvparking
space) of the garage will be affected.
THREE-BAY SIDE-BY-SIDE FOUR.BAY SIDE.BY.SIOE

ENO.TO.END CAMELBACK

SINGLE.THREADED HELIX COMBINATIONS

NOTES
1. Traffic can be routed in either a single-threaded or double
threaded pattern on the same configuration of tlat and
sloped parking bays.
2. The three-bay double-threaded helix option provides
quicker vertical circulation and better flow capacity. How'
ever, because the flow is different on every other floor,
making ir confusing for unfamiliar users, this design
works besl for employee parking.
3. The interlocked helix offers better wayfinding (because t
has the same flow pattern on every floor) but reduced
flow capacity. The flow capacity is especially low during
periods of high turnover because inbound and outbound
traffic must merge at every floor

THREE-BAY DOUBLE.THREAOED HELIX THREE-BAY SINGLE-THREADED

INTERLOCKEO HELIX

COMBINATION SLOPED AND FLAT BAYS

NOTES
1. As a parking structure footprint becomes wider, it is gen
erally preferable to add llat parking bays and keep the
Iloor-to-floor circulation at the far end of the structure
Similarly, when a parking structure is longer than needed
Ior floor-to-floor circulation, keep the ramps at one end
and add tlat areas close to the ultimate destination of
those using the facility.
2. Totally flat floor parking combined with express ramps
yields the best combination of wayfinding, user-friendli'
ness, and security. Express ramps may be designed to
require tralfic to circulate through the floors or to allow
vehicles to oass directlv trom floor to floor. The latter
arrangement provides the greatest flow capacity and
FOUR-BAY SIDE-BY.SIDE ease ol access in very large structures (those with more
HELIX WITH END FUT BAYS than 2000 parking spaces).
FOUR-BAY SIOE-BY-SIDE
WITH SIOE FUT BAYS

--2,--l
{-=-> \
$Y\';=::
--\ ->- i
-_7-,-_\'\

--''

SINGLE-THREADED EXTERIOR EXPRESS RAMPS FLAT FLOOR WITH EXPRESS RAMP

FLAT FLOOR PARKING

Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.; Indianapolis,
Indiana

4
tUl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
 Truckqnd TroilerSizes il5
DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
VEHICLE LE N GTH WIDTH HEIGHT WHEELBASE OVERHANG OVER HANG
LENGTH (FT-IN.)
TYPE (L) (H) (wB) FRONT (OF) REAR (OR) WEIGHT SEMITRAILER AND TRACTOR
7',-11 1 0{ ' 13'-2'
unrttruck' 30'{' 8'6' 20 4 -O', 6',0' 20.000tb
50'-o' see table 13 t23',tA'- 60'
WB-50truck' 60 -o' 8',€' oerow 16',t426 t4 3',{)' 2o', 80.000tb
10'no't10'tla' 2',4' 5 -O"
*Generally in conformance with AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Stteets
l'19901

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE HEIGHT AND WIDTH (FT.IN.)

VEHICLE HEIGHT VEHICLE WIDTH
TOTAL HEIGHT TOTAL WIDTH
8-6
ao below
14{ AK.CA,HI, ID, KS,MT. NM, NV.ND,OR,UT 8{ DC, GA, IL, KY,LA. MI, MD, MO,
NC, PA,\^^/
14-6 NB 9-{) HI
CT, FL. MA, NV
NOTE Length and area restrictions vary by state and locale..Verify
Width is B ft 0 in. or B ft 6 in.accordingto stateregulations exact dimensions and restrictions

MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS FOR DESIGN VEHICLES (FT-IN.) M D , M S , M T . N B ,N H , N J ,I N ,I A ,

OH, OK, PA,SC,SD,WA
MIN. OUTSIDE INSIDE STRAIG H T C U RVED INSIDE
TURNING FRO NT REAR LANE LAN E CURB TANGENT
VEH ICLE RADIUS RADIUS RAOIUS WIDTH WIOTH RADI US LENGTH
TYPE ( Rr) ( Ro) (Rr) (Ws) (wr) (Rc) (T)

truck 31-0 JJ- I 124 14 184 38{

Singleunittruck 424 M4 244 124 20{ 25-o 4G10
WB{o truck 40-o 41€ l9{ 124 254 16{ DOUBLE SEMITRAILER AND TRACTOR
WB-50truck 4il 46{ 194 24 30{ 16{ I tod
STATE
WBSo truck 4H 4ffi 224 124 274 19{ 65{
59{
NOTES held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of 60{
1. Minimum turn radii at less than 10 mph. the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on
drivewavs and roadwavs. 61-0
2. Obstructions {columns, walls. light poles, etc.) should be
65{
AR, IL
N B ,N M , N Y

N D .I D
OF

TRACTOR AND SEMITRAILER AK. OR

MA, NH, NJ
AZ, IN. IA, KS,MT, NV,OH. RI

oF wB oR
STRAIGHT BODY TRUCKS
SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK

PATH OF LEfr
FRONT WHEEL PATH OF LEil zF
FRoNrWHEELTa.44 - -
>*--
46 -3"

/,
/)
1'' \1
i / rI , ' 4 s ' - o ' M r N 42',-O',MtN 24 .3'
I, /TURNING TURNING MIN.
nnotus-
L/ | 7
RADIUS
PATH OF
||
TRIPLE SEMITRAILER AND TRACTOR'
":
PArH oF
!
I
0
I RIGHT REAR -/
tI
ffT]
ffiffi-- *" so'ESTGN
*HEELT
N
r"A SEMTTRAILER
coMBrNATroN Az, CO. OH. MT, IN, SD
| |
tl
tl
m0
IntII
WB.5O SEMITRAILER DESIGN VEHICLE SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK OESIGN VEHICLE I Two axles-35 lt; three axles---4oft
'Maximum allowable length not permitted. except in
TURNING RADIUS those stateslisted.

Mary S. Smith,P.E., WalkerParkingConsultanls/Engineers,

Inc.;Indianapolis,
Indiana
WilliamT. Mahan.AIA: SantaBarbara.California

A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS tl
U
 I l6 TruckDocks

NOTES
1. Allow for off,street employee and
driver parking.
2. Entrances and exits should be of rein-
torced concrete when excessive twist-
ing and turning of vehicles are
expected.
3. Average gate (swing or slide) 30 fr
O in. wide for two-way tratfic. People
gate 5 ft 0 in. wide with concrete walk-
way 4 ft 0 in. to 6 fr O in. wide.
4. For yard security use a 6 It 0 in. high
chain link lence with barbed ware on
top.
5. On-site fueling facilities are desirable

n
for road units.
6. Provide general yard lighting from lix-
tures mounted on building ot o^ 24 tl
0 in. high minimum poles at fence line.
Mercury vapor or high pressure sodium
preferred.
7. Tractor parkirig requires l2 ft O in.
wide x 2O ft 0 in. long slot mrnimum.
Provide motor heater outlets for diesel
engines in cold climates.
8. Trailer parking requi.es l0 ft 0 in. wide
slot minimum. Provide 10 ft 0 in. wide
concrete pad for landing gear. Score
CArcPY ryERHEAD concrete at 12 ft 0 in. o.c. to aid in
correct spotting of trailer.
9. 4 tt 0 in. wide minimum concrete ramp
from dock ro grade. Slopes ot 3 to 1 5%
{ 10% average}, score surlace for trac-
CONCRETE UNDING tion.
1O. Vehicles should circulate in a counter-
clockwise direction, making le{t hand
tu.ns, permitting dfiver to see rear oI
unit when backing inro dock.
1 1. Double trailers are backed into dock
separately.

OPTIONAL RAMP

TYPICAL PLAN OF CLOSEO DOCK TYPICAL PLAN OF OPEN OOCK

OOU€ILE Dc'c)R I PREFERREO } 22,-o. WIDE STNGLE OOC)R I pREFERRED ) €|.-Or. W|OE X tO'- On
X 14'.6I' HIGH. SING|LE DOC)R t OPTIONAL ) HIGH. DOUBLE Oc)c)R I OPTIONAL ) 2O'-O' WI DE
il'-o'wroE x t4'-6" HlGH x ro'-o' HrGH

L + ro -o L + 5-O L+5-O'
TO NEAREST PROVIDE MEANS TO FERRED LONGEST VEHICLE
OBSTRUCTK)N EXHAUST FUMES AS gY
EXECTTD SET STATE LAW 5 -O
CUSHION SHELTER OR CANOPY
OEFLECT RAIN OR SNOW

o
I

SLOPE FLOOR TO TRENCH DRAIN USE LOAO LEVELERS FOR

ro -o wrDE coNcRETE PAO FOR
OO NOT EXCEED IO'l. GRADE. OIFFERENCES IN TRAILER
I'/. AO LNDING GEAR OF TRAILER
2'/. PREFERRED FL@R HEIGHTS
SLOPE GROUND AWAY FROM MCK
ROTECTTVE POST DOOR HEIGHT IDHI MUST CLEAR \./. ao 2./. tN coNcRETE_ 2"/. TO
6' ABOVE Tc,P c)F TRAILER 3'l. IN BLACKTOP OO NOT
SLOPE GRADE AWAY FRC)M SUILOING EXCEED IO'l. GRAOE

TYPICAL AECTION OF CLOSEO DOCK TYPICAL SECTION OF OPEN OOCK

AVERAGE VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

4'-O" to 4'-6"
AVERAGE WIDTHS OF DOCKS
4'.O" ro 4'-2"
TYPE OF TWO-WHEEL FOUR.WHEEL AUTO SPUR
3'.8" to 4'-2" OPERATION HANO TRUCK HAND TRUCK DRACLINE
2'-O" to2'-8" Dock width (A) to 14010"
Reler to other pagesfor truck and trailer sizes.
NoIE: Refer
NOTE: Work aisle(B) 15'-0" 1010" to 1510" 1010"to 1510"
RobertH. Lorenz,AIA; PrestonTruckingCompany,lnc.;preston,Maryland
The Operations
Council,AmericanTruckingAssociation;Washington,D.C.

A
U TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
 Rqilroods tl7
o' NOTES
l. Given clearances are the .ecommended minimums ol
the American Railway Engineering Association. Ac'
t-/ \
tual reouirements varv from state lo state.
SINGLE RACK 2. Clearances shown are for the tangent track and new
construclion. Clearances for reconstruclion work or
for alteration a.e dependent on existing physical con-
ditions and, where reasonably possible, should be im'
proved to meet the requi.ements for new
R= 6 -O'
conslrucllon.
I 3. On curved track, the lateral clearances each sade of
0 track center line shall be increased 1'/, i^. pet deg.ee
tr of curvalure.
F
4. Common state requiremenl lor laleral clearance of
L
o p o l e s i s I t t 6 i n . ( v a r i e st r o m 8 t o l 2 t t ) .
o 5. Standard American railroad gauge ol 4 fr 8% in. is
-o measured between the inner faces of the rails.
o'- o" 3
eRtDGts/ dl ,\
ro6,g5 ryl19 -J--
TRACK CENTERS

FOR REFRIGERATOR

PLATFORMS HIGH PLATFORMS

SIDE TRACKS ONLY

BUILOING LOW PLATFORMS

OOORS PASSENGER
PLATFORMS

8 MAX.

IRECOMMENDED HEIGHT FOR AVERAGE CAR

.. sTANoaRo HETGHT FoR passENGER

5l
cAR

(l
il
il NOTE
'fhe
6 tt 4 in. dimension will accommodate cars with
o either flush sliding d@rs or plug doors. Cars with hinged
double doors reouire lull clearance oI I fi. Where 6 lt 4 Ramp travels laterally on rail mounted to edge of dak
in. plattorm is used, full clearance should be provided on tor positioningto rail car opening.lt adiustsabde and
opposite side, except inside buildings. (Several states below dck lsel and lmks to the rail wtren in the low-
allow a platfofm height of 4 ft 6 in. for refrigerator cars ered position. Self-storesin vertical oosition when not
only, if the tull lateral clearance of 8 ft is provided.) in us. Availablein varyinglengthsand widths.
RAILWAY CLEARANCES RAIL OOCK RAMPS
TENSION EARS
SHOCK
____'-.T FREE
FLAT VERTICAL ------Trlnqlfg
---Ar{ll ,uoo
/ SURFACE

2r2" ao 7 12' I45 LB STEEL

*Q OF WELOMENT
ATTACHED
TRACK WITH BOLTfJ
OR LAG SCREWS

TYPE I TYPE 2
ELEVATION ELEVATION
TYPICAL BUMPING POSTS

L:44-3" L :55 - 4'

H : 14 - 9' H : l5 - l
w:rO.9 w:lO -8'

AOXCAR PIOCYEIACK CAR gTOCK R€FRIGERATOR CAR

| : q a . F

w:,o -io t o o-tOO c)- EEC)oooil tw.,^,-^.,

- l

e}=g)E
LOG CAR TRILEVEL AUTO CARRIER TANK PASSENGER CAR
CAR- 2O.OOO GAL

L :70- B L :5r' B' L:59 -3'

H:8 -O" a" -r"
H:15
w: lo

CABOOSE GONOOLA CAR OPEN HOPPER CAR COVEREO HOPPER CAR

TYPICAL RAILROAD CAR TYPES ANO SIZES I ACTUAL CAR SIZES VARY GREATLY EVEN AMONG LIKE CAR TYPES )

Ed Hesner.Rasmussen& llobbs Architects;Tacoma,Washington

N. ClaibornePorterJr., AIA; Anchorage,Alaska

A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,AND BOATS I
I l8 Conoeing,Koyoking,Rowing,Surfing,ond WindSurfing

AOJUSTABLf, SEAT
PAOOLE AND'
AND BACKREST
RUDDER LINES

T IEDOWNS

FORWARO CARGO
HATCH

Kayaksare specializedboats developedin North America

and Greenland by variousIndiantribes.Today.insteadof
a framecoveredwith animalhide,the frameis covered
with synthetic tabric, or lhe kavak is builr of wood or,
SEA KAYAK more commonly,fiberglass.The two types are sea kay-
aks. longer and heavier,and river (white waterl kayaks,
sm8lle.,lighter,and moremaneuversble. Seakayaksrange
in length from 10 ft. 6 ins. ro 23 ft. Their beam varies
lrom 33 ins. to 17% ins. White waterkayaksare shorter
and narrowerto be moreresponsive in riverrapids.

KAYAK OAR LOCK

WATER

OINGHIES
SELF-ADJUST
ING BLOCKS Dinghiesare smallboats used as auxiliariesto largercralt.
They alsocan be sailedand racedon their own. They vary
in lengthirom 6 ft. to 16 ft., andthey are 2 ft. 10 ins.to
5 ft.6 ins. in beam.Th€y are constructedof wood or
fiberglass,and they can be riggedfor sail, rowing, or mo-
toring.

FASTENINGS
5 3ze cauvaNrzEo
2X4 PRESSURE \ BOLTS COUNTER-
TREATED LUMBER K
FOR ALL
MEMBERS

RO\^/ING eiHELL €|TORAGE RACI<

CANOE
Canes haveshallowdraft, and they rangein length from
'12
ft. to 35 ft. They can be psddled,sailed,or motored,
and they can b€ loaded with equipment.They are con-
sirucredof wood, fiberglas, o. aluminum.
Storagefor rowing shellsrequires:two racks8 teet apart
for singleand double;three racksI feet apan for eight-
osfed. Shellsused daily should not be storedhigherthan
6 fr. Storageracks can be adaptedeasilyro hold kayaks
or canoesby adjustingthe spacingbetwe€nracksand the
height betweenho.izontalm€mbers.
CONCRETE
FOOTI NG
Racingshells,built primarilyof carbonfiber or plaslic, are
narrow and uostablein the water. Thereare two rowing VAN IZED
TYPICAL BAY POST ANCHOR
styles: sweeprowing, where oarsmenwork one oar with
both hands;and sculling,where eachoarsmanworks two
Q.
oars, one in each hand. Sweepsare 12 ft. to 13 ft. long;
scullingoars are 9 ft. 6 ins. to 10 ft. long.

SCULLING OAR

DINGHY STORAGE RACI<

Dinghy racks store the small boats year round, and should
be weather-treated. The rack m€mbers are fastened with
coontersunk bohs to avoid damaging dinghies. Racks must
be able to support the weight of the boats and anyone
climbing on the racks.

RO\^/ING SHELL

Timothy B. McDonald; Washington. D C

A
I TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
 Sqilboqls il9

CATBOAT RIG
Traditionallv puts a lot ol sail area on one short masl, as
shown here, which is stepped far forward an the boat.

SLOOP

SHROUDS ON
Design with two basic sails, mainsail and headsail; the
EOTH
SIDES (ONE OELETED latter, called a "l.actional rig," is set either to the mast-
FOR CLARITY ) head or some distance below the masthead.

CUTTER
HEAOSTAY Like the sloop, a cutter rig has one mast carryrng lwo
headsails instead of one. The inner sail as the fore.
stav sail and the outer sail is the jib.

Unlike the sloop or cutter. the yawl is a two masled rg

consisling of a mainmast and a mizzen masr that is stepped
abaft (behindl the rudder post. The mizzen sail rs much
s m a l l e rt h a n t h e m a i n s a i l .

KETCH
RUOOER Like the yawl, the ketch as also a two masred rig; how-
ever, the mizzen mast is stepped forward o{ the.udder
post and is larger than the vawl's mizzen. This placemeor
dictates a saller mainsail.

SCHOONER
Usually two-masted bul can be three-masted. Commonly
the foremast is the shorter of the two, and may be gaff
or marconi rigged or at times a combination of both.
DEFINITIONS
'1. A combination of mast and rigging placement (where the
Length overall-LOA*boat's greatest len$h excluding
mast as steppedl, along with size, type and number of
bowsorils rudder or other extensions.
sails, make up the main differences in sailboat rigs. Today
2. Length of water line-LwL-boar's greatest length at
the most common is the marconi.ig distinguished by a
the wate. level excluding extensions such as rudders.
triangular mainsail, but it is not unusual for boats to be
FULL 3. Beam-boat's maximum breadth. rigged with a lraditional gaff. which is a foursided sail
KEEL
4. Draft-distance lrom the waterline tothe boilomof the that hangs from a spar called a gart. ln some insrances
boai's keel determining the least depth of water the marconi and gaff rigs are used together as shown on the
boat can oDerate in: i.e., the amount it draws. schooner below.
5. Displacement-weight of the water rhal the boat dis- Headsails are triangular sails set ahead of the mast. Basic
Dlaces. headsails are the iib, working iib, staysail, and 9enoa. The
working iib, unlike other jibs, does not overlap the mast
and is often aitached to a boom tor easier control. Jibs
and genoas do overlap the mast and mainsail. The fore-
FIN }<ETL NOTES FOR BASIC RIGS
stavsail is combined with the iib to create a double-head
LATEEN sail and is used prima.ily on cutters and schooners.
Ancestor of the tore and aft rigs shown here. lt dates back Spinnakers, usually the largest sail set before the mast,
thousands ot years and is strll used In many parts of the come in several different shapes and sizes according lo
world. use.

/
EXAMPLES
AEAM ORAFT
FIN KEEL/CENTER EOARD FULL KEEL BOATS
Folkboat 25'-10" 191tO" 3'-11"
CapeDory 45 45',-3' JJ -O 13',-O- 6'-3"
F I N K E E LA O A T S
Tanan 28 23'.3" 9',-10"
O'Day 35 35',-0" 28'-9" 1 1',,3- 5'-7"
FIN/CENTERBOARO UP oowN
CENTER BOARO
CapeDory 12701 27',-3" 20'-9" 3',-0" 7',O"
Tartan 37 37'-3" 2a'-6" tt-Y 4',-2' 1',-9"
MONOHULL -
BASIC UNOTRWATER HULL SHAPES CENTERBOARD UP DOWN
Suniish l 3 ' .r o " t 3 ' -1 0 " 4'-Vr' 2'.8'
Laser r3 ' - 1 0 " t2'-6" 4',-6' z',-a-
€l Toro 8'-O" 3',-10" 1',-lo-
MULTIHULLS
Hobie16 16'-7"

MULTIHULL

CUTTER

EIASIC BOAT RIGS

Timothy B. McDonald: Washington, D.C

A
TRAINS,
TRUCKS, AND BOATS I
 r20 Dock ond MorineDevelopment
STEPS AS NECESSARY
TO FINGER
MAIN WALKWAY
t

FINGER PIER. TYP \ OPEN JOINTEO WOOD DECK

(r/4" MAXIMUM GAP BETWEEN BoARDS)

WALKWAY SUPPORT JOISTS

WOOD LEDGER, FASTENED

TO WOOD PILE

OPEN JOINTED WOOO DECK

( r / d ' M A X ! M U MG A P
BETWEEN

PROTECTION CAP
ON WOOO PILE i.'o,'

TOP OF OECK -----=rXu

WOOD LEDGER FOR
PRESSURE-TREATED FINGER PIER SUPPORT,
WMO PILE FASTENED TO WOOD PILE

TWO 2X WOOD BEAMS

TYPICAL FIXED DOCK

NOTES
1.Wood marine constructionmust be pressuretreated

>i \
with a preseryative. Wood preservatives for use in
marineappliGtionsfall into two generalcategories{re-
osote and waterborne.To select a specificpreseruative,
the wood-attackingagents in localwaters must be identts
\ 6'' MIN REINFORCED CONCRETE SUB lied. A preservativemay then be chosen based on the
ON 6'' COMPACTED SUBGRAOE standardsol the American Wood Preseryer'sAssocia-
tion.In some saltwaterlocations, wood constructionmay
not be a viableoption.
2. Waterborneoreseryatives are recommendedJor decks
NOTE S becausecreosotestainsshoes and bare teet- Optional
l - Launchingrampsare for shelteredwaters only. deckmateflalsincludeuntreatedwood materialssuchas
the ramp. In tidal waters, these piers should be o{ float- cedarand recycledplasticproducts.
2. A finger pier or courtesy pier may be providedalongside ing construction.
3. The preservativeselected should be approved by the
BOAT LAUNCHING RAMP Environmental ProtectionAgencv.
4. Optionalmaterialsfor piles includesteel,concrete,and
fiberglass.Wood, steel, concrete,alumrnum,and vinyl
AISLE
may be used for bulkheads.
HEADER PIER
5 -O' MtN. 5. Deck height above water is determinedby averagedeck
WIDTH levelsand probablewater level.Maintaina 12 in. mini
l.5TO r.75X L mum dimension between water and deck. Floatinq
roNcesr sure MOORING FOR d@ks may be requrredin tidalwaters.Consultmanufac--
I LARGg VESSEL turers for construclioninformation.
TEE PIER 6. Cross-bracingshould be minimized to avoid entangle-
5 -O" MrN ment ol swimmers.

DIMENSIONS FOR SLIPS

AND FINGER PIERS (FT)

I loouarr
sLrPS
I
I
I STNGLE
,- y,?35')9^.

8',O' MrN

DOCKING PLAN

StephenB. Soul6;Souleand Associates,P.C.;Salisbury,

Maryland

fl TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
 FlootingDocks 121

FINGER PIER,TYP

TREAD PUTE
3'.O..WIDE RAMP. TYP
WITH ROLLER

A,,RIAAED DECKING
FLOATING DOCK

FLOTATION

2 X A PRESSURE-TRE
FENDER

ROLLER PILE GUIDE

FLOATING DOCK-DETAIL TYPICAL FLOATING DOCK

NOTES
1. Floatingdocks must be engineeredtor the specific site
and loadingconditions.Dockscan be designedto accom-
modate b@ts in a wide rangeof sizesas well as all utili-
Ires_
2. Docks can be anchoredby pilings or by mooringchains
and anchors. Piling material can be steel, concrele, or
treatedtimber. Guide pilesmust be designedso that the
top of all piles is above the 1oo-yearflood elevation.Spe-
36" TREAD PLATE
ARRANGEMENTS
cial considerationshould be given to breakwaterslor 5. Deckingmaterialcan be timber, concrete, steel, plastic,
wave attenuatton. or fib€rglass.
3. Flotationshould b€ designedto provide minimum free- 6. All componentsshould be dosignedin a mannerthat will
board at {ull loading.Flcts @n be of made of concrete, minimizeor eliminatecorrosion.
steel,aluminum,andplastic. 7. Utility syst€ms with accessibleutility chases should be
4. Docksmay be constructedol steel, aluminum,concrete, designedinto the dock structure.
or timber materials.Joints must be desioned to with-
stand all appliedforces.
FIXED OOCK

PIPE HANDRAIL

r/4" x 6" cuRB RAIL BoLTED To

''
HANDRAIL I ABOVE DECK,
EACH SIOE

60".66" OR 72"

It

q-; ROLLER

GANGWAY

FLOTATION AT
ENO OF GANGWAY

FLOATING DOCK

FLOTATION

GANGWAY-DETAIL

StephenB, Soul6:Soul6andAssociates.
P.C.;Salisbury,
Maryland

A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS I
 122 AIA Documents
INTROOUCTION
More than 75 AIA contract and administratrve forms aTe in
print today. The ancestor of all of these was the Uniform
Contract, an owner{ontractor agreement first published in
I888. This was tollowed, in 191 't, by the AIA'S first stan-
dardized Gene.al Condttions for constructron. The 1997 edi-
tion of AIA Document 4201 is the fifteenth edition of those
General Conditions.
Many practjces common in the construction industry todav
became estabfished through their inclusion In the AIA Gen-
eral Conditions lor Construction and other AIA standardized
d@uments. Arbitration, the one-year correction period, and
the architect's role in decidrng disputes are iust three of
lhese. Whrle the ArA documents have had d piolourJ rnilu-
ence on the rndustry, the influence also flows the other
way. The AIA regularly revis€s its documents to take into
account recent developments in the constructjon industry
and the law. New standardized documents for design/build
and for different types o,f constructron management were
pub|shed in the late 1990s, and documents for interna
I'onal praclrce are under constderatron
Because lhe AIA documents are trequentty upoaled. use s
should consult an AIA component chapter or obtain a cur
'AlA
rent copy of th€ contract Documents price List' to
determine which are the current editions
The relationship of the documents to the industry-influ-
encing at,and in turn being influenced bV it-is paralleled bv
the relationship of the documents lo the law AIA docu-
ments are intended for nationwide use and are not drafted
to conform to the law of any one state. With that caveat,
AIA contract documents provide a solid basis of contract
provisions that are enforceable under the law existino at the
time of publicatron. Case law on contracts for desion and
construction has for the past century been based larjely on
the language of AIA standardized documents and contracts
derived from them. These court cases are listed in fhe
American lnstitute of Architects legal Otator. in which
recent cases are summarized with all cases keved to the
specific provisions In the AIA documents to wh,ch they
retale.
The AIA documents are organized in two ways: in a letter
series and in cross-series families:
The document letter series is a system of classification that
cuts across the various families and identifies the specific
purpose of each document. The letter desiqnations indrcate
the following:
A Series{wner{ontractor documents
B Series<wner-architect
documents
C Series-architect-consultant documents
D Series-rchitect-industry documents
G Series-architect's oflice and project forms
Documents grouped in a family are coordinated to tie
together the various legal and working relationships for the
same project types. Documents within the same family
may be in different series but are linked bv common termi-
nology and procedures. Documents in a tamily may adopt
one another by reference_ For example, the relevani terms
of 4201 are adopted by reference in 4101. A1jj. 4401.
8141,8151.andC141.
The preceding paragraphs contain several references to
'standardized
d&uments,'a term that covers most AIA
d@uments. AIA standardized dcuments are intended to
be used in their original, printed torm. Much of the effi-
ciency these documents bring to a transaction depends on
this use. When people with experience in the construction
rndustry see a standardized document, thev are familiar
with it and can quickly evaluate the proposed ttansaclion
based on the modifications made to it-if those moditica-
tions stand out. lf modifications are blended into retvoed or
scanned d@ument text, this advantage as lost.
Modifications used with AIA documents may themselves
be derived from another type of document publ,shed bv the
AlA. I hese are model documents, the language of whrch rs
intended to be reproduced and adapted by users. One such
repository of model text ts A51 1, whi(h rs rntended for use
In developing supplementary condrtions, an rmportant com
ponent of the contract {or construction. 851 1 serves a simi
lar purpose with respect to owner-architect agreements.
AIA documents are currently available in both printed and
electronic form. The software package Al,A Contract Docu-
rents: Electronic Format for Windowsru enables users to
access and print out the AIA documents. Modifications are
clearly shown: deleted language appears with strike,
throughs, and added Ianguage is underscored.
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Instjtute of Architects. Washington, D.C
A
-lI
U CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
DOCUMENT SYNOPSES
Thesesynopsesare meantto be usedas a qurckreference
lor determiningthe appropriateuses for each of the con-
tractdocumentsand administrative formspublishedbv the
AmerrcanInsttluteof Architects.Ihat pu.posenalurallvpre.
sumesindependent judgmenton the reader'soart,as well
as advrceof counsel.
A SERIES
The documentsin the A Seriesof AIA documentsrelateto
varioustorms of agreementbetweenan ownerand a con,
IracIor.
A 1 0 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN
OWNER AND CONIRACTOR-STTPULATED SUM, is a
standardform of agreementbetweenowne.andcontractor
for use when the basis of paymentis a stipulatedsum
(fixedprice).The A101documentadoDtsbv referenceand
is designedfor usewith AIA DocumentA201,GeneralCon-
ditionsof the Contractfor Construction, thus providingan
integratedpair of legaldocuments.When used together,
4101 and 4201 are appropriatefor most projects.For
projects of limited scope, however, use of AIA Document
A107 mightbe considered.
A101/CMa, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNER ANO CONTRACTOR-STIPULATED
SUM-CONSTRUCTIONMANAGER-ADVISER EDITION.
is a standardtorm of agreemenlbetweenowner and con.
tractor for use on projectswhen the basisof pavment is a
stipulatedsum (fixedprice)and when, in additionto the
contractorand the architect.a constructionmanagerassists
the owner in an advisorycapacityduring design and con-
struction. The document has been preoaredfor use with
AIA Document MollCMa, GeneralConditionsof the Con-
tract for Construction-ConstructionManager-AdviserEdi-
tion. This integrated set of documents is appropriatefor
use on projectswhen the constructionmanagerserues
only in the capacityof an adviserto the owner, rather than
as constructor{the latter relationshiois reoresentedin AIA
documentsA121lCMcand 4131/CMc).A101/CMais suit-
able for prqects when the cost of constructionhas been
predetermined,either by biddingor by negotiation.
A105, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND CONTRACTOR
FOR A SMALL PROJECT,
and 4205, GENERALCONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT
FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL PROJECT,are
intended to be used in conjunctionwith one another.The
two documents are only sold as a set, and thev share a
common lnstructionsheet.Theyhavebeen dev€lopedtor
use when payment to the contractorjs based on a stiou-
lated sum (fixed price) and when the proiect is modest in
size and brief in duration.4105 and 4205 are two of the
three documentsthat comprisethe SmallProjectsfamilyof
documents. They have been developedfor use with AIA
DocumentB'155,StandardForm of AgreementBetween
Owner and Architectfor a Small Proiect.Thesedocuments
are specrtically
coordinated for use as a set.
Caution:AlthoughA105, 4205, and B't55 may sharesome
similaritieswith other AIA documents, the Small proiects
documents should not be used in tandem with other AIA
document familieswithout carefulside-bv-sidecomoarison
of contents.
4205 is consideredthe keystone document oI the Small
Projectsfamily, since it is specificallyadoptedby separate
referenceinto both A't05 and 8155. 4205 is a viratd@u-
ment, in that it is used to allocateproper legalresponsibili-
ties among the parties, while providing both a common
ground and a means of coordination withjn the Small
Projectsfamily. ln order to maintainthe condensednature
of this document. arbitrationand other alternatedisoute
resolution(ADR)provisionshave been omitted. ADR orovi-
sionsmay be includedin Al05 underArticle6.
A107, ABBREVIATED STANDARD FORMOFAGREEMENT
BETWEEN OWNERAND CONTRACTOR FORCONSTRUC.
TION PROJECTSOF LIMITED SCOPE-STIPULATED
SUM. As an abbreviated form of agreement between
owner and cont.actor, this document is intended for use
when the basisof paymentis a stipulated sum {Jixedprice).
It is appropriatefor constructionprojects of limited scope
nol requiringlhe complexityand lenglhot the combinatron
of AIA DocumentsA101and A2Ol. A107containsabbrevts
ated GeneralConditions.lt may be used when the owner
and contractorhavealreadyestablished a workingrelation-
shrp (e.9.,a previousproiectof like or similarnature)or
when a project is relativelysimple in detailor short in dura,
tion.
A , I 1 1 .S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
T€TWEEN
OWNERAND CONTRACIOR_{OSTPLUSA FEEWITHA
NEGOTIATED GUARANTEED MAXIMUMpRrCE.Thissran-
dard torm of agreementbetween owner and contractoris
appropraate for use on most projectsrequiringa negotiated
guaranteedmaximum price, when the basisof payment to
the contractor is the cost of the work plus a fee. 41.ll
adopts by reference and is intended for use with AIA Docr.
ment 4201, General Conditions of the Contract for Con
structron, thus together the two documents offer a.r
integrated pair of legal documents.
A121lCMc (AGC 565). STANDAD FOBM OF AGBEEMEN.
BETWEEN OWNEB AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEF
WHERE THE CONSIRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO THE
CONSTRUCTOR: This d@ument represents the collabora
tive efforts of the American Institule of Architects and the
Associated General Contractors of America. The AIA desio
nates lhls document A121lCMc, white AGC cails rl ACi
Document 565. A1 21lCMc is intended {or use on oroiects
for whrch a construction manager, In addrlron to serving a
advrser to the owner, assumes financial resoonsrbilrtv l.
colSlrJclron. Ihe conslruclton manager provrdeS lr.
owner wrth a guaranteed maximum plce proposal, whrch
the owner may accept, (eject, or negotiate_ Upon the
owner's acceptance of the proposal by execution of an
amendment, the construction manager is contractuallv
bound to provide labor aod materials for the proiect.
A1 21lCMc divides the construction manager's services int.
two phases: the preconstruction phase and the construc
tron phase, ponions of which may proceed concurrently in
order to fast track the process. 4121lCMc is coordinated
tor use with AIA Document 4201, General Conditions oi
the Contract for Construction and 8141, Standard Form ot
Agreement Between Owner and Architect. Check Article 5
of 851 1 for guidance in this regard.
Caution: Io avoid confusion and ambigujty, do not use thrs
constructton management document with any othe. AIA or
AGC construction management document.
A131/CMC (AGC 566), STANDARD FORM OF AGREE
MENT BETWEEN OWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MAN
AGER WHERE THE CONSTRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO
IHE CONSTRUCTOR-COST PLUS A FEE, NO GUABAN
TEE OF COST: Similar to 412tlCMc, this CM{onstructor
agreement is also intended for use when the owner seeks
a constructor who will take responsibility for providing the
means and methods of construction. However, the method
of determining cost of the work diverges sharply in the two
documents: A121lCMc allows for a ouaranteed maximum
pflce (GMP). while A13l/CMc useJ a conlrot esrimate
413l/CMc employs the cost-plus-a-fee method, which
allows the owner to monitor cost through periodic review
of the control estimate, which is revised as the proiect pro
ceeds.
It rs rmportant to note that, while the CM{onstructor is
assuming varied responsibilities, there are still iust three
pnmary players on the prcject-the
owner, the architecl,
and the CMc. The 4201 General Conditions continue to
apply, although they are modified (in part) by the A1 31/CMc
agreement_
Caution: Io avoid contusion and ambiguity, do not use thrs
construction management document with anV other AIA o{
AGC construction management document.
A171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND CCNTRACTOR-STIPULATED SUM-FOF
F U R N I T U R E , F U R N I S H I N G S ,A N D E O U T P M E N T ,i s u s e d
tor acquisition of furniture. furnishings, and equipmenl
{FF&E) when the basis of payment is a stipulated sum
(fixed price). 417l adopts bV reference and is intended for
use with AIA D@ument 4271, General Conditions of the
Contract tor Furntture, Furnishings, and Fqurpment. lt ma!
re used rn any arranqerent belween the owner and the
contractor in which the cost of FF&E has been determined
an advance, either through bidding or negotiation.
4177, ABBREVIATED OWNER-CONTRACTOR AGREE
MENT FORM-STIPULATED SUM-FOR FURNITURE,
FURNISHINGS, AND EQUIPMENT, is an abbreviated docu,
ment that philosophically derives much of its content lrom
a combination of the more complex and lengthy A171 and
A271 documents. lts abbreviated lerms and conditions mav
be used when a conlractor for furniture, furnrshrngs, and
equipment (FF&E) has a prior working relationship with the
owner or when a project is relatively simple in detail or
short in duration-
Caution.Ittis document is not intended f or use with maior
conslruction work that may Involve lile satety systems o
structurat components.
A 19 1 . O W N E R - D E S I G N / B U I L D E R
A G R E E M E N T S .c o n t a i n s
two agreements tO be Used in sequence by an owner con-
tractrng with one entity serving as a single point of respon
sibility for both design and construction services. Design/
build entities may be architects, contractors, or even busl-
nesspersons, as long as they comply with governing Iaws,
continues on following page

Document Svnopses, A Series, contnued frcm ptevious
pa9e
especially those pertaining to licensing and public procure-
ment regulations. The first agreement covers prelimjnary
design and budgeting services, while the second deals with
final design and construction. Although it is anticipated that
an owner and a design/builder entering into the first agree-
ment will later enter into the second. the parties are not
obligated to do so and may conclude their relationshipafter
the terms of the first agreement have been fulfilled.
4201, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONIRACT FOR
CONSTRUCTION: The Generai Conditions are an integral
part of the contract for constructron in that they set {orth
the rights. responsibilities. and relationships of the owner,
contractor, and architect. While not a party to the contract
for construction between owner and contractor, the archi-
tect d@s panicipate in the preparation ot the contract docu-
ments and performs certain duties and responsibilities
described in detail in the General Conditions. Because 4201
is typically adopted by reference into certarn other AIA doc
umen-ts {e.9., owner-architect agreements. ownertontrac-
tor agreements, and contractoLsubcontractor agreements),
it is often called the'keystone' document.
Since conditions vary by locality and by project, supplemen-
tary conditions are usually added to amend or supplement
portions of the General Conditions as required by a particu-
lar projecl. Review the model language provided in A51 1 as
a guide when creating supplementary conditions for A201.
A201lCMa. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT
FOR CONSTRUCTION-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER-
ADVISER EDITION, is an adaptation of AIA Documenr A201
developed for construction management proj*ts with a
founh player-a construction manager-added to the team
of owner, architect. and contracto.. Under A2ollCMa, the
construction manager has the role of independent advis€r
to the owner- thus the document carries the CMa suffix. A
major difference between 4201 and A201lCMa occurs in
Article 2, Administration of the Contract. which deals with
the duties and responsibilities ol both the architect and the
construction manager-adviser. Another major difference
implicit in A201lCMa is lhe use of multiple construction
contracts directly with trade contractors.
Caution: ll is vital that A201lCMa not be used in combina-
tion with documents that assume the construction man-
ager will take on the role of constructor, give the owner a
guaranteed maximum price, or contract directly with those
who supply labor and malerials lor the project.
A2O1lSC, FEOERAL SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS OF
lHE CONTRACT rOR CONSIRUCTION, rs Intended for
use on cenain federally assisted constructron prolects. For /
such protects, A201/SC adapts A2Ol by provrdrng(1) neces-
sary modifications of the General Conditions. (2) additional
conditions, and (3) insurance requirements for federally
assisted construction projects.
4271, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR
FURNITURE, FURNISHINGS, AND EOUIPMENT: When the
scope ol a contract is limited to turniture, furnishings, and
equipment (FF&E),4271 is intended to be used in a manner
similar to that in which 4201 is used tor construction
projects. The document was jointly developed by the AIA
and the Ameri€n Sciety of Interior Designers (ASlDl.
Because the Unitorm Commercial Code (UCC) has b€en
adopted in virtually every jurisdiction, A271 has been
drafted to recognize-the commercial standards set forth in
Article 2 ot the UCC and uses cenain standard UCC termi-
nology. Except for minor works, A271 should not be used
for construction involung life safety systems or structural
components.
4305, CONTRACTOR'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT: An
owner preparing to request bids or to award a @ntract for a
construction proiect often requires a means of verifying the
background, history. references, and financial stability of
any contractor being considered. The time trame for con-
struction and the contractor's performance history. previ-
ous experience, and financial stability are imponant factors
for an owner to investigate. This form provides a sworn,
notarized statement with appropriate attachments to elabo-
rate on imponant aspects of the contractor's qualifications.
4310, BID BOND: This simple one-page form was drafted
with input lrom the maior surety companies to ensure its
legality and acceptability. A bid bond establishes the maxi-
mum penal amount that may b€ due the owner it the
selected bidder lails to execute the contract and provide
any required performance and payment bonds.
4312. PERFORMANCE BOND AND PAYMENT BONO: This
form incorporates two bonds, one covering the contractor's
performance and one covering the contractor's obligations
to pav subcontractors and others for material and labor. In
Dale Ellickson, FAIA: The American lnstitute of Architects, Washington, D.C
addition, 4312 oblrgates the surety to act responsively to
the owner's requests for discussions aimed at anticipating
or preventrng a contractor'S detaUlt.
4401, STANDARD FOBM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
CONTRACTOR AND SUBCONTRACTOR is intended for
use in establishrng the contractual relationship between the
contractor and subcont.actor lt spells out the responsrbili
ties ot both parties and lists their respective obligations,
which are written to parallel AIA Document A20l, General
Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Blank spaces
are provided in which the panies can supplement the
details of their agreement. 4401 may be moditied for use
as a subcontractor-sub-subcontractoragreement.
A491. DESIGN/BUILDER-CONTRACTOR AGREEMENTS:
This document contains lwo agreements to be used in
sequence by a design/burlder and a construction contractor
The first agreement covers management consulting ser-
vices to be provided during the preliminary design and bud-
geting phase ot the project. The second agreement covers
construction. lt is presumed that the design/builder has
contracted with an owner to provide design and construc-
tion services under the agreements contained in AIA Docu-
ment A191.
Although it is anticipated that a design/builder and a con-
tractor entering into the first agreement will Iater enter into
the second, the parties are not obligated to do so and may
conclude their relationship after the terms ot the first agree-
ment have been fulfilled. Panies also may lorgo entering
into the first agreement and pr@eed directly to the second.
4 5 0 1 , R E C O M M E N D E D G U I D E F O R C O M P E T I T I V EB I D .
DING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT AWARDS FOR
BUILDING CONSIBUCTION: This guide outlines appropri-
ate procedures in the bidding and award of contracts when
competitive lump sum bids are requested an connection
with building and related construction. The guide is a joint
publication of the AIA and the Associated General Contrac-
tors of America {AGC).
A 5 1 1 , G U I D E F O R S U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I T I O N S i s a
guide for modifying and supplementing 4201, the General
Conditions of the Contract tor Construction. Although A201
is considered the keystone in the legal framework of the
construction contract. it is a standard document and thus
cannot cover all the paniculars of a specilic proiect. A51 1
provides model language with explanatory not€s to help
users adapt A201 by developing supplementary condrtions
that address local circumstances.
This document is printed with a column containing the
model text and an adjacent column of explanatory notes.
The AIA Dermits excerotion of the model text under a lim-
ited license for reproduction granted for drafting supple,
mentary conditions for a particular project.
A511/CMa. GUIDE FOR SUPPLEMENTARY CONDI'
TIONS-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER.ADVISER EDITION:
Similar to A511, the A51 1/CMa document is a guide ro
model provisions for supplementing 4201lCMa, the Gen-
eral Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Construc-
tion Manager-Adviser Edition. A51l/CMa should only be
employed-as sholld A201/CMa{n proiects for which
the construction manager is serving in the capacity of
adviser to the owner (as represented by the CMa docu-
ment designation) and not in situations in which the con-
struction manager is also the constructor (CMc document-
based relationships).
Like A51 1, this document contains suggested language for
supplementary conditions, along with notes on appropriate
usage. In addition, many important distinctions are made to
ensure consistency with other construction manager-
adviser documents.
Caution: CMc docum€nts are based on utilization of the
4201 document, which in turn should be modified usinq
A511asaguide.
A52,I, UNIFOBM LOCATION OF SUBJECT MATTER, iS A
joint publication of the AIA and the Engineers Joint Convact
Documents Committee (EJCDC),which is composed of the
National Society of Engine€rs. American Consulting Engi
neers Council, and American Society of Civil Engineers. By
consensus of these organizations, the AIA and EJCDC doc
uments follow the tabular guide in A521 with regard to the
placement of subject matter among the various contract
and bidding documents. 4521 is a tabulation to guide the
user an the proper placement and phrasing of information
customarily used on a construction project. This document
shows the imponance of maintaining uniformity in location
and language from document to document with respect to
subject matter. Inconsistencies in either area may cause
confusion, delay, or unanticipated legal problems.
A 5 7 1 , G U I D E F O R I N T E R I O R SS U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I -
TIONS: Similar to A51 1, AIA Document A571 is intended as
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIADocuments 1 2 3
an aid to practitionerspreparingsupplementary conditions
for inleriorsproiects.lt providesinformationto help users
addresslocalvariations in project
requirementswhen A27'l,
GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Furniture,Furnish-
ings,and Equipment, is used.
4 7 0 1 ,I N S T R U C T I O N
TOS B I D D E R Si s, u s e d w h e n c o m
petitivebidsare to be solicitedfor construction of a proiect.
Coordinated with A20l and its relateddocuments,4701
containsinstructionsfor proceduresto be followed by bid
dersin preparing and submittingtheirbids,includingbond-
ing. Specificinstructionsor specialrequirements. such as
the amountandtypeof bonding,areto be attachedto A701
as supplementary conditions.
A 7 7 1 ,I N S T R U C T I OTNO
SI N T E R I O RBSI D D E R SS:i m i l atro
A701.A111is used for projectsdealingwith furniture.fur-
nishings,and equipment(FF&E).lt parallelsA701 but con
tainsminorchangesto maintainconsistency with 4271 and
its relatedFF&Edocuments.
B SERIES
The documentsin the B Seriesrelateto variousforms of
agreementbetween an owner and an architectfor profes-
sionalseryices.
8 1 4 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N T
BETWEEN
OWNEBAND ARCHITECT WITH STANDARDFORM OF
ARCHITECT'S SERVICES, is a flexiblecontractingpackage
that allows architectsto offer a broad range of seNices to
clients spanningthe life of a proiect, Irom conceptionto
completionand beyond. lt is structured in a multipan for-
mat consistingof an agreementform-the StandardForm
of Agreement,which containsinitialinformation,terms and
conditions,and compensatioHnd a seryices form-the
StandardFormot Architect'sServices:Designand Contract
Administration.which defines th€ architect's scope of ser-
vices.The s@pe defined approximatesthe levelof seruices
in the prioreditionof 8141.The separation of the scopeof
seryices from the rest of the owner-architectagreement
allolvs users th€ freedom to ch@se alternativescooes of
services.The AIA intends to publish additionalscopes of
seryicesthat correlateto the termsandconditionsof 8141.
8151, ABBREVIATED STANDARD FORMOF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNERAND ARCHITECT, is intendedfor use
on constructionprojects of limited scope when the com-
plexityanddetailof AIA Document8141,StandardFormof
AgreementBetween Owner and Architect,are not required
and when seryicesare based on these five phases:sche-
matic design, design development. construction docu-
ments, bidding and negoliation, and construction. This
document may be used with a variety ot compensation
methods,includingpercentageof constructioncost, multi-
ple of directpersonnelexpense,and stipulatedsum. B151
is intendedfor use in conjunctionwith 4201, GeneralCon
ditionsof the Contractfor Construction.
8155, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHITECTFOR A SMALL PBOJECT.is
intendedfor use on a project that is modest in sizeand brief
in duration.lt adoptsthe A205 d@ument by referenceas it
pertainsto the architect'sresponsibilitiesin administering
the constructioncontractbetween owner and contractor.
8155 is one of three documents that comorise the Small
Projectstamily oI documents. lt has been developedfor
use with AIA Document 4105, Standard Form of Agree-
ment Between Owner and Contractorfor a Small Proiect.
and 4205, GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construc-
tion of a Small Project. These documents are specifically
coordinatedfor use as a set.
Caution:Although4105, 4205, and Bl55 may sharesome
similarities
with other AIA documents.the Small Proiect
documentsshouldnot be used in landem wrth other AIA
documentfamilieswithout caretul side-by-sidecomparison
of contents.
8161, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHITECT FOR DESIGNATED
SERVICES,
hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
A I A D O C U M E N T8 1 6 2 , S C O P EO F D E S I G N A T ESDE R -
VICES,hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
8163, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHITECT FOR DESIGNATED SERVICES,
is the most comprehensiveAIA owner-architect agree-
ment. This three-part document contains, among other
things. a thorough list of 83 possible seruices divided
among nine phas€s. covering preiesign through supple-
mental services.This detailed classificationallows the
architectto estimate more accuratelythe time and person-
nel costs requiredfor a particularproject. Both owner and
architect benefit from the ability to cleady establish the
continues on following page
A
1
 124 AIA Documenls
Document Synopses, B Seles, continued frcm prevtous
page
scope of setvrces requ red tor a projecl. as respons'brlities
and compensation issues are negotiated and defined. The
archatects compensation may be calculated on a time/cost
basis through use of the worksheet provided in the instruc-
tionsto 8163.
Part One of the document deals with variables tvoical of
many ownetrarchttect agreements. such as compensation
and scope of seruices. The scope of services is delimited
through use of a matrix that allows the parties to desionate
their agreed upon servrces and responstbilities. part Two
contarns detailed descilptrons of lhe speciIc se'u'""t lornO
In the matrix. Part Three contains general descrptions of
the parties' duties and responsibilitjes The list of servrces
in 8163 has been expanded to include construction man-
agement and interiors services.
8171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENI EETWEEN
O W N E R A N D A R C H I T E C TF O R I N T E R I O R D E S I G N S E R -
VICES, is intended for use when the architect aqrees to
pruvide an owner wtth des'gn and admrnrslratrve:servrces
for the procurement of interior furniture, furnishings, and
equipment (FF&E). Unlike 8141, which is used for buildjng
design, this document ancludesprogramming of the interio;
spaces ano requrements as part ot the overall package of
basic services. The authority to reject goods is left in the
hands of the owner rather than the architect. since the oro,
curement of goods rs govetned by the Unrtorm Commeicia
Code (UCC). which would in turn make the architect,s mis
taken rejection or acceptance ot goods binding upon the
owner. 8171 is coordinated with and adopts bv reference
AIA Document M7l, Generat Cond'lions of the Contract
for Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment. When BtTl is
used. it is anticipated that 4271 will form part of the con,
tract between the owner and the contractor for FF&E.
B177, ABBREVIATED FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR INTE,
RIOR DESIGN SEBVICES, is simitar to Bt71 but has tess
complexity and detail. 8177 may be used when the owner
and architect have a continuing relationship from previous
work togelher or when the prolect is felatrvelv simple rn
detail or short in duration.
818I, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOB HOUSTNG SERVICES. has
been developed with the assistance of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development and other {ederal
housing agencies. lt is primarily intended for use in multi-
unit housing design. 8181 requires the owner, rather than
the architect, to furnish cost€stimating seruices. 81g1 is
coordinated with and adopts by reference AIA Document
A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction.
8I88, STANDABD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOR LIMITED ARCHITEC.
TURAL SERVICES FOR HOUSTNG PROJECTS. is a unique
addition Io the AIA Documents coilect.on Untite,ls drstant
cousin 8181. 8188 is intended for use when the architect
willprovide limited architectural serujces in connection with
a development housing project. lt anticipates that the
owner will have extensive control over management of the
pro,ect, acting in a capacity similar to that of a developer or
speculative builder of a housing proiect. As a result, the
owner or separate consuttants retaaned by the owner likelv
will provide the engineeflng seryrces, specifv the bran;
nares of materials and equipment. and admtnrster oav-
m€nts to contr&tors. among other project responsibilities.
8188 is not-c@rdinated for use with any other AIA standard
form contract-
8352, DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIESAND LIMITATIONS OF
AUTHORITY OF THE ARCHITECT'S PROJECT REPRESEN.
TATIVE: When and i{ the owner wants additional oroiect
representalion at the consl.uctton sile on a full- or part trme
basis, B'l4l and other AIA owner,architect agreements ref-
erence 8352 to establish the duties, responsibilities. and
limitations of authority of the proiect representative.
The project rep.esentative ts emploved and supervrsed bV
tne archttect. In conlrasl, up untrl the early 1950s 8352
predecessor d@uments called the reoresentative .the
Clerk of the Works,'because such pe,sons were hired by
tne owner but supervised by the archrtecl. The SO||l
between hiring and supervision caused numerous prob
lems, which have been resolved under 8352 by designating
the architect as both employer and superviior. 8152 ii
coordinated for use with both 8141 aod 8163. as well as
with 4201.
8431, ABCHITECT'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT. iS A
standardized outline of information that a client may wish to
rev€w.prior to selecting an architect for a particular project.
It may be used as part of a request for proposals (RFp) or as
a final check on the credentrals of an architect. Under some
qrcumstances, 8431 may be attached to the
owner_archi-
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Insljtute of Architects, Washington, D.C
A
T CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
tect agreement,for example,to show the team of profes,
s onalsand consultantsexpectedto be emplovedon the
owner s prolect_
8 7 2 7 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN
OWNERAND ARCHTTECT FORSpECtALSERV|CES, is rhe
most flexibleof the AIA owner-archttect aqreements in that
tne oescriptron of servicesis lelt entilelyu-pto lhe Ingenurty
ot the parties.Otherwise,manyof the termsandconditions
are very similarto those tound in AIA Document8141.
8727 is often used for planning,teasibilitystudies.and
otherservtces(suchas construction administratton) that do
not follow the completephasingsequenceof seryicesset
torth in 8141 and other AIA documents.lf construction
administration seryicesare to be Orovided. care must be
taken10coordrnate B /27 with the appropflate
GeneralCon
drlionsof lhe Contracttor Constructron
8801/CMa, SIANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGER
WHERETHECONSTRUCTION MANAGERIS NOTA CON-
STRUCTOR. is intendedfor use on proiectsfor which con-
structronmdnagemenlservicesare assumedbV a single
entrtywho rs separateand independent from the architect
and the contractorand who actssolelyas an adviser{CMa)
to the owner throughoutthe courseof the project.
8801/CMais coordinated lor usewith AIA DocumentB14ll
CMa, StandardForm of AgreementBetweenOwner and
Architect-{onstruction ManagerAdviserEdition. Both
8801/CMaand 8141/CMaare basedon the oremisethat
lnerewrllbe a separate.and possiblymultrple,
constructton
contractor(s)whose contractswith the owner are iointlv
adminrstered by the architectandthe construction
manage.
under AIA DocumentA201lCMa,GeneralConditionsof the
Contract for Constructiorconstruction Manaoer-Adviser
Edrtron
Caution:g801lCMa is not coordinatedwith and shouldnot
be used with documentsin which the construction man,
ager acts as the constructor(i.e.,contractor)for the project,
suchas AIA DocumentsA121lCMcor A131/CMc
8901, STANDARDFOBM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
DESIGN/BUILDER AND ABCHITECT. containstwo aoree-
ments to be used In sequenceby a design/burldera;d an
architect. The first agreement covers preliminarydesign,
and the second coversfinal design. lt is presumedthat the
design/builderhas previouslycontractedwith an owner to
provide design and constructionseNices under the aoree-
ments containedin AIA DocumentA191. Althouohit is
ant'cipatedthat a design/builder and an architecte-ntering
into the lirst agreementwill later enter into the second,the
partresare not obligatedto do so and may concludetheir
relationshipafter the terms of the first agreement have
beenfulfilled.
Design/buildentities may be architects, contractors. or
even busrnesspersons, as long as they complywith the
governrng laws.especiallythosepertaining to licensingand
publicprocurementregulations. Priorto proceeding in this
fashionor enteringinto eitheragreementcontainedin this
document with any other entity, architectsare advisedto
contacttheirlegal,insurance,andmanagement advisers.
C SERIES
The documents in the C Series relate to variousforms of
agreem€ntbetween an architect and other orofessionals.
including
engineers,consultants,and otherarchitects.
C141. STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
ARCHITECT AND CONSULTANT, estabtishesthe resoec-
trve responsibilities
and mutualrightsof the archrtectand
the consultant.C141 is most applicableto engin@rsbut
may also be used for consultantsin other disciolines
who
provideseryicesto architects.
Theprovisions of Ct41 are in
accordwith thoseof 815'l and4201, GeneralConditions of
the Contractfor Construction.
C142,ABBREVIATED ARCHITECT-CONSULTANT AGREE-
MENT,adoptsthe terms of a prime agreementbetween
owner and architectby reference.
C727, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
ARCHIIECTAND CONSULIANTFORSPECIAL SERVICES,
is Intended for use when other C Series documents ar€
Inappropriate.lt is olten used for planning,teasibility
stud,
ies, post{ccupancy studies,and other servicesthat require
specializeddescriptions.
CBO1, JOINT VENTUREAGREEMENTFOR PROFES,
SIONALSERVICES. is meant to be used bV two or more
partiesto providefor their mutualrightsand obligations.lt
is intendedthat the joint venture,once established, will
enter Into a prolect agreement with the owner to provide
professional seruices.The partiesmay be all architects,
all
engineers,a combination of architects and engineers,or
another combinationof professionals.The document pro-
vrdes a choice between two methods of joint venture oper
'Division
ation The of Compensation' method assunre
that servtces provided and the compensation received w
be drvided dmong the partres in the proportions ag,eed to a
the outset of the projecl. Each party's profitabitity ther
depends on individual performance of preassigned taskr
and is not directly tied to that of the other panies. The.Dr!
sion of Profit and Loss'method is based on each party per
forming worl and bill;ng the ioint venture at cost plus
nomrnal amount for overhead The ultimate Orofit or loss o.
the joint venture is thus divided at completion of the projecl
between the partjes based on their respective interests.
D SERIES
The documents in the D Series, known as the Architec.
lnduslry documents. are applicable to a broad range ,
prolects.
D1 01, METHODS OF CALCULATING THE AREA AND VOL
UME OF BUILDINGS, estabtishes definitions for and
describes methods of calculating the architectural area anc
volume of buildings. D101 also covers interstitial soacF
olfice, retarl, and res,denltal areas.
D200, PROJECT CHECKLIST, is a convenient lisr of tasks a
practitioner may perform on a given project. This checklisl
wall help fhe architect recognize required tasks and locate
the data necessary to fulfill assigned responsibilities. Bv
providing space for notes on actions taken, assignment of
tasks. and time frames for completion, D200 may also
sefve as a permanent record of the owner's, contractor's
and architect's actions and decisions.
F SERIES
The F Series offered accounting forms for architects. With
the exception of F5002, INVOICE FOR ARCHTTECTURAL
SERVICES, separate editions of F Series forms have been
discontinued due to the preponderance of commerciallv
available computer software on this subiect. F1 001 throuah
F3002 are lncluded rn the book StandardEed Accountinq f"o,
Arch,fecrs bv Boben F Mattox. FAIA.
G SERIES
The documents in the G Series relate to office administra
tion, securing of goods and services, and administering and
closing out ot proiect agreements.
G601, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-LAND SURVEy, ailows
owners to request proposals from a number of surueyors
based on information deemed necessary bv the owner and
architect. G601 also allows owners to fine-tune a request
for proposat (RFPI by checking appropriate boxes and tiillnq
rn project specifics to avoid costs associated with reouest
ing unnecessary intormation. The document may also torm
the agreement between owner and land survevor once an
understanding is reached.
G602, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-GEOTECHNICAL SER
VICES: Similar in both structure and format to AIA Docu
ment G60'1, G602 is an RFP that can evolve to form a.
agreement between owner and geotechnical engineer
G602 allom the owner to tailor th1 proposal reqr_iest to
address the specific needs of a oroiect. In consultation with
the architect, the owner establishes the Darameters of ser
vice required and evaluates submissions based on criteria
such as trme, cost, and overall responsiveness to the terms
set forth in the RFP. When an acceptable submission is
selected, the owner signs the document in triplicate,
returnrng one copy to the engineer and one to the architect
thus establishing an agreemenl between owner and geo,
technical engineer.
G604, PROFESSIONAL SERVICES SUPPLEMENT, i5
intended to formalize procedures for authorizing supple
mental professional actions. such as expanding the scope
of basic services, incutring relmbursable expenies, or pro-
ceeding with certain additional seryices. The document
should only be used in conjunction with an earlier agree
ment for professional setuices and is meant to p.ovide a
wfltten record of such authorizations, with Darticulars of
actrvrtres,ttme spans, and comDensatron involved
G 6 1 2 , O W N E R ' S I N S T R U C T I O N SR E G A R D I N GI H E C O N
STRUCTION CONTRACT, INSURANCE AND BONDS, AND
BIDDING PBOCEDURI-S, rs formarted as a questronnaire In
three parts Part A relates to the contracts, Part B covers
insurance and bonds, and Part C deals with biddinq oroce
dures. The sectrons tollow a prolect s normal chron'oiogrcat
sequence to provide information when it will be needed.
Eecause many of the items relating to the contract will
have some bearing on the development of construction
documents, it is important to olace Pan A in the owner's
hands at the earliest possible phase of the project. The
owner's responses to Part A wall lead to selection of the
continues on following page

Document Svnooses, G Series, contnued frcm previous
pa9e
appropriate delivery method and contract torms, including
the general conditions. Part B naturally {ollows afte/'1he
selection of the general conditions, because Insu.ance and
bonding information depends on the type of general condts
tions chosen. Answers to Part C will follow as the contract
documents are further developed.
G701. CHANGE ORDER, may be used as written documen-
tation of changes in the work, contract sum, or contract
time that are mutually agreed to by the owner and contrac-
tor. G701 provides space tor the signatures of the owner.
architect, and contractor and for a complete description of
the change.
G701/CMa. CHANGE ORDER-CONSTRUCTION MAN-
AGER'ADVISER EDITION: The purpose ot thas document is
essentially the same as that of G701. The majo. difference
is that the signature ol the construction manager-adviser is
required along with those of the owner, architect, and con-
tractor to validate the change order.
G702, APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT,
and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: These documents pre
vide convenient and complete forms on which the contrac-
tor can apply for payment and the architect can cenity that
oavment rs oue.
The forms require the contractor to show the status of the
contract sum to date, including the total dollar amount of
the work comoleted and stored to date. the amount of
retainage (if any), the total of previous payments, a sum-
mary of change orders, and the amount of current payment
requested. G703, Continuation Sheet, breaks the contract
sum into mrtions of the work in accordance with a sched-
ule of values required by the general conditions.
The to.m serves as both the contractor's application and
the architect's cenification. lts use can expedite payment
and reduce the possibility of error- lf the application is protr
erly completed and acceptable to the architect, the archi-
tect's signature certifies to the owner that a payment in the
amount indicated is due to the contractor. The lorm also
allows the architect to certify an amount different than the
amount applied for, with explanation provided by the archi-
led.
G7O2lCMa. APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAY-
MENI-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION,
and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: Though the use and
purpose of GTO2|CMa is substantially similar to that ot
G702. the construction manager-adviser edition expands
responsibility for certitication of payment to include both
architect and construction manager. Similarly, both archi-
tect and construction manager may certify a different
amount than that applied for. with each initialing the figures
that have been changed and providing written explana-
tion{s) accordingly. The standard G703, Continuation Sheet,
is appropriate for use with G702lCMa.
G704, CERTIFICATEOF SUBSTANTIAL COMPLETION, iS A
standard form tor recording the date of substantial comple
tion of a work or a designated portion thereof. The contrac-
tor prepares a list of items to be completed or corrected,
and the architect verilies and amends this lis1. lf the archi'
tect linds that the work is substantially complete. the form
is prepared for acceptance by the contractor and the
owner. Aooended to the form is a list of items to be com-
pleted or corrected. The form provides lor agreem€nt as to
the time allowed for completion or correction of the items,
the date when the owner will @cupv the work or des-
ignated portion thereof, and a description of responsibilities
lor maintenance, heat, utilities, and insurance.
c705, CERTIFICATE OF INSURANCE, has been replaced
by AIA Document G71 5.
G706, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF PAYMENT OF
DEBTS AND CLAIMS: The contractor submits this affidavit
with the final request for payment, stating that all payrolls,
bills for materials and equipment, and other indebtedness
connected with the work for which the owner might be
resoonsible have been oaid or otheNise satisfied. G706
requires the contractor to list any indebtedness or known
claims in connection with the construction contract that
have not been paid or otheNise satisfied. The contractot
mav also be required to furnish a lien bond or indemnrty
bond to protect the owner with respect to each exception.
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Institute of Architects, Washington, D.C
AIADocuments 125
G7O6A, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF RELEASE OF REFERENCES
LIENS, supports AIA Document G706 in the event the Information on the AIA documents mav be oblarned fronl
owner requires a sworn statemenl of the contractor statlng
the oublications listed below. Information on the docu-
that all releases or waivers of liens have been received. In
menis is also available on the AIA website at www\aiaon-
such event, it is normal for the contractor to submit G706
l,ne.com.
and G706.4, along with attached releases or waivers of liens
for the contractor. all subcontractors, and others who may 'AlA
Conlract Documents Price List.'This publication is
have lien rights against the owner's property. The contrac-
available lree from AIA distributors or by calling (800) 365-
tor is required to list any exceptions to the sworn statement
2724. lr lists the current edition of each AIA document
provided in G706A and may be required to furnish the
owner with a lien bond or indemnitv bond to protect lhe
American fnstitute of Architects. The Architect's Handbook
owner with respect to such exceptrons. 'l2th
of Prcfessional Practice, ed. Washrngton, D C.: The
AIA Press, 1994. The Handbook has been the architecture
G707, CONSENT OF SURETY TO FINAL PAYMENT: By ob- profession's premier manual of p.actice since it was first
taining the approval of the surety for final payment to the published in 1917. lt contains sample copies of most oi the
contractor and the agreement cf the surety that final pay-
AIA documents.
ment will not relieve the surety of any of its obligations. the
owner may preserve its rights under the bonds.
The Documents Supplement Service. This is a subscription
seryice through which users of the Handbook can receave
G7O7A, CONSENT OF SURETY TO REDUCTION IN OR
sample copies of new AIA documents as they are pub-
PARTIAL RELEASE OF RETAINAGE. is a standard form tor
fished. Subscribers also receive the Supplement, a newslet-
use when a surety company is involved and the ownerton-
ter of articles and comment on the AIA documents.
tractor agreement contains a clause whereby retainage is
Subscriptions may be obtained by calling IB0AI 365 2124
reduced during the course of lhe construction project.
When duly executed, G707A assures the owner that such 'Promises,
Promises: Forging Healthy Proiect Relatron-
reduction or partial release of retainage does not relieve the
ships.'This as a series oI continuing educatron manuals,
surety of its obligations.
each of which may be used either for seminar presentation
or {or self-study:
G709, PROPOSAL REOUEST, is used to obtain price quota-
tions required in the negotiation of change orders. G709 is
Advanced Conttact Concepts. This manual covers the
not a change o.der or a direction to proceed with the work;
essentials of contract law: the elements of a contract. the
it is simply a request to the contractor for information
fundamental principles of agency and negligence law, and
related to a proposed change in the construction contract.
the use of standard contract documents. lt also includes an
overyiew of the recent, maior changes to two AIA standard
G710, ARCHITECT'S SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTIONS, iS
contract documents: A201, General Conditions of the Con-
used by the architect to issue additional instructions or
tract for Construction, and 81 41, Standard Form of Agree-
intepretations or to order minor changes in the work. The
ment Between Owner and Architect.
form is intended to assist the architect in perlorming obliga-
tions as interpreter of the contract document requirements
Design Serulce. This manual addresses the general respon-
in accordance with the owner-architect agreement and the
sibilities of the architect and the owner in 8141, Standard
general conditions. This torm should not be used to change
Form of Agreement between Owner and Architect. Specifi-
the contract sum or contract time. lf the contractor believes
cally, these responsibilities include establishing a program
that a change in the contract sum or contract time is
and budget, setting basic poject parameters, and agreeing
involved, other G Series documents must be used.
on the architect's scooe of seryices. The manual also
includes an overyiew of the Standard Form of Architect's
G71 1, ARCHIIECT'S FIELD REPORT. is a standard lorm lor
Seryices: Design and Contract Administration, the first
the architect's project representative to use in maintaining
scooe of seryices oublished with 8141.
a concise record o{ site visits or, in the case oI a full-timb
project represen'tative. a daily log of construction qctivities.
Design and Contract Administation: Conttact Conditions.
Contract conditions {orm the framework within which the
G7l 2, SHOP DRAWING AND SAMPLE RECORD, is a stan-
owner and architect carry out their responsibilities to one
dard form by which the architect can schedule and monitor
another. This manual addresses the contract conditions that
shop drawings and samples. Since this process tends to be generally apply over the course of the owner-architect rela-
complex. the schedule provided in G712 shows the
tionship, including compensation and billing, project timing
progress of a submittal, which in turn contributes to the
and duration, responsibilities of the owner. and ownership
, orderly processing of worl G7l2 can also serve as a per-
and use of documents.
ta manent record of the chronology of the submittal process.
Contract Administration SeNices. This manual covers roles
G714, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, .eplaces
and responsibilities of owner, architect and contractor as a
former AIA Document G71 3, Construction Change Authori- project moves anto construction.
zation. G714 was developed as a directive lor changes in
the work that, if not expeditiously implemented, might
Contract Administration-4ffice. This manual addresses
delay rhe project. ln contrast to a Change Order (AlA Docu-
contract administration from the architect's oersoective
ment G701). G714 is to be used when the owner and con-
when'back in the office'and not in the field visiting the
tractor, for whatever reason, have not reached agreement
owner's site. lt covers project initiation, submittals,
on proposed changes in the contract sum or contract time.
changes. timing issues, suspension and termination. and
Upon receipt of a completed G714, the contractor must
special provisions, such as propeny insurance.
promptly proceed with the change in the work described
therein.
Construction Contract Administration Conditions-Field.
This manual addresses construction contract administration
G714lCMa, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, CON-
conditions relevant to the architect's services on the iob
STRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, is designed to
site, administering the contract, and evaluatjng the work as
eftect the same type of substantive changes in the work
it progresses, as well as subcontractor relations. contrac-
described in the svnopsis of G714, above. The difference
tor's payments, claims, corrections to the work. and proiect
between the two lies not in purpose but in execution:
closeout-
Whereas the owner and architect must both sign the G71 4
in order for the directive to become a valid contractual
Sweet, Justin. Sw@t on Construction lndustry Contrccts:
instrument. G714lCMa requires execution by owner. archi-
Majo( AIA Documents. Vol. 1 of Construction Law Library.
tect. and constructton manager-advrser.
New York John Wiley & Sons. 1996.
G722lCMa. PROJECT APPLICATION AND PBOJECT CER-
Sabo, Werner. Legal Guide to AIA Documents, 3rd ed New
TIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, and G723lCMa, PROJECT '1992.
York: John Wiley & Sons,
APPLICATION SUMMARY: These documents are similar in
purpose to the combination of G702 and G703 but are for
Stein, Steven G. M., ed. The American lnstitute of Archi-
use on construction management projects on which a con-
tects Legal Citator. New York: Matthew Bender. 1997
struction manager seryes as an adviser to the owner.
'You
and Your Architect.'This booklet, available free to AIA
Each contractor submits separate G702lCMa and G703/
members, reviews issues to be conside.ed by an owner
CMa documents to the construction manager-adviser, who
preparing to retain an architect.
collects and compiles them to complete G723lCMa. G7231
CMa then seryes as a summary of the contractors' applica-
tions, with proiect totals being transferred lo a G722lCMa.
The construction manager-adviser can then sign the form.
have it notarized, and submit it along with the G723lCMa
(which has all oI the separate contractors' G702lCMa forms
attached) to the architect for review and app.opriate action.
A
'rl
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS U
 126 CSIUniFormot
INTRODUCTION
It asuseful to have different ways of organizrngconstructton
-intormation so the varyrng rnterests of those who view,
use, and manipulale it can be accommodated. UniFormat
and MasterFormat offer two commonly acCepted ways of
organizing information about construction projects and
building operations.
MasterFormat emphasizes a vrew of construction focused
on products, offering the perspective of product manufac-
turers, suppliers, speci{iers, and contractors. MasterFormat
names components (buildtng materaals,products, and activ-
ities) that have specifiable characteristics.
UniFormat locuses on performance requirements and coin-
cides with the way users, owners, and designers vLew con
struction. UniFormat names systems and assemblies that
have a determinable function.
MASTERFORMAT
MasterFormat, with its list of products and activities, looks
at construction an the way the parls are specified, pur,
chased. and inslalled. The term products here means mate-
rials, components. and equipment that a contractor
incorporates into the work of a proiect.
MasterFormat arranges information for project manuals
into six ma,or groups (introductory information, bidding
requirements, contracting requirements, tacilities and
spaces, systems and assemblies. and construction prod,
ucts and activities). For details, see the AGS pages on Mas-
terFormat.
Archit€cts use MasterFormat in the tollowing ways:
1. To arrange information in proiect manuals
2. To catalog product information with the numbers and
titles used to specify those products and activities in con-
struction documeots
3. To arrange cost information and build a cost model for
construction activities and associated products according
to how thev are speciiied in construction documents
4. To prepare keynotes for drawings that assciate items
with specifications in construction documents
5. To arrange facility management and construction market
information in the way products and activities are speci-
fied in construction d@uments
UNIFORMAT
UniFormat is a meth6d oI arranging construction informa-
tion td a range of building types based on the physical sys
tems and assemblies that make up a facility. Construction
is viewed according to the way in which elements are used,
thus systems and assemblies are characterized by their
function with no identification of the oroducts thev com,
prise. Nine level 1 UnrFormat categories and therr associ-
ated classes and subclasses define the basic oarts of a
building, each characterrled by irs funct,on.
Titles in UniFormat levels 1 through 3 can be applied to
most project descriptions and preljminary cost estimates.
Levels 4 and 5 are available for use on detailed, complex
projects. Levels 4 and 5 titles and detailed lists provide a
checklist to ensure comprehensive and complete applica-
tion of UniFormat.
UniFormat is int€nded to help architects achieve consis-
tency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance design
program idormation reponing; and promote consistency in
filing intormation for facility management, drawing details,
and construction market data. More specificallv, it is used
to organize design descriptions, cost summaries, and per-
lormance specilications of systems and assemblies (e.g.,
HVAC systems and exterior wall assemblies).
fuchitects use UniFormat for these tasks:
l.Performing economic analysis of construction alterna-
tives, particularly in early design stages
2. Building an evolving construction cost model arranged by
the tunctional parts of a facility
3. Arranging descriptions of the functional parts of a project
so they communicate how a design is intended to
accomplish an owner's construction program
4. Arranging project manuals for applications when design-
build delivery is employed
5. Filing drawing details
6. Filing lacility management and constructaon market infor-
mation
APPLICATION OVERVIEW
On thisand the followingAGSpageon UniFormat are basic
st.ategiesfor numberingand titling informationabout sys
tems and assemblies for usesotherthanconstruction doc
The Construction
Specifications
Institute;Alexandria,
Vrrginia
'tl
J1
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
umenls. The methods described are not rigid; rather, they
are meant to help UniFormat users develop ao understand
ing of the system that will allow them to apply it consis
tently. lnformation is included about using UniFormat to
organize cost information and preliminary prolect descrip
trons, arrange project manuals, and organize facility man-
agement and construction market information.
Level 1 UniFormat titles cover the major categories of con
struction information according to function. These letters
and titles are fixed and should not be changed in applica-
tion:
PROJECI DESCRIPTION
A-SUBSTRUCTURE
B-SHE LL
C-INTERIORS
D-SERVICES
E-EOUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
F-SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
G-BUILDING SITEWORK
Z_GENERAL
The category Project Description is a collection of basic
intormataon that introduces a project and includes bidding,
proposal, and contract requirements. lt can be used as a
stand alone contracting structure for construction projects
and is especially suitable for design{uild applications. The
Project Description level does not have a letter designation,
allowing it to appear first in the list of titles.
Like the Project Description, Category Z-General does not
represent a building system or assembly. lt is designated
by the last letter ol the alphab€t to keep this category last if
the system is expanded beyond building construction for a
prolecr.
Level 1 ca'tegories are divided into classes of information to
make level 2 categories. These €rry the letter ot their par-
ent category plus a twodigit number. Alphanumeric desig-
nations and titles of level 2 classes are fixed and should not
be changed in application.
Levels 3 and 4 are created by funher subdividing level 2
classes. These subclasses carry the alphanumeric designa-
tion of their parent category and class plus a twoiigit num-
ber. Level 3 designations should not be changed in
application. Alphanumeric designations for level 4 are unas-
signed within a group of level 3 subclasses and number
extension are assigned by the user. The user-assigned
number should carry the alphanumeric designation of the
parent level 3 subclass plus a twodigit number or the corre
sponding MasterFormat number.
Titles presented below level 4 are level 5 subclasses, devel-
oped by presenting specialized design solutions of the level
4 parent subclasses. Particular materials may be identified
to differentiate one specialized solution from another. Titles
at level 5 are examples of information included in their level
4 subclass.
No alphanumeric designation is assigned. Users may assign
extensions. Level 5 and some level 4 titles correspond to
MasterFormat numbers and titles.
The UniFormat numbering system can expand to allow for
additional numbers and titles at any level. Userdefined
numbers and titles that fit within the established frame-
work of UniFormat can be added.
SELECTING UNIFORMAT
NUMBERS
AND TITLES
Not all UniFormat titles will b€ used for every proiect. Uni-
Format is an expandabl€ structure that can accommodate
additional titles to meet specific requirements. However,
designated numbers and tilles should not be changed in
order to maintain a consistent arrangement.
UniFormat titles are generic. descriptive titles independent
o{ any design solution. They are the starting point for
describing systems and assemblies. Be sure to incorporate
these parent titles when creating a userdefined level 3, 4,
or 5 title, so systems and assemblies titles are complete,
clear, and descriptive. Users can add further systems and
assemblies numbers and titles for proiects that include
items other than building construction, such as heaw civil
engineering construction or preess facilities.
Some users may want to add MasterFormat materials and
methods information to a document organized accord ng to
UniFormat. MasterFormat numb€rs may be added through-
out the design process as materials and methods are deter-
mrned.
The transition from a document organized according to Unf
Format to one organized according to MasterFormat ma\
be easrer if MasterFormat extensions are used. lf thes.
fiveiigit number extensions have been added, a documel
organized according to UniFormat can be searched or
soned according to a MasterFormat five-digit extension 1.
regroup intormation according to MasterFormat.
USING UNIFORMAT
Below and at the beginning of the next AGS page are expla
nations of several uses for UniFormat.
ARRANGING COST INFORMATION
The list of elements or systems in UniFormat can be usec
as ihe basis of a system tor organizing cost informatior
which may be reported in varying degrees of detail. Al
design decisions are made, information about costs can b.:
refined. This arrangement makes possible a comparison ol
cost information for various building elements, which may
be particularly uselul during early design phases.
A UniFormat cost model can be used in tandem with a cosl
modeLorganized according to MasterFormat. The two mod
els render a different view of a project and provide detai:
appropriate for differenl requirements. For example, a cosl
model organized according to UniFormat can provide inlor
mation about the cost ot a concrete structure as comoared
to the cost of a steel structure. A cost model organized
according to MasterFormat can provide information aboul
the cost of all the concrete and steel on a project regardless
of the structural system chosen-
Value analysis requires a consistent naming scheme carried
throughout a project. UniFormat is particularly useful lor
this type of analysis, which requires attaching a cost to a
particular use or facility function rather than to particular
products and activities. Using MasterFormat numbers as
suf{ixes to element designations helps the value analyst
evaluate change proposals.
ARRANGING PRELIMINARY PROJECT
DESCRIPTIONS
Preliminary project descriptions are described in the CSI
'Preliminary
Manual of Practice in chapter FFl180, Project
Descriptions and Oulline Specifications." A preliminary
prcject description helps an owner understand the various
components and systems proposed by an A,/E for a project.
It also serues a requirement normally included in a design
seryices agreement for which the A,/E must submit a report
after completing the schematic design but before proceed
ing to design development. These descriptions may serve
as th€ basis for an €stimate of orobable construction costs
UniFormat provides a logical sequence of systems and
assemblies tor describing a construction project before al
materials and methods have been determined. UniFormat
is used to organize, and serves as a checklist for preparing
preliminary project descriptions at various levels of detai
As a design progresses, both descriptions and estimates of
probable construction costs can be refined.
ARRANGING PROJECT MANUALS
Arranging project manuals, or portions of them, according
to UniFormat is appropriate when performance specifica-
tion is the method employed for all or some of the proiect.
Performance specification can be used at many levels, from
a single product to maior subsystems or entire projects. 11
allows the owner to access a range of options, from exist
ing technology to innovative systems and developing tech
nologies. As well, performance specification encourages
full bidding competition based on nonrestrictive require
ments. Design-build projects make use of performance
specification in its broadest application.
Whether an entire building or only a portion of it is specified
using performance specifications, UniFormat can be used
to organize this type of specification for elements crossing
MasterFormat section and division boundaries. For conven-
tional proiects with project manuals organized according to
MasterFormat, specifiers can include systems and assem
blies before Division 1-General Requirements. According
to UniFormat, systems and assemblies can be numbered
and sequenced in this part of the project manual with the
appropriate assignment of UniFormat numbers and titles
CSI Manual of Practice chapters FFl120. "Methods of
Specifying," and SP/090, "Performance Specitying." pro.
vide detailed discussions about this aoolication.
ARRANGING CONSTRUCTION MARKET
INFORMATION
Market inlormation reporting agencies can use UniFormat
to describe the lacility being reported. UniFormat can also
be used to assemble, store, and report information about
elements separate from and in addition to reports on prod
conilnues on nen page
 CSIUniFormot 127
continued from the previous page 1020ProjectProgram D40 Fire Protection
1030 ExistingConditions D4010 Sprinklers
ucts and actisties This helps show trends for major ele- 1040OwneasWork D4020 Standplpes
ments containing products and activities crossing
1050 Funding D4030 FireProtectionSpecialties
MasterFormat section and division boundarres.
D4090 Other Fire ProtectionSystems
2O-PROPOSAL,EIDDING,AND CONTRACTING
ORGANIZING DRA\^/INGS
2010DeliveryMethod D50 Electrical
UniFormat numbers and titles can be used as a file-naming Serviceand Distribution
2020OualificationsRequirements D5010Electrical
convention tor library files of standard details and sched-
ules. The Uniform Drawing System (UDS) provides a 2030 ProposalRequirements D5020Lighlingand BranchWiring
detailed description for this appli€tion. 2040 8id Requirements D5030Communications and Security
2050 ContractingRequiremenls D5090Orher ElectricalSystems
Library files are named difterently from proiect files
b€cause the classification and indexing requirements are D60 BasicMaterialsand Methods
3O-COSTSUMMARY
different. Library file naming should be group€d by building
systems, assemblies, or use because that ls the most natu- 3010 ElementalCostEstimate
E L E M E NET-EOUIPMENT A N DF U R N I S H I N G S
ral way to search for them. Project detail files must also be 3020Assumpt'onsandOualifrcatrons
organized to make it easy to produce proiect contract docu- E'10Equipment
3030Allowances
ments, record documents, and facility management docu- E1010Commercial Equipment
ments from several liles. Naming a detail file for a project
3040 Alternates
Equipment
E l 020 lnstitutional
requires the sheet identification. coordinates on the sheet, 3050 Unit Prices
E'1030 Vehicular Equipment
and a detail identitier.
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND E1090OtherEquipment
UDS recommends an 8{haracter designalor for naming ASSEMBLIES
library schedule files. A numbering system based on Uni- E20 Furnishings
ELEMENTA-SUBSTRUCTURE
Format can be used for preliminary phases of a project. Uni- E2010FixedFurnishings
A10 Foundations
Format numbers can be used during the construction E2020MovableFurnishings
documents phase for schedules made up of assemblies of A1010 StandardFoundations
materials that might otheMise have separate MasterFotr A1020SpecialFoundations ELEMENTF-SPECIAL CONSIRUCTIONAND DEMOLI
mat numbers. A1030SlabOn Grade TION
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
F10 SpecialConstruction
ARRANGING 420 BasementConstruction
INFORMATION F1010 SpecialStructures
A2010 BasementExcavation
UniFormat is used for preliminary prcject descriptions to F1020 IntegratedConstruction
systems and assemblies concepts to a build-
A2020 BasementWalls
communi€te F1030 SpecialConstructionSystems
ing owner. Once preliminary project descriptions have been
ELEMENTB-SHELL F1M0 SpecialFacilities
refined, UniFormat can be used to communicate a build-
ing's functional systems and assemblies for real eslate B1OSup€rstructure F1o5oSp€ciaiControlsand Instrumentation
dueiiligence reports and to organize maintenance and B l 010 FloorConstruction
operation programs and data. F20 SelectiveDemolition
81020 RooI Construction
F2010 BuildingElementsDemolition
UniFormat sn be used to document how systems and F2020HazardJusComponentsAbatement
820 ExteriorEnclosure
assemblies function; therefore, it is an organizational con-
cept well-suited to describing systems design intsnt during 82010ExteriorWalls
ELEMENTG-BUILDINGSITEWORK
facility commissioning. Proiect descriptions can be refined 82020 ExteriorWindows
throughout the design pr@ess, makng it easaer to carry out
G10 SitePreparation
82030 ExteriorDoors
the commissioning authority's pertorrunce testing and G1010SiteClearing
acceptance program. Facility personnel can then use the 830 Roofing G1020SiteDemolitionand Relocations
proiect descriptions to store information about systems
83010RoofCoverings G1030SiteEarthwork
maintenance and operations.
83020RoofOpenings G1040 HazardousWaste Remediation
ARRANGING INFORMATION FOR DESIGN-
BUILD APPLICATIONS ELEMENTC-INTERIORS G20 Site lmprovements
Design-build proiect delivery has created a need for an C10 lnteriorConstruc'tion G2010Roadways
organizational structure that allows owners and deslgn- ,/ C1010Partitions G2020ParkingLots
burld entrties to communicate functional performane' C1020InteriorDoors G2030PedestrianPaving
requirements. UniFormat provides this organizational struc-
C1030Fittings G2040Site Development
ture.
G2050Landscaping
C20 Stairs
UNIFORMAT AND C2010StairConstruction G30 Site Civiutvlechanical
Utilities
MASTERFORMAT USED C2020StairFinishes G3010WaterSupply
TOGETHER G3020SanitarySewer
C30 InteriorFinishes G3030Storm Sewer
UniFormat and MasterFormat can be used in all appli€-
tions that have traditionally been the domain of MasterFor- C30'10Wall Finishes G3040HeatingDistribution
mat. The 1998 edition of UniFormat includes cross- C3020FloorFinishes .
G305OCoolingDistribution
references to MasterFormat to help users apply both orga- C3030CeilingFinishes
nizational principles. These applications include organizing G3060 FuelDistribution
proiect manuals; asslgning specification numbers and titles; ELEM€NTD-SERVICES G3090Other Site MechanicalUtilities
and organizing and filing cost information, drawing details,
and facility management and construction market informa-
D10 Conveying G40 Site ElectricalUtilities
tion. D1010Elevatorsand Lifts G4010 ElectricalDistribution
D1020Escalatorsand MovingWalks G4020Site Lighting
Both systems can be characterized as "single," "serial." or
D1090 Other ConveyingSystems
"parallel": G4030Site Communicationsand S€curity
1. Single applications use only UniFormat or MasterFormat D20 Plumbing G4090Other Site Electri€l Utilities
exclusively throughout the application. D2010PlumbingFixtures
2. In s€rial applications, such as a project manual, a number
G90 Other Site Construction
D2020 DomesticWater Distribution G9010 ServiceTunnels
and title are aoolied to each item based on either UniFor-
mat or MasterFormat. Both organizational principles can D2030 SanitaryWaste G9090Orher Site Systems
be used in the same aoolication. D2040BainWater Drainage
3. Parallel applications are those in which each item is D2090Other PlumbingSystems ELEMENTZ-GENERAL
named with numbers and titles from UniFormat and Z1OGene.alRequirements
MasterFormat. This is a powerful method in many appli- D3OHeating,Ventilating, (HVAC)
andAir Conditioning 21010Administration
cations, such as organizing cost information, in which D30'10EnergySupply
information about a cost€stimate line item can be 21020OualityRequirements
tracked to a product and to a system or assembly.
D3020HeatGeneration 21030TemporaryFacilities
D3030Refrigeration 21040 P@jectCloseout
D3040 HVACDisrribution 21050Permits,Insurance,
and Bonds
LEVELS I THROUGH B NUMBERS D3050Terminaland PackagedUnits
AND TITLES 21060Fee
D3060 HVACInstrumentationand Controls
PROJECT DESCRIPTION D3070lesting,AdJusting,and Balancrng 220 Contingencies
1O-PROJECTDESCRIPTION D3090Other SpecialHVACSystemsand Equipment 22010 DesignContingency
1010ProiectSummary 22020EscalationContingency
22030 ConstructionContingency

The Construction Specilications Institute; Alexandraa,Virginia

4
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION I
 128 CSIMqsterFormot
INTRODUCTION
MasterFormat is a master list of numbers and titles
for or
gantztng information aboul constructton requirements,
products, and activities into a standard sequence.
Many dif_
ferent delivery methods, products, ana instattation
tirpis
are used on construction projecls Successful compleiion
ot projects requires elJective communication amonq the
people involved. lnformation retrieval is nearty impoJsiOie
wrthout a standard ftltng system famrliar lo each user.
Mas_
lerFormat offers a standard filing and retrievdl scheme
applicable throughout the constfuctron industry. ll rs a
uni_
torm system used for organizing information In proiect
manuals, organizing cost data, filing product informaiion
and other technical data. identitying d;awing objects, and
presentng construction market data
MdsterFormat rs prod_dcedlorntly by the Conslructron Spec
fr€ttons Instttute (CSIJ and Construction Specrfrcations
Canada (CSC). ll rs updated periodicaily: the iniormatron on
the pages in AGS comes trom the I 99S editron.
HISTORY
Since it was introduced in 1963, the i 6-division CSI format
has been widely accepted for slandard practice In the
Unrted States and Canada. Frrst pubIshed as part of the CSI
Format Jor Constructron Speciticatro.s, tt was later used
as
tne basrs^lor the Uniform System for Constructron Specrti_
cations, Data Frling and Cost Accou.trng_litle One Build_
ings, published in 1966. The Unifolm System was
developed and endorsed by the American Institute of Archi_
tects, Americ_anSociety of Landscape Archrtects, Associ_
areo benerat Uontractors of America, Counctl of MechaniGl
Specialty Contractin-g Industries (now the Associated Spe_
cialty Contractors), Producers, Council, National Society-of
Professional Engineers, and Construction Speciircatilm
lnslitute. In t966 a similar effort in Canada pioduced thi
Building Constructron Index {BCl), which was based on lhe
rb{rvrslon rormat that had been Introduced by the Specifi_
cataon Writers Association of Canada (renamed Construc_
tion Specifications Canada in 1974).
In]-972 the U.S. and Canadian formats were merged and
published as the Unitorm Construction tnAex
tUCtt. ine UCt
was a comprehensive framework for organizing information
contained in project manuals, as well ai a bas-e of informa_
lon lor tiltng data and classifying prolect costs.
ln 1978 Constructron Specifications Canada joined wrth the
Uonstruction Sp€crfications lnstitute to produce the first
editim ot MasterFormar, introduced by CSI as Mp-2,1 and
by CSC as Document OO4E. This document tncorpoiateJ i
comptete organizational format for project manuais, includ-
ing bidding requirements, contract forms, and conditions of
the.conkact in addition to the loiivision tist of numbeis
and titles primarily used for speci{ications.
The-first revised edilion of MasterFormat, published in
I 983, retained the basrc pnnciples of organiiation from
prevtous edrtton but added rnformatron to respond
the
to the
needs ot lhe engineering disciphnes. tte tbgg eOir,;n,
based on input from MasterFormat users, Incorporated revi_
srons€nd.additions recognizing new products and develoF
ments In the Construclion industrv
The 1995 edition. the tittes of which are pubtished in the
tenth edition ot Architectual Graphic Siandards, is iii
result of an extensive public review and coordination with
Industry users. lt incorporates many minor revrsions in
numbers and titl€s and several changes in style and presen_
tation. Some significant rearrangements oi numbers and
lltles, paillcutarty in divisrons 1. 2. 13, 15, and 16, have
Deen made.
BASIC ORGANIZATION
Thenumbers
andtitlesin MasterFormat
aregrouped
under
these general headingsi
INTRODUCIORY INFORMATION {00001 to 00099)
BIDDING REOUTREMENTS(OOlOOto 00499)
CONTRACTING BEQUIREMENTs (oO5Ooto oo999j
FACILITIESAND SPACES (no numbering)
SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLTES (no numbering)
CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACT|VtTIES
{Divisions
1-16)
I.he flst grouping, Introductory Inlormalron, ts used tor in.
o*ng. the^second and third groupings, Bidding Requrre_
m€nts and {,ontracting Requirements, are for deitning rela_
tonshrps, responsibilrties, and prOcesses lor constrrction.
lhe tast thtee groupings, Facrirties and Spaces, Systems
ano Assembhes, and Construction products and Acttuties,
are used to describe the physical aspects of construction.
The Conslruclron Specitrcations Instttute. Alexandna, Vrrgrnra
Uonstrucuon SpecrftcatronsCanada
4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
TITLES
MasterFormat arranges related construclion products and
activities into l6 level one titles, called divisions The num
bers and titles of the divisions are as follows:
Division 1-General Requirements
Divisron 2-Site Construction
Division 3-Concrete
Division 4-Masonry
Division 5-Metals
Division 6-Wood And Plastrcs
Division 7-Thermal And Moisture protection
Division 8*Doors And Windows
Division g-Finishes
Division 1O-Specialties
Division 11-Equioment
Division 12-Furnishings
Division 13-Special Construction
Division 14-Conveying Systems
Division 15-Mechanical
Division 16-Electrical
The level two-tittes (formerly cailed broadscope trtles) iden
Iry clusters ot products and activities that have an idenl,fy_
Ing characteristtc in common. Usually, the tltles are a loorcil
categorization of the division title. Sometimes, panrcjarty
in,divisio.s 2, 13. 1 5, and 16, they are arbitrary bieakdowni
ot tne drvrston to reduce it to a more manageable size.
Level two titles are the highest level generally uaed in titl,no
and arranging units ol construction information. ln Masreri
Format,. level_two titles are presented as all uppercase iet-
ters and boldface tvoe.
M6sterForrut shows both numbers and titles at level
three. Level.three titles are presented as frrst letter uppei_
case and boldface type. Level three numbers are presented
as the last three digits of the five-digit designatidn in 6qh-
race rype.
MasterFormat suggests titles at level tour but does not indi-
cate numbers. Users should create numbers by interpolat_
Ing between assigned numbers when using level fourtitles
or creattng new tifles. Level tour titles are pr€sented alpha-
betically in r€gular (nonbold) type
A key word index of requirements, products, and activities
rs Includad in MasterFormat to help find appropriate num_
bers and titles for construction subjects. Alpnabetized
entries may refer to €ither level two or level three numbers.
RELATIONSHIP TO UNIFORMAT
CSIand CSCalsopublishUniFormat, which providesnum_
bers and tilles for the functional elements that make uo
constructionproductsystemsand assemblies.UniFormat
can be used to organizeprojectdescnptionsand preltmi_
naryspecifrcations. lt is padicularly
surtedto organrzing
cost
estimatesfor vaiue analysisbecauseits organization by
tuncton corresponds to valueanalysistechnlques. Master
formar ano unr.Formatare complementary for appftcations
In wnrch reierenceto both productsand {uncttonalele.
ments may be usetul (e.9., proiect manualsand cost esti_
malrngl.
The 'l995 editionof MasterFormatestablishesa locationfor
these systems and assembliesbut does not includethe as_
sociated numbers and titles, deferring to UniFormat for
these.In MastetFormat systemsand as-sembliesfallrmme.
diatelyb€fore the list of construclionproductsand activities
lDivisions 1-16) (see the list of level two MasterFormat
titles on th€ accompanyingAGS page).
APPLICATION OVERVIE\^/
The followingbrief discussionis an overuiewof how to use
MasterFormatnumbers and titles for variousapplications_
Referto the CSIApplication
Guidefor mo.e detailedanaly,
srs_
PROJECT MANUALS
MasterFormat is the fundamental
standardfor titlinganda.-
ranging.projectmanuals containing bidding requi;ments,
contractrngrequtrements,and specifications_
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION: Indexjngdocumentsin-
cluded.inthis groupingare found at the beginningof prol.ect
manuals.They are not actual contract documenis but may
fre Incorporatedin a contractdocument by reference.
B I D D t N G R E O U T R E M E N T Sa n d C O N T R A C I N G R -OVis,oi,
EOUTRE
MENTS: Often referred to as Series (rather ttin
Zero documents, th€se documents are not specifrcatton:,
but def'nilions of the relatronShips,processes. and resoon
srb,Jrlrestor projects. The Bidding Requirements dbcu
melts do not become a part o{ the construclron contracl
_rne Lontracltng Hequtremenls documentS are conlrd(r
torms and conditions of the contract.
In these two groups, level two and level three MasterFor
mat n_umbers have been assigned to provide a consistenl
ldentrtrcalron,bul it iS not necessary to renumber or retrtle
p(nted forms and standard documents published
by vari
ous professional societies.
FACILIIIES AND SPACES and SYSTEMS AND ASSEM
BLIEST MasterFormat indicates a location but does no1
include standard numbers and titles for these groupings
Facility- and space titles are often project speciti6, anO riel
ther CSI nor CSC has a master list of numbers and titles for
these groupings. Refer to UniFormat for svstem and
assembly numbers and titles.
CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACTIVtTIES: The hearr
of MasterFormat remains the 16 divisions aefined by ihe
Ievel one specification titles. Divisions 1 through l6 rmain
a complete method of numbering and titljng sections of
specificatrons, both for arranging master guide specifica
lrons or lor arranglng a proiect specrfrcatron.
PROOUCT DATA
ldentifying product data with MasterFormat numbers and
titles is practical because of the relationship between prod
ucts and specitications. particular uses in this application
anclude arranging publications in a technical library; filing in_
formation on products, methods, suppliers, and subcont-rac,
tors; and inventorying construction products.
COST ESTIMATING
MasterFormat is useful for identitying unit prices and cost
report items for products and activities, arranging a data_
base ol product and activity unit costs, arrangirig ind tabu
ralrng a prolecl budget according to a product and activity
breakdown, and relating cost items to specifications and
drawings. MasterFormat is not panicularly useful for value
anarysts, whtch requrres assigntng cost to panicular func-
tronat etements, rather than to particular products and actrv
rIres.
ORAWING ELEMENTS
Masterlormat is used to keynote applications and has b€en
lound useful for linking drawing objects to specification
sections. lt is also used to identify CAD layer organizations.
CONSTRUCTION MARKET DATA
Market dala reponing agencies routrnely use MasterFormal
to lrsl products for a project being bid. Thrs practice allows
users to quickly identify sales potential lor their products
and servrces on a partacular project.
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Facility managers can identify data associated with prod,
ucts.used rn the butlding they manage with MasterFormal
numDers. they can be used in frltng systems for mainte.
nance and op€rating instructions, procurement, mainte,
nance work orders, shop drawings, warranties. operating
nrsrones, operattng costs, and other data related to the life
cycle of a lacility.
LEVEL T\^/O NUMBERS AND
TITLES
Thelistof subordinate
titlesfleveltwo)undereachMaster-
Format divisiontitle (levelone) outlines the scooe of each
division.
INTRODUCTORYINFORMATION
00001 ProjectTattePage
00005CertificationsPage
00007SealsPage
00010Tableof Contents
OO015 List of Drawings
00020Lisrof Schedules
B I D O I N GR E Q U I R E M E N T S
00100Bid Soliciration
00200 Instructionsto Bidders
00300 InformationAvailableto Bidders
00400 Bid Formsand Suoolements
00490BiddingAddenda
contnues on next page

continued from the previous page
CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS
oosdo Agreement
00600 Bonds and Certificates
00700GeneralConditions
00800 SupplementaryConditions
00900 Addendaand Modifications
FACILITIES ANO SPACES
SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLIES
CONSTRUCTION PROOUCTS
ACT IV IT I ES
1 - G E N E R A LR E O U I R E M E N T S
DIVISION
01 100 Summary
01200 Priceand Payrent Procedures
01300 AdministrativeRequirements
01400 OualityRequirements
01500 TemporaryFacilities andControls
01600ProductRequirements
01700 ExecutionRequirements
01800FacilityOperation
01900 FacilityDecommissioning
DIVISION2_SITECONSTRUCTION
02050 BasicSite Materialsand Methods
02100Site Remediation
02200 Site Preparation
02300 Eanhwork
02400 Tunneling,Boring,and Jacking
02450 Foundationand Load-Eearing Elements
02500 Utility Seruices
02600 Drainageand Containment
02700 Bases.Ballasts,Pavements,and Appurtenances
02800 Site Improverents and Amenrtres
02900 Planting
02950 Site Restorationand Rehabilitation
DIVISION3-{ONCRETE
03050 BasicConcreteMaterialsand Methods
03100 ConcreteForro and Accessories
03200 Conc.eie Reinforcement
Concrete
03300 Cast-ln-Place
03400 PrecastConcrete
03500 CemenritiousDecksand Underlayment
03600 Grouts
03700 Mass Concret€
03900ConcreteResttrationandCleaning
DrvrsroN -MA',NRY
04050 Basic MasonryMaterialsand Methods
04200 MasonryUnits
04400 Stone
04500 Refractories
Masonry
04600 Corrosion-Resistant
04700 SimulatedMasonry
04800 MasonryAssemblies
04900 MasonryRestotationand Cleaning
DIVISION5-METALS
05050 BasicMetal Materialsand Methods
05'100StructuralMetal Framing
05200 Metal Joists '
05300 Metal Deck
05400 ColdFormedMetal Framing
05500 Metal Fabrications
05600 HydraulicFabri€tions
05650 RailroadTrackand Accessoraes
05700 OrnamentalMetal
05800 ExpansionControl
05900 Metal Restoratimand Cleaning
DIVISION6-WOOD AND PLASTICS
06050 BasicWood and PlasticMaterialsand Methods
06100BoughCarpentry
06200 FinishCarpentry
0&00 ArchitecturalWoodwork
0650OStructuralPlastics
06600 PlasticFabrications
06900 Wood and PlasticRestorationand Cleaning
DIVISION7-THERMALAND MOISTURE PROTECTION
07050 Easic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials
and Methods
07100 DampproofingandWaterproofang
07200 ThermalProtection
07300 Shingles.RoofTlles,and R@f Coverings
The ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute;Alexandria,Virginia
ConstructionSpecificationsCanada
CSf MqsterFormof 129
07400Roofingand SidingPanels 11660 ObservatoryEquiPment
07500MembraneRoofing 11680OfficeEquipment
07600Flashing and SheetMetal 11700 MedicalEquipment
07700RoofSpecialties andAccessories 11780 MortuaryEquipment
'l 1
07800 Fire and Smoke Protection 850 NavigationEquipment
07900 Joint Sealers 11870 AgriculturalEquipment
11900ExhibitEquipment
DIVISION8-DOORS AND WINDOWS
DIVISION12-FURNISHINGS
08050 BasicDoor and Window Materialsand Methods
08100 MetalDoorsand Frames 12050Fabrics
08200 Wood and PlasticDoors 12100Art
08300 SpecialtyDoors 12300 ManufacturedCasework
AND 08400 Entrancesand Storefronts 12400 Furnishingsand Accessories
08500Windows 12500 Furniture
'l2600
08600Skylights MultipleSeating
08700Hardware 12700SystemsFurniture
08800Glazing 12800InteriorPlantsand Planters
'1
08900GlazingCurtainWall 2900 FurnishingsRestorationand Repair
D I V I S I O9
N- F I N I S H E S DIVISION13-SPECIALCONSTRUCTION
09050BasicFinishMaterialsand Methods 13010 Air-SupportedStructures
09100MetalSupportAssemblies 13020BuildingModules
09200PlasterandGypsumBoard 13030 SpecialPurposeRooms
'l
09300Tile 3080 Sound,Vibration,and SeismicControl
09400 Terrazzo 13090 RadiationProtection
09500Ceilings 13100 LightningProtection
09600 Flooring 13110 CathodicProtection
09700Wall Finishes 13120 Pre-Engineered Structures
09800 AcousticalTreatment 13150SwimmingPools
'13160Aquariums
09900 Paintsand Coatings
13165 AquaticParkFacilities
DIVISION1O-SPECIALTIES 13170Tubsand Pools
10100 VisualDisplayBoards 1 3 1 7 5l c e R i n k s
'10150 'I
Compartments and Cubicles 3185 Kennelsand Animal Shelters
'10200 13190Site-ConstructedIncinerators
Louversand Vents
'10240 13200StorageTanks
Grillesand Screens
10250ServiceWalls 13220FilterUnderdrainsand Media
10260Walland CornerGuards 13230DigesterCoversand Appurtenances
'13240
10270Access Flooring OxygenationSystems
10290 Pest Control 13260 SludgeConditioningSystems
'13280
10300 Fireplacesand Stoves Hazardous MaterialRemediation
'I
0340 ManufacturedExteriorSpeciallies 13400 Measurementand Control lnstrumentation
10350 Flagpoles 13500 RecordingInstrumentat,on
10400 ldentiticatronDevices 13550Transportation ControlInslrumentation
10450PedestrianControlDevices 13600SolarandWind EnergyEquipment
'10500 '13700
Lockers SecurityAccess and Suryeillance
10520FireProtection Specialties 13800BuildingAutomationand Control
10530 ProtectiveCovers 13850 Detectionand Alarm
10550 PostalSpecialties 13900 FireSuppression
10600 Partitions
/ 10670StorageShelving DIVISION 14-CONVEYINGSYSTEMS
10700 ExteriorProtection 14100Dumbwaiters
10750TelephoneSpecialties 14200Elevators
10800Torlet,Eath and LaundryAccessories 14300Escalatorsand Moving Walks
'14400
10880Scales Lifts
10900WardrobeandClosetSpecialties 14500MalerialHandling
14600Hoistsand Cranes
DIVISION1] -EOUIPMEN'I 14700 Turntables
11010 Maintenance Equipment 14800 Scaffolding
11020 SecurityandVaultEquipment 14900Transportation
11030Tellerand ServiceEquipment
11040 EcclesiasticalEquipment DIVISION 15-MECHANICAL
'15050
11050LibraryEquipment BasicMehanical Materialsand Methods
11060Theaterand StageEquipment 15100BuildingServicesPiping
'15200Pr@essPiping
11070Instrumental Equipment
11080Registration Equipment 15300 Fire ProtectionPiping
11090 Checkroom Equipment 154OOPlumbingFixturesand Equipment
11100 MercantileEquipment 15500 Heat4eneration Equipment
11110 CommercialLaundryand Dry CleaningEquipment 15600 Refrig€rationEquipment
'|
11120VendingEquipment 5700 Heating,V€ntilating,and Air ConditioningEquipment
11130 Audiovisual Equipment 15800 Air Distribution
11140VehicleServiceEquipment 15900 HVAClnstrumentalionand Controls
'111 ParkingControlEquipment 15950Testing.Adiusting,and Balancing
50
11160 LoadingDockEquipment
11170SolidWasteHandlingEquipment DIVISION16-ELECTRICAL
11 190 DetentionEquipment 16050BasicElectrical Materialsand Melhods
112OOWater Supplyand Treatment Equipment 16100WiringMethods
I 1280Hydraulic GatesandValves 16200ElectricalPower
11300FluidWasteTreatmentand DisposalEquipment 16300 Transmissionand Distribution
'l
11400 Food SeruiceEquipment 6400 Low-VoltageDistribution
11450Residential Equipment 16500 Lightang
11460Unit Kitchens 16700Communacataons
11470 DarkroomEquipment 16800Soundand Video
11480 Athletic, Recreational,and TherapeuticEquipment
11500Industrial andProcessEquipment
11600 LaboratoryEquipment
'1650Planetarium
1 Equipment
A
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION I
 130 ArchitecturolProgromming
GENERAL
The steps of the Problem Seeking@ process cover both
qualatatrve(establish the goals. uncover and (est concepts.
and state the probtem statements) and quanlilalive lcollect
and analyze fact and determine needs) information.
The informatron index is a framework of key words used to
seek inlormation. These words are sDecific enouah to
cover the scope ol major tactors and untversal enou-qh to
be negotiable for different building types The tndex estab
lishes the intetrelationship of informat on regarding goals,
tacts, concepts, and needs
The Problem Seeking methodology covers four maior cate-
gories of information: funclion refers to people. activities,
and relationships; form includes site, quality, and social/psy-
Lhologrcal envrronment, economy dddresses operatrng
costs and life{ycle costs; and time entails historical
aspects, present conditions, and future oroteclrons
PROGRAMMATIC CONCEPTS
The programmatic concepts illustrated here and on the ner
page refer to abstract ideas intended mainlv as functiona
solutions to clients' perlormance problems without regard
to physical response. These diagrams briefly explain some
of the concepts that recur on nearly eve.y project, regard
less of building type.

INFORMA.TION INDEX

PROBLEM
FUNCTION
Feople Mission
and rmportant
Activities Maximum number Area parameters People grouping pertormance requtre-
Relationships lndividual identity Personnel forecast Activity grouping by spacetype ments that will shape
Interaction/privacy User characteristics Priority oYume building design
Hierarchy of values Community characteristics Hierarchy by location
Prime activities Organizationalstructure Security controls Parkingrequirements
Security Value of potential loss Sequential flow Outdoorspacerequirements
Progression Time-motion study Separated flow Functionalalternatives
Segregatibn Traffic analysis Mixed flow
Encounters Eehavioral patterns Functional relationships
Transportation/parking Space adequacy Communications
Efficiency Typelntensity
Priority of relationships Physicallychallenged guidelines
FORM
btas on stte elements 5rteanalysrs Ennancemenls Srtedevelopment costs
Environmenl Environmental response Soilanalysis Specialfoundations Environmental influenceson cost
Ouality ationsthat will affect
Efficient land use FABandGAC Density Buildingcosvsqft buildingdesign
Community relations Climateanalysis Environmental controls Buildingoveralleff iciencyfactor
Community improvements Codesuruey Safety
Physical comfort Surroundings Neighbors
Lite safety Psychological implications Home base/officingconcepts
Sociafpsychological environmenl Point of reference/entry On premise:fixed, free, group
Individuality Cosvsqft aooress
Way-finding Buildingor layoutefficiency Off premise:satellite,
telecommut,
Projected image Equipmentcost ang.virtualoffice
Client expectations Areaper unit Orientation
Accessibility
Character
Ouality@ntrol
ECONOMY

Operating costs Cost€ffectiveness Efficientallocation

Life{ycle costs Maximumreturn budget and its intluence
Multlfunction/versatility Cashflow analysis on the fabric and geome-
Returnon investment Merchandising Energybudget(if required) try of the building
Minimizingof operatingcosts Energyconseruation Operatingcosts (if required)
Maintenanceand op€ratingcosts Costreduction Greenbuildingrating
Reductionof liferycle costs Recycling Life{ycle costs (if required}
Sustainability

preseryaljon
lmplications
Static/dynamic activities Spaceparameters Tolerance and groMh on long-
Change Activities Convertibiiity range performance
Growth Projections Expansibility
Occupancy date Durations Linear/concurentscheduling
Availabilityof tunds Escalation factors Phasing

o Nh
o
PRIORITY
t o
The concept of priority evokes questions regardjng order of The concept of character is based on a goal concerning the
SERVICE GROUPING
%N
Should seryices be centralized or decentralized? Each dis-
rmportance, such as relative position, size, and social value. image the client wants to project in terms of values anJ the tinct service will be one or the other to imolement a soecific
generac nature of a project. goal.

n
HIERARCHY
[][]L]
llll

The concept of hierarchy is related to a goal about the exer_

cise of authority and is expressed in symbols of authority.
DENSITY
"r"flH"
A goal for efftcient use ot land or space or lor high degrees
ol rnteraclron may lead to low, medium. or high densrty.
ACTIVITY GROUPING
Should activities be integrated or compartmentalized?

Progtammatic concepts continue on the next page

Steven A. Parshall, FAIA; HOK Consuttants: Houston, Texas

4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
 ArchilecturqlProgrqmming l3l
Prcgzmmatc concepts continued frcm the ptewous page

Oo^
^ n><L,
o a,G
"o" ?ffio
'*f)v
u"o /'
SEPARATEO FLOW SAFETY
PEOPLE GROUPING
A goal tor segregation may relate to people (such as prison- Which maior ideas will implement the goal for life safety?
Look for concepts derived from the physical, social. and
individuals, in small era and the public), to automobiles (such as campus traffic Look to codes and safetv precautions lor {orm-giving ideas.
emotional characteristics ot people-s
groups, and in large groups. and urban tralfic), or to people and automobiles (such as
pedestrian traffic and automobile traffic).

HOME BASE
Home base is related to the idea of territoriality-an easily
defined place where a person can maintain his or her indi-
MIXEO FLOW
Commonsocialspaces,such as town squareor building
lobbies,are designedfor multidirectional,multipurposetraf-
3Etr
SECURITY CONTROLS
The degree of security control varies depending on the
value of the potential loss.{inimum, medium, or maxi-
fic. The conceptof mixedflow may be aproposil the goal is mum. These controls are used to protect propeaty and to
vidualitv.
to oromotechanceand planned€ncounters. control oersonnel movement.

t-t [l
I I -t____l

RELATIONSHIPS
The correct interrelationof spaces promotes efficiencies
SEAUENTIAL FLOW
The progression oI people (as in a museum) and things (as
ENERGY
trE
CONSERVATION
There are two general approaches to achieving an energy-
in a factory) must be carefully planned. A flowchart diagram efficient building: {1) keep the heated area to a minimum by
and effectivenessof p€ople and their activities.This con-
will communicate this concept of sequential flow much making use ol conditioned but nonheated outside space,
ceot ol functionalalfinities is the most common prografr
more easily than words- such as exterior corridors, and (2) keep heat flow to a mini-
matc conceDr.
mum with insulation, correct orientation to sun and wind,
comoactness, sun controls, wind controls. and reflective
surfaces.

ORIENTATION ENVIRONM ENTAL CONTROLS

COMMUNICATIONS
Provide a bearing, or point of reference, within a building, a What controls for air temperature, light, and sound will be
A goal to promote the effective exchange of information or
campus, or a city. Relating periodically to a place, thing. or required to provide lor people's comfort inside and outside
ideas in an organization may call for networks or patterns ol
communicationr Who communicates with whom? structure can prevent a feeling of being lost. the building? Look to the climate and sun angle analysis for
answers.

oo
EXPANSIBILITY CONVERTIBILITY VERSATILITY

l-T--l t-l-f] lEDoEEl -

| | --r | | I I llooool
Y
f--i-n fr---------l -
| | | I | | t ,l 'l
Trn fl l' t,
EXTERIOR INTERIOR MULTIFUNCTION -
CHANGES CHANGES

NEIGHBORS FLEXIBILITY PHAS I NG

ls there a goal {or sociality? Will the prciect be completelY
independent or is there a mutual desire to b€ interdepen-
dent, to cooperate with nsighbors?
Flexibiiity covers the following three concepts: expansibility Will phasing ol construction be required to complete a
(accommodating groMh through expansionl, convertibility project on a time and cost schedule if the project proved
(allowing for changes in function), and versatility (providing infeasible in the initial analys's? Will the urgency for the

'l $l'
the most lor the money through multifunctional spaces). occupincy dale determine the need for concurrent sched-
uling or allow for linear scheduling?

4
A C C E S S IB I L I T Y
Can Iirst-time visitors{ind shere to enter the proiect?The
concept ol accessibilityalso applies to provisions{or per-
sons with disabilitiesbeyond signs and symbols. Do we
needsingleor multipleentrances?
TOLERANCE
This concept may well add space to the program. ls a par-
ticular space tailored precisely for a static activity or is it pro-
COST CONTROL
This concept is intended as a search far economy ideas thal
will lead to a realistic oreview of costs and a balanced bud-
likely to get to meet the extent of available funds.
vided with a l@se fit for a dynamic activity{ne
change?

Houston,Texas
FAIA;HOK Consuitants;
StevenA. Parshall,

4
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION u
 132 AIA MASTERSPEC
INTRODUCTION
The MASTERSPEC@master specrficatronsystem is a prod
uct ol the American Instrtute of Archrtects and is published
by.Archilecturat Computer Servrces, Inc {ARbOM) lt
Includes libraries for architeclural/structural/crvrJ.
structural/
cNd, mechanical/electrical, interiors construction, interiors
FF&E, and landscape architecture and has*malt project,
outlrne, short form, and full lenglh versrons. The MAS i ER_
)rEL System ts endorsed ot recommended by major
design and construction documentation organizations in t'he
UnatedStates.
MASITRSPLC@ specrfrcatronsecllons are used to produce
prolect specificatrons tor bidding and construction. These
specticatrons descflbe materrals and products, assembhes
anO systems lor a construction, as well as reeuirements lor
submrttals, manufacture, installation, performance. and
warranties. Bidding requirements, conrracl requtrements.
and project specifications are usually bound together in the
project manual.
MASTERSPEC@sections are numbered and tiiled accord-
ing to CSI MasterFormat and include ail 16 of its divisions.
Each section includes a broad range of products and
options for each subject area. Users edit each section to tai,
lor rt to a sp4ifig!!olect When a firm does repetitive types
of projects, M,ASTERSPECsections may be edited to pro_
duce ollice masters that contain only those D.oducts and
materials lypically specrl,ed by the frrn or by a panrcular cll
enl rnese oilrce masters are then ed,led to produce jndi
vadualproiect specif ications.
MASTERSPEC SECTION
DESCRIPTIONS
DtvlstoN I
01ooHENERAL REOUTREMENTS-This Section
includes the Evaluations only. lt contains background infor_
matron on vaflous subjects, including specification formats
and contractrng procedures, that apply to all Division I Sec-
!ons.
01013-SUMMARY OF WORK (FF&E)-This Section sum_
manze: the_Work of the Furniture, Furnishings, and Equip-
ment (FF&E) contracts and provides inform;tion to thode
who do not have access to the Agreement or biddtng infor_
mation. The Section includes Ihe foilowing:
01o23-ALLOWANCES (FF&E)-This Section specifies
provisions for lump-sum and unit-pflce allowances for
Furni_
rure, Furnrshrngs, and Equrpment (lf&E). Il defines allow_
ances, describing what is and is noi included, and lists
allowance quantities and amounts.
O1028-APPLICATIONS FOR PAYMENI (FF&E)-This sec.
tion specilies admrnrstrative ano procedural requirements
g_ov_erningthe Furn,ture. Furnrshrngs, and Equipment
(FF&E) Contractor's Applications for payment.
h alsb con_
larnsJequrrements for prepar,ng and submittrng the Sched-
ule of Values
01033-ALTERNATES (FF&E)-This Secrion specifies prG
visions lor proposed changes recerved before the Furniture,
l-urnrshings, and Equipment (FF&L) Contracl is awarded.
Ine seclron descflttes add alternates. deduct allernates.
and alternates for the purpose of cost comparison.
01038-MODIFICATtON pROCEDURES (FF&E)_This Sec-
lion specifres procedu.es tor changrng the Furniture, Fur-
nrshrngs,and Equrpmenr (FF&E) Contract Sum or Schedule.
01043--COORDtNAT|ON (FF&E)-This
Sectton specities
coordin€tion with the Work of construction contraciors and
other Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) con-
tractors.
01 1oo-SUMMARY- I his Sect,on provrdes a lramework in
wnrch to summanze the Work ol the p.oJect as covered In
detail in the Contract Documents. lt also provides general
information to individuals who need to know geneil con_
tract provisions.
0112s-SUMMARY OF MULT|PLE CONTRACTS_This
Section specifies the contractual responsibjlatiesof each
contract and the Poject Coordinator relating to the Work,
coordination. and temporary tacalitiesano controts.
0114o-WORK RESTRTCTIONS-ThjS Section specilies
restnctrons on the Contractor's use of the oremises and
requirements for contrnued Owner occrpancy and Owner
occupancy of the Project before Substantial Completion.
01 2 1O-ALLOWANCES-This Section specif ies provisions
for cash allowances, including lump-sum, unit-cost, contin_
gency. and lestrng and inspectrng allowances lt also speci.
res pfovlstons tor quanlitv allowances
01 230-ALTERNATES-This Section specifies provisions
for change of scope and cost{omparison-typ" jtt"rnit"s.
It also includes a sample'Schedule of Alte;nates. to help
the specifier develop the Section.
ARCOM; Salt Lake City, Utah, and Alexandria. Vrrqinia
u
A
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
0 1 2 s o - C O N T R A C T M O D t F t C A T t O Np R O C E D U R E S _ T h i s
Section specifies administrative and procedural reouire-
n e n l s f o r C h a n g e st O t h e C O n l r a c tS L n a . d t h e C o r l r d r I
lrme, and the Contractor's Oreparar,on of Droposal
Hequesls lor changes to the Cont,acr
01270-UNIT PRICES-Ihis Section specrfies provisrons
for unit p(ces. lt includes a sample list of unit prices and a
sample untt pnce schedule to help the specifier develop the
5eclron.
01290-PAYMENT PROCEDURES-Thrs Section speciftes
administrative and procedural requirements for the iontrac-
tor's Applications for Payment. This Section also contains
requtrements for preparing and submitting the Schedule of
Values.
01303-SUBMITTALS (FF&E)-This Seclron soecifres
adminElratrve and procedural requrremerls for processing
Shop Drawings, Product Data, and Samptes Ihe Secrroi
rnc,udes the lollowing:
0131o-PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COORDINA
TION-Thjs
Section specifies administratjve orocedures
required for ProJect management and coordindlron of con_
structron operations and activities, including scheduling and
conducting Project meetings.
01320-CONSTRUCTION
PROGRESS DOCUMENTA-
TION-This Section specifies administrative and procedural
requirements for the Contractor's Construction Schedule.
various schedules and reports requrreo lor pe,formance of
the Work, and construction photographs lt includes both
Uantl{hart and critical path method {CpM) schedules
01322-PHOTOGRAPHTC DOCUMENTATTON-This Sec-
tion specifies requirements for submitting construction
pholographs and videotapes The seryrces c;ntarned In this
sectron can vary extensively. For many projects, the tew
paragraphs in Division 'l Section .Construction progress
Documentation'may eliminate the need for this sep-arate
)ecton.
01 330-5UBMITTAL
PROCEDURES-This Section speci-
fies Action and lnformational Submittals, including Shop
Drawings, Product Data, Samples, and other miscellineoui
submittals.
014oo-OUALITY REOUIBEMENTS-Th;s Secrion speci-
fies general.quality-assurance and quality{ontrol require_
ments. Specific requirements for individual elements oi the
Work are specified in the appropriate Sections in Divisions
2 through 16. The Section Text is prjmarily for field tests
and inspections of fabricated in-place consrructron rather
than standard product testing.
014o3-OUALITY CONTROL (FF&E-This Section speci-
fies provisions for product or material testing when it is the
responsibility of the FF&E Contractor. The Section includes
responsibilities for tests, inspections, and sample taking;
written test repons; qualitication of testing agencies; anl
repair and protection of the Work exposes ro testtnq and
sample tat ing
01 420-REFERENCES-This Section specifies general def_
initions for the Specifications and other Coniract Docu
ments including the Drawings. Delinitjons in this Section
are not Intended to intrude on legal and construction aqree-
ment malters: they supplement lnose defrnitions contarneo
in AIA Document 4201. 1997 edition. Most of the Section
Text can be considered basic procedural requirements
01422_REFERENCE SIANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS
{FF&f)- This.Section specitres general detinrtronstor Spec
rtrcatrons and other FF&E Contract Documents Includrng
Drawings. Definitions in this Section are not intended t;
intrude on legal matters; they supplement those definrtions
contained in AIA Docurent 4271, 1990 edition, and in
ASID Document 1D320, 1996 edition. Most of the Section
Text can be considered basic procedural requirements.
01500-TEMPORARY FACILtTIES AND CONTROLS-This
Section specifies requirements of a temporary nature,
ancluding items not actually incorporated into the Work. lt
rncludes temporary utility services, construction and suF
port facililies, and security and protection facalities.
01600-PRODUCT REOUTREMENTS-This Secrion speci-
fies general requirements for products, materials, and
equrpment_ includrng their delivery, storage, and handling.
ano sereclron ot products by lhe Contractor. This Section
also specifies administrative and procedural requirements
for handling requests for substitutions made after award of
the Contract, and general and procedural requirements for
warrantres.
01613-DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND HANDLING (FF&E)-
This_Section specifies requirements for handIng goods on
the Pro,ect Site.
01623-INSTALLATION (FF&E)-This Section sDecifies
general requirements for Divrstons 2 through 16 Sections. lt
includes requirements tor examining the installation area,
handling goods duirng rnstaljalion, and disposing of unused
maIeflals.
01633-5UBSTITUTtONS (FF&E)-This Sectaon specifre:
requrrements tor substitutions when specified goods
ar.
not available. lt includes submrttals required for'propose..
subslrtuttons.
01700-EXECUTION REOUIREMENTS-This Section
specifies administrative and procedural requirements fol
examination ol conditions, preparation for constructior
construclton layout, field engtneering and su.veyrnq. qen
erat Installation of products. coordinalion of Ownerrnltafteu
products, progress cleaning, starting and adjusting, protec
tron of installed constructlon, and correction of thtVvork.
01703-CONTRACT CLOSEOUT (FF&E)-This Section
specitaes administrative and procedural contract closeoul
provisions. lr is primarily a summarv Sectionj most ot the
provis,ons in this Section are the termination of require
ments specified in other Sections. Basjc contract closeou:
.equirements are in the General and Supplementary Condr
tions.
01731-CUTTING AND PATCHTNG-This Section specifies
admrnistratjve and procedural requirements for cutting and
patching. lt must be carefuliy coordinated with otheaSec_
tlons to avoid overlapping or conflicting requirements, such
as those contained in Divisions I 5 and i 6.
0i 732-5ELECTIVE DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies
the demolition of selected portions ol existing buildings,
structures, and site improvements, and the removal. sal
vage, and disposal ot demolished matenals
0177o-CLOSEOUT PROCEDURES-Th|S Secrion speci.
lies administrative and procedural contract closeout orovr-
sions. Most of the provisions in this Section cover the
complelion of rgqqjls6gng5 specrfred rn other Sectrons
rhrs sectron specities provisions for proiect Record Docu
ments, operatton and maintenance manuals, and demon_
stration and training. lf these subjects require more detailed
treatment, delete them from this Section and use the aooli,
cable MASTERSPEC Supptemental Sections.
01781-PROJECT RECOFD DOCUMENTS-Thjs Section
specifies procedures to be followed when developing
Prcjecr Record Documents. lt should be used when lpei
cific Project requirements are more extensive than reouire-
ments specitied in Division 1 Basic Section .Closeout
Procedures.' The Section Text deals primarily with Record
Drawings because they are the one type of Froject Remrd
Document mst likely to be expanded beyohd require_
ments in the Basic Section.
01782-OPERATION AND MATNTENANCE DATA-This
Section specifies requirements for preparing and submit
trng emergency, operation, and maintenance manuals.
01 820-DEMONSTRATTON AND TRA|NtNG-This Section
specifies administrative and procedural requirements for
anstructingOwner's personnel in the operation and mainte-
nance ot systems, subsystems, and equipment. lt should
be used when specific Project requirements are more
extensive than requirements specified in Division 1 Basic
Section'Closeout Procedures.'
DIVISION 2
02060-EUlLDlNc DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies
the demolition, removal, and disposal of existing buildings,
structures, and site improvements; and the removal, sal
vage, and disposal of demolished materials.
0208O-UTILITY MATERTALS-Th|s Section soecities
matenals and methods for application with utrlity piping
Installations outside the building. Piping specialties, joining
mateflals,,ornt construction, identification materials an.i
devices, and installation requirements common to more
than one Division 2 Section are included. This Section sup
plements other Division 2 Sections: it must b€ edit€d and
used with other Sections for a complete piping system
specitication.
02085-INTERCEPTORS-This Section specifies interceo-
tors us€d with sanitary sewerage and storm drainage sys-
tems. These interceptors are l@ated outside the buildino
dnd include melal and concrete types.
02230*5ITE CLEARING-This Section soecifies sire clear-
Ing. Including tree and vegetation removal and root grub-
brng, tree protection, topsoil stripping and stockpiling,
cappiog and removal of site utilities, and removal of min6r
sIe rmprovements.
02231-TREE PROTECIION AND TRtMMtNG-This Sec
tion specifies the protection and trimming oI trees that
interfere with, or are affected by, temporary or new Work.
02240-DEWATERING-This Section specifies construc-
tion dewatering requiring more extensive treatment than
that specrfied rn other Division 2 Sections.
MASTEqSPEC continues on the next oaoe

02260-EXCAVATIONSUPPORTAND PROTECTION-
This Seclion specifiesgeneral proceduresand prlmary
requirementsfor excavationsupporl and proteclionsys-
rems.
023OO-EARTHWORK-ThrsSection specifies excavating,
compacting.and gradinginsideand
fillingand backfilling,
outsidebuildinglimits.ThisSectionalso includesbaseand
subbasematerialsfor pavements;granulardrainagecourse
under slabs4n€rade; drainage and separationgeotextile
fabrics;and trench excawtion and backlillingfor utility and
undergroundseryices.
02361-TERMITECONTROL-ThisSectionspecifiesinitial
soil treatment by applyingchemicaltermiticidesto the soil
under and aroundsusceptiblestructuresduringconstruc-
iion tor preventivecontrolof subterranean termates,and
the option of using bait products to supplementsoaltreat-
ment. According to the EPA-RegisteredLabel. one manu-
facturer's bait product may be specilied without also
specilyingsoil treatment,if permitted by authoritieshaving
iurisdiction.
02455-DRIVENPILES-ThisSectionspecifiesEvaluations
only for the following Sections covering types of driven
pnes:
STEEL PILES_Th|SSCCIiON
02456-CONCRETE.FILLED
specifiesconcrete-{illedsteel shell and steel pipe piles.
02457-PRESTRESSED CONCRETEPILES-This Section
specifiesprestressed,precastconcretedriven piles.
02458-STEEL H PILES-This Section specifies steel H-
sectionpilesand protctive coatings
02459-TIMBER PILES-This Section specities preserua-
tive-treatedround timber Piles.
02466-DRILLED PIERS-This Section specifies drilled
piers with straightor belledshafts and includesexcawtion.
casings. slurries. reinforcement,concrete fill. and testing
and inspecting.
0251o-WATER DISTRIBUTION-This Section specifies
water pipingand specialties tor potable-water seryiceand
firerrotdction water seMce outside the building.This Sec-
tion is not intendedfor municipaldistributionsystems.
0251I-HOT-M|X ASPHALI PAVING-ThiS S€ction speci-
fies hotflix asphaltpavingfor new and existingpaverents
and emulsified€sphaltsurfacetreatments.
02525-WATER SUPPLYWELLS-This Section specifies
cable-tool,rotary drilled, reverse-rotarydrilled. and driven
water wells Wth iel, line-shaftturbine,and submersibletur-
bine well pumps and accessories.
02530-SANITARY SEWERAGE-ThiS Section specifies
sanitarysewerageoutsidethe building.
/ dentialfenceand gateheightsare limitedto 6 feet (1.8ml
02s35-PROCESS MATERIALSEWERAGE_ThiSSECIiON
soecifies orocess material sewerage outside the building
and includes chemical-wastedrainage piping' structures.
and neutralizationtanks;double{ontainedpipingand struc-
tures;and chemical-waste lorce mains.
02540-5EPTIC TANKSYSTEMS-This Sectionspecifiesa
sewage disposal system for use where a public sanitary
seweragesystem is not available.
Sectionspeci-
02551-HYDRONICDISTRIBUTION-ThiS
fies piping for hydronic distribution systems outsid€ the
includes pipes, fittings, valves, insulation,
building. Piping
and specialtiesfor the following:
02553-NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIOi{-This Seation
sp€cifiesnaturalgas distributionpiping and sp€cialtiesout-
side the buildingto the point of delivery.The point of deliv-
ery is the servic+meter assemblyoutlet. This may be only
the seryice-regulatoror seryice-shutoffvalve if there is no
meter.
02554-FUEL-OlL DISTRIEUTION-ThisSection specifies
tuel distributionpiping and specialtiesand lueloil storage
tanks and accessotiesoutside the building. Equipment in
this Sectionis suitablelor use with GradesNo. 1 or No. 2
fuel oil.
02555-STEAM DISTRIBUTION-IhiS Section specifies
oroinofor lowtressure sleamand condensatedistribution
;vslms outside the buiidrng.Pipingincludespipes, fit-
tings. valves,insulation.and specialtiesfor the following:
o2s84-UNDERGROUNDDUCTSAND UTILITYSTRUC-
TURES-This Section specifies products used in under-
ground eleclrical dtstribution tor power and
communications,includingducts, duct banks. handholes,
and utility structuressuch as vaults and manholes.
02630-5T0RM DRAINAGE-This Section specilies grav-
itv-Ilow and force-mainstorm drainageoutsidethe building.
Virginia
ARCOM:SaltLakeCitv,Utah,and Alexandria'
02666-POND AND RESERVOIRLINERS-ThiSSection
pond ano resetr
specifiesimpervious.flexible-membrane
voir linerslor use with neutralaqueoussolutions.Consult
membranemanufacturersfor propermembraneselectionif
requiredfor lining or covering complex liquid toxic-waste
holdrngponds
02711-FOUNDATIONDRAINAGESYSTEMS-ThiSSEC.
tion specifiesIoundationand underslab,subsoildrainage
systems.lt also includesin-planewall drainagematerials
that work separatelyor in conjunctionwith other foundation
drainage products.
02751-CEMENTCONCRETEPAVEMENT-ThiSSection
soecifies cast-in-placeconcrete pavement constructlon
rncludrngrelatedfoamwork,rerntorcement. concretemix
proportions,placement, and f inishes-
02764-PAVEMENT JOINT SEALANTS-Th|S Section
{or con-
specifiesiointsealants,includingbackermaterials,
crete-to{oncreteand concrete-tGasphaltpavementjolnts.
02768-STAMPED CEMENT CONCRETEPAVEMENT-
This Sectionspecifiescement concretepavement,erther
integrallyor surface colored, receivinga surfaceimpranted
stampedfinish.
02780-UNIT PAVERS-ThiS Section speci{aespaving for
exteriorapplcationsusingbrick,concrete,rough-stoneand
asphalt-blockpavers installedby severalmethods. Installa-
tion methods include ungrouted. mortarless applications;
portlandcement monar setting-bedmethods; and bitumr
nous setting-bedapplacations.
02791-PLAYGROUNDSURFACESYSTEMS-Th|SSec-
tion specifiesboth loose fill and non]oose {ill, impact-atten-
uating protective surfacing systems for outdoor use at
oround-levellocations,made from naturalorganic or inor-
lanic materialsor syntheticrubber-basedformulations,and
designedlor use underand aroundpublicplaygroundequitr
ment. Surfacesystems that have and have not been deter-
mined to be accessible according to ASTM PS 83,
Specification for Determinatiq of Accessibility of Surface
Systems undet and around Playground Equipment, ate
specified.
02813-LAWN SPRINKLERPIPING-This Sectionspeci-
fies piping and valves. sprinklersand irrigationspecialties,
and bontrcls and wiring for lawn sprinklerpiping. Compc
nents in this Section will be downstream trom the water
distributionpiping, valves,backflow preventers'and water
meters specifiedin Division2 Sectionl/Vater Distribution.'
02821-CHAIN-LINKFENCESAND GATES-ThisSection
soecifieschain-linkfence fabric,framing,fittings,swing and
slide gates, privacy slats, gate operators,and accesscon-
trol lor residential,commercial,and industrialapplications
accordingto ASTM standardsand the ChainLink Fence
ManufacturersInstitute's (CLFMI) Product Manual Resi-
with fence line posts at a maximum spacingof 10 {eet (3
m) o.c. Industrialfence and gate heightsa.e limitedto 12
feet (3.66m) and less with fence line posts at a maxrmum
'10 feet (3 m) o.c. Galvanized{oated,Zn-s-Al-
spacing of
MM allovtoated Cinc-s percent aluminum-mischmetal
alloy),aluminum{oated, and Pvc{oated steel and alumi-
fencingareincluded.
num-alloy
02832-SEGMENTALRETAININGWALLS-This Section
specilies freestanding retaining walls built from dry-laid
concretemasonryunits designedspecificallyfor construct-
ing segmentalretainingwalls. This Section includes both
earth-reinforcedretainingwalls and gravity retainingwalls.
Alternateprovisionsare includedto leave selectionof the
particularretaining wall unit design up to the Contracto(,
within some generalappearanceparameters,and to requlre
that the Contractorprovide structuraldesign for the walls
basedon the unitsselected.
02881-PLAYGROUND EOUIPMENT AND STRUC.
TURES-This Seclion specifiespublic playgroundequiF
ment suitable for children 2 through 12 years old and
locatedin play areasat child{are lacilities.institutions,mul-
tiple-familydwelling sites, parks,sch@ls, recreationalfacili
ties.restaurants,andsimilarpublicareas.
02900-LANDSCAPING-This Section specifies trees.
shrubs. ground covers, plants. and lawns. The Section
includespreparationof planting pits and beds, topsoil, soil
amendments. and mulches.
f enilizers,
02930-LAWNS AND GRASSES-ThiS Section specifies
plantingmaterials,includingtopsoil,soil amendments,and
fertilizersfor new seeded. sodded, sprigged.and plugged
lawns and grassedareas.This Section also includesprovi-
sionsfor hyd.oseedingand reconditioningexistanglawns.
0295s-TREES AND SHRUBS-This Section specilies
trees and shrubs and includes preparationof plantingpits
and beds, topsoil, soil amendments, lertilizers, and
mulches.
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
AIA MASTERSPEC I33
02956-GROUND COVER AND PTANTS*ThiSSection
specifiesgroundcoversand plantsandincludespreparation
of plantingbeds,topsoil,soil amendments,fertilizers,
and
mutcnes.
DtvlsloN 3
03300-CAST-lN'PLACE CONCRETE-ThisSectionspeci-
fies cast-in-place,normal-weight and lightweightconcrete
for generalbuildingconstructionincludingrelatedform-
work. reinlorcement,concrete materials and admixtures,
vaoor retarders,concrete mix requirements,placement,as-
repairs,and field qualaty
cast and appliedfinishes,curing,
control-
03301-CAST.IN-PLACE CONCRETE(LIMITEDAPPLICA.
TIONS)-This Sectionspecifiescast-in-place concretefor
proiectsusing small quantitiesof concreteor noncritical
aoolicationsof concrete. lt is for simple projects where the
Archilect edits the Section Text with minimal or no drrec-
tion trom the structuralengineer.The Section Text permits
the settingof minimumqualitystandards for the Proiectby
referencing ACI 3O1,Specificationfor StructuralConcrete.
For projecGrequiringdetailedspecifications and significant
control of cast-in-placeconcrete, use Division 3 Section
'Castrn-Place Concrele'
03331-CAST]N-PLACEARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE-
This Section sDecifiescasl-in-place,formed, architectural
concrete that requires special concrete materials' form-
work, placement,andfinishes.
03361-SHOTCRETE-ThisSectionspecifies requi.ements
for pneumaticallyappliedshotcretework that may be used
for repairrngexistingconcretestructuresor fol new con-
struction. Materials.mixes, and applicationprocedureslor
both the wet- and dry-mixprocessesare included.
0341o-PLANT-PRECASTSTRUCTURALCONCRETE-
This Section specifies plant-precast,conventionallyrein-
forcedand prestressed, structuralconcreteunils.
03450-PLANT-PRECAST ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE'
This Section specilies plant-precast,conventionallyrein-
forced, architecturalconcrele units wilh conventionalfin-
ishes, thin brick facings, or stone facings. Pretensionedor
posttensioned, precast. prestressed concrete unils and
noncomposite insulated, precast concrete units are also
included.
03470-TILT-UP PRECASI CONCRETE-This Section
sp€cifies tilt-up concrete wall panels that are site precast
andfinished.andtiltedintoplaceon-site.ThisSectionspec-
ifies relatedformwork,Ieinforcement,concretematerials
and admixtures,concretemix requirements.placement,as-
cast and appliedfinishes.bondbreakers.curing,repairs,and
field qualitycontrol.
O349HLASS-FIBER-REINFORCEDPRECAST CON.
CRETE-ThisSectionspecifiesplant-manufactured, glass-
fiber{einforced precast concrete units stiffened and suP
poned by plant-attached{raming panels produced from
cold-Iormed steel studs or rolled carbon-steelstructural
shapesusedprimarilyto cladbuildrngexteriors.
03511-CEMENTITIOUS wOOD-FIBERDECK-This Sec-
tion specifies cementitious wood-fiber deck consisting of
units composed ol long strands of wood fibers combined
with either ponland cement or magnesiumoxysulfate
hydrauliccement. and bonded under pressure.Monolithac.
composite,and insulatedcomposite tile or plank units a.e
used to constructrool decks or form decks.
03520-LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ROOFINSULATION-
This Section specifieslightweight concrete rool insulation,
with an oveniry unit weight not exceeding 50 lb/cu. ft.
(800 kgr'cu.m), primarilyused as fill over metal roof deck or
structuralconctetesubstrates.
03532-CONCRETEFLOORTOPPING-This Sectionspec-
ifies tactorypackag€d, high-srrength. iron-aggregateand
€rery€ggregate cementitiousconcretetloor toppings.
03542-{EMENT-BASED UNDERLAYMENT-This Sec
tion specifi€s cement-based,polymer-modilied,self-level-
ing underlayment lor application below interior finish
flooring.
03930*CONCRETE REHABILITATION-This Section
specifies concrete patching and repair including the
removalof deterioratedconcreteand reinforcement.Patch-
ing materialsspecified include job-mixed patchingmortar,
packaged{ementitious and polymer-modified patching
monars, cast-in-placeconcrete, and preplacedaggregate
concrete. This Section also speci{ies lloor joint repair,
treatments,poly-
epoxy crack injection,corrosion-inhibiting
mer overlaysand sealers,and structuralreinforcementwith
both steel and composites.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
u
A
 134 AIA MASTERSPEC
otvtstoN 4 starntess steel, Includrng nosrlgs and tread ptale. lhe
0 r ' 4 1 0 - S I O N E M A S O N R Y V L N F TR t h , s S e c r r o r lon Inctudes mrscellaneous sleel framing,or
Sec 0613O-HEAVYTTMBERCONSTRUCTTON_This Section
spec, supporling specifiesconstructionusingrectangular
res slone tatd in mortar and app|ed erther ove.rheaddoors,.cerIng hung torlel compariments operab16 sotiO_rcoO riami^,,
lo conc.eie or 5 inchesnomrnat{t t 4 mm actuailand targer.
maso-nryback-up or to frame construction lt Includes partrtrons, wood framrng. counteflops. l1:I9.lt
stone and varrous equrp ootnOrmenSrons
nsraileo In rubble, ashlar. and polygonal or mosaic menl. fttmbers)
patlerns
maoe trom cut stone, split stone, or qough 06150-WOOD DECKING-IhrsSectronspecrfres
sione as 05511-METAL lonoue
e'tracted fiom ihe quarry or as collected irom STAIRS-Thrs Section specifies straight and€roovewood deckrng,bolh sold and lamrnated
stream run, steel,framed stairs with metal-pan, abrasive<oit-inl_
Danks and similar depostts. lt includes veneers mechant-
caily attached to the back up by anchors or ties built into frnished formed-melal, merat plate. and steel bar 06185-STRUCTURALGLUED-LAMINATEDTIMBER
the oratrrio
monar lornts and veneers adhered with mortar similar lreads. tt Includes preassembled melal stairs lor coirmei This Secrion specifies structural gtuea]iminareJ intr.
to cial applications, industrial stairs, and steel-framed
the settrng method used for ceramic wall tile. The orna_ rncludingbeams,purlins,arches,trusaes,and@lumns.
Section mentat statrs. lt also jncludes steel tube rajlings
is written primarily for exterior veneers for buildinqs for
and for preassembled metal stairs. 06192-METAL.PLATE-CONNECTED
concrete retarning walls. but could easily be modified WOOD TRUSSES-
to This Sectionspecifieswood trussesfactory tiOri"riJ-tri_
include interior facings of stone masonry.
05521-PIPE AND TUBE RAtLtNGS_thrs Section drmensionlumber and metal connectorplates.
soeci.
04720-CAST STONE-This Section specifies cast tres pipe and rube handrarts and rarlings raorrciteo-i,om
stone steel,_aluminum, and stainless steel While thrs 06200-FlNtSHCARpENTRy-ThisSectionspecifiesnon
burldrlg unrts used as archrtecturat featUes. fac,nq SectDn
tilm oi specifres pflmdnty functtonal, rather than ornamental, skucturatcarpentrywork that is exposedto view and is not
sire accessofles. Cast stone rs defjned as archneciuiaf ratl_
o,e_ Ings, I coutd atso be used to specify ornamental ratlings specifiedin other Sections.Includedare standingand run
cast concrete building units intended to simulate natural cur
StOne made from pipe and Iube shapes ning.trim,^statrsand railings,extelor srding,arid inrer,o
panerng btdrngIncludeslumber.plywood,and hardboard
0481O-UNtT MASONRy ASSEMBLIES_This
05530-GRATINGS-This Section specif;es metal bar qrar srdrng panetrngincludesplywood,hardboard,and boa.o
Section ings, expanded merat gratrngs. toimea-metai pfant
specities clay and concrete masonry for engineered-inl iiai panerrng.Standardmanufacturedpanelingrs specifredrr
emprrically desrgned applicahons. Ings, and extruded aluminum plank gratings. this Section,while customwood panelingis specifiedjn
0558O-FORMED-METAL . 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORKanci
04815-GLASS UNIT MASoNRY AsSEMELIES-This FABRTCATTONS_This Section
Sec specifies miscellaneous items that are shop fabricated . 06420-PANELWORK.In general,
tion specilies glass unrt masonry assembles for watt,
w]n- frcm use thrs Secrronro
oow, skytrghl, and floor applicatrons. lt Includes extelor ferrous- and nonferrous melal sheer to custom destqns work thal rs not shop fabricdled and for sldinq and
and and oanel
Inreilor apptrcattons and three rnstallation methods. that are not specified rn other Sections p,oo"iG mit Ing types that are rncluded onlv in this Sectron
One be included are sheet metal fabrications th"l il;;;;;;; "*ii
method requires edges ot glass_block assemb|es
to be formed to a custom or semicustom design; Zt aie 06401-EXTERIOR
rerarned by perimeter channel frames or chases eiporeO ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK-
A second to Mew where appearance is the primary concern: and This Section specifies tabricated wood products for
method allows edges of assemblies to Oe sepiratea 3) use on
ir-orn= are not normally furnrshed as part of other work, such the exterior of the building. Architectural woodwork is
pe.rmeter construction but anchored as dLs
to it by perforated wrnoow tflm made by the window manufacturer ThJs
metal strips lcalled panel anchotsl embedded'in Sec_ lrngutshed trom other forms of wood construclron bv
horizonial berna
mortar joints of glass-block assemblies and fastened-to uon ncludes onty a limited number of examples of items manufactured in a woodworking plant and bv
penmeter conslruction at ends. A third satisfying the above criteria; other examptes iricfuOe muttion wrth standards of quality for material and *orimanst
"ori.otu,no
method uses a ip. ti
metal grid Into whrch the glass block is insened cov6rs, miscellaneous boxes, counters, cabinets, and Includes ttems of woodwork permanently attached
anO adhe_ to the
srvetvsecured with a silicone sealant shelves ouilorng and expos€d to view. Architectural woodwork
oen
erally involves items custom fabricated for an indiviiual
04851-DIMENS|ON o570o-ORNAMENTAL METAL-This Section specifies project, as opposed to mass-produced motOings
STONE CLADDING_ThIS Section or furni_
products custom fabricated from various
spectttes dimensron stone, set wtth monar or sedlant metifs ariJ uieJ ture. tt required, woodwork €n be specitred to be
ioints. in building construction for functional, arcnitecturat,-anJ shop frn.
ror exreilor ctadding of buildings. Dimension ished rather than field finished.
stone cl;ddino decorative purposes where appearance ts the pflmary
may De.specttred as field set, with or without mortar, con_
an; cern. Urnamental metal includes both items made 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORK_rhis
wrrn Indrvrctuatanchors or a grid-type anchorinq entirely
system h from Section specifies fabricated w@d oroducts lor use on
m€y atso be specified in the form of prefabricJted _custom-fabncated components and those made the
assem_ enrtrety or partjally from $andard manufactured products inreror oJ the buitding. Architectural *ooO*o,[-i"
blie-s.Dimension stone.cladding systems may be specified Oi"iin
ro oe engtneered by the lnstaller lo comply with Inal requtre some custom fabricatron,finishing. and assem_ gurshed trom other forms of wood construction
oerfor_ bv beino
mance cntefla or may be fully designed and detailed. bly. The emphasis in this Section is on cusrom metat that is manufactured in a woodworkrng plant and bv comolvrnd
fabricated, finished. and instailed to exacting slin;a?i wrth standa.ds of quality for material and worimansi'rip. li
requiring highquality materials and skrllful *6,f.manstrip. rncludes rtems of wmdwork
91901_ CLAY MASONRY RESTORATTON AND CLEAN_ -;;liiy permanently attached to the
ING-This Section srecifies requirements f;, vvnere prooucts meet these criterra and are not part ourrorng and exposed to view Architectural woodwork qen
of
masonry restoration. Some requirements are other assemblies and systems, such as wtndow erally involves items custom labricated for an indivi"duat
suitabie for walls,
nrslonc restoGtion projects, and some are more ooors and entrances, hardware, or pretabricated specialty project,. as.opposed to mass{roduced motdrngs
suited for -or or fun.
orotnary rehablttation and cleaning of nonhisloric rt€ms, they belong in thrs Section. ture..Woodwork can be specified to be shop
struc- fietd f in
tures. Because masonry restoratio; worf en invotve rshed_
in 057,| s-FAgRICATED SptRAL STATRS-Thrs Secrron soec.
assortment ot materials and conditions, it is difficuh
qevelop a master section to ifies metal spiral stairs wrth steel pipe or tube 0642o--PANELING-This
that includes restoration and Section specifies custom-manu
creantng procedures other than those that are typical. ponrng cotumns and radiating treads produced ""nt,"i!uo factured paneling. Board paneling, flu"t *ooJ p"n"ling
The as standaid
Intenl is to manutactured producls. lamrnatedad paneling, and sttle and rail paneIng
_provide guidelrnes and information tnit can Ue Included. Paneling tabricated from premanufactured
ar"e
aoapteo to ttt rndrvrdualcases s6ts ot
o572o-ORNAMENTAL HANDRAILS AND RAILINGS- sequence-matched panels and custom-veneered paneling
04902-STONE This Section specifies ornamental handrails and railings are rncluded
RESTORATION AND CLEANTNG_This fab-
Section specities requirements for qrarrry slone restora_ ricated from aluminum, copper alloys, starnless
ste;|, and
Iron. Some requirements are suitable tor hjstoric restoration sreet and rron. tt also includes grass_and plastrc-suDooned 06605-INTERIOR PLASTTC ORNAMENTATION_This
railrngs,.andriluminaled ratlings. Thrs Sectjon covers Section specifies molded- or extruded-plastjc ornamenta,
some for ordrnary rehabrtrtation ana cieaninl rerlnos
?l"199tjt
or ?i9
nonhtstoflc assemDted trom standard shapes rather than those tion tor rnteflor use, made of polystyrene, polyurethane,
structures. Because stone restoratton wori co; o,
cm involve an assonment of materials ano conoitons, s,uucted trom custom shapes. Ornamental railings roergrass{etntorced polyester (tBp), including columns,
iiii made
orrrcu[.to devetop a master section that Includes Trom custom shapes a.e specitred jn Divisron 5 moldrngs, chair rails, panel moldings, medallioni, rosettes.
restora_ -Urnamental Section
Metalwork' oomes, dome flms, stair brackets, niches, pilasters, pedl
19n,"19 ll:"n,.]n.O,ocedures other rhan those rhat a,e typi_
car. ne Intent ts to provrde guidelines and rnformation menrs, wtndow and door casings, plinths, wainscots,
.r that 0581.1-ARCHITECTURAL JOTNT SYSTEMS_This Section and
can m adapted to tit individual cases. cusrom snapes.
specftes exterior and interior building joint systems,
with
and.without fire barriers, that accommmafe
otvrsroN 5 resulting from one or more causes such as
movement DrvtstoN 7
thermal
05120-STRUCTURAL
STEEL_This
Sectionspecifies
tats changes, seismic forces, or wind swav_ 07131-SELF-ADHERING SHEET WATERPROOFING-
ficatng and erecling structural steel for buildr;g construa_ This Section s-pecifies self-adhering. positive-side sheet
tron, Inctudrng miscellaneous subframing units otvtsroN 6 waterproofing for concealed substrates, both venical and
that may be horizontal. oJ plaza decks, below{rade walls, and plante,s.
pa.t of the general framing system.
Also Included are 06100-ROUGH CARpENTRy-This Section specifies con-
exl_mrve opttons tor surface preparation and rl atso spectttes olaza deck oavers
shop prim€ ventional wood traming for floors, ceilings, roofs, walls.
oalntrno ind
panrnons as weil as sheathrng, subfl@ring, 07132-ELASTOMERTC SHEET WATERpROOFTNG_This
and underlav_
oszr olsfeef- menr. Atso trctuded is incidenlal rough carpentry required Section sp€cifies EPDM or butyl sheet waterproofing for
JOTSTS-This Sectron specifies open-web
K-series steel joists, LH-series long_span steel joists, for suppon or attachment of other construction concealed substrates, both venical and horizontal, ol
DLH- and not flaza
sefies deep tong-span steel specified in another Section. Exposed ilems of rough car_ decks,. below{grade walls, and planters. lt also specifies
ioists, and steel jorit grrders as pentry Inctuded in this Section are limited, generjlty, plaza deck oavers.
defined by the Sleel Joist Inititure ro
structural framing members. Timbers incidenial to wood
0531.0-STEEL DECK-This trame construction are included as well as 07I33-THERMOPLASTIC SHEET WATERPROOFING-
Section specifies steel roof engineered
and floor deck classified as roof deck, acousticat iooi wood products. This Section specifies PVC positive-side wateroroofino for
Oeci, concealed substrates, both
c€llular rool deck, composrte floor deck, cettutarmliat-flooi horizontal and vertrcal, of;laza
oeck wrth eleclrical drstfibutron, noncomposrte form 06105-MISCELLAN€OUS CARpENTRy_This decks,, below€rade rells. and planters. It also specifies
deck, Section
ano noncomposrte vented Iorm dec[. specifies miscellaneous wood framing, incidental rough plaza deck oavers.
car
pentry required for support or attachment
of othei con
0540O-COLD,FORMED METAL FRAMING_This structron, structuraJ-use panels, underlayment, mrnor 07141{OLD FLUTD-AppLtED WATERpROOFTNG_This
Section Section specrlies cold ftuid-appliedpolyurethane and late\
specifie-s coldformed steel, loadbearing, anO rnteflor wood trim, shelving, and clothes rods. ll is intended
curtiin_;i rubber waterproofing for concealed substrales. both vert;-
studs; floor aLq rojf joists; rafters and-ceiling joists: ror pro,ects that do not require wood framing
inJ or extensive
root trusses. This Section also includes gypsum use or otner Carpent.y rtems The Section includes pres- cal and ho{tzontal, of plaza decks and below{rade walls. Il
sheathing arso specftes Dlazadeck oavers
and air-infiltrationba.riers. sure?reSeruative-treated and ftre{etardant lreated wood.
Mrsceilaneous concealed rough carpentry such as furrng,
0550G-METAL FABRTCATTONS-This Section specifies and naiters can be specrfred us,ng this
representatrve products made from steel and iron, l'-o-".11n9.,.9_lould",
includinq 5ectron. Il the Project requires significant amounts ot wood
shapes,.plates,bars, sheet, tubes, and prF€. lt als; ramm_g_
in;il;; _sheathing. of subfl@ring, - use 06t0O_BOUGH
serected labflcalrons made from alumtnum, bronze. CARPENTRY insread
and
MASTERSPEC@ntinues on the next Daoe

ARCOM: Salt Lake Crty, Utah. and Alexandria. Viroinia

/1
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS

07142-HOT FLUID-APPLIED WATERPROOFING-This
Section specifies hot fluid-applied, rubberrzed-asphalt
waterproofing for concealed subst.ates. both vertical and
horizontal. of plaza decks and below-grade walls lt also
specifies plaza deck pavers.
07160-8ITUMINOUS DAMPPROOFING-Thas Section
specifies bituminous dampprooling for use above and
below grade, including hot-applied asphalt and both emul-
sion- and cut-back- (solvent) type, cold-applied asphalt com-
pounds of {ibrated, semilibrated, or nonfibrated types
07161-MODIFIED CEMENT WATERPROOFING-This
Section specities acrylic- and polymer-modified, cement-
based waterprooling. lt is usually applied on exteraor,
below grade concrete and masonry walls, but may be
aoolied on the interior of exterior walls and tloors.
07162-CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING-This Section
specif ies cementitious waterproof ing treatment with crys-
talline-type waterpr@fing. lt is lrequently applied on inte-
rior, belowgrade concrete and masonry walls; may be
applied on slabs below grade; and may be concealed
behind or below applied finishes specified in other Sec-
tions This product can also be used fo. waterproofing the
exterior of walls below grade.
07163-METAL-OXIDE WATERPROOFING-This Section
specifies metal{xide waterproofing, which is an oxidizing
iron and cement mixture. lt is usually applied on anteriorsur-
faces ol walls and slabs below grade, and maY be con-
cealed behind or below applied finishes specified in other
Sections. This product can also be used lor waterproofing
the exterior o{ walls below grade.
07170-BENTONITE WATERPROOFING-This Section
soecifies oarel and sheet membrane b€ntonite waterproof-
ing systems used underground for types of construction
where room to ex€vate beyond the walls is limited, where
the walls are to be constructed against piling, or where the
excavation must be backfilled over or against concrete
before the concrete has had time to cure (such as a tunnel
under a streetl.
071 8o-TRAFFIC COATINGS-This Section specifies cold
liquid-applied. elastomeric, waterproof-barrier coatings with
integral wearing surfaces for building areas housing equiP
ment or subiect to redestrian and vehicular traffic.
071go-WATER REPELLENTS-This Section specifies
clear, liquid-applied, penetrating, and film-lorming water
repellents lor vertical and nontraffic horizontal surfaces of
brick, concrete unit masonry, concrete, portland cement
plaster (stucco),
and stone-
0721 o-BUILDING INSULATION-This Section specifies
common types of general building insulation that are
installed at the Project site as separate elements rather
than as components of a prelabriGted or field-assembled
svstem soecified in another Section. Exterior insulation and
/ 07531-EPDM
finish systems are examples of such assemblies. AIso
included is insulation that could be specified here or in
other Sections. Examples of this include insulation used lor
masonry, gypsum board assemblies, and veneer plaster
that are typically installed at the same time and by the same
personnel performing noninsulation work.
07241-EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEMS'
CLASS PB-This Section specifies Class PB exterior insula
tion and finish systems (EIFS) consisting of a decorative
protective composite coating, or lamina, and an inner layer
of rigid. cellular thermal insulation. Both field-applied sys-
tems and prefabricated panels are specified. Systems with
molded, expanded pelystyrene board flype l] and glass-
libertaced polyisocyanurate insulation are included. Exte-
rior cement-board sheathing is included tor both standard
applications and prefabricated panels. Other types of
sheathing and metal framing for prefabricated panels are
included by reterence to other Sections specifying those
materials. An option is included for specifying joint sealants
in Division 7 Section "Joint Sealants" or in this Section with
reference to the "Joint Sealants" Section.
07242-EXTERIOR INSULAIION AND FINISH SYSTEMS-
CLASS PM-This Section srecifies Class PM exterior insu-
lation and finish systems {EIFS) consisting ot a deco.ative
protective composite coating, or lamina. and an inner layer
of rigid, cellular therml insulation. Only field-applied sys-
tems applied with extruded-polystyrene toam insulation
(Type lV) are specified.
07311-ASPHALT SHINGLES-This Section specifies
asphalt shingles for r@ting applications. Shingles with fiber
mats (fabric core) ot either organic {elt or fiberglass are
included. A variety of generic shingles are specified in the
Text, and other types can easily be added. This Section
applies to roofs with a slope lrom 2 inches pe. foot (1:6) to
very steep slopes, such as mansard roofs. when manufac-
turers' recommendations are considered.
ARCOM; Salt Lake City. Utah, and Alexandria, Virginia
07313-METAL SHINGLES-This Section specities metal
shingles, in both indivrdualshingles and panel form. In most
cases, shingle panels resemble hand-split cedar shakes.
07315-SLATE SHINGLES-This Section specifies natural-
slate shingles for steep, sloped, standard-slate roofs includ-
ing underlayment, flashing, and accessories tor slate roof-
ing.
07317-WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES-This Section
specifies wood shingles and shak€s lor both roofing and
wall applications. Western red cedar shingles and shakes,
southern yellow pine shakes, western red cedar shingle
panels, and fancy-butt western red cedar shingles are
included.
07320-ROOF TILES-This Section specifies both hard-
fired clay tile and concrete tile lor roofing applications. A
variety of shaped and flat tile units, including Spanish'S,'
Mission Batrel, Roman, French, and flat units, are included.
Provisions for commonly used special shapes at eaves,
rakes. ridges, and hips are also included, as well as under-
layments. fasteners, and other accessories normally used
with root tales.
07411-MANUFACTURED ROOF PANELS-Th|S SECIiON
specifies factory-preformed metal roof panels for field
installation without field forming. The Section includes pan-
els of aluminum- and metallic{oated steel with and without
applied finishes; and copper, stainless steel, and terne-
coated stainless steel, which do not have applied finishes.
Insulated roof oanels and metal oanel assemblies that are
substantially preformed but require final mechanical seam
closure in the field by means of a portable seaming
machine are also included.
07412-MANUFACTURED WALL PANELS-This Section
specifies factory-preformed metal wall panels for tield
installation without field forming. The Section includes pan-
els ol uncoated stainless steel and oI aluminufr and metal-
lic{oated steel with and without applied finishes, Insulated
wall panels. both factory and tield assembled, are also
included.
07460-5lDlNG-This Section specifies vinyl, aluminum,
and steel siding including commonly used accessories.
075'11-BUILT-UP ASPHALT ROOFING-This Section
specifies built-up asphalt roofing, including roofing insula-
tion. base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for pro-
tected membranes, rogf walkways. and auxiliary roofing
materials.
07512-BUILT-UP COAL-TAR ROOFING-This Section
specifies built up coal-tar roofing, including roofing insula-
tion, base llashings, aggregate and paver ballast for prc
tected membranes, roo{ walkways, and auxiliary roofing
maleflals_
SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-
This Section specifies EPDM single-ply membrane roofing,
including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and
paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing materials.
07532-CSPE SINGLE PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-ThiS
Section specifies CSPE single-ply membrane roofing,
including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and
paver ballast, walkwavs, and auxiliary roofing materials.
07533-THERMOPLASTIC SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE
ROOFING-This Section specif ies thermoplastic singlef ly
membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base tlashings,
aggregate and paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing
marenars.
OTs4MOATED POLYURETHANE FOAM ROOFING_
Thls Section specifies sprayed polyurethane foam insula-
tion with an elastomeric protective coating for roofing appli-
cations.
07551-APP-MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE
ROOFING-This Section specifies APP-modified bitumi-
nous membrane roofing. including roofing insulation, base
flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected mem-
branes, and auxiliary rooting materials-
07552-SBSMODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE
ROOFING-ThiS Section soecifies SBs-modified bitumi
nous membrane roofing, including roofing insulation, base
flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected mem-
branes, roof walkways, and auxtliaryroofing materials-
07553-5ELF-ADHERING MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEM'
BRANE ROOFING-ThiS Section specifies self-adhering,
cold-applied, rubberized-asphalt composite sheet rooling
for protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation.
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver
ballast are also included.
Section
07561-HOT FLUID-APPLIED BOOFING-This
specifies hot fluid applied, rubberized-asphalt roofing for
protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation,
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver
ballast are also included.
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
AIA MASTERSPEC 1 3 5
07610-SHEET METAL ROOFING-Thls Section specifies
custom-fabricated {shop- or fieldjormed versus factory-roll-
formed) metal roofing. This Section also includes prefin-
rshed, field-painted, and uncoated metal roofing.
07620-SHEET METAL FLASHING AND TRIM-This Sec'
tion specifies sheet metal flashing and trim work related to
or used in coniunction with roofing work and the general
waterproof integrity of the building structure. This Section
includes shor and field-fabricated sheet metal accessories,
trim, and flashing commonly used at the perrmeter or pene-
trations of rooling or waterproofing work and where not
integral with membrane systems. Metal waterproofing,
flashing. and cap flashing are usually included in this Sec-
tion.
0771 0-MANUFACTURED ROOF SPECIALTIES-This Sec'
tion speci{ies manufactured roof specialties including coP
ings, fasciae. gravel stops, gutters and downspouts,
reglets, and counterflashing. This Section covers roof spe-
cialties listed in the 1995 edition of CSI'S MasterFormat,
exceot roof exoansion assemblies.
07716-ROOF EXPANSION ASSEMBLIES-ThiS Section
specifies standard, factory-fabricated, roof expansion ioint
cover assemblies, including products designed to resist the
effects ot earthquake motions. This Section can be used
alone, or provisions can be included in other Division 7 Sec-
tions.
07720-ROOF ACCESSOBIES-This Section specifies
accessory units installed on or in roofing, including curbs
and equipment supports, relief vents in the Jorm of gravity
ventilators, ridge vents, roof hatches {also called scuft/es),
heat and smoke vents of both collapsible dome (gravity)
type and pop-up (hatch) type, and snow guards.
07810-PLASTIC UNIT SKYLIGHTS-This Section speci-
fies prefabricated skylights with formed, monolithic, single-
and doublcsheet plastic glazing, and integral curb or curb-
mounted frame design.
FIRE-RESISTIVE MATERIALS-This
07811-SPRAYED
Section specifies sprayed firHesistive materials for prc
tecting structural steel lor both concealed and exposed
applications. lt includes not only lowiensity cementitious
and sprayed-fiber products used predominantly lor con-
cealed locations but also a variety of medium- and highien-
sity products lor exposed locations requiring a more
finished appearanco and greater resistance to physical
abuse, deterioration lrom weather, air erosion. and high
humidity.
07821-BOARD FIRE PROTECTION-This Section speci'
fies calcium sili€te and slag-wooffiber boards used lor fire
orotection of steel columns, steel beams, metal- and wood-
framed walls, and solid walls. These materials form the
encasing material for various assemblies with fire-resis-
tance ratings. Another use lor mineral-fiber board fireproof-
ing is protection of HVAC ducts.
07841-THROUGH-PENETRATION FIRESTOP SYS'
TEMS-This Section specilies through-penetration frrestop
systems.
Section specities ioint
07920-JOINT SEALANTS-ThiS
sealants including elastomeric sealants, solvent-release-
curing sealants, latex sealants, acoustical sealants, and pre-
formed sealants tor a variety of applications.
DlvtstoN I
081 1o-STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-This Section spec-
ifies standard steel d@rs and frames labricated to comply
with ANSI 4250.8 and established Steel Door Institute stan-
dards.
081l4-{USTOM STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-ThiS
Section soecifies commercial hollow-metal doors and
lrames custom fabricated from steel, galvanized steel. and
stainless-steel sheet to specific design requirements. This
Section includes provisions Jor glazing, louvers, sidelights,
and transoms ol similar construction. Provisions are also
included for fire-. sound-. and thermal-rated assemblies.
0812s-INTERIOR ALUMINUM FRAMES-ThiS Section
specifies extruded-aluminum framing members for intertor
(usually) wood doors; glass sidelights, bo(owed lights,
clerestory glazing, and fixed windows: and gypsum wall
board partitions.
08163-5LIDING ALUMINUM-FRAMED GLASS DOORS_
This Section specifies sliding aluminum-tramed glass doors
for exterior locations.
08211-FLUSH WOOD DOORS-This Section specifies
non-fire-rated and fire-rated architectural flush wood doors.
Both solid- and hollow{ore units are covered, including
those with face panels of wood veneer, plastic laminate,
and hardboard.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
A
I
 136 AIA MASTERSPEC
08212-STILE AND BA|L WOOD DOORS-This Section
specifies stile and rail doors made from lumber_ wood
veneers. and wood compos,les Incluo,ng plywood. paflrcle.
Ooard. lrDerboard, and lamrnated-srrand lumber Doors ol
special design and construction, which mav include cus-
tom made doors, are specifred along witd doors of stock
OeSrgn and cOnStruction. Fire{ated doors with wood
veneered and €dged mineral{o.e stiles, rails. and oanels
are also Included.
08263-5LIDING WOOD,FRAMED GLASs DooRs-This
Section specrfres sttdtng glass doors, bare- and primed
wood tramed, and wood framed and clad wrth alumrnJm or
vrnyt on extetor exposed surfaces, for exterior locations.
08305-ACCESS DOORS-This Secrion sDecilies orime,
painled sleel, /inc , oated sleer. and stainless steer
access
doors rnstalled in acousttcal ceilings and masonry, concrete.
gypsum board assembltes, and plasler walls and cerlings.
08314-SLIDING METAL FIRE DOORS_This Section
specifies sliding metal fare doors of composite and hollow-
metal construction These doors are primarily intended for
fire separation doors in industrial and commercial applica-
tions
08321-INSULATING SECURtry DOORS-This
Section
specifies standard insulating security door assemblies,
manulaclured as a unit, complete with door, frame and
hardware- Although intended primarily for lire and theft pro_
tection of documents in file rooms, they are also used for
vault protection ot other valuabies
08331-OVERHEAD COTLINGDOORS-This Secrion spec-
ifies flexible metal{urtain type overhead coiling kolling)'seF
vrce ooors anct counter doors, including fire,rated
assemblies. Overhead coiling doors are fabrjcated from
steel. stainless steel, and aluminum. Fire_rateddoors aae
fabricated from steel and stainless steel.
08334-OVEBHEAD COtLtNG GRTLLES-This Section
specifies galvanized steel, stainless-steel. and aluminum
overhead coiling kotling) grilles with straight in_linepattern
and with the option of glazed panels.
08343-lCU/CCU ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion spec!
fies combination swing/slide manuat ICU/CCU entr;nce
d@r assemblies.
08346-SOUND CONTROL DOORS-This Section speci_
fies non-fire-rated and fire-rated swinging steel door and
frame systems with minimum sound tr;nsmission class
(STC)ratings ranging between 43 and 52.
08351-FOLDING DOORS-This Section specifies nona-
coustrcal and non-fire-rated accordion and Danel foldino
doors with vinyl, wood, and other finishes; and bifold door;
of wood, metal, and polyvinyl chloride (pVC) consrruction.
I hese doors are intended as visual separalion devices and
primarily apply to commercial and institutional installations;
however, by appropriate modification, they may accomml_
date light commercial and resrdentialconsiructi;n.
08361-SECTIONAL OVERHEAD DOORS_This Section
specifies sectional overhead doors moved by a counterbal-
ance mechanism?nd rollers along a steel track system and
IaD(cated lrom ilat steel o. ribbed sreel panel Sections
framed with steel members; paneled wood or flush wood
panel sections framed with wood members; and aluminum,
translucent {fiberglass{ernforced} plastic, and glass or plas_
tc vtsron pdnel sections framed wtth alumrnum members.
0841o-ALUMINUM ENTRANCES AND STOREFRONTS-
This Section specifies standard interior and exterior aluml
num entrance and storefront systems. Entrance systems
Include swinging doors, framing, hardware. vestibule enclo-
sures, lransoms, and sidehghts. Sto.efront systems include
Trxedglazrng areas and framtnq.
08450*ALL-GLASS ENTRANCES-This Section specjfies
frameless tempered-glass entrances, includino swino
doors, sidehghts, transoms, and related accessorie-s.
08460-AUTOMATTC ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion
specifies only the Evaluations for the following new Sec_
trons covering types of automatic enrrance qoors:
08461-SLIDING AUTOMATIc ENTRANcE DooRs-This
Section.specifies slidtng automatic enrrance ooor systems
that include not only door operators and controls but also
aluminum doors, sidelite and transom frames, and accesso-
fies_
08462-SWINGING AUTOMATIC ENTRANCE DOORS-
This Section specifies swinging automatic entrance door
syslems lhat include not only door operators and controls
bul also alUminum doors. transom lrames, and accessories.
Bifolding operation is also jncluded.
08470-REVOLVING ENTRANCE DOORS-This
Section
specifies conventional, circular, revolving entance doors
consistang of manual and power-assisted door leaves, or
wngs,.rolattng about d cenler post wtlh a speed_control
unI lo ttmtt rotatton soeed
ABCOM; Salt Lake City. Utah, and Alexandria. Viroinia
4
tl CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
08510-STEEL WTNDOWS-This Section soecifies readitv
dvdi'able stocl and cuslor rypes ot sleel w.ndow units li
descnbes wndow types (operataons)and window orades
{classrlic€trons) In addrtton to performance,"qu,re"-ents
and finishes. and other oDtions
08520-ALUMINUM WTNDOWS-This Section specifies
various types of commonly used stock aluminum wndow
units. The Section includes normaliy available oDtions tor
wrndow type, grade, and performance class ll also
includes different glazrng methods, finrshes. and other
oplions- The Section is primarily Intended for generrc speci_
rytng ot compettltve wtndow types When spectfrc manu_
raclurers product names are inserled. lhe Texl can be
shortened to facilitate proprietary specifying
08550-WOOD WINDOWS-This Section specifres vari
ous types of commonly used stock wood window un/ts.
The Sectlon includes a variety ot normally availabteoptions
tor_window type and performance grade tt also Includes
drilerent glazing methods. finisfes and other options. The
Sectton is primarily Intended tor geneilc specrfying ot com
petrtrve wndow types. When spec;frc manufacturers prod_
ucl names are rnserted. the Text can be considerablv
sirortened to lacilttate proprietary specrfying
08610-ROOF WINDOWS-This Section soecifies ventino
and. fixed insulating€lass units fo. rnstaltjtron on stopini
rooT sunaces.
08630-METAL-FRAMED SKyLtcHTS-This Section speci-
ties.alumanum-framed skylights with retaining{ap- or struc_
tural-sealant{lazing systems and glass or plastic glazing.
08631-TRANSLUCENT-INSUTAIING-PANEL SKYLIGHTS-
This Section contains only the fvaluations for the foltowrng
new S-ectrons that specrty aluminumfiamed skylights gtazel
with different types of translucent, insulating paneli:
. 08632_POLYCARBONATE-INSULAIING-PANEL
SKY.
LIGHTS
. 08633-FIBERGLASS.SANDWICH-PANEL
SKYLIGHTS
08632_POLYCARBONATE.INSULATING-PANEL SKY.
LIGHTS-This Section specifies atuminum-f.amed skylights
glazed with translucent, cellular-polycarbonate insula-ting
pan6ts.
08633_FIBERGLASS-SANDWCH,PANEL SKYLIGHTS_
This Section specifies aluminum-framed skylights incorpo
ratrng translucent, insulating, fib€rglassjeinforced_poly_
mer, sndwich panels.
0871 0-DOOR HARDWARE-This Section specifies Evalu_
ations only for the following new Sections covering differ
ent specifying methods lor door hardware:
08711-DOOR HARDWARE (SCHLDULID BY NAMING
PRODU_CTS)-.This Section specifies hardware apptied to
doors, formally called finish hardware, builder's hardware.
ot architectural finish hatdware. The Sectton uses manufac_
turers'product names or references to BHMA standards in
the Door Hardware Schedule to indicate door hardware
requirements.
08712-DOOR HABDWARE (SCHEDULED BY DESCRIB-
ING.pRODUCTS)-This Secrion specifres hardware appl€d
to doors, formafly called fin6h hardware, builder's hard-
ware, or architectural finish hardwarc. The Sec|on uses
product descriptions in the Door Hardware Schedule to indi_
cate door hardware requirements.
08716-POWEB DOOR OPERATORS-This Section speci-
fies power door operators normally furnished separ;tely
from doors and frames. These door operators are adaotable
to a variety of door designs and sizes. power door ooera-
tors that aid the physrcally handicapped by aclrng as an
aulomatrc d@r operator and that comply with the require
ments-ol BHMA Ai 56.19. ADA accessibiiity guidetines, and
'17-1
ANSI A'l are also included.
08800-GLAZING-This
Section specifies monotithic. tami_
nated, and insulating glass along with the glazrng materia's
.equrred tor therr installation. Th's Section setues two Dn-
mary purposes: 1 ) lt covers glazing work normally subcon-
traCted to installers of glazing: and 2) it is the Sectaonthat
other Sectaons cross-reference to avoid repeating glazing
requirements. ln the latter case, edit this Section ifier th6
other Sections are substantially complete.
08801-SECUBITY GLAZTNG-This Section specifies glaz
Ing products jntended to resrst abuse. physical atGck,
lorced entry. and ballistics. products included are laminated
glass, glass/polycarbonate laminates, and laminated and
monolithic polycarbonate sheets.
08814-MIRRORED GLASS-This Section. which is new
to the Basic Version, specifies unframed and unbacked,
fully silvered mirroted glass and pyrolylic mirro,ed glass to;
mounttng on walls and ceiltnqs
08825-DECORATIVE GLASS-This Section specifies
glass products for interior applications,incluainqaclJ
etched.sandblasted,
silkscreened,beveled,pattern;d.anc
laminatedglasswith integraldecoration.
08840-PLASIIC GLAZTNG-IhisSectionspecifieslioht
transmrftrngplaslicsheetsthat are glazedinto openrnoia
subslrtutesfor glass.Includedareacrylicglazrngin theiorr
of monolithicsheets and double,walled,structuredsheets.
and polycarbonate glazingin the form of monolithicsheets
anddouble-walled, structuredsheets.
08920-GLAZED ALUMINUM CURTATNWALLS-This
Sectionspeciliesstandardand custom glazedaluminum
curtainwall systemsinstalledusingstick,unit,andunit,and
mulltonsystemmethods.
0892s-STRUCTUBAL-SEALANT.GLAZED CUBTAN
WALLS-This Sectionspecifiesstandardand custom,4
sided and 2-sided, structural-sealantglazedcurtain walls
incorporating
aluminumf ramingsystems.
08960-5tOPED GLAZTNG SYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci
fies standardand custom conventionally
glazedand siruc
tural€ealant-glazed
sloped glazingsystems incorporating
arumlnumlramlngsystems.
DtvlstoN 9
0921o-GYPSUM PLASTER-ThisSectionspecrfresovo
sum lath dnd plaster;metal lath,turring,accessories,
lno
supportsystems;and plasticaccessories.
0921s-GYPSUM VENEERPLASTER-ThisSectionspeci.
fies gypsum-based veneerplasteron gypsum base, unit
masonry, or monol,thic concrete. Melal support systems,
sound-altenuationinsulation, thermal insulation, and
cementitiousbacker units are also specified becausethev
are integratedwith veneer plasterconstruction.Veneei
plastermater€lsand applications may be cross{eferenced
from other Drvisiong Sections,such as 'Gypsum Boatd
Shaft-Wall
Assembties.'
09220-PORTLAND CEMENT pLASTER-This Section
specifresportlandcement plasterincludingmetal framing
turflng,lath,and accessories;
plasticaccessories;
tob_mired
ponlandcement frnish;and factorytreparedfini;hessuch
as stucco,acrylicbased,and exposedaggregate.
09251-FACTORY-FINISHED
GYPSUMBOARD-ThisSec-
taon specifies vinyl-film-faced,gypsum board panels and
associated trim.
09253-GYPSUM SHEATHTNG-This Section soecifies
paper-surfaced
and glass,matgypsumsheathingattached
to steeltramlngon exteriorwallsand air-infiltration
barriers
installedoverthe sheathing.
0926HYPSUM BOARD ASSEMBLTES-ThiSSecrion
specifiesgypsum board assembliesand metal supportsys
tems. Sound attenuation insulation and cementitious
backerunits for tile are also specifiedbecausethey are
often componentsof gypsum boardassemblies.
09265,.€YPSUMBOARD SHAFT.WALLASSEMBLIES-
This Section specifies nonloadbearing. steel-framedgyp
sum board assemblies that provide fireresistance-rited
enclosuresfor verticalshafts and horizontalenclosures_
O92Tl.GLASS.REINFORCED GYPSUMFABRICATIONS-
This Section specifies factoryfiolded products fabricated
wrth glass-reinforced
gypsum (GRG),for interioruse.
09310-CERAMIC TILE-This Section specifies unglazed
and glazed ceramic tile, includingceramic mosaic, q:uarry.
paver, and wall tile; tile setting and grouting materjals;
accessofles; and installationrequirements.
09385-DIMENSTON STONETtLE-This Sectionspecifies
naturalstone tile for flooring,wall tacing.and trim for com
mercialand residentialinstallations.Dimension stone tite is
definedas modularunits less than % inch (19 mm) thick
fabricatedfrom naturalstone. Stone thresholdsare also in
the SectionText.
09400-IERRAZZO-This Section specifies cementitious.
modified{ement-resin, and synthetic-resin lerazzo lol
flooring,base, stair treads,landings,and risers.Cementi
trousterrazzoincludesstandardand rustic cast,in_place
svs-
tems and precast products. Resinous 'thin-set. terrazzo
includes cast-in-place,polyacrylate-moditied{ementand
epoxy-resrnSystems.
09451-INTERIOR SIONE FACTNG-This
Sectionsoecifies
drmensionstone used for interior wall facing, trim, mold
rngs,base,countenops,and windowstools.
09511-ACOUSTICALPANEL CEtLtNGS-This Section
specitaes ceilings consisting ot acoustical panels and
exposedsuspensronsystems,includingspecialuse tvpes
lor e\teriorlocations,hrgh-temperature
and .humrdttv toca
Irons.andcteanrooms
MASTERSPECcontinues on the next paqe

09512-ACOUSTICALTILECEILINGS-Thas Sectionspeci-
fies ceilingsconsistingof acousticaltiles and concealed
suspension svstems.
09513_ACOUSTICAI SNAP-INMT'IAL PAN CEILINGS-
This Secrionspecifiesceilingsconsistingof acoustical\,nap
in metal pans and concealedsubpensionsystems.Types of
metal pan ceilingunits includeboth perforatedand unperfo-
rated snap-insteel, stainlesssteel, or aluminumpans.
09547-LINEAR METALCEILINGS-This Sectionspecifies
linearmetalceilings.
strip,decorative,
09580-SUSPENDED DECORATIVE GRIDS-This Section
specifiesopenrell grid, plenum mask ceilingsystems.
09600-STONE PAVINGAND FLOORING-ThiS Section
specifiesdimensionstone pavingand flooringinstalledon a
thick, mortar setting b€d. lt also includesmetai edging and
stone thresholds.
09621-FLUID-APPLIED ATHLETIC FLOORING-ThisSec-
tion specifiespolyurethanelloorings. intended for use in
athletic-activityareas, that are homogenous or installed
over resilientunderlayment.
09622-RESILIENTATHLETICFLOORING-ThisSection
specifiesrubber.vinyl.and thermoplastic-rubberblend tloor
coveringsin interlocking-tileor roll form and designed for
use in athletic-aclivity
or supportareas.
09635-88ICK FLOORING-Th|SSectionspecifiesbrick
llooring for interior applicationssubject to pedestrianand
light vehiculartraffic. Three setting methods included for
the specifier'schoiceare loose-laidbrick flooringwith sand-
filled, hand-tight joints; thickset mortared brick fl@ring.
with or without groutedjoints; and thirset mortared brick
tlooring. also with or without grouted joints. Where the
same brick pavers are selected for both {looring (interior
appli€tions) and paving (exterior applications)and use
either the sme or different setting methods and beds,
there can be advantagesto combiningthem into one Sec-
tion and ch@sing a section number that represents the
maiorapplication.Brickflooringcould also be includedwith
unit masonryif the bricklayer'smethod is used for installa-
ton.
09636-CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICK FLOORING-This
Sectionspecifieschemical-resistant brick tlooring installed
with mortars, grouts. and setting b€ds that offer varying
degrees ot chemical protection based on specific user
requirements.The Section may also include a protective
membraneon the subfloor.
09640-WOOD FLOORING-ThiSS@tion specifies solid-
and engineered{ood fl@ring that is either tactory or site
finished.
09644-WOOD ATHLETIC-FLOORINGASSEMBLIES-
This Sectionspecifieshard maple, finish flooring and sub
flooringassembliesdesignedfor use as athletic playingor
/ 1010o-VISUALDISPLAYBOARDS-Th|SSectionspeci-
exercising surfaces. Subflooring systems include those
with enhancedshock-absorbing properties.
09651-RESILIENT TILE FLOORING-ThisSectionspeci-
fies solid vinyl, rubber,and vinyl compositionfloor tile and
resilient wall base and accessoriestypi€lly installedwith
resilientfl@r tile.
09652-5HEET VINYL FLOORCOV€RINGS-This Section
specifiessheet vinyllloor coverings,with and without back-
ings.for commercialprojects.
09653-RESILIENT WALL SASE AND ACCESSORIES-
This Section specities rubber and vinyl wall base, stair
treads, and accessoriesfor use with resilient flwing and
carpet.
09654-LINOLEUM FLOOR COVERING$-ThiS Section
specifieslinoleumtile and shset floor coverings.
09671-RESINOUS FLOORING-This Section specilies
decorative.generafure. and highferformancs or special-
applicationresinousflooring systems appli€das self-level-
ing slurriesor t.oweled or scr@dedmortars.
09677-STATIC-CONTROL RESILIENTFLOOR COVER.
INGS-This Sectionspeciliesstatic{issipativevinyl compo'
sition,homogenous(solid)vinyl. and rubberfloor tile; static-
dissipativerubber sheet floor covering;conductivehomog-
enous (solid)vinyl and rubberlloor tile; and conductivevinyl
and rubbersheet fl@r covering.
0968HARPET-ThiS Section sp€cifies tufted, fusion-
bonded,and woven carpet,as well as carpet cushion for
commercialinstallations-
09681--{ARPET TILE-]his Section specifies carpet tile
f or commercialinstallations.
09771-FABRIC-WRAPPEDPANELS-This Section speci-
f ies custofrfabri@ted. back-mounted,fabric-wrappedpan-
els for ceilingsand walls, in which the fabric is not adhered
to the core material.
ARCOM;Salt Lake City, Utah, and Alexandria,Virginia
09772-STRETCHED-FABRIC WALL SYSTEMS-ThisSec-
tion specifies concealed-fastener,
site-assembled,
site-
upholsteredsystemsfor ceilingsandwalls
09841-ACOUSTICALWALL PANELS-ThisSectionspeci-
fies shop-fabricated panelsthatarewall mounted
acoustical
as opposedto freestandingor ceilingbaffles.Both spline-
mountedand back-mounted unitsare included-
09900-PAINTING-This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface
preparation.materials preparation,and applicationprinci-
plestor interiorandexteriorpainting.
09920-INTERIORPAINTING-ThisSectionspecifiesgen-
eralsurfacepreparation, materialspreparation,
andapplica-
for interiorpainting.
tionprinciples
09931-EXTERIORWOOD STAINS-This Sectionspeci-
fies generalsurfacepreparation, materialpreparation.
and
principles
application for exteriorwood stains.
09945-MULTICOLORED INTERIOR COATINGS-This
Sectionspecifiespolychromaticpaint.
099so-WALL COVERINGS-ThisSection specities vinyl,
Jiberglass, wall coveringsandwallpaper.
and.lextile
09960-HIGH-PERFORMANCE COATINGS-ThisSection
specifies highrerformance coatings tor architecturaland
tndustrialaoolications.
09963-ELASTOMERIC COATINGS-This Section speci-
fies a speciallydesignedacrylicpolymer containingelastc
meric coatings for use on the exterior of masonry,
concrete, and stucco structures. These coatings are dirt
resistant,llexible in a rangeof temperatures,and very high-
build materialsthat bridgesmall cracks and protect against
deteriorationresulting from moisture penetration of the
substrate.
09967-INTUMESCENT PAINTS-ThiS Section specifies
intumescent-type,fire{etardant paint primarilyfor interior
combustible
and noncombustible substrates.
09975-HIGH.TEMPERATURE-RESISTANT COATINGS_
This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface preparation,materi-
als preparation,and applicationprinciplesfor high-tempera-
turejesistant coatingsused on the interiorand exterior.
o998o-WOOD-VENEER WALL COVERINGS-ThiSSec-
tion speciJiesflexiblewood-veneerwall covering.
09981-CEMENTITIOUS COATINGS-ThisSectionspeci-
lies polymerflodified cementitiouscoatingsto us€ above
or below grade on the exterioror interiorover masonryand
concrete. After curing, these coatings produce a durable,
hard,weather{esistant surface.
DtvtstoN I o
fies the most commonly used types of standard chalk-
boards,markerboards,and tackboards.Emphasisis placed
on prefabricatedunits.Provisionsare also includedfor tradi-
tionalslate chalkboardsand other lield-assembledtvoes.
10155-TOILET COMPARTMENTS-ThisSectionspecifies
standard metal, plastic-laminate,and solid-plastictoilet
companmentsandscreens.
1018o-STONE TOILETCOMPARTMENTS-ThiS Section
specifies marble and granite toilet compartments and
screens. companment doors, and associatedfittings and
hardware.
l01gHUBlCLES-This Sectionspecifiescurtainand lV
tracks and curtains and accessoriesfor cubicles,dressing
areas.tubs.and showe6.
10200-LOUVERS AND VENTS-This Section specifies
fixed and adjustable metal louvers, a@ustical louvers,
blank{ff panels for louvers. and wall vents (brick vents).
Louversconnectedto ductwork, and those that are not, are
properlyspecifiedin this Section.This Sectionspecitieslou-
vers made from extruded aluminum, formed galvanized
steel, and formed stainlesssteel. Fixed-bladelouversspeci-
fied includethose with horizontaland verticalblades,drain-
able and nondrainableblades, and sightproof blades.
Adiustablelouvers soecified include those with drainable
and nondrainableblades,both tixed and adjustableblades
combinedin a singleframeandsingle-blade units,and insu-
latedunits-
10265-IMPACT.RESISTANT WALL PROTECTION-This
Sectionspecitiesva.ioustypes of impact-resistantwall pre
tection systems, includingwall guards. handrails.and cor-
ner guards, as well as door and door frame protection
svstems. lt also includesrelatedimoact-resistantwall cov-
ering products.The Sectioncan be expandedto includeany
complete protectionsystem or streamlinedto specificwall
and corner€uardapplicationsonly.
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC 137
10270-ACCESSFLOORING-ThisSectionspecifiesstan-
dard accessflooringsystems,includingaccessories. Not
onlydoesit includesystemssuitablefor datacenters,com,
puter rooms,cleanrooms,and otherapphcations, but also
thoseintendedprimarilyfor generaloflice uses.
10350-FLAGPOLES-ThisSection specifies metal and
fiberglassflagpoles,includingground-set,wall'mounted,
and roof-mountedflagpoles.Metals include aluminum,
steel.stainlesssteel,and bronze.
10405-BANNERS-This Section specifies banners of
woven,nonwoven,and knit materials, for interiorand exte-
rioruse.
'10416-DIRECTORIES
AND BULLETINBOARDS-Th|S
Sectionspecifiesdirectoriesand bulletinboardsfabricated
lrom standardcomDonentscommon to severalmanutactur-
ers. The Sectioncan be used for specityingcustomized
unitsby insertingadditionalrequirements for materialsand
labrication.
10425-SIGNS-ThisSectionspeciliespanelsigns,dimen'
sional letters and numbers,and cast metal plaques.lt
includestypicalmaterialsandprocesses
commonlyusedby
a wide numberol signmanufacturers.
10436-POSTAND PANELSIGNS-ThisSectionspecifies
exterior,lreestanding,illuminatedand nonilluminated post
and panelsigns.lt coverstypicalmaterialsand processes
used by a varietyof sign manutacturers.The most com-
monlyused panels,from the single-sheet varietyto illumi
nated hollow-box-lypeunits. are specified.Graphicimage
pr@essesare alsoincluded.
10437-PYLON SIGNS-This Section srecifies treestand-
ing, illuminatedand nonilluminated pylon signs.lt covers
typical materialsand processes used by a variety of sign
manufacturers.The most commonly used signs. from the
upright-slabtype to the tall, slender,squarepylon-typeunit,
are sp€cified.Graphicimage processesare also included.
10505-METAL LOCKERS-Th|sSection soecifiesstan-
dard, factory-fabricatedwardrobe and athletic metal lock-
ers. Commonlyspecifiedaccessoriesand optionalfeatures,
such as locker-roombenches,are also included.
10520-FIRE-PROTECTION SPECIALTIES-ThisSection
sp€cifiesportablefire extinguishers;their mounting brack-
ets; and cabinets for fire extinguishers,hose valves, and
rackand hoseassemblies.
10550-POSTAL SPECIALTIES-ThisSection soecifies
standardmail chutes, receivingand collection boxes, hori-
zontal-and vertical-typemailboxes,neighborhooddelivery
and collectionbox units, and parcellockers.
10605-WIRE MESH PARTITIONS-This Sectionspecifies
standard-and heavyduty wire mesh partitions,exterio, (gal-
vanized)partitions, wire mesh window guards, stairway
partilions,and insert panelsfor railingsystems.
10615-DEMOUNTABLE PARTITIONS-This Section
includesonly the Evaluations for the followingSections
specityingdemountablepartitions:
.10616-5ITE-ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PABTI-
TIONS
.10620-DEMOUNTABLE UNITIZED-PANELPARTI-
TIONS
10616-SITE.ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PARTI.
TIONS-This Section specifiesreusabl€.demountablepar-
tition systems consistingof gypsum board panelsor metal-
faced gypsum board panels supportedby concealedfram-
ing. This new Sectionreplaces
. 10617-DEMOUNTABLE GYPSUMPANELPARTIIIONS
and
. 10618-DEMOUNTABLEMETAL PANELPARTITIONS,
bothdated11192.
10620-DEMOUNTAELE UNITIZED-PANEL PARTI.
IIONS-This Sectionspecifiesreusable, demountable,patr
tition systems consisting of tactory-assembledunitized
panels.
10651-OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-ThisSection
specifiesacousticallyrated. manuallyand eleclricallyopetr
ated,Ilat-panelpartitionssupportedfrom an overheadtrack.
10653*FIRE.RATED OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-
This Section specifies acousticallyrated, manually opeL
ated. Ilat-panelpartitions.lire rated one hour or one and
one-halfhours,suoportedfrom an overheadtrack.
10655-ACCORDIONFOLDINGPARTITIONS-Th|S Sec'
tion specifies acousticallyrated, manually and electrically
operated,accordionfolding panirionssupportedfrom a sin-
gle overheadtrack.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaoe
A
1
 I38 AIA MASTERSPEC
10671-METALSTORAGE SHELVING-ThisSectionspeci
ties post andsheltstorageunils.
10680-MOBILESTORAGEUNITS ThisSectionspecifies
manuallyand electrically
operatedstorageunitsconsisting
of carriagesthat glide on rails to open an aisle where
accessis required.
1o75o-TELEPHONESPECIALTIES-IhiSSectionspe*
fies prefabricated telephone specialties, including tele,
phonebooths and other enclosures,telephonehousings,
telephone€nclosure entrances for built-in telephone
booths, and directory storage units. The Text is based on
standard products of several manufacturersbut can be
adapted to specify similar standardand customdesigned
units.
10753_WALL-MOUNTED TELEPHONEENCLOSURES*
This Sectionspecifiesprefabricated, wall-mounted. shelf-
type telephoneenclosuresand wal-mounted,panel,type
telephone housings.The Text is based on standardprod-
ucts of s€veralmanufacturersbut can be adaptedto specity
similarstandardandcustomiesignedunits.
10801-TOILET AND BAIH ACCESSORIES-ThiS Section
specilies standardtoilet and bath accessoriesand mirror
unrtscommonlyused in commercialand institutional appli-
cataons.
DlvlstoN I I
11o54-LIBRARYSTACKSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoeci-
faes stationarysingle-tierand multitier shelving for library
malenats.
11062-FOLDINGAND PORTABLE STAGES-ThisSection
specifiestoldingand portablestage platforms,seatingflat-
form risers,standingchoral risers,and acousticalshell sys-
tems that might be used indoorsrn schools.churches,
banquetfacilities,
and multipurpose auditoriums.
I 1063-STAGE CURTAINS-ThiS Section smcifies exam-
ples of stagecunarnfabrrcsand draw-travel
curtainrigging
commonly used in small- to medium-sizedtheater/auditG
rium installations
withoutflv soaces.
11132-PROJECTIONSCREENS-ThisSectionspecifies
standardrear-and front-proiectionscreens.lt includesboth
manually and elsctricallyoperated, rolltp front-poection
screenswith almost any Screensurfaceand rear-proiection
scre€nSmadeof glassor acrylicplastic
1115o-PARKINGCONIROL EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection
specifiesbasicparkingcontrol equipmentfor publicand pri-
vate installationsincludinggate operatorsand controlsand
€shjer's or parkingattendanl'sbooths.
11160-LOADING DOCK EOUIPMENT-This Secrion
specifiesdock bumpers,dock levelers,truck levelers.truck
restraints,dock lifts, dock seals,dock shelters,and trans-
parentstrip door curtains.Dock bumpersincludelaminated-
tread. molded- and extrudediubber, and steel-facetvoes.
Both mechanicaland hydraulicdock levelersare covered,
includingthose permanentlyinstalledin pits and those
attached at the edge of the dock. Truck restraintsinclude
both wall- and driveway-mountedtypes. Hydraulicdock lifts
ot the single-scissorstype for permanentinstallationin pits
are the only dock lift included.Dock shelters include rigid
trame,flexibleframe,and inflatable woes.
11172-WASTE COMPACIORS-ThiS Section sDecifies
general-purpose,
commercial,wet- or dry-wastecgmpactor
unils for processingsolid, nonhazardous,
building{ener
ated waste.
113o7-PACKAGEDSEWAGE PUMP STATTONS-ThiS
Section specifies small, and medium,size,factorv€ssem-
bled, sewage pump stations.
114oO-FOOD SERVICEEOUIPMENT-ThisSectionsoeci-
ties food service equipment for use in commercial,indus-
trial,and institutional
projects.
1 l 451-RESIDENTIALAPPLIANCES-ThiS Sectionsoeci-
fies major residentialappliances.lt includes freestanding
and built-inkitchenand laundryappliances, and both gaa
andelectricequipmentfor residential
andincidental nonres-
identialapplications.
Appliancesrncludedare restrictedto
units that may be purchased as standard manufactured
items.
11460-UNIT KITCHENS-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard.
and -assembledunit kitchensincludino
factoryJabricated
cabrnetry,
appliances,
stnls, laucets,aid accessones.
1161o-LABORATOBY FUME HOODS-This Section
specifiesstandardlaboratorytume hoods used for educa,
tional laboratoriesand researchfacilities. lt includ€s con-
ventional hmds, bypass hoods, and restricted bvpass
hoods;with or withoutardoildesrgn.auxrliary air,and vafi-
able air volume (VAV) control. lt also tncludeswalkrn
hoods, perchloricacid hoods, and radioisotopehoods. lt
includes hood stands and specifies casework supponing
bench-typehoodsby relerencing
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
A
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
. 12347-METALLAEORATORY
CASEWORK
or
. 12348-WOOD LABORATORY
CASEWORK
1169s-MAILROOM EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies
equrpmentused to processincomingand outgoingmail. lt
r e p l a c e sS e c t i o n1 1 9 1 o - M A I L R O O M
E O U I P M E NATN D
FURNITURE. dated10/88,that is beingwithdrawnfrom the
Inte.iorsLibraryConstruction
Version.
DtvtstoN t 2
12050-FABRICS-ThisSectionevaluatesfibers,textiles,
and leatherfor use as wall coverings,verticalhangings,
floorcoverings,andfurnitureupholslery.
'121oG*ART-This
Sectionevaluates
the integrationof art,
both as a form of culturalexpressionand as decoratrve
enhancement,rnto commercialinteriorsproiects.Project
coordinationwith work of othercontractsand wrth a team
of consultants
is discussed.
12311-METAL FILE CABINETS-ThisSecrionspecifies
v€rticalandlateralmetallile cabinets.
1232o-RESTAURANIAND CAFETERIACASEWORK-
This Sectionspecifiescashiercounter,wait stationsand
other caseworkfor food servicefacilities.
This sectioncan
be modified to include more extensive custom disolav
equipmentby inclusionof additional
detailedrequirements.
12347-M ETALLABORATORY CASEWORK-ThisSection
specifiesstandardmanufacturedmetal laboratorycasework
and commonaccessories,
includingcabinets,countertops,
sinks,andservice{ixtures.
12348-WOOD TABORATORY
CASEWORK-ThisSection
specifiesstandardmanufacturedwood laboratorycasework
and common accessories,includingcabinets,countertops,
sinks, and seryice fixtures. The Text includes both wood-
faced cabinetsand plasticlaminate-faced
cabinets.
12353-DISPLAY CASEWORK-This Section soecifies
manutactured
cabinetsand displaycasesfor retarlslorage
and merchandising.
12356-KITCHEN CASEWORK-This Section specifies
stock-manufactured kitchon and vanitycabinetsmade trom
wood and wood products faced with wood, plastic lami-
nate. vinyl, or a combinationof these materials.Counter
tops made of plastic-laminateand solid-surfacingmaterial
are includedso all componentsare in a singleSection.
12359-METAL MEDICAL CASEWORK-This Secrron
specifies standardmanufacturedmetal medical casework
and common accessories.includingstainless-steelcounter-
tops, sinks, and shelving.lt includescaseworktypically
used in operating rooms, emergencyrooms, x-ray rooms,
central sterile supply,and similarspacesfor the storageof
instrumentsand supplies,lt does not includelabofatory
casework,which is specifiedin Division12 Section'Metal
Laboratory Casework,' or plasticlaminate countertops,
which are specifiedin Division6 Section'lnterior Architec-
turalWoodwork.'
12361-MAILBOOM CASEWORK-ThisSectionspecifies
manufacturedcasework used in document distributlon
workroomsand to processincomingandoutgoingmail.
12483-{USTOM RUGS*This Sectionspecifiescustom-
designed,100percentwool, hand-tufted
arearugsinstalled
overfinishflooring.
12493-CURTAINSAND DRAPES-ThisSectionspecilies
statronaryand movable curtains and drapes, and window
treatmenthardwarefor commercialinstallations.
12496-WINDOW TREATMENTHARDWARE-This Sec-
tion specifies hardware tor manuallyoperatedand motor,
oOerateddraperiesand curtains.
12510-OFFICE FURNITURE-This Section soecifies
desks,tables,and credenzasfor officeand comouter-suo-
port applications.
1251'1-HORIZONTALLOUVER BLINDS-This Section
specifies manually operated and motor{perated venetian
blinds.
12512-VERTICALLOUVERBLINDS-ThisSectionspeci-
fies manually operated and motor€perated vertical vane
blinds.
12520*5HADES-This Sectionspecitiesmanuatlyoper-
atedandmotor operatedrollshades,including
blackoutand
mesh shades.
12521-CUSTOMUPHOLSTERED SEATING-ThisSection
speci{iesspeciallydesigned,wood trame, upholstered
seating.
12522-OFflCE SEATING-ThisSectionspecitiesseating
for office and computer-supportapplications
12523-HEALTHCARESEATING-This Sectronspecifie:
patientand guest seatingin hospitalsand extended-car.
facilities.Sleeperchairsfor guestsand reclinersand roc,
ers tor patientsare alsoincluded.
1252s-PLEATEDSHADES-ThisSectionsoecifies2 basc
typesof pleatedshadesiaccordionpleatedshadeswith 1
labric thickness and shades with multipleJabricthicl
nessesformingair spaces(sometimesreferredto as cellu
lar shades).
12551-TRADINGDESKS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodular
desk units and equipmentsupportlor tradingrooms for
banks, insurancecompanies,and other financialinstitu
tions; tradingsupport;data processing;reseryationcenters
911 emergencyfacilities; andvideoproductionfaciljties.
12562--CLASSROOM FURNITURE-ThisSection spec
fies lecterns,chairs,chair desks, desks, and tablet-arn
chairslor use in preschools.gradesK through12, and co
reges.
12563-DORMITORYFURNITURE-ThisSection speo
fies dressers, desks, chairs, nightstands.wardrobes
tables,beds, and other furnitureitems for residenceha
toomsanotoungeareas.
12567-LIBRARY FURNITURE-This Section specifies
libraryseatingand furniturefor the display,storage,review
and checkoutof librarymaterials.
12571-AUDIO-VISUAL SUPPORTFURNITURE-This Sec
tion specifies lecterns. presentationequipment carts, anc
cabrnels.
12574-OUTDOOR FURNITURE-ThisSection soecifies
movable,w@d or metal tablesand chairsdesignedto with,
standtemperatureextremes and limited weathering.
1261o--FIXEDAUDIENCESEATING-ThiSSectionspec.
fies upholstered and nonupholstered interior assembly
spaceseating.Althoughexteriorseatingis not included,the
Section Text could be modified to soecifv exterior lixed
seatingin stadiums.
12630-RESTAUBANTFURNITURE-ThisSectionspecr
{iestablesand seatingfor dining.
12634-CUSTOM FURNITURE-This Section specifies
speciallydesignedtables,desks,credenzas,etc.
12635-PATIENTROOMFURNITURE-This Sectionspecl
fies bedsidecabinets,wardrobeunits,desks,vanities,and
chestsof draw€rs designedspecificallyfor healthcareappll
catrons.
12638-GUESTROOM FURNITURE-ThiS Sectionspeci
fies guest r@m furniture sets includingarmoires (perhaps
with a bar unit or other built-ins),credenzas,nightstandsor
bedsidetables, writing desks, lounge chairs,and head
boards.Also speciliedin this Sectionare mattressesanc
box springs,and guest bedroomseating.
12639-BANOUETTES-ThisSection soecifies built-in
upholstered,
customseating.
12651-INTERLOCKING CHAIRS-This Sectionspecifies
multiple seatingsystems {gangedor tandem)with optiona
modulartabletopsfor waiting, reception,and loungeareas.
12677-0RIENTALRUGS-ThisSectionspecifiesantique,
semaantique,and new, handmade imported rugs and rug
paqs.
12680-FOOT GRILLES-This Section specifies fool
grilles,which are generallyrigid sectionsot treadsdesigned
to remove loot traffic debris set in a recessedframe in the
floor.
12690-FLOOR MATS AND FRAMES-This Sectionspeci.
fies commonly used types of recessed and surface
installedfloor mats for buildingsother than slngle-lamily
residentialwork.
12700-SYSTEMS FURNITURE-ThisSection specrfies
panel-hungromponent systems, Ireestandingromponent
systems, desk systems supportingwork-surface-mounted
screensand other components,and beam systems.
12760-TELESCOPING STANDS-This Sectionspecifies
telescoping stands for interior applicationsconsisting of
multiple-tiered
benchesor chairson interconnected, tolding
platforms.These systems are constructed of steel, wood
and steel, or polyethyleneplasticand steel, and can be
operatedmanuallyor automatically.
12815-INTERIOR PLANTS-Th|5 Section specifies
requirementsfor selecting. laying out, and placing plants
providedby an interiorlandscapecontractor.
12830-INTERIOR PLANTERS-This Section specifies
movable,decorativeplanterswith or withoutintegralsubif
rigationsystems.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaae

DtvtstoN | 3
13041-MODULARVAULTS-ThisSectionspecifiesmod-
ularvaultpanelsand doorsthat are prefabricated
and site
assembled.
13o52-SAUNAS-ThiS Section specities panel{uilt, or
modular.saunasand custom{ut, or precut, saunas.-tutr
nishedas completeunits includingheating,lighting.con-
trols, and accessories.
13090-RADIATION PBOTECTION-ThisSectionspecities
materialsand methods for typical radiationprotection sys-
tems used in medical x-ray rooms and radiationtherapy
rooms. lt includeslead sheet, lead glass, and lead glazing
plastic;lead-linedfinish materials:and other lead-linedprod-
ucts. such as doors, frames, view windows, modular
shieldingpartitions,and film transfercabinets.The Section
also specifies lead bricks, borated polyethylene,and neu-
tron shieldingd@rs and frames for radiationtherapyappli-
cations.Signsindicatingthe thicknessof the lead shielding
providedare also included.
131oq-LIGHTNINGPROTECTION-ThisSection speci
fies lightningprotectionfor buildings,buildingelements.
andbuildingsite components.
1311o-CATHODICPROTECTION-This Sectionspecifies
passivecathodic protection systems that use magnesium
or zincsacrificialanodesto protect steel and iron pipingand
tanks. Modify the SectionText to include aluminumpiping
and tanks; include electricalconduit protection by adding
'steelconduit'to'piping.'
13'|25-METALBUILDINGSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoeci-
fies metal buildingsystems,complete with structuralfram-
ing, rofing and siding panels,personneldoors, windows,
ano accessones.
13720-INTRUSION DETECTION-This Section specifies
local intrusiondetection eouigment- lt includes the detec-
tion devices and the central control and processingand
equipment necessarytor control. The Text of this Section
sp€cifiesa system readyto be monitored by a remote sta-
tion if requiredby a project.Varioustypes of remote signal-
ing systems are ac@mmodated,but Specificationsare not
includedtor those externalsystems.The Sectionmay also
be edited to secify intrusiondetection that €n interface
with an integratedbuilding managementsystem specified
io anothorSection.
1381HLOCK CONTROL-Th|S Section specifies svs-
tems for displayingautomaticallyadjustedtime throughoul
a {acility,for initiatingtimescheduled audibleand visualsig-
nalsto announceevents,and tor initiatingscheduledequip-
ment operationvia relays.The components specitied use
hard-wiredor carriercurrent distribution of time and prc
gram signalsfrom a master unit. Equipmentincludesmas-
ter clock- aird program{ontrol units, and various types of
indicatingclocks and audibleand visual signal equipment,
such as bells, horns, lights, and mechanicalequipment.
This Sectioncovers a combinationmaster clock- and orq
gram{ontrol system. However,it can be modifiedto cover
an independentmaster clmkrontrol system or an indepen-
dent prograreontrol system.
13845-LIGHTING CONTROLS-This Strtion soecifies
wired, programmable,lighting control systems using low-
voltage control circuits. Manual. low-voltage lighting con-
trols are alsospecified.
13851-FIRE ALARN,I-ThiS Section sp€cifies local fire
alarm and detection systems for buildings.lt includesthe
panels necessaryto control the syst€ms and the various
peripheraldevicesasseciatedwith detectingfires. initiating
alarms, and indicatingalams with audible and visible sig-
nals.The Sectionalso includesesuioment tor communicat-
ing alarm. superyisory,and trouble signals to a remole
alarmreceivingstation.
13915-FIRE-SUPPRESSION PIPING-ThisSectionspeci-
fies combined systems of standpipes and sprinklers for
buildingsand includesthe following:
13916-FIRE-SUPPRESSION SPRINKLERS-ThisSection
specifieswet- and dryfipe, fire-suppressionsprinklersfor
buildingsand includ€spiping,sprinklers,specialties, and
accessories.Use Division13 Section'Fire-Suppression Pip-
ing' for preactionand delugepiping, sprinklers,specialties,
and accessories;and combined (standpipeand sprinkler)
svstems.
13920-FIRE PUMPS-This Sectionincludesonly the Eval-
uationsand DrawingC@rdinationand SpecificationsCoor-
dinationchtrklists for the lollowing Sectionscoveringfire
pumps for buildingtire-suppressionsystems:
. 13921-ELECTRIC-DRlVE, HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS
. 13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS
. 13926-ELECTRIC-DRIVE, VERTICAL.TURBINE FIRE
PUMPS
.13927-DIESEL-DRlVE. VERTICAL-TURBINEFIRE
PUMPS
ARCOM:SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
Virginia
13921-ELECTRIC,DRIVE, HORIZONTALFIRE PUMPS-
This Sectionspecifieselectricdrive,horizontalfire pumps
for buildingfire-suppression
systemsand includesthe lol-
lowrng:
13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS-This
Section specifiesdieseldrive,horizontalfire pumps for
buildingfire-suppression
systemsand includesthe tollow-
ing:
13926*ELECTRIC.DRIVE.VERTICAL.TURBINEFIRE
PUMPS-This Section specifies electricdrive, venicaltur-
bine fire pumps for buildinglire-suppressionsystems and
includesthe lollowing:
13927-DIESEL-DRIVE, VERTICAL-TURBINE FIRE
PUMPS*This Section specifies dieseldrive. venical-tur-
bine fire pumps for buildingfire-suppression
systemsand
includesthe following:
13956-FIRE-EXTINGUISHING FOAM PIPING-This Sec-
tion specilies fixed. low€xpansion, aqueous film-forming
loam, fire€xlinguishing systems for hydrocarbon-liquid
fires. Foamsystemsare normallyused on, but nol limated
to, ClassI (flammable-liquid)
fires.
13966-HALOGEN AGENT EXTINGUISHING PIPING-
This SectionspecifiesHalon1301 halogenagent,fire€xtin-
guashingsystems.
I 3967-{LEAN-AGENTEXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS-This
Sectionspeciliesclean-agentextinguishingsystems.These
systems use alternativeagents that are substitutes for
fixed,Halon1301extinguishing systems.Specifiedagents
and relatedcomponentsin this Sectionare limited to lhose
that are FactoryMutual approvedand UndeMriters Labora-
tories listed. Other agents are includedin NFPA 2001,
Clean Agent Firc Extinguishing Systems. See the Evalua-
tionsfor furtherdiscussion.
1397s-STANDPIPESAND HOSES-Ihis Sectionspecifies
standpipesfor buildingsand includesthe following:
DlvtstoN t4
14100-DUMBWAITERS-This Section specifies preengi-
neeredelectricdumbwaiterunits,commonly used for fl@r
tGfloor transter ot small-sizedmaterials such as books,
parts, f@d, etc.. in a low- to medium{ise application.Car
size is limited by the Codeto 9 sq. ft. (0.84 sq. m) oI plat-
form and a heightof 4 feet (1219mm).
14210-ELECTRIC TRACTIONELEVATORS-ThisSection
specifiespreengineeredelectrictractionelevatorsfor either
passengeror freight use. Substantialgeneric descriptions
are included, however, to enabl€ manufacturers to bid
either custom or preengineeredequipment. This Section
can be modilied to specify custom electric traction eleva-
tors.
{ 14240-HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS-ThisSection specilies
preengineeredhydraulicelevators,including holeless and
roped hydraulictypes, for either passengeror freight use.
Substantialgeneric descriptionsare included,however. to
enable manufacturersto bid either custom or preengr.
neereoeouroment_
143,|o-ESCALATORS-ThiS Section specifies standard
preengineered,heaW.duly,and exteriorescalators.
14320-MOVING WALKS-This Section specifies moving
walks as defined by ASME 417.1, which includespower-
driven, continuoustreadway units used for conveyingpas-
sengers along either a horizontalsurface or an inclined
ramp. lt is intendedlor specifyingpreengineeredunits lor
normalinstallations,travelingeither horizontallyor between
floors, rising one story at a time. The SectionText can be
amplifiedro cover custom€ngineeredunits and units with
specialrequirementssuch as exceptionallylong or curved
runs or rises.custom profiles,or the use of custom materi-
als in balustradeconstruction.
14420-WHEELCHAIRLIFTS-This Section soecifiessoe-
cial-purposelifts used to transpon nonambulatoryand
semiambulatorypersons from one level of a building to
another.lt includesvedcal wheelchairlifts. inclinedwheel-
chair lifts, and inclinedstairway chair lifts. lt also includes
requirementstor standard runway enclosures offered by
manufacturersof venicalwheelchairlifts.
14512*TRACKVEHICLESYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci-
fies self-propelledcontainersystems that travel on electri-
fied tracks.
14559-5ELECTIVEVERTICALCONVEYORS-ThisSec-
tion specifiesvenical transportsystems operatedby a sin-
gle motor that continuously moves a chain in a single
direction,much like a ferris wheel. Containershook into the
chainas it passestheir receivingstationand are transported
to other verticallocations.
14560-CHUTES-This Section specifies gravity-type,
metal chutes used to conveywaste and linen.
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATIONSYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC r 3 9
DtvrstoN | 5
15050-BASIC MECHANICALMATERIALSAND METH.
ODS-This Sectionspecifiesmaterialsand methods for
applicationwith mechanicalequipment and piping system
installations
insidethe building.Pjpingspecialties,,oining
materials,joint construction,identificationmaterialsand
devices.and installationreouirementscommon to more
than one Division15 Sectionare included.This Sectionsup-
plementsother Division15 Sections.lt must be edited and
used with other Sectionsfor a complete system specifica-
tion.
15060*HANGERSAND SUPPORTS-ThisSectionsoecF
fies hangers and supports for mechanicalsystem piping
and equioment.
15075-MECHANICAL IDENTIFICATION-ThisSection
specifiesidentification
materialsand devices,and installa-
tion requirements.Use this Section for complex pojects
requiring comprehensive specifications for labeling and
identifyingmechanicalinstallations.
Use the Specifications
in Division15 Section '8asic MechanicalMaterialsand
Methods' for simple projects.
15081-DUCT INSULATION-ThisSectionspecifiesrigid
and flexibleduct, plenum, and breechinginsulationand
field-applied jackets {or HVAC systems. This Section
includesapplications lor indoorandoutdoorducts.
I 5082-EOUIPMENTINSULATION*This Sectionspecities
blanket,board,andblockinsulation
andfield-applied
iackets
for HVACequipment.This Sectionincludesapplicationsfor
indoorand outdoorequipment.
15083-PIPE INSULATION-ThisSection specifiespre
lormed pipe insulationand tield-appliedjackets for plumb-
ing and HVACpiping systems and for diesel€nginecooling
pipingand exhaustpipes.This Sectionincludesapplications
for ind@r and outdoor piping.
151oo-VALVES-ThiS Section specifies general duty
valvescommon to most mechanicalpipingsystems.Valves
specifiedin this Section includegate, globe, ball, butterfly,
plug. and check valves.
15121-PIPE EXPANSIONFITTINGSAND LOOPS-This
Sectionspecifiespipe expansionfittings and loops for steel
and copper piping for mechanicalsystems, and the tollow-
tng:
15122-METERS AND GAUGES-ThisSectionspecifies
melers and gauges for mechanicalpiping syslems; thetr
mometers, pressuregauges, and test plugs: Ilow-measur'
ing systems; floweters and tlow indicators; thermal-
energytlowmeters; and water meters.
1517o-MOTORS-This Section soecilies small and
mediumelectricmotorslor useon ac power systemsup to
600 V. accordingto NEMA standards.The Sectionincludes
the common requirements for referencing by other Sec-
tions where motors are integralcomponents of the speci-
fied equipment.ThisSection does not include dc motors,
synchronous motors, woundrotor motors, and motors
rated more than 600 V. Specialmotor types and features
are also not included;these items may be covered in the
individualequipmentSectionsor addedto this Section.Pre-
vious Edition:Same Section number and title. dated 3/91.
RelatedSections:Reter to the SpecificationsCoordination
checklistat the end of this Section.Summaryol Changes:
The tollowingchangeswere made in this edition:
. Sl (metric)units were added.
. 'Submittals'Articlewas addedto the Text.
. UL standardin 'Oualiv Assurance'Anicle was deleted
trom the Text.
. Servicefactor was based on NEMA MG 1 reouirements.
. List of unusuals€ruiceconditionswas addedto'Basic
Motor Requirements'Aniclein the Text.
. Specificationfor en€rgy€tficient motors was updated.
. Teminology was changedto match NEMA MG 1.
. Specificationtor temperature rise and insulation class
was added.
. Bearingspecificationand specificationtor motors applied
on variable-frequency controllerswere improved-
. Option for requiringthermal protectionon motors above
a cenain size was added.
. "Source Ouality Control" Paragraph was added to
"PolyphaseMotors" Article in the Text.
. Installationrequirementswere uDdated.
. "Commissioning"Article was deletedfrom the Text.
'1518'l-HYDRONIC
PIPING-ThisSectionspecifiespiping
systems fdr hot-water heating. chilled-watercooling, and
condenserwater. This Sectionincludespipes. fittings. spe-
cialduty valves,and hydronicspecialties.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
A
I
 140 AIA MASTERSPEC
15182-STEAN4 AND CONDENSATE PtPtNG-ThisSecrion
specifiessteamand condensatepipingand specialties for
systemsup to I 25 psig {860kPa).insidelhe building
15185-HYDRONICPUMPS-This Secrionspecitjesthe
followingcategoriesof hydronicpumps for hydronicsys-
temsi
15186-STEAM CONDENSATEPUMPS-This Section
speci{jessteam condensatepumps for low-pressuresteam
systems.
1518g-HVAC WATERTREATMENT-ThiS
SectionsoecF
fies automaticand manual wate.-trealmentsvstems tor
hot-walerheating,sleam and condensateprping.chrlled-
water, and condenserwater systems;and water-treatment
cnemrcals.
15191 FUELOIL PIPING-ThisSectionsoecifiesfuet oil
and dreseltuel prping,specraltres,and accessoileswith n
the building.Equipmentin this Sectionis suitablefor No.2
and lighterfueloil anddieselfuel.
15194-FUEL GAS PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies natural
and fiquefredpetroleumgas piprng,speciallres.
and acces
sorieswilhinthe building.
15212-LABORATORY
AIB AND VACUUMPIPtNG-This
Section specilies laboratory compresseo-alrano vacuum
piping,designatedas'laboratoryair' and'laboratoryvac-
uum'j laboralorygasalarmsystems;andrelaledspecraltres.
15221-CHEMICAL-WASTE PIPING-ThiSSecttonsoeci-
fies chemical-waste
and ventpiping,andspecialties
foi Iab-
oratorysystems.
15241-MECHANICAL VIBRATION CONIROLSAND SEIS.
MIC RESTRAINTS-ThisSection specifies vibration isola-
tors, vibrationisolationbases,vibrationisolationroof curbs.
and sersmicrestrarnts and snubbers.
1s2s2-LABORATORYAIR EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection
specifies compressed€ir equipment and accessoriesfor
laboratory applrcatons.Typicatequipmentapplicable
to th's
5ectronIncludes a,rcompressors, dryers,airpuo-
receiverS,
flcation systems,and air-filterassemblies.
15253-LABORATORYVACUUM EQUIPMENT-This Sec-
tion specities vacuum equipment for laboratory applica-
tions. Typicalequipm€ntapplicabl€to this Sectionincludes
vacuumpumps and recetvers.
15411-WATER DISTRIBUTIONPtPtNG-This Section
specifieswaterdistribution-pipinginsrdethe building.Most
prprngspecrltedrs suttabtetor potabtewater,but some non_
potable-waterpipingis included.
15420-DRAINAGEAND VENT PtPtNc-lhis Section
specifies soil, waste, and vent piping and storm drainage
pipinginsjdethe building.
15430*PLUMBINGSPECIALTIES-Thjs
Sectionspecifies
plumbing specialtiesfor water distributionsystems; soil,
waste, and vent systems; and storm drainagesystems.
15440-PLUMBING FIXTURES-ThisSection soecifies
plumbingfixturesand relatedcomponents,includingthe
following:
15441-\i/ATER DISTRIBUTIONPUMps-This Section
specifiespumps for buildingpotable-watersystems.
15444-PACKAGED BOOSTER PUMPS-This Section
sp€cilies packagedbooster pumps to maintainpressurein
the buildingwater distributionpiping:compact,packaged
booster pumps; constant-speeftrive, packaged booster
pumps; and variable-speeddrive,packagedb@sler pumps.
15445-5EWAGE PUMPS-This Secrionsrecifies sewaoe
pumpsfor the buildrngsanitarydrainagesystems,and w;!
prt-mounted.verticalsewage pumps; quickdisconnecl,sys-
tem, submersibiesewage pumps; stationary,submersible
sewage pumps; sewage-pump,reverse,flowattachment;
subrersible, grinder sewage pumps; submersible,cutter
sewage pumps; sewage pump basins;packaged,sewage
pump unrts;andpackaged,
wastewaterpumpunits.
15446-5UMP PUMPS-This Secrion specifies sumo
pumps for buildrngstorm drainagesystems,and wet-pri
mounled.veflrcalsump pumps;submersiblesump pumps;
compact,submerstblesump pumps;sump pump basins;
sump pumpprts:andpackaged,
drainagepumpunits.
1545o-POTABLE-WATER STORAGETANKS-This Sec-
tion specifiespotablewater storagetanksfor indoorinstal,
lations-This Sectionmay also be used lor nonpotable-water
appilcatlons.
15465-COMPRESSED-AtR EOUTPMENT-ThisSecrion
specifiesequipmentand accessoriesfor buildingcom-
pressed-atrsystems operatingat 200 psig (1380 kpa) and
less.
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
A
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
15466-MEDICALAIR EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspeci-
fies medicaland dentalair equipmentand accessories for
healthcarefacilitres.Typicaiequipmenlapplicableto this
Sectionincludesair compressors,dryers,air purification
systems,andtilterassemblies.
15467-MEDICAL VACUUM EOUTPMENT-ThiS Section
specifiesmedicaland dentalvacuumequiomentandacces-
soriestor healthcare
facilitiesTypicalequipmentapplicable
to this Section includes vacuum pumos and vacuum
exhausters(oralevacuationl.
15469-WATER SOFTENERS-ThisSection specifies
water softenersand accessoriesfor watetrsupplysystems.
1548G-DOIVESTICWATER HEATERS-ThiS Section
specifiesonly the Evaluationsfor the following water
heaterSectionsfor domesticwatersystems:
15481-COMPRESSED-AIR PtPING-ThisSectionspecj-
fies pipingand pipingspecialties
ior buildingcompressed-
air systemsoperatingat 200 psig(1380 kPa)and less.
15482-MEDICAL GAS PIPtNG-This Section specifjes
medicalgas pipingand specialties
tor healthcare facilities.
Typicalmedicalgas systemsapplicable to this Sectionare
oxygen,arr,vacuum,nrtrousoxrde,nitrogen,carbondiox-
rde, waste anestheticgas evacuation,
and dentalvacuum
(oralevacuation).
Is48s-ELECTRIC,DOMEST]CWATER HEATERS-ThiS
Sectionspecilieselectric water heatersand accessoriesfor
domesttcwater systems_
15486-FUEL-FIRED, DOMESTIC WATERHEATERS-ThiS
Section specifiesfuel-firedwater heatersand accessories
for domestic water systems.
15487-DOMESTICWATER HEAT EXCHANGERS-This
Sectionspecifiesheat exchangersand accessoriesfor gen-
erating hot water for domestic water systems.and the lof
rowng:
15501-HEATING BOILERSAND ACCESSORTES-ThiS
SectionincludesEvaluations, DrawingCoordination. and
SpecificationsCoordinationonly Ior the following Sections
covering fuelfired and electric boilers used for building
heatingsyslems:
. 15512-CAST-IRONBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or
combination gas/oil-firedboilers for hot water or low-
pressuresteam.
. 15513-CONDENSINGBOILERS:cas,firedboiterslor
hot water-
. 15514-FINNEDWATEB-TUBE BOiLERS: Gasjiredboit-
ers lor hot water.
. 1551S-STEELWATER-TUBE BOILERS:Gas-fired.oil-
fired, or combinationgas/oil-fired,heatingor power boil-
ers for low-temperatureand high-temperaturehot water
or low-pressure and high€ressuresteam.
. 15518-FIRE-TUBEBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or
combination gas/oilfired boilers; Scotch or Scotch
marineboilersfor low-temperatureand high-temperature
hot water or low-pressureand high,pressuresteam; and
fireboxboilerslor hot water or low-pressuresteam.
. 15519-ELECTRICBOILERS:Etectric-resistance
boilers
fof hot water or steam.
15511-RADIANTHEATINGPIPING-ThisSecrionspeci-
fies radiantheatingpiping,includingpipes and tubes for
embedded heat-transterheating loops, manifolds,fittings,
specialiuty valves,and pipingspecialties.
15512-CASTIRONBOILERS-ThisSectionsoecifiesqas-
fired,oilJired,or combrnatron gas/orl.fired
boitersfor h;aL
ing hot watef or low-pressuresteam
15513-{ONDENSINGBOILERS-ThisSectionsDecities
gas-firedboilersfor heatinghor water.
15514-FINNED WATER-TUBEBOTLERS-ThiSSection
specifiesgas-firedboilersfor heatinghot waler.
1551s-STEEL WAIER-TUBE EOtLERS-This Section
specifies gas-fired, oil-fired, or combination gas/oiffired
heatingor power boilersfor low- and high-temperature
heatinghot water or low- and high-pressuresteam.
15518-FIRE'TUBEBOILERS-ThisSectionspecifiesaas
lired,orl-frred,
or combrnatron
gas/orlJrred
boilers;Scotci o'
Scotchmarineboilersfor low tempe.atureand high,tem
peratureheatinghot water or lowpressureand high-pres
sure steam; and firebox boilersfor heatinqhot water or
low-pressuresteam.
15519-ELECTRICBOILERS-ThisSectionspecitiesetec
tric-resistanc€boilersfor heatinghot warer or steam.
1552o-FEEDWAIER EOUIPMENT-IhiS Secrionspec
tres feedwaterequipmentused to returncondensateanr
makeupwater to both high-and low-pressuresteam bo
ers. Feedwaterunils specifiedin this Sectionincludeva(.
uum unitsand thosewith cast-ironor steelreceivers.
15530-REFRIGERANTPIPING*This Section speciie.
refrigerantpiping used for air{onditioningapplicatron:
Includrngpipes, tubing, fittings, specialties,specral,dut,.
valves,and refrigerants.
1ssS0-BREECHINGS,CHIMNEYS,AND STACKS-ThS
Sectionspecifiesbreechings, chimneys,andstacksfor fuel
burning equipment, including double-wall metal vents
refraclory-linedmetal breechingsand stacks,and fabrjcated
oreecnrngs.
15560-FUEL-FIREDH&V UNITS-This Secrioninctude
onlythe Evaluationsfor the followingnew Sectionsspecijy
ing fuel-firedH&V units includingdirect-and indirecttirec
unitsanddestratificationH&Vunits.
. 15561-DIRECT,FIRED. MAKEUPAIR UNITS
. 15562-INDIRECT.FIRED,
PACKAGED H&V UNITS
. 15563-DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS
15561-DIRECT-FIRED, MAKEUPAIR UNITS-This Sec
tion specifies direct-fired, makeup air units that do nol
employ heat exchangers.Gas is burnedin the airstream.
and products of combustion are introduced to the sDace
Theseunitsincludeonly thosethat are nalural{asand p.
pane€asfired and that are suitablefor indoorand outdoo,
aoolications.
15562-INDIRECT-FIRED, PACKAGEDH&V UNITS Th]::
Sectionspecifiesindirect-fired,packagedH&V units factory
assembled from standard components. Custom compo
nents and accessoriescan be added.Units typicallyinclude
duct turnaces in parallelor series airtlow, depending on
heatingrequirements,with attachedplenums housingfans
mixing sectlons, and other accessories.Units are suitable
for indoorand outdoorapplications.
15563*DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS-This Section
specifiesdestratificationH&V units that are large,fuel-fired
unitsconsistingof a fan, casing,and an industrial, fire-tube
heat exchanger.These units are used to heat largeareasof
industrialbuildingsand warehouses.They are centrallv
placedin the spac€and circulatelargevolumes of air to dis
tribute the heat throughoutthe spaceand ro limit stratifica,
tion. Accessori€sare limit6d.
15585-DEAERATORS-This Section specifies deaerators
used to heat feedwater to steam boilers and to remove
oxygenand other gases.
1561o-FURNACES-ThiSSectionspecifiesgas- and oil
fired lurnaces used in residentialand light{ommercial con
struction.lt also specifiesauxiliaryequipmentused with
furnaces,includingcontrols,filters.air cleaners,and humid
ifiers.
15620-FUEL-FIREDHEATERS-This Section specifies
gas- and oil-fired unit heaters and duct furnaces and qas
trred,tube-type,infraredheaters.The unit heatersspecileo
includethe types normallymounted overheadindoors.The
ducl turnacesincludeboth indoorand outdoor tvoes. Tube
type intraredheaterscovered includetorceddraft and vac
uum-vented-typeunits and multiple,burner,vacuumvented
systems.
1562I-INDIRECT-FIRED ABSORPTIONWATER CHILL
ERS-This Section specifies indirect-fired.hot-water and
steam absorptionchillers. One- and twestage absorption
chillers are specified. Single-stageabsorption chillers are
availablefrom about 10G.to 1ToGrons {350- to 6000 kW)
cooling capacity.Two-stageabsorptionchillers start at 350
tons (1230 kW, with lhe largestunits providing1500-tons
(527skw) chilling capacity.They are used with aircondi
tioning systems applicableto public,institutional,commer
cial, and industrialbuildings.The Sectiondoes not appiy to
chillers used for process chilling or other industrial pur
poses,no. does it applyto direct-firedabsorptionmachines
15622-DIRECT'FIRED. ABSORPTIONCHILLEBS-This
Sectionspecifiesdirect-fired,two-stageabsorptionchillers
Theyrangefrom 3G to 1'loGtons(10O,to 3B7O-kW) chiilina
capacity D'rectfired, twcstage absorptronchillers are
used with air{onditioning systems applicable to public,
instrtutaonal,commercial,and industrialbuildings.Absorp
tion chillersare not commonlyused for processchillingor
otherindustrial OUrDoseswhereloadsare more volatile.
15625-CENIRIFUGALWATERCHILLERS-ThisSection
specifieselectrically
drivencentrifugal
waterchillers.
15628-RECIPROCATING WATER CHILLERS-ThisSec
tron specifiesreciprocatingwater chillers, includingwater
cooled,condenserless,and outdoorair{ooled types.
MASTERSPECcontinues on the nerc oaae

15640-PACKAGEDCOOLING TOWERS-ThiS Section
updatedspeciliesfactoryJabricated,mechanical{raf1cool-
ing towers.
15661_FLUtD COOLERS-ThisSectionspecifies factory-
fabri€ted, packaged.closed{ircuit. mechanical-drattfluid
coorers.
15663-EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS-This Section
packagedevaporativecondens-
speci{iestactory-fabricated.
15671-CONDENSING UNITS-This Sectionspecifiesair
and water{ooled condensingunits usually coupled to
direct€xpansion relrigerant coils in air{onditioning sys-
tems withinbuildangs.
15672-4lR-COOLED CONDENSERS-This Sectionspeci
fies air{ooled condensers used lor air{onditioning sys
tems.
15684-ROTARY-SCREW CHILLERS-ThisSectionspeci'
fies rotary-screwchillers.Both single-and twin'screw com-
pressorsare included,along with air- or water{ooled
condensers.This equipment Specificationis based on
capacitiesrangingfrom 20 to 1300 tons (70 to 4570 kw).
15710-HEAT EXCHANGERS-ThisSection specifies
hydronicand steam heat exchangersfor HVACapplications.
Shell-and-tubeheat exchangersand plate heat exchangers
are alsoincluded.
15736-5ELF-CONTAINED AIR.CONDITIONING UNITS(15
TONS AND SMALLER)-ThiS Section specifies packaged
airconditioning units containing a refrigerant compressor
and controls.with either integralwatert@led condensing
or integralor remote ait{@led @ndensing.Theseunits a.e
designed for indoor installations,usually in the finished
space,lor €pacities through 15 tons (50 kW.
15737-5ELF{ONTAINED AIR.CONTAINING UNITS
(LARGERTHAN 15 TONSFThis Section specifies pack-
aged airsnditioning units containing a refrigerant com-
pressor and @ntrols, with ehher integral watercooled
condensingor remote airtmled condensiog.These units
are designed for indoor installationsfor @pacities larger
than 15 tons (50 k\M.
15738-5PLIT-SYSTEMAIR-CONDITIONING UNITS-This
Section specifies airconditioning units consisting of two
factoryflade assemblieswith a direct€xpansionrefrigera-
tion system. The separatecomponentsincludean evapora-
tor coil and a fan, and a compressorand condenser.Units
may be conliguredto operateas heat pumps.
l574s-WATER-SOURCE HEAT PUMPS-This Section
specifieswater-sourceheat pumps used for aircondition-
ing systems in residential,commercial,industrial,and insti-
tutional buildings.The types specified in this Section are
rooftop units to 25 tons (88 kW); vertical stack units to 2
tons (7 kW: concealedhorizontaland vertical units to 25
tons (88 kW; exposed,floor-mountedconsole units to 1 14
tons (1.8kW; andunitventilatorunitsto 4 tons ('14kW).
15752-HUMIDIFIERS-This Section specilies steam'
injection. selt{ontained, heated-pan,and heat€xchanger
humidifie.slor applicationon ducted HVAC systems; and
steamjniectionand self{ontained humidifiersfor discharg-
ing vapordirectlyinto conditionedspace.
15761*AlR cOILS-This Sectionspecifiesair coils using
steam, hot water, electric resistance,chilled water, and
refrigerantsnot integralto equipment.
15763-FAN€OlL UNITS-This Sectionspecitieshydronic
or direct€xpansiont@ling fan{oil units with or without
supplementalhydronic,steam, and electric heat, including
units for conceaiedinstallationwith external duct connec-
tions and units with finished cabinets for surface and
recessedmountingin ceilingsor walls.
15764-RADIATORS-ThiS Section specifies baseboard
radiators,conveclors,finred-tube radiators.and sleel radia-
tors for hot-waterand steam heatingsystems.
15766-CABINET UNIT HEATERS-This Sectionspecifies
hydronic,steam.and electriccabinetunit heaters.
15767-PROPELLER UNITHEATERS-ThisSectionspec;
fies hot-water.steam-and electricunit heaters.
15768-UNIT VENTIIATORS-This Section specifieselec-
tric, hydronic,and steam unit ventilators.
I 5769-RADIANT HEATINGPANELS-This Sectionspeci-
fies electric and hydronicradiant heating panels designed
as surtace-mountingunits and for installingin lay-inceilings
with an exposedgridsupportsystem.
15775-ELECTRIC HEATINGCABLES-ThisSectionspecL
ties electracheatingcables used for radiantheating,snow
melting and ice stopping, pipe freeze protection,and hot-
water-temperaturemaintenance.
Virginia
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
15782-ROOFfOP UNITS-This Sectionspecitiesrooflop
coolingunitsused lor air{onditioningsystemsin commer
cial,industrial. buildings.Units containair-
and institutional
cooled,direct€xpansion with heatingoptions
refrigeration
suchas gasfired,hot water,andsteam.
15783-COI'lPUTEB,ROOM AIR-CONDITIONINGUNITS-
ThisSectionspecifiesfloor-andceilingmountedunitaryair-
intendedspecifi'
conditioningunits,and their accessories.
callyfor computer-roomapplications.
15784-PACKAGED TERMINAL AIR-COND]TIONING
UNITS-This Sectionspecifiespackaged,lreestandingor
through-the-wall,terminal airconditioning and heat-pump
units,includingtheiraccessoriesandcontrols.
15812-FIBROUS-GLASSDUCTS-ThisSectionspecifies
rectangularand roundfibrous{lassductsfor heating,venti-
systems.
lating,andair{onditioning
15815-METAL DUCTS-This Section specifies rectangu-
lar, round, and flat{val metal ducls; and duct fittings, sup-
pons, and liners for HVAC airiistribution systems.
Applicationsinclude supply-, return, outside-air,and
exhaust ducts. Leakagetesting. duct constructlon statlc-
pressureclasses,and leakageclassesare specifiedin this
Section.
15816-HVAC CASINGS*This Section soecifies field'
erectedsheet metal casingsused as equipmentenclosures
and plenums. HVAC casings can be field or {actory labri-
cated;this Sectionallows for either method to be specified.
15820-DUCTACCESSORIES*This Sectionspecifiesduct
accessories,includingdampers, actuators,duct silencers.
turningvanes.duct-mountedaccessdoorsand panels,flex-
ible ducts, flexible connectors, and duct accessoryhard-
ware.
15834-AlR CURTAINS-ThisSectionspecifiesair cunains
for insect and thermalprotectionot entranceways.Optional
teatures for air curtains soecilied an this Section include
heating coils and indirect-liredgas heaters, filters, intake
louvers.and adjustabledischargenozzles.
15845-AlR TERMINALS*ThiS Section specities ducted
airtontrol and distributiondevices used in comrercial air-
distributionsystems that control air volume and air temper-
ature.
15846-AIR-TO-AIR ENERGY RECOVERY UNITS-IhiS
Sectionspecifiesenergy recoveryunits designedfor air-to
air energy transfer, including heat wheels, heattipe heat
exchangers,and fixedflate exchangers.Section includes
devices for built-inair movement systems and those pack-
aged as selfrontained unils.
15850-FANS-This Sectionincludesthe supportingdocs
ments {€valuations.Drawing Coordination.and Specifica-
I
tions Coordination)for the following Sections specifying
fans:
. 15851-CENTRIFUGAL FANSfor indoorinstallations
. 15852-AXiALFANSfor indoorinstallations
. 15853-POWER VENTILATORSfor indoor or outdoor
installations
15851-CENTRIFUGALFANS-This Sectionspecifiescen-
tritugalians for indoorinstallations.
15852-MIAL FANS-This Sectionspecifiesaxialfans for
ind@r installations.
15853-POWER VENTILATORS*ThiSSection specifies
power ventilatorslor indooror outdoorinstallations.
15854-CENTRAL-STATIONAIR-HANDLINGUNITS-lhis
Sectionspecifiescentral-stationair+andlingunits with coils
for indoorinstallations.
15855-DIFFUSERS,REGISTERS, AND GRILLES-ThiS
Sectionspecifiesoutlet and inlet air terminals,includingdif-
fusers, registers,and grilles.
15861-AlR FILTERS-This Sectionspecifiesfactory-fabri
cated air-filterdevices and media used to remove particu-
late matter from air for HVACapplications.
15900-HVAC INSTRUMENIATION AND CONTROLS-
This Section specitiescontrol components.requiredfor a
complete control system, Iound in most HVACcontrol sys-
rem5.
1594o-SEOUENCEOF OPERATION-ThiS Sectionspeci-
ties control seouencesin HVACsvstems. lt includesexam-
ples of operation sequencesthat require editing to make
them apply to the specific equipment and systems
installed,desiredoperationalintent, and Proiectconditions.
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION
AIA MASTERSPEC t4l
15990-TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING-ThiS
Section specifies testing, adjusting, and balancing air and
water distributions, measuring electrical performance of
HVAC equipment, selting quantitative performance of
HVAC equipment. verifying that automatic control devices
are properly functioning, measuring sound and vibration,
and reporting results of the activities and procedures speci-
fied in this Section.
DtvtsloN l6
16050-BASIC ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND METH.
ODS-This Section specifies basic materials and methods
for electrical installations, including basic Specifications for
raceways, building wire. supporting devrces, concrete
bases, and electric identification. lt also includes electrical
demolition, electrical component touchup painting, cutting
and patching for electrical construction, and electocity-
metering equipment lor Owner's and utility company s use.
16060-GROUNDING AND BONDING*This Section speci-
fies grounding of low- and medium-voltage systems and
equipment. lt also covers minimum requlrements tor
grounding electronic and other specialized systems and
equipment. including those for data processing and tele
communications. This Section also provides options for
specifying grounding requirements beyond the safety minl
mums {or both power and electronic systems.
16071-SEISMIC CONTROLS FOR ELECTRICAL WOBK-
This Section speci{ies anchorage, fastening, and bracing
devices used to prevent undesired movement of electrical
components during earthquakes. lt can be edited for use in
any ol the following Project situations:
16075-ELECTRICAL IDENTIFICATION-This Section
specifies identification tor electrical work, including race-
ways, cables, and equipment; warning and caution signs;
and buriedcable warning tape. lt is applicable on projects
where identification requirements are more complex than
can be covered by the basic electrical identification specifi-
cations included in Division 16 Section
'Basic
Electrical
Materials and Methods.'
161 2o-CONDUCIORS AND CABLES-This Section speci
fies low-voltage building wires and cables. including taps
and solices.
161 21-CONTROL/SIGNAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA-This
Section specifies transmission media used for control and
signal circuits for building proiects. The Section includes
copper conductor cables, optical fiber cables. and associ-
ated equipment tor use in buildings, typically lor intercon
necting components of electronic datatrocessing,
telephone, television, teleconferencing, building manage-
protection,
ment and and satellite communication systems.
16122-UNDERCARPET CABLES-This Section specifies
flat cables for undercarpet installations in building proiects.
Undercarpet cables are available in two types to accommo-
date power and lelecommunications branch circuits.
161 24-MEDIUM-VOLTAGE CABLES-This Section spects
fies single{onductor and multiconductor cables, cable
splices, and terminations for electrical distribution systems
with voltages {rom 2001 to 35,000. This Section also specr
lies accessory products used directly with medium-voltage
cables including splj€s, terminations, separable connec
tors, and fault indicators.
16130-RACEWAYS AND BOXES-This Section specifies
electrical conduits, tubing, surface raceways, and wireways
used for electriGl power and signal distribution; electrical
outlet, device, Il@r, pull, and iunction boxes; raceway fit-
tings; cabinels; and hinged-box assemblies.
161 38-UNDERFLOOR RACEWAY-This Section specities
underfloor raceways, including conventional llattop, trench
type, flush type. and cellular; service fittings; and junction
boxes. lt also specifies materials and labor for raceway con
nections to cellular metal deck specilied in Division 5 and
cellular concrete tloor raceway specilied in Division 3.
16139-CABLE TRAYS-This Section specifies metal cable
trays used for supporting electrical wires and cables. Cable
trays are also used for supporting electrical conduit and tub
ing systems and mechanical tubing and piping.
16140-WlRlNG DEVICES*This Section specifies electrF
cal wiring devices including receptacles, snap switches,
plugs, and plug connectors. This Section also specifies wall
plates, Iloor seNice outlets. poke-through assemblies, tele-
phone/power seryice poles, and multioutlet assemblies.
Receptacle types specified include groundjault circuit inter-
rupters. integral surge suppression units, and isolated-
ground receptacles. This Section also specifies simple dim-
mer switches but does not include dimmer systems. {See
')
Division 16 Section "Lighting Control Equipment.
entinues on the next page
MASTERSPEC
4
u
 142 AIA MASTERSPEC
16145-LIGHTING CONTBOL DEVTCES-This Section
specifies devices {or automatic control of lighting including
time switches, photoelectric relays, occupancy sensors.
and multipole lighting relays and contactors.
1621s-ELECTRICAL POWER MONIIORING AND CON,
TROL-This Section specifies an electronic interface with
circuit protective devices in a power distribtrtion system for
both remote and local monitoring, metering, and control of
individual circuits. lt also specifies optional integration with
the building automation system to extend the capabilities of
that system.
16231-PACKAGED ENGINE GENERATORS-This Section
specilies simple systems using a single diesel€ngine gen-
erator set for emergency or standby electrical power appli
catrons. Use this Section to specify systems with standbv
ratrngs lrom 20 througn I 500 kW, sLpptying systems rated
600 V and less.
16264-STATIC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY-
This Section speci{ies 3-phase, on line, static,type, uninter
ruptible power supply (UPS) units rated from 5 to 750 kVA
{or systems 600 V and less. This Section can be used to
specify lower{ated units in this range that are suitable for
rocalon In a computer room or other finished space.
Higher-rated units are usually installed separately from the
loads seryed.
16265-CENTRAL BATTERY INVERTER-This Section
specifies central battery inverters lor supplying power to
emergency and standby lighting and power circuits. These
unrts combane a battery source wjth a charger and invener.
Units obtain power from a normal ac supply and are
arranged to sense failure of that supply. When failure
occurs. units transfer the load to the battery throuoh the
inverter. The approximate capacity range of equi-pment
specified in this Section is {rom 0.5 lo 20 kVA.
16280-POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CAPACITORS-
This Section specifies capacitortype. power factor correc-
tion equipment lor use in electrical power systems rated
600 V and less. lt dlso specrfres fixed capacitors and auto-
matac power {actor correction units.
16288-VOLTAGE REGULATORS-ThiS Section soecifies
voltage regulators and the power distribution units that
often combine voltage regulators with other equjpment for
particular application in computer rooms and other environ-
ments.
16289-TRANSIENT VOLIAGE SUPPRESSTON-This Sec-
tion specilies t.ansient voltage surge suppressors tor applr
catron on low-voltage electrical power systems.
1631 2-SECONDARY UNtT SUBSTATTONS-This Section
specifies indoor and outdoor secondary unit substations.
including common types and configurations of incoming
and transformer sections. This Seclion does not specify
secondary drslr,bution equipment drrectly bUt relers to
other Seclions Ior tf'ose requirements.
1631s-OVERHEAD ELECTRTCAL DtSTRtBUTION-This
Section specifies medium- and secondary-voltage overhead
electrical power distribution up to 35 kV. lt lncludes pole
mounting transformers and other equipment and materials
used tor upgrades or for extensions lor proiects associated
with burldrngsor related construclton.
16341 -MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
SWTTCHGEAR-This Section
specifies {usible metal€nclosed interrupter switchgear and
metal{lad circuit-breaker switchgear used in ind@r and
outdoor equrpment up to 34-kv class. This section also
specifies major accessory components used with medium-
voltage switchgear, including grounding and test devices,
tuses, emergency operating stations, and switchgear con_
trol batte.ies and chargers.
16350-MEDIUM.VOLTAGE TBANSFORMERS-ThiS Sec-
tron specifies transformers up to about 2SOO kVA with
medium-voltage primaries. Translormers in this Section are
tor both indoor and outdoor installation and are liquid-filled
and dry-type distribulron and power transformers.
16410-ENCLOSED SWITCHES AND CIRCUIT-BREAK-
ERS-This Section specifies enclosed switches and circuit
breakers rated 600 V and less where applied as individuallv
mounted drsconneclrng means, service dtsconnecltng
means, and circuit overcurrent protection. Enclosed
swatches include fused and nonfused tyres rated BO0 A
and less. Circuit breakers include integ.ally fused circuit
breakers and moldedrase circuit breakers with thermal-
magnelic and electronic trip units.
16415-TRANSFER SWTTCHES-This Section specilies
transfer switches and associated equioment rated 600 V
and less for emergency and standby power systems. lt
specifies automatic transfer switches with and without
bypasslsolation swrtches, and it soecifies nonautomatic
transfer switches. It also specifies the remote annunciator
panels and annunciator and control panels sometimes used
with automatic transfer-switch installatlons.
ARCOM; Salr Lake Ciry, Utah, and Alexandria, Virginia
4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
1641g-FUSED POWER CIRCUIT DEVTCES-ThiS Secrion 1 6 7 2 3 - S C H O O LI N T E R C O MA N D P R O G R A ME O U I P
specifies bolted-pressure switches and other high-pressure MENT This Sectionspecifiesvoice intercommunicatioi
contact switches rated 800 ro 6000 A, 600 V or less, and equipmentfor use rn elementaryand secondaryschool:.
accommodating Class L or Class T fuses. The Sectionpermitsthe specifierto selectbetweenmanu
allyand microprocessor-switched equipment.The manuaIy
1643o-SWIICHGEAR-This Section soecifies metal-
switchedsystem is specifiedas the conventional. direcl
enclosed, drawoul power. crrcurt.breakerjwilchgear rated
connected,keyed system. The microprocessor swrl,.., r
600 V and less. for use in ac systems.
systemis user programmable and can be upgradedIn thi
16441-SWITCHBOARDS-ThiS Section sDecifies dead- tuture-Both systemsare specifiedwith the usualootrons
tront distribution switchboards rated 600 V and less. for selectivepagingand for clock and programinterface
The abilityto transmitprogrammedaudiomaterialto ctass
16442-PANELBOARDS-This Section specifies branch- rooms and other spacesis also specilied.
circuit and distribution panelboards rated 600 V and less. lt
includes loadrenter type and powetrdistribution panel- 16725-NURSECALL-This Sectionspecifiesbasicvisua
boards with circuit-breaker or fused-switch devices. The and audiovisualpatient-nursecommunicationeouioment
Section also includes panelboards with integrally mounted for healthcarefacilities.Sectionorganization
permits the
transrent voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) devices, panel, specifierto selectbetweentwo equipmentoptions:visua,
boards with motor-starter branch devices, and oanelboards tone and audiovisual/voice.Both types of equipmentare
wrth Internal conlactors and other fealures primarilyused in smallinstitutions.
The selectionis based
on communication needs,existingequipmentcoordination
16450-ENCLOSED BUS ASSEMBLIES-This Section requirements.staff preference,and budgetaryplanning.
specifies standard low-voltage feeder and plugjn enclosed
bus assemblies for power distribution in buildings. 1 6 7 2 6 - P U B L I CA D D R E S SA N D M U S I CE O U I P M E N T
ThisSectionspeciliespublicaddressand musiceouiomenr
16461-DRY-TYPE TRANSFOBMERS (1OOO V AND It canbe used to specrfyequipmentfor background mus,.
LESS)-This Section specifies dry-type djstribution and spe- announcements, and pagingand lor givinganstructions tn
cralty transformers rated 1000 V and less. Soecraltv trans- such locationsas stores, public places, waiting rooms.
tormers Include buck-boost and control and stgnal unrts. warehouses,offices, industrialplants,and schools.Fea
tures covered in this Section, such as the paging console,
16481-MOTOR CONTROLLERS-This Sectjon specifies can be deletedfor projectsthat do not requirethem. Othef
general-purpose controllers rated 600 V and less used for featuresmay be added.
slarting, stopping, and controlling the speed of ac motors.
This Section specifies manual controllers and magnetic and 16727-SOUND-MASKINGEOUIPMENT-This Section
solid-state units. lt also specifies auxiliary devices such as specifies electronic sound-masking equipment to hetp
push buttons, selector switches, prlot lights, and control achieve privacy for normal conversationin indoor soaces
relays used with controllers. This Section specifies individu- panicularlyin open office areas.
ally enclosed and mounted controllers. Basic controllers for
use in group-mounted installations such as motor{ontrol 16740-{0MMUNICATION AND DATA.PROCESSING
centers, switchboards, and motor-staner panelboards are EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies basic interior wirinq
specified in their respective Sections. for telecommuni€tionssystemsin buildingsThe commu
nicationwiring specifiedin this Sectionis suitablefor local
16482-MOTOR-CONTROL CENIERS-This Secrion spec- areanetworks (LANS)and telephonesystems for voice and
ifies conventional, modular, freestanding motor{ontrol cen- data communications.LAN media included in this Section
ters operating at 600 V, ac and less. suppon generaclow- and high-speedLANSfor data trans.
mtssronrates up to 100 Mbps or more. system compo,
16491-FUSES-This Section specifies canridge fuses. nentsincludedin this Sectionare itemssuchas coDoerand
rated 600 V and less, for use in switches, panelboards, fiberoptic cable, connecting bl@ks, outlet assemblies,
switchboards, controllers. and motor{ontrol centers. Use crossconnects,and patch panels.
this Section with Sections specifying the above equipment.
16850-TELEVISION EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies
16511-INTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section soecifies fac- closed{ircuit television (CCTV)and master anlenna televi
tory-fabri€ted Interior hghting frxrures and lghting trxlures sioo (MATV) systems. For MATV systems, this Section
mounted on exterior building surfaces used for general, ancludesthe options of off€ir antennas, a community
supplemental, task, and emergency lighting applications. antenna television {CATV)service, a l@al CCTV svstem
and televisionreceive{nlyearthstationsas signalsources
16521 -EXTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section specifies fac-
tory-labri€ted exterior lighting fixtures, poles, and accessG for televisionprogram material.Both fibercptic and copper
fles. cablingare includedfor transmitting video signals.
1655s-STAGE LIcHTING-Thts Section soecifies staqe
hghting equipment for live performances in moderale-siie
auditoriums in schools, community centers, museums, and
corporate centers. This Section also specifies stage laghting
fixtures and control systems, including dimmer bankslnd a
control console. Use this Section lor limited-scope projects.
16570-DIMMING CONTROLS-This Section sDecifies
threee types of modular dimming systems and a range of
wrred, programmable, low voltage lighting contro' svstems
lrme swttches, photoelectric relays, and occupancy sen
sors are Included. This Sectton also specitres relavs and
Contactors required to execute 04off control commands for
lighting circuits. Manual, low-voltage lighting control
switches are also speci{ied.
1671s-PHEMISES T€LEPHONE WtRtNc-This Section
specifies premises wiring for residential and light{ommer-
cial telephone distribution, with one to four seryice lnes
installed. Some projects may require that the cable and
cable-terminating work for the system be provided under a
separate telephone equipment contract. In such cases,
delete those items and use this Section to srecifv the
empty raceway system and the seruice provisions that will
be required lor the system.
16 7 2 2 - I N I E R C O M M U N I C A T t O N E O U I p M E N T - T h i s
Section specifies direct-connected, manually switched and
user programmable, multichannel, microprocessor_
switched, voice intercommunication equipment indepen-
dent of telephone and other voice-data communication svs,
tems. This Seclron includes commercral, Institutronal and
industrial applrcations, but not residentral svstems. either
single or multifamily.
 CHAPTER TWO

SITEWORK

Subsurface lnvestigation 144 Paving and Surfacing 156

Excavation Support Site lmprovements and

Systems 145 Amenities 1 59

Piles and Caissons 146 Retaining Walls 17O

/
Water Distribution 147 Planting 177

Sernrerage and Drainage 148

144 Soil Mechqnics
PRELIMINARY SUBSURFACE
INFORMATION
A. Collectavailableinformationfor soal.rock. and watel
conditions,includingthe following:
1. Topographicand aerialmapping.
2. Geologicalsuryeymapsand publications.
3. Local knowledge(history of site development,

Sj,l"";"6s exp€rienceot nearby structures,flooding, sub-

sidence.etc.).
4. Existing subsurfacedata (boreholes,well rrc-
ords,water soundings).
5. Reconnaissncesite suryev.
6. Prwious studies.
B. Evaluateavailableinformation for site acceptabil
ity. lf availabledata are insufficient,consulta geo
trchnical engineerto perform a limited subsurlace
investigationto gatherbasicinformarion.
C. Consultgeotechnicalengineerfor potentialfounda
tion performanceat each site as part of the selec
tion process.

DETAILED SUBSURFACE
INFORMATION
After seltrtion of a potential site a subsurlaceand
laboratory test investigationshould be carried out
by a qualified geottrhnical engineerbetore design is
undertal(en.

The investigationshould provide an adequateunder'

standing of the subsurfaceconditions and the infor-
AVERAGE OTPTH OF FROST PENETRATION IIN.I mation should be asssd to determine mtential
SOURCE: U.S. OEPT. OF COMMERCE WEATHER EUREAU foundationbehavior.

The enginer should waluate alternativefoundation

methods and tmhniques in conjunction with the
architect.

The engineeror architect should provide insp&tion

during construction to ensure that material and
constructionproceduresare as specifiedand to evalu-
ate unexpectedsoil, rock, or groundwaterconditions
that may be exposedby excavations.

SOIL TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

SYMAOLS
VALUE AS A
HATCH. SOIL DESCRIPTION FOUNOATION FROST
DtvrSroN ETTER ING COLOR MATERTAL ACTION DRAINAGE
;'...
GW Red gravel,or gravel-sandmixture,littleor no Jines
Well-graded Excellent None Excellent

Gravel
ur Red Poorly gradedgravel,or gravel-sand
mixtures,little or no fines Good None Excellent
and
gravelly
GM
,%: Silty gravels.gravel-sand-silt
mils Yellow mixtures Good Slight Poor

GC Yellow Clayey-gravels, gravel-clay-sand mixtures Good Slight Poor

sw 3::$ Red snds, or gravellysnds. little or no fines

Well-graded Good None Excellent

Sand It-lrr'
SP
lO r r Red Poorly gradedFnds, or gravellysands,little or no fines Fair None Excellent
and
undy
soils SM Yellow Silty snds, snd-silt mixtures F a ir Slight Fair

SC
'/a Yellow Clayeysnds, end-clay mixtures Fair Medium Poor

ML Inorganicsilts,rock flour, silty or clayey fine snds, or

Gren Fair Very high Poor
Silts clayeysilts with slight plasticity
and
clays CL
'%t Green
Inorganicclaysof low to medium plasticity,gravellyclays,silty clays,
leanclays Fa i r Medium lmperuaous
LL<50
OL Green Organicsilt-claysof low pla$icity Poor High lmperuious

MH Blue Inorganicsilts, micaceousor diatomac$us fine sandyor silty soils.elasticsilts Poor Very high Poor
Silrs
and
clays
LL>50
CH
ry, Bl u e Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays Very poor Medium Imperyaous

Highly
OH
%z Bl u e O r g a n i c l a y so f m e d i u mt o h i g hp l a s t i c i t yo, r g a n i cs i l t s Very poor Medium lmpervious

organic oils Orange Peatand other highly organicrcils Not suitable Slight Poor

NOTES
l. Consultgeotechnicalengineersandlocalbuildingcodesforallowablesoilbearingcapacities
2. LL indicates liquid limir.

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineersj New York, New York

SUBSURFACEINVESTIGATION
 ExcovotionSupportSyslems I45
EMBANKMENT STABILITY
FOR OPEN EXCAVATION
EXCAVAT
HEIGHT

heck lateral drsplacement

DEPTH
VARIES
WITH SOIL
SOIL 2
CONDITIONS

NorE {
Cantilever sheel piling is used for shallow-depth excava sorL 3
uonS_

CANTILEVER SHEET PILING OPEN EXCAVATION

":",1:l':*'1"\ GRADE
SOLDIER PILE T

CONCRETE HEEL
OR FOOTING
CONTINUOUS
WALE

SHEET PILE

SOLDIER
=IN[:JE t...-
*ooo sHEETTNG
TIMBER UGGING
PILES WITH
UGGING
BOARDS

SUBGRADE

TIMBER SHEETING

RAKER BRACE

TIEBACK CONNECTION FREE

LENGTH

STEEL SHEETING

HOLE DRILLEO THROUGH

SOIL] ANCHOR ROD OR relstorrnc; \
TENDON INSERTED: 9PACE /./
HOLE GROUTEO
X
SHEET PILE WALL OR \
SOLDIER PILES WITH
LAGGING BOARDS

SUBGRADE

S E C U R I N GN U T
WITHO G
W A S H E RO R
EOUIVALENT

I 2'' STEEL CHANNEL

EARTH ANCHOR ERACE

TAPERED BRACKET
AT SOLOIER PILE
CONTINUOUS WALE

EXCAVATION
HOLE DRILLED THROUGH SUPPORT WALL
SOIL AND INTO ROCK:
ANCHOR ROO OR TENDON
INSERTED: HOLE GROUTED
EXCAVATION SUPPORT COM PON ENTS

SHEET PILE WALL OR

SOLDIER PILES WITH N OTES
LAGGING AOARDS
1. For deep excavations, several tiers of bracing may be
necessary.
PIN DRILLEO ANO 2. lf a subgrade of the excavation is used to install spread
SET IN ROCK footings or mats, proper dewatering procedures may be
required to avoid disturbing the bearing level.
SUAGRAOE 3. At times. it may be possible to improve the bearing stra-
lum by excavating compressible materials and repiaqng
them with compacted granular backfill.
4. For evaluation of problems encountered with sheeting
and shoring, consult a foundation engrneer
5. Local codes and OSHA regulations must be considered.
Consult a toundation engineer for excavation desagn.
6 Proximity of utilities and other structures must be consid
BRACED EXCAVATION DETAILS ered in excavation design.

Donald Neubauer, P.E.: Neubauer Consulting Engineers: Potomac, Maryland

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers: New York, New York

EXCAVATIONSUPPORTSYSTE
MS
 146 PileFoundotions

W
lI
w
)tl lltl ilr
AW
Yll-- vffw
qtw
CONCRETE
FILLED
STEEL
SHELL

TIMBER
PRESTRESSEO
CONCRETE

WOOD, SHELL
OR PIPE
P|LESaEM -J

M W ,Mis.+._ w
STEEL PIPE H.PILE

;h??"J'illv CONCRETE
FILLED
SECTION
PRECAST
CONCRETE
TIP

TIMBER ANO STEEL PIPE AND H - PILE AND PILE STEM WITF
3'J5*.*o E'Jot*o.*o CONCRETE CONCRETE FILLED PRESTRESSEO PRECAST
FILLEO SHELL SHELL CONCRETE CONCRETE TIP

TIMBER STEEL COMPOSITE

t)
TOP OF
BEARING CROSS
STRATUM \ SECTION
(FLUTED SHELL) PIPE.

(,

PRECAST

CONCRETE
PRESTRSSSED
ryffiff
CYLINDER UNCASED
DRILLED
OR UNCASED
ENLARGEO
WITH
BASE
MINIPILE SHELL
WITH MANDREL
CROSS
SECTION
(SPIRAL WELDED
SHELL)

SECTION

SHELL
ROCK

SOCKET \

NO MANDREL
DRILLED-IN.
CAISSON

N OTES 3. Uncasedpilessmallerthan 30 inchesshouldbe installed 4. Uncasedpiers 30 inches in diameterand larger are

'1.
A mandrel is a member insened into a hollow pile to rein-
usinga continuousflight hollow stem augerwith grout installed using various types of augers and may be
force the pile shell while it is driven into the ground.
iniected under pressure.Alternatively,a heavy wall cas- enlargedat the base using a bellingtool in some soils
ing is used to compact zero slump concrete to enlarge Relerto ACI336.1andACI 336.3.
2. Timber piles must be treated with wood preseryative the baseof the pileand assurepilecontinuity.
when any portion is above the groundwater table.

GENERAL PILE DATA

OPTIMUM LOAD
PILE TYPE stzE (tN.) RANGE (TONS) USUAL SPACING
TIMBER
5-l0rip
12-20butt
STEEL

concrete filled
PrpHlosed end to4 0 "
concrete filled

concrete tilled
straight or taper

concrete filled
unileGrn carsson
concrete filled
CONCRETE

or
ptles or prers

COM POSITE
oncrete - lmber 5 -]0 trp
12-20butl
oncrete - prpe 3'0"to4

H - piie

1 9 - 4 1b u t t

NOTE
Applacable material specifications Concrete,Acl 31 8; Tim- 4690. For selection ot type of pile, consult a foundation
berASTM D25: Structural Sections ASTM 436. 4572. and engineer.

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York

PILES
AND CAISSONS
 DomesticWqterSupplySystems 147
TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY
Water supply systems commonly emploYed tor resrdential
use are public water supply systems (mains): wells; cisterns/
rainwater catchments; natural sprlngs; natural waterways
(ponds, lakes, streams, rivers); and distillation

GENERAL NOTES
1. All water supply systems should be inspected, tested,
and approved by l@al or state authorities, as required,
before operation.
2. Flush nev!,1v installed systems with tresh water, disinfecl
to remove contaminants, and perform bacteriological and
chemical tests as required. Repeat testing on a regular
basis, biennially or as recommended bY health authorities. ZSANITARY WELL
.ft (or COVER (VENTED)
3. Surface contamination can extend to depths of 20
greater, depending on soil material). Seal casrng/piping
joints and voids surrounding the piping to prevent con-
tamrnatron seepage.
4. Depending on the source, groundwater is generally PROVIDE
cleaner and more pure than surface water. The ultimate
use of the water {for toilet or laundrY, irrigation, waterlng
farm animals, human drinking and bathingl determines
purity requiremen!s. Consider disinfection and filtration LOCKING DEVICE
systems to remove harmful bacteria and excessive impu
PITLESS ADAPTER
ritaes and minerals that affect water taste or quality. DETERMINING RECOMMENDEO PUMP CAPACITY

5. "Graywater" (water retrieved lrom bathing, laundry, or CHECK VALVE

kitchen sources) can easily be liltered, stored, and recy- SNIflER VALVE
cled for nonpotable uses such as toilets, car washlng, or
irrigation. ln addition, it €n be processed through natural STANDING
tr
biological systems and returned to potable uses. :
l
WATER LEVEL

\/vELLS e;
Welldetails given here are generally from the Manual of lndi'
vidual Water Supply Systems prepared by the Environmental u>
:F
Protection Agency's Office of Drinking Water (1982). >.]
SUBMERSIBLE
u0
WELL LOCATION: Wells should be l@ated at least 100 ft U<
from (septic tank) sewage disposal. Check local codes. GO

CAPACITY OF WELL. PUMP. AND PRESSURE TANK: After

drilling, test capacity for at least 4 hrs at a constant yield and 6 a 10 12
drawdown. Determine minimum acceptable well capacity
NUMBER OF FIXTURES
from the chart on this page titled "Determining Recom-
mended Pump Capacity," then add a factor of safety and
usage, preferably 10oyo. Use the same chart to determine TYPICAL DRILLED \ivELL AND DOMESTIC \,VATER DISTRIBUTION
the required pump capacity. The capacity of the pressure SCREEN
tank is figured by multiplying the pumping rate by 5 or 10 (42 DOWNSPOUT
gal minimum)-
DIVERSION
FINE GRAVEL
ll a well does not have a pump capacity shown in the chart OR SAND
on this page, provide a smaller well pump and storage tank IN DRUM
followed by a circulating pump and pressure tank.

DISINFECTION:Wells and associated piping should be disin' /

fected before they are put into op€rataon. *)
TYPES OF WELL PUMPING SYSTEMS: Pumping systems ROOF
used for wells include a centrilugal pump with a motor CATCHMENT
aboveground and below the water level in the well; a jet
pump, which has both pump and motor aboveground; and
direct and reciprocating pumps in the well with a motor TOTAL CATCHMENT
aboveground. (An artesian well is one in which the power of AREA=AXB
the water Dressure elevates a column of water above the
original water level without pumps.) ROOF CATCHMENT CALCULATION
FOR CISTERN DESIGN

CISTERNS Nonresistive materials are used lor catchment areas and

Cistems are ma&rude collection reseryoirs (usually covered drainpipes. Water from cisterns may be used for erergencies STERN TANK

to stop evaporation) that stqe rainwater collected from r@fs only or for garden watering, cleaning, toilet flushing, bathing,
laundry, dishwashing, or other, nonpotable uses. SAND FILTER DIVERSION VALVE
or paved areas called catchrents. Cisterns are made of steel,
polyethylere. @ncrete, and other chemically inert materials. CISTERN TYPES FOR \^'ATER
Major factors used to estimate cistern capacity are amount of PURIFICATION
rainfall in the catchment area, effective collections surface,
TYPES OF V\/ELLS storage capacity, user water consumption per day, longest NOTES ON CISTERNS
dry period for the region, and availability of other s@rces of
TYPE DEPTH DIAM. REMARKS 1. Locate cisterns as close as practical to the ultimate point
water tor emergencies. Basically, cistern size cores down to
Dug To 50 ft 3-20 ft "Wishingwell" type;masonry the relationship between how fast the tank is emptied and of use and away from potential fl@ding to avoid contami-
lining;can absorbsurlace nation.
how fast it is filled and how much of a bufler is required. For
contamination; susceptible to residential use, consumption ranges from 30-50 gal/person/ 2- Screen inlet and outlet piping to prevent the entrance of
periodicdry spells day. Water is produced at a rate between 0.4 and 0.6 gal/sq ft debris. insects. or animals.
Eored To 100ft 2-30 in Bored with augers; vitrified tile of catchment area per in. of rain. Consult ltral metmrological 3. Provide sump, drainage, and lockable access for annual
or steel pipe casing: seal joints records and codes to determine cistern design. cleaning and disinfeclion of the storage tank.
to 20-ft depth to prevent sur-
Iace contamination CAPACITIES OF TANKS AND CISTERNS (GALLONS)

Driven T o 5 0 f t 1 - 2 , r . Drivenby welltoints; cou- SQUARE TANK SIZES ROUND TANK SIZES (OIAM.)
pledpipesectioncasing;quick DEPTH
and cheap but shallowdepth ( FT) IO FT 12 FT to F-r l4

To l00O fr 4-24 in Drilled by percussion or rotary 1920 3000 4320 1500 2350 3380 4610
bit; plastic or steel casing in- 4500 6480 2250 3520 5070 6920
2880
stalled alter lull depth is
drilled; expensive, large ma- 3840 6000 8&0 3000 4700 6760 9220
chinery required but greatest 4790 7500 r 0.800 3760 5870 8460 11,520
10
depths/water availability and
consrancy 12 5148 8976 12,960 4510 7040 1 0 , 15 0 I 3,830

DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA; Washington,D.c

WATERDISTRIBUTION
 148 SubsurfoceDroinogeSystems
GENERAL cdrly a,e smaller rn srze anl capac'ty, designed to Inlercept
Subsurface drainage systems are very different engineering lne srower underground flows of a nalural g/oundwaler P A V E M E N TS U B
designs than surface drainage systems. gurface-drainao; table, underground stream, or infiltration of soijs from sur OR OTHER
lace sources. Surface and subsurface systems SURFACE FEATURE
systems intercepl dnd collect storm water runoff and co-n_ rypically
vey it away from a building and site with the use ol large requrre discharge either through a pumping station or bV
gravity drainage to an adequate outfall. ] 2' OVERUP
Inlets and storm drains. Subsurface drajnage systems typi-
GRAVEL \ -/
) OF FABRIC

DAMPPROOFING

2" ro 4"
BACKFILL OIAMETER
SLOPED WEEP
TUBE (PVC TYP )
CONNECTED
ceorexrlre -l FROM ORAINAGE
FABRIC -_I BUNKET TO
WRAPPEO I I DRAIN OR
ALLAROUND I J PERIM-ER
GRAVEL CHANNEL o
!
ft
_iI CONCRETE SUB
(INSUUTE

FREE-DRAINING
t- UNDER5UB
AS NECESSARY
FOR CLIMATE)
4" TO 6"
DIAMETER
GRANUUR PERFORATED
MATERIAL DRAIN, SLOPED
4" TO 6" OIAMtrER
PERFORATEO DRAIN
(SLOPE ORAIN TO FREE,ORAINING
SUMP OR OUTFALL) GRANUUR MATERIAL
DRAINAGE BOARD
(PROVIOES
NOTES
VERTICAL AND CONCRflE
HORIZONTAL FLOW FOOTING 1. The depth ol a draindetermineshow much subsurface
FOR SUBSOIL WATER) water levels will be reduced.
FOUNDATION WALL
2. When a perforateddrain is used, install it with the holes
TYPICAL PERIMETER FOOTING DRAIN raclngdown.
3. When used to intercepthillsideseepage,the bottom of a
trenchshouldbe cut a minimumof 6 in. into underlvino
SURFACE imoerviousmaterial
TYPiCAL SUBSURFACE DRAIN

MANHOLE
STORM OR INLET
vf ,st RUNOFF (SIZE VARIES)
LINE
LOWERED
WATER TAaLE -'
7 . UTERAL
SUBDRAIN
SPACING
S1
-..-
4" TO 6" DIAMETER
PERFORATED
DRAINPIPE, TYP
SECTION o.r% MtN.sLoPE UNDER.SUB

I il ri'li -*t

rl,, ,, li il i -- -- ;l ll r i--lg
il *i i i lrlr,{ , rrrr r{ i r r { ti OVERFLOW
RELIEF LINE
i rr{ GEOTEXTILE

I ir
il
| -.-
t+l+
ti
Jll
_r-
il
_lL.:L
---
11 | I
lLj_A
----.-/
iL,' 1t-riir FABRIC
AROUND
PERIMETER
TO ADEOUATE
OUTFALL

ii,ii,ii,ii,ll,
SUBDRATN ,/ \ To FREE,DRATNING ./
o t% MtN sLoPE - \ ^--. GRANUUR MATERIAL -
AHEA FOR oUTFALL
LOWERED

PLAN
WATER TABLE
-i L__ [__ ___ J_. Lr___ t_____r aL___*i rLT
LJ-\+]_ l_ A NOTE
z
NOTES || ,t l Dry wells provide an underground disposal system tor sur
1. Subsoil drainage systems are laid out to meet the needs I lace runoff, but their effectiveness is in direct Drooonion to
=====1t the po.osity of surrounding soils, and they are etticrent onl\
ol a site. A grid, parallel lines, or random pattern at low I
l for draining small areas. High rainfall runoff rates cannot be
pornts In the topography is used to collect subsurface I
SUMP PUMP DISCHARGE/ absorbed at the rather low p€rcolation rates of most soils, so
water.
UNDER-SUB TO THE BUILDING ,/ the difference is stored temporarily in a dry well. Efficiency
2. Depth and spacing of subsoil drainage pipes depend on DRAINAGE SYSTEM /
SUBDRAINS is reduced during extended periods of wet weather, when
soil conditions. Geotechnical design may be required to
receiving soils are saturated and the well is refilled before it
ensure eflective operation of a subsoil drainage system.
drains completely.
UNDER-SITE SUBSOIL DRAINAGE UNDER-BUILDING SUBSOIL DRAINAGE DRY WELL
PIPE CONNECTOR
PIPE CONNECTOR PIPE CONNECTOR CONNECTOR COL4R
COLUR
COLUR BAND
/4TO6ROWS GEOTEXTILE
/ OF %'OIAMEAER
-4TO6ROWS FABRIC WRAPPED
HOLES (BONOM SLOTS 2" O C
HALF ONLY) ALL AROUND
OF %" DIAMflER ALL AROUND
HOLES (BOfrOM
HALF ONLY)
CROWN, TYP
4- TO 6"
DIAMETER
PVC OR C O R R U G A T E DM E T A L
POLYETHYLENE
INVERT, TYP
TYPE B TYPE C
SUBSURFACE DRAINPIPES

Joseph P. Mensch, P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia

K u r t N P r o n s k e ,P l ; R e s t o n . V i r q i n i a
Harold C. Munger, FAIA; Munger Munger + Associates Architects; Toledo, Ohio

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
 SurfoceDroinqgeSystems 149
-
NATURAL CHANNEL--\

INLET ANO OUTLfl WITH PAVED APRO"

\
AND/OR RIPRAP PREVENTS SCOUR --_---------\
\
SINGLE OR MULTIPLE PIPE OR BOX
CULVERTS UNDER ROADWAY

PAVEO CHUTE ON

Lro**,"o .o. -,

./v
,/v
SHEtr ,/
RUNOFF ON
IMPERVIOUS
PAVING SURFACE

SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM TYPES (IMPERVIOUS PAVING)

GENERAL CONCRETE BORDER
Surface drainage systems are designed to collect and dis- o4 o3 o2
pose of raintall runoff to prevent the llow of water from dam- CONrOUR
,, /-I CONCRtrE \cuns,
aging building structures {through foundation leakage), sit€ /--/ LINES INNER CURB
structures, and the surface g.ade (lhrough erosion). The two WITH CURB I
basic types of surface drainage are the open system and the ol CUTS TO \ PARxrrc

0
closed system. fARKING LoT, ALLOW LOT WITH
RUNOFF POROUS
OVERFLOW PAVING
The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale and culvert, is
INTO (LEVEL
used in less densely populated, more open areas where the GRAVEL
flow of water above grade €n be accommodated fairly eas- SURFACE)
\
ily. The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an inlevcalch j
basin, and manholes. is used in more urban, populated /
areas, where land must be used efficiently and water
brought below the surface quickly to avord interlerence with f STRIP
human activity. The two systems are commonly combined f
ASPHALT SURFACE C=O.g
where terrain, human density, and land uses dictate.
ro.msofl POROUS PAVING SYSTEM
A petuaous or porous paving system is often used for parking 43,560 SO ryACRE
and other hard site surfaces. This drainage system allows POROUS PAVING MATERIALS
water to p€rcolate through the paved surface into the soil, The two principal types of porous paving are a monolithic sur
similar to the way the land would naturally absorb water. N OTE
facing material and unit pavers. Monolithic porous paving is
Followingis a simplifiedmethod for calculatingthe approxi- stone aggregate bound with asphalt or portland cement. The
NOTES mate runoff of areaslessthan I 00 acres: aggregate must be sorted to exclude the "fines" or sand-
1. All slopes, grates, swales. and other drainage features O=CxlxA sized particles that normally fill the voids between larger
must be laid out according to the ADA, without restricting O = flow (cu rusec) pieces. Wilhout the fines, the paving material allows wateato
accessible routes for persoos with disabilaties. C = surfacerunoff value (see table) run through it. Generally, porous asphalt and concrete are
2. Lay out grades so runoff can safely llow away trom build- | = antensity(in./hr;obtainfrom localcodes) both strong enough for parking and roadway surfaces and
ings. lf drains b€core bl@ked, backed-up water should A = areaof site (acres) pedestrian uses. Precast unit pavers, with shapes that allow
Forexample,assumethe l@al code requires| = 5 in./hr: water to flow through them. can also give surface stability for
not acumulate ardnd the foundation.
parking or driveways. Paver types are available for exposed
3. An open system, or one in which water is keil on too ot O=CxlxA placement or for burial just below the surface. ln the latter
the surfa@ as long as possible, is generally more ecc Q=0.9x5x0.23 €se, the soil{ea gravel or vegetation in the pavers js ex
nomical than a closed system. O = 1.04cu fvsec posed and can help percolate precipitation into the ground.
4. Consider the effect ot ice forming on the surtace when O = approximatevolure of water per secondentering
determining slopes tor vehicles and pedestrians. the V{hanrel from the parkinglot To reduce runotf and increase water absorption, porous pav-
5. Consult lsal codes on such criteria as intensitv and dur- CALCULATION ing must be underlaid with a bed of unbound aggregate. The
OF RUNOFF
ation of rainstorms and allowable runoff for the locality unbound aggregate acts as a structural suooon and forms a
reseryoir to hold preopitation until it can percolate Inlo the
6. Formulas given on this page are meant for approximation
soil. Use of porous paving may permit use of a significantly
only. Consult a qualified engineer or lands€pe architect SURFACE RUNOFF VALUES (C) smaller and simpler storm drainage system.
to design a site-specitic system.

RUNOFF VELOCITY SLOPES

Highdensity residential development

NOTE
*8.3% maximum
for handicapped access All values are approximate.

Pearse O'Doheny, ASLA; Graham Landscape Archatecture: Annagolis, Maryland

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
 r50 SurfqceDroinogeSystems
POROUS OR ASPHALf
GRAVEL STRIP _. CONCRETE CURB WITH CURB
//l waJER CUTS EVERY 4'.O''r, O C
/ n INFILTRATION
6"

t Y .t {*rI! {.!t t $- rl rl POROUS PAVING (UNIT PAVERS

OR MONOLITHIC SURFACE)

nnl"t'u CONCRETE
.\
I I/." TO V2" DIAMETER
BORDER GRAVEL SEfrING
BED AND FILTER
COURSE (NO FINES)

SffiING BED
(NO FINES)

MONOLITHIC SURFACE FILTER

RESERVOIR FABRIC

CONCRfiE
PAVERS INFILTRATION

2" TO 3"
STONE
SMING
BED

FILTER
FABRIC

OPEN PAVERS AT GRADE

STRUCTURAL
PUSTTC
INFILTRATION
1"TO 2"
BELOW POROUS PAVING AND STONE RESERVOIR DETAIL
GRAOE
NOTES ON POROUS PAVING Porous asphalt has good freeze-thaw resistance but is
TOPSOIL 1 . Soils around porous paving installations must have a min- best suited for areas in which tralfic is limited, such as
INFILL
imum percolation rate of aboutl/, in.,hr and should not be employee parking.
4" SO|L more than about 3070 clay. On sites where the slope is While clogging of monolithic porous paving is generallv
MrX:30% grealer than 3%, te(acing the paved areas allows the not a problem. recommended maintenance may include
TOPSOtL, bottom of each reseryoir to .emain level. use of a hydrovac once or twice a year, as well as the
70% SANO/ prompt removal ot leaves and windblown sand.
2. Proper specification and superyision are imponant in the
GRAVEL
installation of porous paving materials. Soil under the res The reseruoir below porous paving has no fixed depth bul
eruoir must not be unduly compacted during construction. is designed according to the slope of the site. the soil per
STRUCTURAL GRID/PAVERS BELOW GRADE 3. Porous concrete can withstand heavier loads than oorous colation rate. and the size of the design storm. Consult a
civil engineer or landscape architect.
POROUS PAVING TYPES asphalt. Because it does not soften in hot weather and
may be more susceptible to freeze-thaw damage, it is
better suited to warmer climates. Additives mav be intro-
METHOD FOR SIZING CHANNELS duced to imorove cold climate Derformance.
andpipestor handling
Channels waterrunoffmavbe sazed
by determining the tlow of water (O) with the formula O =
Va. V is the velcity of the runoff water in fvsec as deter- HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL CHANNEL SECTIONS
mined by the Manning formula. and "a" is the cross-sec-
tional area of water given in square teet. For a given Q,
adjust the channel or pipe shape, size, and/or slope to obtain
the desired velocity (one that will not erode earth, grass TYPE SECTION
ditches. or other features).

The Manning formula is V = 1 .486/n x r0 67 x S0 5, io which

n = values relating to surface characteristics of channels
{see table), r = hydraulic radius (see table), and S = slope (the
drop in ft4ength),

For example. assume a 200-It concrete V{hannel for which

W=2ft
h=0.5ft
s = 0.005 (1 ftl200 ft)
r = 0.37 {calculated usinq V{hannel DroDerties)

-Kl:
V = (1.486rc.0'15)x 0.25167 x 0 0050I
= 2-6 fvsec (see runoft velocity table
on first AGS surface drainage page).
To check flow, follow these steDs:
O = Va ("a" from channel properties)
= 2.6 x 0.5 = 1.3 cu fvsec.
Use the formula for calculating runoff (O = C x I x A; given on
the tirst AGS surface drainage page) to determine the llow
required for a site; compare it to the capacity of a channel
TRIANGULAR
sized according to the Manning formula to determine
whether the channel design is satisfactory.
7_y- +
N VALUES FOR MANNING
FORMULA

*-rd)
I3W,J

0.3-O.5 lt recommended for freeboard {F}

Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA; Graham Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Marytand

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
 SurfoceDroinogeSyslems t5l
TRENCH a" To 51
GENERAL ORAIN TO
The grate design chosen {or a particular application depends COVER
on the priorities assigned to each of the functions listed \=
below. Local conditions mav require inclusion of some or all
of the pertormance {eatures in a desagn. IRENCH
FRAME
CAPACITY: Interception of storm water rs generally consrd
ered the most imporiant function a grate can perform. The |_
geometry and size of the openings affect this ability. Consult
a civil engineer or hydrologist for individual grate capacities.
=lll.
SCREENING OF LARGE DEBRIS: An inlet grate must act as
a strainer to prevent harmful debris lrom entering sewer
lines. A welldesigned grale prevents obiects such as
branches, sticks, sheets of semirigid material. and chunks of
wood, which can easily pass by large curb openings (such as
open throat type). trom entering the catch basin.

PASSING OF SMALL DEBRIS: Organic material such as

grass clippings, leaves, small stones, or twigs may be per- cRoss sEcTtoN
mitied to pass into the catch basin as they are not a hazard
in sewer lines. Provide grate openings wide enough, long CONCRETE TRENCH DRAIN WITH GRATED COVER
enough. or of special design to pass this debris and still
meet requirements tor roadway-sale grates.

STRENGTH: Inlet grates placed in roadways must be de-

signed to withstand heavy traffic loads. The most generally
accepted specifictions lor highway loading criteria come
from the American Association ot State Highway and Trans-
portation Off icials (AASHTO).

PERMANENCY: An inl€t grate should be design€d to match

or exceed the expected life of the installation. Steel, alumi-
num, and cast iron are g€norally accepted materials for inlet
grates, although other materials such as brass. chrome, and
structural polyethylene are used in special applications.

BICYCLE SAFETY: Gctes 6n be made safer lor bicycie and

pedestrian traffic through attention to design and installation.
Options include diagenal bars set at a 45o angle; slotted grates, METAL TRENCH
provided the slots ar6 1r/r to 21/. in. wide and a maximum ol I in. ASSEMBLY

long and th€ 16ns6e {crcss) bars ar€ spaced so a bicycle LONGITUDINAL SECTION cRoss sEcTtoN
wheel cannot drop lorer thah Sbout 1 in.; and bars transverse to
METAL TRENCH DRAIN ASSEMBLY
the directaonoI tGffic and stom water flow and slanted to coG
duct water into the €tc't! basin. Grate dosign does not ensure BRONZE OR POLYMER DRAIN
safe usage: atention must be paid to usage patterns of probable ALUMINUM GRATING WITH METAL GRATE
users. Consult tEffic enginegrs and l@l codes for more infoma-
tion.

Consider clogging hazards and the geometry of flow-through

efficienct when dosigning for bicycle safety. Use ol van+
shaped or sloped bars. rather than conventional vertacal bars, ME TAL
may improve the €pacity of a grate to pass storm water. LINER
Grates with these typos of bars are safe for bicycl€s; consult AVAIUBLE
manufacturers. Do not allow gutter slopes to be substan-
tially swaldd into the curb, which could create a pocket in the t
roadway affecting the satev of bicycles and other traffic. (

GRATE SIZING STANDARO GRATING OESIGNS

Most grates are oversized to prevent buildup of water; see
manufacturers' catalogs for free area. The following formula
for sizing grates is based on a given allowable depth o{ water
DNODDODD
over the grate. DDtrBDtrDO
o = .goca {oa.aa)o5 trOtrDDtrDtr
where A = free area (sq ft) DOOtr!DCD
d = allowable depth of water above grate {ft)
C = orifice mfficient (0.6 for square edges, 0.8 lor GRATINGS FOR HEAVY PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC
round)
.66 = clogging factor GRATING DESIGN TYPES

,,ziR-I ..'o
-/rraarur\- J" WATER SURFACE
--l N-
BEEHIVE / oRTGtNAL
'----/
cneor

STRAIGHT H EADWALL F
lb
oo

illzz,^\\-=r;"
coNvEx

REVETMENT
L o.oo2 MAX
^{t2'-
9'
;" TO NOTE
lz'
Use check dams where channel slope and velocity will cause
STRAIGHT ENDWALL SAOOLE ENDWALL
erosron.
MISCELLANEOUS GRATE DESIGNS HEADV\/ALLS AND ENDWALLS CHECK DAMS

PearseO'Doherty,ASLA; GrahamLandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis.Maryland

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
 152 Monholes,Inlets,qnd Cotch Bosins
2-O TO 4 -O" PRECAST
DIAMETER MIN CONCRETE

>a' MANHOLE
FRAME AND
FINISH GRADE
SLOPES TOWARD
COVER
OF CURB
GASKETED INLET GRATE
METAL JOINTS AND FRAME
MANHOLE REOU'RED
STEPS SANITARY PRECAST
CONCRETE,5"
MIN THICKNESS

CONCRETE FILL,
5: I SLOPE

4" TO 6"
OPENIN6

OUTFALL TO
STORM DRAIN SYSTEM

CURB INLET

FLEXIBLE
JOINT FOR
SANITARY
PIPE
CONNECTIONS INLET

CONCRfrE LOCKING
PRECAST CONCRETE BENCH, SHAPED BOLT

7
5" MIN. THICKNESS
TO PROVIDE
CONCRfrE FOOTING POSITIVE
ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE DRAINAGE PUN
NOTES
1. Pargingmay be omittedin constructiono{ storm sewer
:-z VARIES TO PROVIOE
POSITIVE SLOPE TO MULTIPLE PANERNS
mannotes. OUTLS PIPE AVAIUBLE IN A" TO 51 " WIDTHS
2. Wall thicknesson precastconcretemanholesincreases
wathdepths greaterthan 12 ft. INLET GRATE
AND FRAME
3. Brickwalls8 in. thickmay be usedfor manholesup to 12 To 12
ft deep. For that part of the manholedeeperthan 12 lt,
PRECAST
brick-and-blockwalls should be 12 in. thick. Manholes .4th"
CONCRETE, 5"
greaterthan I 2 ft deep shouldhave a base 12 in. thick. MIN. THICKNESS

COMBINED OR SANITARY SE\/VER BASINWITH END, SIDE

MANHOLE OR BONOM OUTLET,
FOR GRATES 7'TO 24
SECTION WIDE
FOR CONTINUATION
SEE INLET OR CATCH NOTE
BASIN DETAIL
Grates without bolts are available

GUTTER INLET TRENCH DRAIN

SLOPE OF i,
SIDES VARIES z<
TO FIT FRAME
PU
r!
sii
9 uq
F24

N"J@

PUN

ALTERNATIVE SHAPES AVAIUBLE

TO MATCH CURA SECTIONS:
CURAS ADJUSTABLE FROM 3" TO 9"

4TA
SECTION SECTION sEcTtoN
a-
N ()TES
1. Frames and grates are available in many standard shapes 2. Locate drainage structures with grated openings on or
CONCRETE FOOTING and sizes. Constructed of cast or ductile iron. aluminum. beyond the periphery of t.aveled ways to minimize con.
ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE and bronze, they are made for light- or heavy-duty loading tact wilh pedestrian or vehicular traffic Grates that may
conditions. Common shapes include round, rectangular, come into contact with feel or narrow wheels must be
NOTE
square. and linear. In addition, grates may be flat, con- constructed to prevent penetration by heels, crutch and
A pipe trap or hood is required for connections to combina- cave, or convex. Consult manufacturers'cataloos for the cane tips, and slim tires but still have suf{icient openings
tron sewers. full range ol available castings. to pass the expected runofl.

CATCH BASIN TYPICAL FRAMES AND GRATES

JOSepn P. Mensch. P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia

KurtN. Pronske, P.E.; Reston, Virginia

Lr))
/ta/
t_- SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE

GENERAL
Natural filtration devices in the envi.onment retain and treat
pollutaOts such as sediment, fertilize., pesticides, and air pol'
lutants before they can enter water bodies. Increasing devel-
opment, however, compromises the ability of the landscape
to prevent water resource contaminatioo TypicallY. when
land is developed, trees that {ormerly intercepted rainiall and
pollutants are felled; natural depressaons that tempo'rarily
ponded water are graded, soil is compacted: and the thick
leaflitter humus layer of the forest floor, which had ab'
sorbed rainfall. is scraoed olf or erodes.
Once a site has been developed, it can no longer store as
much water, and rainfall is immediately transformed into
runoff and transported to rivers, lakes. wetlands, or oth3r
surface water systems Once construction is complete and
some vegetation has returned to the site, expansavejmpeNi'
ous surfaces such as rooltops and parking lots prevent most
runoff from percolating into the soil. lnstead, it must be
directed olf site by a surlace d.ainage system of curbs, cul-
verts, gutters, and storm sewers.
Measures for managing pollutants include methods of con -
struction and land development that replace natural pollution
tiltration pathways (e.9., forests. wetlands)with similar filter
ing mechanisms. Water detention systems retain water, pro-
vide for percolation to groundwater, and filter pollutants out
of water runoft. These systems comprise detention basins.
constructed wetlands, and other temporary and permanent
erosron conlrol measures.
When choosing appropriate runoff control measures for a
site, consider the following factors: the sensitivity of the
local ecosystem: slope of the site; depth of the water table:
proximity to b€drock, foundations, and wells; land consump-
tion: land use restrictions; high sediment input: and thermal
rmpacts to downstream areas.
NATURAL \/\/ETLAND SYSTEMS
Wetlands naturally detain and filter water. Scattered through-
out the United States, from tropical areas to tundra, they form
in depressions in the landscape where the water table is near
or at the surface of the soil. They may be as small as a table-
lop or span tens of thousands of acres. There is no single, cor-
rect. ecologically sound definition for wetlands, primarily
because of their diversity, These systems are an imponant
part of the ecosystem because they produce fmd and timber,
purify drinking water, absorb and store floodwater, suppress
slorm surges, and help maintain biodiversity. Water is su}
plied to a wetland either by surface sources (e.9., streams or
riwrs) or by groundwater.
SHALLOW
{PERSISTENT VEGETATION)
FRESHWATER.
CROSS.SECTION OF NATURAL
The sensitivity ol wetlands determines appropriatebufter
distances between them and developed areas. Buffers,
which may rangefrom 30 to 300 ft or more, should respond
to the eflect runoff may have on the wetland ecosystem.
(Consulta wetlandsscientistto formulatebufferdistances.)
In general,four wetlandsensitivityissuesshouldbe taken
into account: hydrology-the wetland's source of water
could be alteredby development;vegetation-the plant spe-
cies in a wetland have different levels ot hardiness;ecologi-
cal statHore pristine systems are more sensitiveto d+
velopment and runoff pollution; and animal species-fo.
instance,nesting birds need greater buffer distances than
wintering waterfowl.
ON-SITE RUNOFF CONTROL MEASURES
Architectscan use severalon-sitemeasuresto controlrunoff
in developmentprojects.One ot the most ommonly used is
a simple open storagearea for runoff. The contigurationof
such open systemsvaries,dependingon the desiredlevelof
pollutanttreatment.Typi€lly €lled storageponds, detention
basins.or (when made to resemblea naturalenvironrent) a
constructedstorm mter wetland, open systems generally
operatemore thoroughlywith increasedretentiontirne.
Simplestorageponds are typicallydry between storms after
runoff has evaporatedor infiltrated the groundwater. Dry
RunotfControlSystems r53
o' To
POOL LEVEL I -O-
ABOVE
o- To l'-o" I POOL
POOL DEPTH i LEVEL
EMERGENT MARSH
NONTIDAL WETLANDS
oonds sometimes include a wet lower area for additional
runoff retention. Wet ponds are permanently wet, allowing
pollutants to settle to the bottom. Wet ponds that extend
runoff retention time with control devices can remove a very
high percentage of paniculate pollutants.
Constructed storm water wetlands (engineered, shallow
marshlike areas) retain runoff for long periods, allowing pol-
lutants to settle out of the water column and providing bio-
logical, chemical, and physical processes for breaking down
pollutants. Wetland vegetation slows the velocity of storm
water, reducing erosion and allowing pollutants to settle.
Many organic and inorganic compounds are removed from
wetlands by the chemical processes of absorption, precipita-
tion. and volatilization.
Constructed storm water wetlands can also filter excess nutri-
ents such as nitrogen and phosphorus contained in runoff
from gardens and septic tanks. To correctly size a wetland
used lor storm water runoff control, consider the total volume
and vel@ity of water entering and leaving the system.
Potential advantages of using constructed storm water wet
lands are that they have relatively low capital and operating
costs, offer consistent compliance with permit requirements,
and greatly reduce operational and maintenance costs.

COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVNESS OF URBAN BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPS)

URBAN POLLUTANT ATPLIcABILITY WILDLIFE
BMP REMOVAL TO MOST HABITAT ENVIRONM ENTAL SPECIAL
OPTIONS RELIABILITY LO NG EVITYA DEVELOPM ENTS POTENTIAL CONCER NS COMPARATIVE COSTS CONSIDERATIONS
water Moderate to high, 20+ Vears expected Applicableto most sites High Stream warming, natural wetland Marginally hrgher than wel !commended wrth desrgn
depending on design if landis available alteralron ponds provements and with the use
microoools and wetlands
:xtended Moderate but not 20+ years but tre- Widely applicable but Moderate Possible stream warming and hab- Lowest cost alternative in commended with design im-
letention always reljable quent cloggrng and requires at least l0acres itat destruction size range )vements and with the use
lonos short detention of drainage area micropools and wetlands
common
ponds Moderate to high 20+ years Widelyappli€blebut Moderate to Possible stream warming, tropic Moderate to high compared WIN
requaresd.ainagearea high shifts, habitat to convenlronal site evaluation
of more than 2 acres
Mooerarero nrgn 20+ years Wrdely applrcable Moderate to Selectionof appropriatepond Most expensivepond option
pono kedundancyin- high option minimizesoverall
creasesreliability) environmentalimpact
lnfiltration Presumedmoderate 50Yo {ailure rate Highly restricted (soils. Low Slight risk of groundwater Cost€tfective on smaller Recommended with pre-
within 5 years groundwater, slope, conGmrnalron sites, rehabcosts can be treatment and geotechnical
area, sediment input) considerable
Presumed moder- Hrghly restncted (sorls, Low to mod- Slight risk of groundwater Constructioncost moderate, Not widely recommended until
ate, it working wrthin 5 Vears groundwater, slope, erate contamination but rehabcost high longevity is improved
area, sediment input)
High. if working 75% tailurewithin Extremely restricted Possiblegroundwaterimpacts, Cost€ttectrvecomparedto necommenoeo In nlgnty
5 years (traffic, soils. ground uncontrolledrunoff conventionalasphaltwhen restricted applications with
watef, slope, area, sed- workangproperly caref ul construction and
iment input) eflective maintenance
Moderate to hrgh 20+ years Applrcable ior smaller Minor Comparativelyhigh construc- Recommended, with local
develoPments tion costsandfrequentmain- demonstratron
tenance
Grassed Low to moderate 20+ years Lowiensity develotr Minor Low compared to curb and Recommended, with check.
swates but unreliable ment and roads gulter dams, as one part of a BMP
system
strips Unrelrable In unknownbut may flestncted to low Minor Recommended as one ele
settings be limited areas forested ment of a BMP system
Water ned low years Small, hrghly rmpervrous Resuspension of hydrocarbon High compared to trenches Not cur.ently recommended
qua[y catchments {less than 2 loadings, disposal of hydrocarbon and sand filters as a primary BMP option
inlets acres) and toxic residuals
'Based on current desjgns and prevailing maintenance practices
NOTE feasibility.cost. and environmentalimpact.As the matrix
The variety of urban BMPs avaalable to remove pollutants shows, storm water wetlands are an attractiveBMP choice
Irom urban runoff differs widely in performance, longevity. at manydevelopment sites.

CarrieFischer,"Design for Wetlands Preseryation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalBesourceGuide Washington,D.C.: The Amer,canlnstitute of Architects,1992)
ThomasSchueler:Metropolitan WashingtonCouncilof Governments: Washington,D.C.

AND DRAINAGE
SEWERAGE
 154 RunoffControlSysiems
STORM WATER WETLANDS
Storm water wetlands can be defined as constructed systems
explicitly designed 10 mitigate the effects of sto.m water qual-
atyand quantiv on urban development. They temporarily store
storm water runoff ln shallow pools that create growing condF
tions suitable for emergent and riparian wetland plants In
combination, the runoff storage, complex microtopography.
and emergent plants in the constructed wetland form an ideal
matrix for the removal of urban pollutants-
Unlike natural wetlands, which often express the underlying
groundwater level, storm water wetlands are dominated by
surface runoff. Storm water wetlands can best be described
as semitidal, in that they have a hydroperiod characterized by
a cyclic pattern 01 jnundation and subsequent drawdown,
occurring 15-30 times a year, depending on rainfall and the
imperyiousness of the contributing watershed.
Storm water wetlands usually fall into one of four baslc
desrgns:
SHALLOW MARSH SYSTEM: The large surface area of a
shallow marsh design demands a reliable groundwater supply
or base flow to maintain sufficient water elevation to suooort
emergent wetland plants. Shallow marsh systems take up a
lot of space. requiring a sizable contributing watershed (often
more than 25 acres) to support a shallow permanent pool.
PONDIr'VETLAND SYSTEM: A pond/wetland design utilizes
lwo separate cells for storm water treatment, a wet pond
and a shallow marsh. The multiple functions of the latter are
to trap sediments, reduce incoming runofl velocity, and
remove pollutants. Pond/wetland systems consume less
space than shatlow marsh svstems because the bulk of the
treatment is provided by a deep pool rather than a shallow
marsh.
EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND: In extended detention
wetlands, ertra runoff storage is created by temporarily de-
taining runof{ above the shallow marsh. This extended de-
tention feature enables the wetland to occupy less space as
temporary venical storage panially substitutes for shallow
marsh storage. A growing zone is created along the gentle
srde slopes of extended detention wetlands, from the nor
mal pool level to the maximum extended detention water
surface.
POCKET WETLANDS: Pocket wetlands are adapted to serye
small sites {from one to ten acres). Because the drainage
area is small, pocket wetlands usually do not have a reliable
base flow, creating a widely fluctuating water level. In most
cases, water levels in the welland are supported by excavat-
Ing down to the water table. ln drier areas, a pocket wetland
is supponed only by storm water runoff, and during ex-
tended periods of dry weather it will have no shallow pool at
all {only saturated soils). Due to their small size and fluctuat-
Ing water levels, pocket wetlands otten have low plant diver
srty and poor wildlife habitat value
The selection of a partrcular wetland dedlgn usually depends
on three factors: available space, contributing watershed
area, and desired environmental function. However. storni
water wetlands are not typically located within delineate.
natural wetland areas, which provide critical habitat and eco
system seryices and are protected under local, state, and
federal statutes. Storm water wetlands should also not be
confused wilh constructed wetlands used to mitigate the
permitted loss of natural wetlands under wetland protection
regulations. The primary goal of wetland mitigation is to rep
licate the species diversity and ecological function of the losr
natural wetland; whereas the more limited goal of storn,
water wetlands is to maximize pollutant removal and crealr
generic wetland habitat
Storm water wetlands are also distinguished from natural
wetlands that receive storm water runoff as a consequenc€
of upstream development. Although not intended lor stornl
water treatment, wetlands influenced by storm water arF
common in urban settings. Storm water runoff that be
comes a maior component of the water balance of a natura
wetland can severely alter the functional and structural qual
ties of the wetland. The end result is a storm water-injlu
enced natural wetland that is more characteristic of a storm
water wetland than a natural one.

MAINTENANCE
25% OF POND BENCH ISUND
PERIMETER OPEN GRASS

MICROPOOL

FOREBAY

sEcrloN
(*=,: rE:lEI?,."? a?EE
GATE VALVES
PROVIDE
FLEXIBILITY
IN DEPTH
CONTROL
ffi'""'(ff[
$r:4(l|l]J4:s.wr"*
tk +i
25'WffUND BUFFER STORAGE SURFACE AREA
UNDSCAPED WITH ALLOCATION ALLOCATION
NATIVE TREEgSHRUBS
FOR HABITAT NOTE
Most of the shallow marsh system is 0-18 in. deep. a depth
that creates favorable conditions for the growth of emergenl
wetland plants. A deeper forebay is located at the malor
inlet, and a deeo microoool is situated near the outlet

SHALLO\/V MARSH SYSTEM

AOUATIC CONCRETE PLUNGE
BENCH POOL NORMAL POOL
ZONE\

MARSH
ZONE. TYP
-;l*;i1t
u***X***l
ffi-J"--"{ :1{iii
j*"-{ SECTION

P * + + + + l lJr:
-i:-:{i2
f+S
+*f ** tl:t:
{f:i:i:il,
(:i:tX:z
MICROPOOL

*!:if *7i
';K*++
;Fi

MAXIMUM SAFETY
STORM LIMIT
€ro-'fhi f * r MARSH
(30%)
ki1r1
STORAGE SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION ALLOCATION

NOTE
EMBANKMENT The pond/wetland system consists of a deep pond that leads
RISER IN to a shallow wetland. The pond removes pollutants and
EMBANKMENT reduces the space required for the system.
POND/WETLAND SYSTEM

CarrieFischer,"Design lor Wetlands Preservation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalResourceGuide (Washington,D.C.:The AmericanInstituteof Architects, 1992)
ThomasSchueler; Met.opolitanWashingtonCouncilof Governmentsj Washington.D.C.

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
 RunotfControlSystems r55
COMPARATIVE ATTRIBUTES OF FOUR STORM WATER \^/ETLAND DESIGNS
TTR I B UTE SHALLOW MARSH PO N D,/W ETLA N D EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND POCKET \^/ETLAND

removal capability Moderate; reliable removal of sedi- Moderate to high: reliable removal of Moderate; less reliable removal of nutrients Moderate; can be subiect to resuspension
ments and nutnents nutrients and sediment and groundwater displacement

Land consumption High; shallow marsh storage con- Moderate, as venical pool substitutes Moderate, as vertical extended detention substi- Moderate, but can be shoehorned into
sumes space fo. marsh storage tutes for marsh storage site
Water balance Dry weather base tlow normally recommended to maintain wate. elevations; groundwater oot recommended as primary Water supply provided by excavation to
source of water supply to wetland grounowater

Wetland area/watershed Minimumratioof .02 Minimumratioof .01 Minimumratioot .01 Minimumratioof .01

contributingwatershedarea Drainageareaof 25 acresor more, Drainagearea of 25 acresor more. Minimumof 10 acresrequiredfor extended l - 1 0a c r e s
with dry weather O* with dry weather O* detentron
Deepwater cells Forebay, channels, micropool Pond,micropool Forebay,micropool Micropool,if possible
Outletconfiguration Reversed slope pipe extending from riser. withdrawn approximately 1 ft below normal pool; pipe and pond drain equipped with Broad{rested weir with half-round trash
gate valve rack and pond drain

Sediment clei
cleanout cycle Cleanout of forebay every 2-5 yr Cleanoutot pond every 10 yr Cleanoutof Iorebayevery 2-5 yr : of wetlandevery5 10 yr, on site
(aoproximate) and stockpilemulch
Native plant diversity High. if complex microtopography is High, with sufficient wetland com- Moderatej fluctuating water levels impose physi- Low to moderate, due to small surface
present plexity and area ological constraints area and poor control of water levels

Wildlife habitatpotential High, with complexity and buffer High,with buffer, attractswaterfowl Moderate.with buffer Low, due to small area and low diversitv
'O<o€fficient
of runoff

EXTENDED DflENTION Z MAXIMUM EXTENDED

WETUND ZONE DffENTION LIMIT
EXTENOED NORMAL POOL
DSENTION ELEVATION
FOREBAY ZONE

FOREBAY MICROPOOL

POOL DEEP
l2o%) POOL
(20%)

EXTENDED HIGH
DETENTION MARSH
(45%)
STORAGE SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION ALLOCATION

HIGH MARSH ZONE

NOTE
MICROPOOL
The water level in an extended detention wetland can
increase by as much as 3 tt after a storm, returning to nor-
\ z POND BUFFER mal levels within 24 hr. As much as half the total treatment
ro m MTNTMUM volume can be provided as extended detention storage,
f which helos orotect downstream channels from erosion and
reduces the sDace needed for the wetland.

EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND

MAINTENANCE
SWALE MAXIMUM STORM ELEVATION
SASONAL HIGH

TRASH RAC

I
_ __!____,
I
-_-_-_T------
------+------
------T---I

STORAGE l2o%) suRFAcE AREA

ALLOCATION ALLOCATION

HIGH MARSH
BROAO.CRESTED
WEIR

POCKET STORM vvATER WETLAND

Carrie Fischer, "Design for Wetlands Preservation," topic ll.A.1 in Environmental Resource 6ulde {Washington, D.C.: The American lnstitute of Architects, 19921
Thomas Schueler; Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Washington, D.C.

SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGF
 r56 UnitPqversond PoverAssemblyTypes
GENERAL texture, the better the slip resistance. Abrasion resis
tance relers to the wear and tear an assembly is sub-
Unrt paving assemblies are principally used for applications jected lo under normal use. According to ASTM C902,
such as shopping plazas, building entrances, walkways, "Standard Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic
patros, residential driveways, and residential parking areas '
Paving Brick, an abrasion index classificationdetermines
However. they may be used for streets with heavy vehicular the type of unit requrred for an intended exposure. A
traflic and lor industrial floors or other special conditio.s.
dense. hard burned extruded brick with 8000 psi com-
Consult wilh a landscape architect or engineer for appropri pressive strength that contorms to ASTM C902, Class
ate design guidelines. SX. Type 1, resists both abrasion and weathering and is
adequate Jor most heavy-traffic exterior applications.
NOTES Molded brick with 4000 psi compressjve strength that
1. Paver units are selected according to color, texture, abra- conforms to ASTM C902, Class SX. Type 2, is adequate
s,on resistance. and resistance 10 weathering. The tex- for most exterior pedestrian applications. It materials
ture of the unit affects slip resistance-the coarser the other than brick are used for paving, consult the manufac-
turer to learn which products are suitable for use as pav
CBAMFER
e.s in a oarticular apolication.
{OPTIONAL)\ 2. Assess potential traffic loads when planning unit paving
installations.Heavy vehicular loads require a rigid or semi-
rigid continuous base, while a flexible base and ilexible
paving are suitable for light vehicular loads (residential-
type). Use either base type for pedestrian lraffic. Choose
a bond pattern based on expected traffic patterns; traffic
should travel perpendicular to the long dimension of the
SPACERS PROVIDE
l/16" JotNT paving unit. For vehicular areas, use a gravel subbase
LENGTH
\-/ F L E X I B L E { M O R T A R L E S S )P A V E R S
(minimum 6 in. crushed gravel) compacted to 95yo and
paver sizes B in square or smaller. Consult an engineer 10
accurately define paver sizes, shapes, gravel depth, con
crete base depth, and concrete reintorcement require
ments.
3. Proper subgrade preparation of areas to be paved is im
portant. Remove all vegetation and organic material. anc
consider the location of existing or proposed under
ground utilities and storm drainage, as well as user con
venience.
4. Plan for surface and subsurface drainage. Slope paving
away from buildings. retaining walls, etc. atl/s to 'L in
per toot. Bigid paving always requires adequate surface
drainage, with the long dimension of the mortar joints
running parallel to the direction of runoff. Flexible pavin.r
requires both surface and subsurface drainage.
5. To prevent horizontal movement of flexible (mortarlessl
paving assemblies, use a curb of brick soldier coursing
set in concrete, landscape timbers, or other edging mate
nal_
6. There are three maior types of unit paver joint materia
mortar, grout (portland cement and sand without hy
drated lime), and a dry mixture of 9rout.
RIGID (MORTARED) PAVERS

RECTANGUUR

NEOPRENE
TACK COAT (2%)

-). CONCRtrE
BASE COURS€
(RIGID)

ASPHALT
EXPANSION
SQUARE (SEMIRIGID) JOINT

GRAVEL BASE COURSE MEMBRANEUYER

(FLEXIBLE) AS AOND BREAK AND
CUSHION MATERIAL
SENING BED MATERIAL
CONCRETE BASE
MEMBRANE AS MOISTURE COURSE (RIGID)
AND WEED AARRIER AND AS

1 SETTING BED CONTAINMENT MEMBRANE UYER AS

MOISTURE BARRIER
FLEXIBLE (MORTARLESS) PAVER ntcto ruonrlnED) PAVER

*,o*t' N OTES
1. Unit paving assemblies are classified according to th€ 3. Membranes are installed in unit paving assemblies for
HEXAGONAL type ot base supporting the paver, either rigid {monared) several purposes: to control the passage of moisture
or flexible {mortarless). Base tvpes are a reinforced or reduce weed groMh, prevent the sand course from filter
NOTE
unreinforced concrete slab on grade that ac€pts either ing into lower courses, and as a bond break. Considel
Rectangular, square, and hexagonal pavers are available in rigid or tlexible pavers {rigid}; asphalt or bituminous con- using bond breaks between rigid paving and rigid bases
both brick and concrete. crete that accepts flexible pavers only (semirigid continu- lo accommodate differential movement. Membranes are
ous): a compacted gravel, sand, or sand{ement maxture of sheet or liquid material that can resist moisture. rot.
TYPICAL PAVER SHAPES that accepts flexible pavers only (flexible);and suspended and decay. Sheet material includes asphalt roofing fell.
diaphragm or structural floor and roof assemblies, which polyethylene film, vinyl, neoprene, and rubber. Liquld
vary by design and accept either rigid or flexible pavers. types are asphalt, modified urethane, or polyurethane
TYPICAL PAVER SIZES IN IN. (MM) 2. Setting bed (cushion) material, placed between base and bitumen; these are preferred for irregular surfaces.
R ECTANGULART paving surface, functions as a leveling layer to help refine 4. Use base materials, including gravel, concrete, and as
the finished grade and compensate for itregularities in phalt. for suppon, drainage, and/or ground swell protec
L W&L L the base and paver unit surfaces. Sefting bed material tion. For maximum drainage efficiency and to prevent
(100) 8 (200) 4 {100} 6 (150) 6 {1501 can be a 1- or 2-in. layer of sand, pea gravel, stone upward capillary action. specify clean. washed gravel.
51"l92l screenings, roofing felt, asphalt (7% asphalt,93% sand
7 51,l1g4) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 {200) 5. Expansion joints can alleviate thermal and moisture move
with a neoprene tack coat), or mnar. Sand for sening rent, especially in rigid or mortared assemblies. Expan
{89) 7 1t" 11901 8 {200) 12 (300) r 2 (300) beds, bases, ioints, and mortar should conlorm to ASTM sion joints are generally l@ated parallel or adjacent to
7 ,le(194) 1 'lal194l 12 (3001 C144, "Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.- Use mortar set- curbs and edgings, at right angle turns, around interrup-
ting or leveling beds only in conjunction with concrete tions {e.9., manhole cover ass€mblies), at set distances in
(200) 8 (200) 16 (400) and asphalt bases: the thickness of the bed may vary long runs of masonry, and where dissimilar materials meet
'Check with manufacturerfor availabilitvof chamfers. from r/, to 2 in.

NOTE PAVER ASSEMBLY TYPES

The height of pav€rsvarieswith the manufacturerand appli-
3'OIAMETER PUSTIC
cationbut is usually11/4132),2111\571,251s1671,
ot 23/a110). RINGS(I"HIGH}

CONCRflE INTERLOCKING
PAVERS (HOLES FILLED
WITH SOIL AND GRASS)

EEE
[]Et_]

INTERLOCKING

NOTES
']
Vords may be trlled wath grass. ground cover, or gravel 3. Grass rings are available with close ring spacing for pedes-
2. Grass oavers mav be used to control erosion. trian use or wrth wide ring spacing for vehicular use.

GRASS PAVER TYPES

DennisCarmichael;
EDAW.Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia

PAVINGAND SURFACING
 UnitPoverDetoils 157
MORTARLESS CUTBACK WELDED WIRE FABRIC
BRICK PAVING ASPHALT PRIMER '/r" ASPHALT 6"X6"X6',
COBBLESTONE
NEOPRENE SENING BED
%" SAND TACK COAT (
SffiING BED

4" GRAVEL
(FLEXIBLE AASE)
' I ' W E E P SA T
1 WEEPS AT 610" O C. (E.W.)
610" O.C. (E.W.) 4" GRAVEL. MIN.. OVER 4" CONCRETE WITH
WELDED WIRE FABRIC
4" MIN 4" GRAVEL OVER ( R I G I DB A S E )
CONCRETE BASE COMPACTED EARTH

BRICK PAVING OVER CONCRETE BASE BRICK, CLAY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK COBBLESTONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE
PAVERS OVER CONCRETE BASE (oR GRAvELi BAsE
WELDED WIRE FABRIC\ /2" STONE PAVER
,2" ASPHALT SEfrING 4 2'' LONDON PAVERS 4" CONCRETE WITH
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS
(PRESSURE-TREATED) WELDEO WIRE FABRIC
I s.LB ROOFING FELT
3/r" ASPHALT
CONCRETE
SffiING BED

I 2" LONG SLIP

DOWELS AT 3',-O" O.C_

BRICK OR STONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON WALKS WOOD BLOCK PAVERS OVER CONCRET€ BASE
CONCRETE OR ASPHALT BASE OVER CONCRETE BASE

PAVERS OVER RIGID BASE

2" CONCRffE PAVER 3" DEEP CONCRETE
WITH HANDTIGHT
MORTARLESS JOINT
COMPACTED SAND
GEOTEXTILE

GEOTEXTILE

NOTE
Preformed lattice unit grids are used for storm runoff con'
trol, pathways, parking areas, and soil conservation.

MORTARLESS (FLEXIBLE) BRICK CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON GRIO PAVING BLOCKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
PAVING OVER SANO AASE WALKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
MORTARLESS PAVER UNOSCAPE TIMBERS
I " TO I %" SCREENINGS
OR SAND SffING BED 4- MIN. COMPACTED
GRAVEL BASE
GEOTEXTILE
SOLOIER COURSE

GRAVEL

-
BRICK, CUY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK CUT STONE PAVERS OVER SAND o"o t,""-
PAVERS OVER GRAVEL BASE AND GRAVEL BASE "o*.:3r
SITE.FORMED PAVER WALK

PAVERS OVER FLEXIBLE BASE

Dennis Carmichael; EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria, Virginia

Charles A. Szoradi, AIA: Washington. D.C.

PAVINGAND SURFACING
 t58 UnitPqverPqtternsqnd Detqils
GEOTEXTILE LAYER
72'TO 1" SAND
CUSHION SffiING BEO
GRAVEL PERMITER ORAINAGE \
WEEP HOLES AT | 6- O C r
EXPANSION JOINT
MORTARLESS

MIXEO RUNNING AND STACK BOND BASKET WEAVE BASKET WEAVE SOLDIER COURSE
EOGING EMBEDDED
IN CONCRETE FOOTING

4' GRAVEL COURSE

OVER COMPACTED EARTH

EDGE DRAINAGE AT FLEXIBLE PAVING

WEEP HOLES AT I 6" O- C

STACK BOND

PATTERNEO ASHLAR

4" CONCRETE BASE

OVER VAPOR BARRIER

4" GRAVEL OVER

COMPACTED EARTH

BASKET WEAVE OR PARQUET

EDGE DRAINAGE AT RIGID PAVING

UNIT PAVERS
N OTES
1. Drainpipes may be omitted at welldrained areas.
2. Provide posriive outflow for drainpipes.

^L -1- 3. Do not use unsatisfactory soil (expanding organic).

t 4. Satisfactory soil must be compacted to 95%.

5. Handtight paving joints are preleted over mortar joints
However, when mortar joints are required and freezin!.
and thawing are frequent. use lalex,modified mortar.
6. Concrete tooting for edging should be 10 to 14 in. wide
and 6 to I in. deep. lt is preferable to place the bottom of
the looting at freezing depth. lf the freezing depth is
BASKET WEAVE deeper than the bottom of the tooling, provide 4 in. ol
OIAGONAL RUNNING BOND gravel below the f@ting.
7. Interlocking pavers are availableanconcrete, hvdraulical\
pressed concrete. asphalt, and brick in different weighl
classifications, compressive strengths, surface textures
finishes, and colors. Consult local supoliers for avaitabi
ity.
8. Subject to the manufacturer's recommendations anc
local code requirements, interlocking concrete pavers
may be used in areas subiect to hea\y vehicle loads at
sDeeds of 30 to 40 moh.
9. Concrete interlockingpaver sizes are based on metilc
dimensions.
RUNNING BOND COMBINED HEXAGON CATHEDRAL 10.When pavershape permits,the hetringbonepatternis
recommended{or pavingsubjectto vehiculartrafljc.
ll.Contrnuouscurb or other edge restraintis requiredt.,
INTERLOCKI NG UNIT PAVERS anchorpaversin applicalionssubject to vehiculartraffic

DennisCarmichael;
EDAW,Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia

PAVINGAND SURFACING
 Fountoins
ond DecorofivePools 159
JET FINGER OPERATING MUSHROOM DANDELION
CLUSTER NOZZLE
NOZZLE LEVEL, TYP
4'l
f"

AERATING SPRAY HEAD SMOOTH BORE FORMEO

FOUNTAIN NOZZLE TYPES

AERATING
CONCRETE NozzLE
CURA \ 7"i n-sw; bEiAirNc
WATER \EATER LEVEL
LINE \

r .-1. n

SURGE REDUCTION
&+ DEVICES
FOUNTAIN LIP SECTIONS
TRIANGUUR CRESTED

VERTICAL
TURBINE

DISCHARGE
LINE

CONCRilE BASIN \\.\) TURBINE

SHAtr OR
DISCHARGE SUCTION
CONTINUOUS SHAtr
WATERSTOP
{HEAT WELD GRAVITY,FED
ALL SPUCES) WATER ENTRY
WATER SUMP
72" DIAMffER
STAINLESS STEEL REINFORCED
DOWEL (SLEEVE ON CONCRffE
ONE SIDE OF JOINT) VAULT (A' TO
12" THTCK)
SEALANT WITH 6" GRAVEL ON
BACKER ROD COMPACTED
PUMP IN ORY VAULT SUBGRADE
I
CONCRETE BASIN JOINT DETAILS PIPE SCHEMATIC FOR DRY VERTICAL TURBINE PUMP
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

GENERAL
Materials used in fountain and pool design should be durable
and resist damage caused by water, cracks, weather, stains,
and freeze-thaw cycles. Suitable materials include stone,
concrete, brick, tile, and metals such as copper, bronze, cast
iron, and steel- Fiberglass, acrylic, and waterproof mem-
branes such as PVC, EPDM, and butyl are commonly used.
OVERALL DESIGN CONSIOERATIONS
SCALE: Consider the size of the water feature in relation to
its surroundings.
BASIN SIZING: For width, consider fountain height and pre-
vailing winds. For depth, consider weight {1 cu ft water =
62.37 lb). Consider children playing near or in the pool. Allow
space for lights. nozzles, and pumps. Local codes may clas-
sify basins of a certain depth as swimming pools. Nozzle
spray may be wshioned to prevent ercessive surge.
EOTTOM APPEARANCE: When clear water is maintained.
bottom appearance is important. Enhance the bonom with
patterns, colors, materials, three-dimensional objects, or tex-
tures. Dark bottoms increase re{lectivity.
EDGES OR COPINGS: In designing the water's edge, con-
sider the difference belween the operating water level and
the static water level. Loosely defined edges (as in a pond)
make movement into the water possible both visually and
physically. Clearly defined edges (as in a basin) use coping to
delineate the water's edge
LIPS AND WEIRS: A lip is an edge over which flowing water
falls. A weir is a dam in the water that diverts the water llow
or raises the water level. lf volume and velocity are insuffi-
cient to break the surface tension, a reglet on the underside
oI the edge may overcome this problem.
WATER FORM FOR FOUNTAINS
STATIC WATER: Form and reflectivity are design consider-
ations for water contained in pools and ponds.
FALLING WATER: The effect ot falling water depends on
water velocity and volume, the container surface, and the
edge over or through which the water moves.
FLOWING WATER: The visual effect of a volume of llowing
water can be changed by narrowing or widening a channel,
placing objects in the path of the water, and changing the
direction of the llow or the slope and roughness of the bot-
tom and sides.
JETS: A pattern is created by forcing water into the air with a
jet. Jet types includ€ single orifice nozzles, tiered iets, aer-
ated nozzles, and formed j€ts in a wide va.iety of forms, pat-
terns, and types.
SURGE: A contrast b€tween relatively quiet water and a
surge (a wave or a splash) is made by quickly adding water,
raising or lowering an object or moving it back and forth in
the water, or introducing strong air currents to the water.
WATER EFFECTS SYSTEM
The water effects system comprises lhe pump, nozzles. and
piping that move water through the fountain. The combination
of nozzles, spray rings, eyeballs, pipes, weirs, and/or channels
in a fountain or pool requires a pump system to generate
water pressure, a suction line to bring water to the pump, and
a discharge line to mve water from the pump to the nozzles.
Fountaan nozzles come in four basic types: aerating nozzles,
sprav heads, smoothlcore nozzlgs, and formed nozzles- AeF
ating nozzles (also known as bubbler jets. geyser nozzles, or
foam nozzles) are characterized by white frothy water cre
ated by combining air and water. Spray heads are character-
ized by combinations of thin clear water jets comang from a
distribution head in the shape oI a fan or circle (suction or in-
line strainer required). Smooth-bore nczzles are character-
ized by a clear, thin solid stream jet of water that breaks up
into small droplets as it reaches its maximum height or dis-
tance. Formed nozzles are typified by a thin sheet of water
that originates in a jet of varied size and shape. The thinness
of the sheet of water makes the tolerances in the jet very
tight (suction or in-line strainer required).
Fountains are usually closed water systems, i.e., the pump
continuously cvcles the water in the basio to the nozzles and
back to the basin again. The pumps used to generate water
oressure and ooerate the water effects of a fountain are
largely powered by electric motors. Three types of pumps
are commonly used: submersible. dry centrifugal, and verti-
cal turbine oumps.
Submersible Dumos, used for low volume fountains, are
among the simplest pumping systems. A watertight electric
motor and oumo are set under the water oI the tountain
basin. The pump is usually equipped with a motor of '/20to 1
horsepower and moves a maximum o{ 100 gallons per
minute (gpm). This type of pump requires fewer pipe pene-
trations in the basin wall than dry centrifugal or vertical tur-
Drne pumps.
Dry centrifugal pumps, most commonly used for larger
water features, consist of an electric motor, a pump, a suc-
tion line, and a discharge line. This pump type ranges from
!/. to 100 horsepower.
Vertical turbine pumps, used in large water features, are able
to move tremendous amounts of water. Thev reouire a
pump and molor, a water sump located in an equipment
vault, a gravity feed mechanism to fill the sump. and a dis-
charge line. These pumps are more energy€lficient than
those with suction lines, as gravitv moves water to lhe
pump. The electric motor is not submerged in water, making
a watertight seal less important. Vertical turbine pumps can
move up to 5000 gpm.

SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
 160 Designof Fencesond Gotes
GENERAL 6" DIAMETER WOOD.
7- .STRAP HINGE
Selection critena to use when choosing a fence for a particu TYP (METAL VARIES)
lar application Include the degree of privacy or openness and FENCE POST
sense of enclosure desired; the aesthetic and stylistic nature (4X4OR6X6.
of the materials and setting: cultural and historical prece TYP.) WITH CAP
-6X6WOOO
dents; and security issues Consider, as well. materials and . RAIL AND POST
COMPRESSION
marntenance requirementsj soil condjtlons at the site and TYP (METAL VARIES)
BRACING
the foundations and anchorage required; topography, cli-
mate, and wind conditions at the site: the effects a desion 2X4
will have on neighbo.s and adjacenl natural features; the srle FRAME
of the property: and the permanence and cost of the struc-
ture-
\.
IO'
Local zoning and building codes often regulate the height of a RAIL ANO POST
{ence and its relationship to the prop€rty line. Fences should t'\-
not obstruct traffic sight lines at antersectionsbut should pre- --8 X l2 HIGH
vent access to potential danger (e.9., unattended children at CONCRETE OR
swrmmrng p@ls or pedestrians at a construction site). STONE

- BRICK

GATE STYLE
USUALLY CONSIS]ENT
WITH ADJACENT FENCING

MASONRY CURB

TYPICAL \^r'OOD GATE

I X PRESSURE.TREATED
WOOD CAP. IO" SLOPE. MIN

/- ALUMINUM
CAP

WIRE CURB

//-Posl

HEDGSHEDGEROW BERM OR STONE HEDGE

WOOD POST
MASONRY PIER
WOOD, VINYL, COMPACTED
OR METAL FILL
POST CAP DETAILS
FENCE
MATERIAL NOTES
ROCK UYER
FOR STABILITY
1. Gates permit personnel and vehicles to oass throuqh ba.
(OPTIONAL)
riers. Constructron technrques and opetation of gaies a,.
similar to door methods; refer to AGS chapter 8 for lur
WOOD CLEAT ther in{ormation on these subjects

wooo PosT
ll: 2. Compression bracing extending from the upper extremitv
FROSA LINE to the lower connection point of a gate is often required;
MASONRY WALLS WOOO FENCES /.
tension can be modulated through rods and turnbuckles
to prevent warpage and sagging. Large or heaw gates
GRAVEL can be titted with rollers or wheels to aid ooeration: metal
tracks mounted in paving prevent uneven surface wear.
STONE BASE 3. Hardware should be made of noncorrosive materials.
STONE BASE AND CLEAT
Latches with internal padlock hasps or locking mecha
nisms are available for securitv protection

wooo PosT

WOOD POST ELEVATED

U.SHAPED
GALVANIZED
CONCRETE
WITH SLOPED BASE
TOP
A retaining wall positioned to be invis ble to the viewer {a
:lll-
H ;::ffi:"I "ll1:'"":'" * ou
rside
rs TAP SEAL
AT POST
,|-lll CONCRETE

r|_ FOOTING

r3,1l,i,iT,Ll:"' -|t (4" To r 2"

\W
COMPACTED DIAMSER

a- ilgT ".' g,/ oawtns FILL

UNE FROST LINE

- /'FROST

GRAVEL

LOW BARRIER METAL FENCE STONE AASE ANO CONCRETE CAP

-
PHYSICAL BARRTER TYPES EMBEDDED POST DETAILS POST \^r'ITH CONCRETE FOOTING

Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D.C.

SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
 Metql Fences r6l
WROUGHT IRON
(STEELT RAIL ( lrl2 GATE
STEEL ANGLE
3/." X ]" INTERMEDIATE
SET IN MASONRY
RAIL (STEEL
CHANNEL OPTIONAL)
STOP

METAL PANEL
(OR CAST METAL GATE FRAME BAR SET INTO
MASONRY
ORNAMENT)
PIER (SN IN
REMOVABLE NONSHRINX
GRILLE
GROUT)
FASTENED
TO FRAME

HINGE
WELDED
TO ANGLE
.2" DIAMETER OR
.L" X'/<" PICK€TS. T\P
..- WASHER
PIN SET INTO
NONSHRINK
GROUT IN WALK
NOTE
SURFACE.MOUNTED HINGE GATE PIVOT
Materials used for this type of fence are steel or aluminum in
wrought or cast form. GATE DETAILS FOR \^/ROUGHT IRON
METAL BAR
RAIL END TOP RAIL FABRIC TIE
4" DIAMETER
POST. TYP,

I 2" PAVEO
STRIP TO
CONTROL
GRASS AND
SWING GATE WEEDS

BARBED WIRE

CORNER POST LINE POST GATEPOST

BARBED lv|RE ELECTRIC WIRE NOTE
For fences 5 ft and taller, a horizontal or diagonal brace, or equidistant and shouid not exceed 10 ft o.c
both, is used {or greater stability- Post spacing should be

CHAIN-LINK FENCE AND GATE_ELEVATION

CHAIN-LINK FENCE MATERIALS COATINGS

MATERIAL SIZES AVAILABLEi Protective
coatings. canbeused
suchaszincandaluminum,
on metal fencing. Also available are various decorative coat-
Wire gauge n o . 1 1o r n o . 9 ings, including vinyl bonding and organic coatings; these are
For especiallyrugged use, use no. 6 available f rom most manufacturers.

For tennis courts, no. 11 is generallyused VINYL-COATED \^/IRE FABRIC MESH

Wire mesh Vinykoated wire fabric mesh is suitable for residential, com-
Fortenniscouns,usually1%'or 1%'of mercial, and industrial applications. The mesh comes in five
steel that has been coated with sizes-1 , 1 r/a, 1)lr, 131o,and 2 in.-and in four gauges- l 1, 9,
dip galvanizing after weaving 6, and 3.

Top and bottom selvagemay be barbedor

3" X 3-. TYP., SPECIAL FENCING
WELDEO WIRE
Cornerand lawn fences, usually 2' outside diameter Thisfencingtypeusesverticalstrutsonly:
ORNAMENTAL:
MESH, STAPLED no chain-link fabric is required. Ornamental lencing is ideal
end Posts For estate lences, 2 in. to( low,2t/2in. lo(
for landscaping or as a barrier fence.
and 3' outside diameter for heaw
WELOED WIRE MESH
high
ELEPHANT FENCE: This fence can actuallv stoo an ele-
For tenniscourts 3' outsidediameter phant. hold back a rock slide, or bring a small truck to a halt.
Its size is specified as gauge 3 with a 2 in. mesh.
Ltneor Forlawnfences,1%'or 2'outsidediameter
intermediate SECURITY FENCE: This fabric is nonclimbable and cannot be
posrs For estate fences, etc., 2' 21 o( 21I H o( | penetrated by gun muzzles, knives, or other weapons. lt ls
, I 4', ,'
sections suitable as a security barrier for police stations, prisons,
reformatories. hospitals. and mental institutions. Mesh sizes
For tennis courts, 21/2' round outside diame-
tet ot 2'lo' H or I sections available are % in. for maximum security. 1/2 in. for high
security, 5/. in. for super security. and 1 in. for standard secu-
Galeposts Same or next size larger than corner posts; nty.
footings should be 3'6'deep

Top rails 1%' outside diameter except some lawn POST SIZES FOR HEAVY.DUTY
fence may be 134'outside diameter GATES
Middle rails On I2'4' fence, same as top .ail S\^/ING GATE
ASA
SCHEOULE 40 OPENINGS (FT)
Gates Single or double; any width desired
Accessible routes require clear opening (tN.)
width of 32'min. and 18'latchside clear-
ance; latches must be accessible

Post spacing Lineposts10'{' o.c.;8'{' o.c.maybe used Overl2to26

on heavyconstructron O v e r1 3 t o 1 8
*Sizes given are not standardbut represent the average
METAL FENCE TYPES srzesuseq.

DanielF. C. Hayes.AIA:Washington,
D.C

AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
 162 Wood Fences

- 5t4 X 2 WOOD SUTS

2X4TOPAND
7." X 2 SPACER
BONOM RAIL
2X4TOPAND
BOfrOM RAIL

5/4 X 6 PALES
ON 2" SPACING
3"O" TO
lo'o", TYP

4X4POST
4X4POST

PALISADE OR STOCKADE
BASKET WEAVE
2 X 5/4 UnrCE
32" EXTERIOR DECORATIVE CAP
GRADE PLYWOOD 2X3RAIL
4X4POST I X 4 PICKfrS
2X4TOPAND UTTICE
BONOM RAIL IXrWOOD
STOPS. TYP
2X6TOP
RAIL

2\44
DIAGONAL SUTS
ALTERNATING
2- ANO 4" 6X6POST
SUTS OR SIDING
I X 1 STOPSFOR 3/.- EXTERIOR
PANES TYP GRADE PLYWOOO PANEL
HORIZONTAL OR
PANEL VERTICAL LOUVERS
COMBINATION

\ivOOD PRIVACY FENCES

A" X 8"CAP ON
6X6POST

2X4WOODFRAME
2 X 5/4 WOOD PICKETS 4" OR 6"
(TOPS MAY BE CUT DIAMETER POSTS
SHAPES)

8. MASoNRY -\Kf J
oc concnrrE i)'.1 '
cuns -----f )-

PICKET OR SUT
.w 2 X 4 HORIZONTAL

4X4OR6X6POST
OF WOOD OR CONCRtrE

POST AND RAIL

POST AND BOARD (CORRAL)

4X4POST
3" DIAMETER POST

5/4 X 4 RA|L

I - OIAMETER
RAILS ANO PICKtrS 4" TO 6"
DIAMETER POST

ROT RESISTANT
ruINE

BAMBOO

l^r'OoD BOUNDARY TCTICES

NOTES
life io 25 to 30 years lor most species. Verify life expec-
1. Untreated wood materials such as wntte drpped galvanized steel is acceptable. Metal flanges,
oak or tamarack rancres and compalibilrty with frntshes and hardware wirh
can lasl up to lO Vears; cypress, redwood, and cleats, bolts, and screws are preferaDte lo common natls
sassatras manulaclurers
up- ro.t5 years; red and white cedar up to 20 years; 3 Vrrgin or recycled plastic may be used as an dllernatrve
dnd 2 Fasteners should be made of noncorrosive materials
orack rocusl and osage orange up to 25 years. such matenal tor the fences illustraied on thrs oaae.
Weathel as atumtnum alloys or stainless steel; high quality hot_
ano Insecl preservalive lreatments can extend
the useful

Daniel F. C. Hayes. AIA; Washington, D.C.

SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
 4. Locate assets stored on site but outside the facility while accommodating ADA requirements for parkrng
GENERAL within view of occupied rooms in the facilitY. spaces and their proximity to the building. Place parking
Consistent with the philosophy of crime preventron th.ough within view of occupied rooms or lacilities
5. Minimize the signage or indication ot assets on the
environmental design (CPTED). architects use a combrna- property. 11. llluminate the exterior of the building and/or exterior
tion of design and operational tools to address projects sites where assels are located.
6. Set the tacility a minimum of 100 {t from the tacility
requiring site security. These tools include access contlol of l 2 Secure access to power/heat plants, gas mains watet
boundary, iJ possible.
oedeslilans on the srte, nalural and mechanical sutueillance supplres. and electncal and phone service
7. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the
ol occuoants of the property, and clear detinrtron of pub|c
building. Design elements commonly used to create real and sym-
and private space through a combination of real and sym
bolic barriers to increase site security include bollards/planF
bolic ba(iers. 8. Minimize the number ol vehicle access points.
ers. curbs, vehicle barriers, gates, security lighting, and
9. Eliminate or strictly control parking beneath tacilities. signage.
When terroflsm, workplace violence, or slteet cnme ts pos'
l0.Locate parking as far trom the building as practrcal,
sible on a site, the U.S. General Services Administration
recommends the following for all government buildings: STANDARD
GATEHOUSE
'l. BOLLARD
Eliminate potential hiding places near the lacility.
2. Provide an unobstructed view around the facilitY.
LIGHTING
3. Place the facility within view ol other occupied facilities

ACTIVE
PERIMETER PROTECTION
VEHICLE
BARRIER

PEDESTRIAN
TURNSTILE

9-FOOT-HIGH FENCE
AND SLIDING GATE

PERIMETER ANTIRAM WALL

TYPICAL SALLY PORT

REINFORC
SECURED SITE PLAN

/ EXISTING
ASPHALT

t-'

CONCRETE
FOUNDATION

BOLLARD DETAIL TYPICAL RETAINING WALL FOR

SECURITY
CONCRETE BOLLARDS WITH I2,' TNTERMEDIATE
CONTINUOUS FOOTING

BOLLARDS CONCRETE PLANTER BARRIER NONMOUNTABLE CURB DETAIL

RETRACTABLE

Randall L Atlas. AlA. Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida

AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
 164 SiteSecurityBorriers

INTEGRAL STEEL
CABLE WITHIN
STEEL BEAM

CENTERLINE
STEEL o
REINFORCEMENT

{A REBARS AT
2'-O" O.C
(EPOXY IN PUCE)
ALTERNATING

CONTINUOUS
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION

GRADE

CONCRETE JERSEY BARRIER CABLE CRASH BEAM FENCE ON BARRIER WALL

CONCRETE

SLIDING GATE IS
Ltfl MORE EFFECTIVE
MECHANISM THAN SWINGING GATE

LIFT CRASH GATE

NOTE
This reinforcedsteel gate has the same cross-sectional prc SLIDING CRASH GATE
file as the concretebarrier.lt is usuallycontrolledremotely.
GATE AT JERSEY BARRIER

LItr PUTE

IMPACT
DIRECTION

TRAFFIC CONTROLLER
PORTABLE LIFT PI-ATE
BEAM-TYPE BARRICADE
FIXED LIF PUTE

N OTE
Active barriers at access/egress points in high security
areas should be fully engaged until vehicles are cleared for
passage. A visible signal light or drop arm should indicate
the status of the barrier to approaching vehicles. Operating
time should not exceed 3-4 seconds. In case oJ oower fail
ure, the barrer system must be able lo maintatn rts posrtror
to prevent access but be capable of manual operation; it
also should be connected to emergency power. Remote
controls should include a status indicator.

LIFT PLATE BARRICADE SYSTEMS RECTRACTABLE BARRIER

Edwin Daly, AlA, and Ellen Delaney: Joseph Handwerger, Architects; Washington. D.C
William G. Miner, AIA: Washinglon. D.C.
Randall l. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami. Ftorida

SITE
IMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES

INTRODUCTION
Plavrnqrs v tal lo lhe physrcal, emolronal and socral growth
ot ihilaren To encourage healthy growlh the plav environ-
ment must challenge children at their level of development
vet reassure them as they investigate their physical limits.
Lach staoe ol development tesutts in drtterenl types and
tevels oflnteraction and actrvrty The ouldoor pldy envlron
ment becomes increasingly important as the boundaries oJ
the child's world stretch beyond the home and primary
care. Ptav equrpment should be selected and designed to
attract. tascrnate,and sustain the Interesl of the age g.oups
who will use it, while promoting agility, strength and bal-
ance_
Plavrnqmav consrst of rmitation, role play. and fantasy play,
as *eil as -ote act,ue pulsulls. Space and equrpment must
be provided to encourage iumprng. climbing, swingrng, sltd-
ing, crawiing, hanging, running, building. sjtting, and meet-
ino. Des,oni shouid provide opponunities lor children to be
imlao,nati-veand to Interacl socially. Thrnk of lhe equlpment
as ttlexible. three-dimensional system that allows children
to move in every direction and challenges them wrth a con
sistently changing space.
Three age groups must be considered in designing plaY-
orounds. Toddlers (3 to 5 years) should be separated trom
6lder children by a fence they €n see through. This makes
it easier for caregivers to superyise the younger children
but allows the toddlers to feel part of things. Early elemen-
tary (6 to 9 years) and late elementary {9 to 12 years) chil-
dren have traditionally been separated, but another optron
is to design equipment that has several levels of ditficulty,
allowing use by both groups.
Most traditional play equipment is designed to stand alone
as single units, although thes may be hnked -logether.
Where soace or other conditions limit the scope of develoF
ment, such equipment is reful. However, because a
child's play activity tends to proceed in a continuous flow,
Inteqrated olav areas have proved more successful than
araioements ot individual items. Combining several mate'
rials. iolors. and textures also makes lhe play space more
inviting. A variety of options is awilable to the designer in
both custom and manufactured products-
DESIGN SUGGESTIONS
shouldmeetthen€ds andsus-
of a playground
Thedesign
tain the interest of the children who will use the site. Using
nonrepeltive elements and semitransparent features cre-
ates mvstery and surprise Dymmic, movable components
6
o
)
o J_+t
a
tr
--u
-l
it 4AI U)
FT-mfl-- 4 llll
o
)
o
o
E -ul L
n
fl I- f i ?t1r
GRO\/VTH AND DEVELOPMENT
N OTES
Two methods o{ expanding the capabilities o{ an integrated
playground are:
1. LINKING OF EOUIPMENT: Connecting activitv centers
with links that are in themselves play structures, thus
multiplying the possible uses of all of the structures
involved.
2. JUrrAPOSITIONING EOUIPMENT: Placing units close
enough together to generate interaction from one to the
other; also increases lhe play polential and interest of the
area.
Andrew Sumners: University Park, Maryland
allow more creattve opportunities for children, and a variety
of textures stimulates the sense of touch Children never
tire of playing with sand and water. Manutacturers ofter a
wide variety of water teatures for the playground, including
wading pools and tounlarns. Water elements also encour-
age adult interaction. Space for congregatlng can be pro-
vided as semienclosed retuge or open areas. Bridges add
interest to equipment and can provide connecttons
between structures: thev also creale more climbing and
refuqe soace. In addrtiol lo traditlonal plank bridges. there
are arched. rooe, suspensron, or tire bridges Suspension
bridges may be designed to meet specifications provided in
the Americans with Disabilities Act {ADA}.
lf a theme such as a ship, castle, or fort is incorporated in
the playground, the equipment wiil automatically encourage
the child's imagination. However, don't replicate these
themes too closely. Leave most of the creation to the child
Adults should not be separated from the plaY area. Ample
seating should be provided, and the equipment should be
interesting to adults. too, srnce therr presence gives secu-
rity, instruction, and approval
Practrcalconcerns should be taken Into account in desrgn-
ing a playground: how does the equipment appear {rm the
suirounding area? What are the views from the site? How
much noise will travel to and from the playground? The
design should consider the time ol day the equipment will
be used and be suilable for use all year. Drainage is impor-
tant, especially around swings and berms, and shade is
especially desrrable over metal sldes.
SAFETY AND MATERIALS
No playground is completely safe. The potential for acci-
dents is inherent in the element of risk involved in most
play. Nonetheless, playground equipment should provide
challenging activities in the salest way possible.
Round, square, and rectangular timber should be pine or fir
(oak warps. redwood splinters). Color should be in the form
of stain, not paint. and all edges should be beveled or
rounded. Steel pipe, sheets, chain, and drums can be vinyl
coated. Chain, rope, and tires are available in plastic. Use of
concrete and stone should be kept to a minimum Hard-
ware should be galvanized, and joints and connections cov'
ereo or recesseo.
TIRE NETS
I
o LOG SUSPENSION
SPIRAL
INTEGRATED PLAY AREA
AND AMENITIES
IMPROVEMENTS
SITE
Most important, a bed of absorbrng ground cover, such as
oine bark or wood chips (12 in. deep), pea gravel (10 in
deep), or sand (10 in. deep), should be installed beneath the
equioment. Hardwood chips and rubberized surfacing are
easier for persons with disabilities to travel over' Asphalt,
packed dirt, and exposed concrete are not acceptable play
surfaces.
A safety zone of at least 4 ft should surround the entire play
area, with 7 ft in tront of slides, I ft in tront ol swangs, and 4
to 5 ft on the sides of the swings. Allow 65 to 70 sq ft of
play space per child.
WITH
EQUIPMENT FOR CHILDREN
DISABILITIES
The ADA has raised a new understanding of the need to
include children with disabilities in play activity wherever
possible. Several elements will encourage the- participation
of children with disabilities. Bump stairs, lransfer platforms,
accessible suspension bridges, and slides (provided there is
enough lractionl, as well as components that can be manip-
ulated lrom a wheelchair, are all useful. Many persons with
disabilities have some upperbody mobility, and horizontal
ladders and rings can help children strengthen the upper
body. Ramps and handrarls should be used wheiever possi
ole_
MANUFACTURED VERSUS
CUSTOM EQUIPMENT
Manufacturers of playground equipment offer products in
timber, plastic, or powd€r{oated steel. Available as eather
individual items or in predesigned arrangements, these
Droducts are durable and easY to install and offer a variety
of accessories. Because theY are designed as modular
units, they can be used to create a limitless number of
comoositions and can be expanded at a later date. Some
have no need lor loundations. All products must conform to
the Consumer Product Safety Code.
Customiesigned equipment has the advantage of b€ing
site and situation specific. In addirion. the manipulation of
landforms by the designer can result in a much more lnter
esting and creative site. Most of the materials used by
manufacturers are readily available to designers, making
custom design of equipment an affordable option
rl
POLE
POLE
BRIDGE
- CHAIN
NET
TUBE SLIDE
CLIMBER
 166 Siteond SlreetFurnishings

-"<<Y/ *
CONCRETE TREE GRATE CAST METAL TREE GRATE CAST METAL TREE GUAROS
TREE PROTECTION

*<
UI

CONCRETE coNcRETE (W|TH LtcHT) STEEL (WITH BIKE RACK) STEEL CAST METAL
BOLLARDS

ttJ
r/1\r I '{@)
+---*
| /---< ----tr
Fj:.''
H
F+<
F,r:

E:
I I
I
|
I

I
I
|-tl
F:---+--
ll::'
'
l',: | |
[,." | |
|
|
| 36-
llll"'
t.'
l:."
[....
[':.
t'...
t!-
E ::. |- t
I
|
I
I I
|
|
I
|
I
|
|
I12^lt
k_/
METAL CAST METAL
LANDSCAPE LIGHTS

II 1
)

METAL M ETAL
STEEL LEANING POST STEEL LEANING PIPE CAST METAL DRAIN COVERS (PROJECTED) (FLUSH)
MISCELLANEOUS DRIVE / WALKOVER LIGHTS

RichardJ- Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville, Maryland

SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
 Siteond StreetFurnishings 167

jk--
+--"--J
( )

I l--- --l
lllHl
lllAl
ll:l
ltl
t-l
ffi 1_('
I5"

J- (--
+-<
ll0 m
n
L.zl

t|ill
ltu It
ftN D
U
CAST METAL
LSIffiLBLm STEEL WIRE ANO FIAERGT-ASS CAST STONE
\-
wooD

TERRA-COTTA OR CAST STONE

l,
VARIES

*--------------\
\ ---:

BANNER AND POLE

INFORMATION-RELATEO FURNISHINGS

Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.

SITE ANDAMENITIES 2
IMPROVEMENTS
 t6 8 Gqrden Structures

PLANTING SOIL
-t x3
DRAINAGE
GRAVEL
l
CLEAR

TAPERED2XAROOF
RAFTERS

2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RAFTERS THAT FRAME
OVER POSTS
COPPER SCALLOPEO (4) I/2'' DIAMETEF
ROOF SHINGLES DRAIN HOLES

FLUID APPLIED
WATERPROOFING
INSIOE ALL SIDES
AND BONOM

BUILDING PAPER
I,/2 THtCK WOOD BOX

3 X 3 PRESSURE.
I X 2 SLATS TREATED WOOD FRAME

\^/OOD PLANTER
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RANERS OVER POSTS
COPPER SHINGLES
BUILDING PAPER
2XARAN
HURRICANE
ANCHOR
1X2
(2)2X4TOPPLATE SUTS

WOOD COLUMN
COVER
12)2X
4X4WOODPOST PUTE

I X4RAILCAP

2 X 4 SUBRAIL r x6
wooD
2X2 FASCIA

4X4
POST

2X4BONOMRAIL
wooD
COLUMN
COVER

CONCRETE
sua GAZEBO DETAIL

4X4 WOOO

WOOD COLUMN
COVER -
GAZEBO tt"" DtA.
ANCHOR
3/e" x 6" x 12 X 4 DECKING
2 X 12 LEOGER AT 2X6JOISTON
METAL HANGER
2 X 4 EDGER ALUMINUM
BOLTED
ro2xtz

V\/OOD DECK PLATFORM PLATFORM FOOTING DETAIL GAZEBO DETAIL

Gary Greenan;Miami. Florida

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvill€.Maryland

SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
 Gorden Structures 169
wooD cAP.
COPPER CAP FASTENED AS
coPPER CAP - --\ NECESSARY

2X tOJOIS

EPOM
PONO
LINER
:\
wooD
TIMBERS

VIOUS
FELT PAD
'/2" DtA STAtNLEss

(MIN 2 BOLTS - UNDISTURBED

' OR COMPACTED
PER CONNECTION)
EARTH
6X6
EARTH BACKFILL
., STEP TO ACCOMMODATE
] WOOD FACING FOR PONO EDGE
AROUND POS] BALUST WATER LILY PUNTERS

r xa

EPOXY'
COATED
#5 REBAR
THROUGH
POST

CONCRETE
FOOTING

-€POM
Z POND
pine
All wood is pressure-treated LINER

WOOD TRELLIS TRELLIS DETAIL

CAST METAL FOUNTAIN

FASTENERS
WATER LEVEL AT 12 0.c.

WATER PUMP
WATERPROOF PIPE
OVERFLOW
EPOXY COATING

METAL
PRESSURE

AOHESIVE
STRIP
CONCRETE
FOUNOATION

POND
LINER

- UNDISTURBED
OR COMPACTED
EARTH
coNcRErE I L-_-\
""'.'::::i:?:.\
RIM FOR POND
WITH REINFORCING -___\
I ,/
STONE

FOUNTAIN SECTION

MORTAR CONCRETE WATER LEVEL

STONE SURFACE WATER LILY
2'' PVC DRAINPIPE WITH
AND EOGE IN PUNTER n,llu)
{l
--_G2

IMPERVIOUS
STEP TO FELT PAD
WATERPROOF
_----J ACCOMMOOATE
-€POM
EPOXY COATING
WATER PUMP WITH
ELECTRICAL JUNCTION BOX
WATER LILY
PUNTERS a ll#R
GRAVEL DRAINAGE BED UNDISTURBED
UNDISTURBEOOR
COMPACTED EARTH OR COMPACTED EARTH

POND DETAILS
POND SECTION

GaryGreenan;Miami,Florida
Maryland
Richa.dJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,

AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
 t70 EmbonkmentStqbilizqtion
GENERAL
Embankment stabilization is required when steep slopes are
subject tO erosion from stormwater runotf or flowing
streams. Erosion can damage the site and pollute water-
<\
2_J
ways with sediment

The need for mechanical stabilization can be reduced

through careful site gradings that divert or slow the velocity
of runoff. Avoid dislurbing stable, natural stream banks.
Check with regulatory agencies before planning to grade
stream banks. wetlands, or tloodplains.

Numerous proprietary products are available tor stream bank

stabilization and erosion control; consult manufacturers. SEED AND MULCH
OR COVER HILL
SIDE WITH
NOTES
EROSION,CONTROL
1. Control erosion during construction with sitt fences, BUNKff
straw bales, sediment ponds, and seeding and mulching.
Follow local and state guidelines and regulations-
2. Lin€ channels with erosion-resistant material (sod. stone
raprap, erosion{ontrol blanket). Channel dimensions and
lining should be designed for expected runoff.
3. At the bottom of lhe slope drain channel, the flow should f <x\H"
be conveyed to a storm sewer, detention pond, con-
structed wetland, or other control method that meets
regurarons.
DrvERsroNoi nurorr
AT TOP OF SLOPE
DIRECTS WATER TO
ORAIN CHANNEL
\.!"J
STEEPEST SLOPE
FOR MOWING

STEEPEST SLOPE WITHOUT

STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
WITH LOCAL CONDITIONS)

TERRACE OR BENCH LONG

SLOPES TO SLOW RUNOFF

GRADING AND EROSION CONTROL

ANCHOR AT TOP OF SLOPE

GROUT-FILLEO FABRIC-
FORMED REVETMENT OVER
SAND OR FILTER FABRIC

STEEPEST RIPRAP SLOPE WITHOUT

STRUCruRAL SUPPORT (VARIES !/
WITH LOCAL SOIL CONDITIONS)

\ \\\ --
arogNctngenrrc
MSHODS INCLUOE
PLANTING, LOG
DEFLECTORS,
WILLOW POSTS

GABION (CLOSED
/ 9;' WIRE BASKfr FILLED
IN PUCE WITH STONE)

a ^&
^g--;9"
0 3.""'c

oo'

THICKNESS OF STONE
RIPRAP UYER IS GREATER
THAN MAXIMUM STONE SIZE -J"o'
.*-z dz
-q

GRADED SAND AND GRAVEL FILTER

5r
OR FILTER FABRIC {Us;E UNDER
ALL TYPES OF PROTECTIVE UYERS) DIRECTION OF

STREAMBED

:PTREAMFLOW
EMAED TOE OF RIPRAP
BELOW DEEPEST EXPECTED
SCOUR, MINIMUM 2@% OF
RIPRAP UYER THICKNESS

STREAM BANK STABILIZATION

James E. Sekela.P.E.;Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania

RETAINING
WALLS
 RetoiningWolls 171
GENERAL MAXIMUM
SLOPE
Retaining walls are designed and construcled to resist the
thrust of the soil, which can cause the wall to tail by over GRAVEL FILL
turning, sliding. or settling. In stone walls, resistance to soil FOR DRAIN
thrust can be helped by bartering the stonework {that is, FLAT STONES
recessing or sloping the masonry back in successive PREFERRED
courses). (25% OF STONES
Z MUST BE
HEADER-TYPE
Garden-type retaining walls, usually no higher than 4 ft, a.e
LENGTH
made lrom small building units of stone, masonry, or wood.
For higher walls, reinfo.ced concrete is mo.e commonly
= 2h rtMEs
THICKNESS)
used. Terracing may be built with walls of wood, stone. I
brick, or concrete.

Walls less than 2 ft high do not require drains or weep holes.

Pressure-treated wood is recommended for any desigrr in SLOPE
JOINTS
which wood is in contact with the ground. Redwood may be
INTO HILL
substituted it desired.

@
l1
PUCE STONES
UNDISTURAED
SOIL (BELOW LINE)

NOTE
Staggervenical ioints trom course to course 6 in. min. hori-
zontally.The thicknessot the wall at any point shouldnot be
less than half the distancefrom that ooint to the top of the STONE BANK
wall-
STONE OR
+w | | ler DRY STONE WALL BRICK COPING

OVERTURNING SLIOING SETTLING GALVINIZED

BRICK ROWLOCK
WALL TIE
NOTES FILTER FABRIC
'1.
H = height of wall, A = area of tooting. W = composite GRAVEL FILL
GRAVEL FILL
FOR ORAIN
weight of wall; T= lateralthrust of soil on wall; d = widrh FOR ORAIN
of base of mll; Mo = overtumingmoment ot a retaining 4- STONE OR
wall; Ms = 1s5ls116g morenu w = lateralforce on wall in FACE BRICK
(OMTT ONE BRICK VENEER
psf: 8C = bearingcapacityof soil. VERTICAL JOINT
2. The overturningmoment of a retainingwall (equalto T x AT 4rO- O.C. WEEP HOLES
HF) is resistedby the resistingmoment of lhe wall. For FOR WEEPS) AT 410" O.C..
symretrical s@tions. the resistingmoment equalsW x
d2. Using a safety factor of 2, MR > 2 x Mo (assume33'
| 2- CMU
angleof reposeof soil).
3. The lateral (sliding) lhrust ol soil on a wall must be
resisted.The resistingforce is the weight of the wall mul-
tiplied by the c@fficient of soil triction. Using a safety
iactor of 1.5.W > 1.5T,where T = (w x H2)2.
4- X I6- REINFORCED
4. The bearing€pacity of th€ soil must resistverticalforces coNcRsE PAD iAcrs
(senling)-theweight of the wall plus any soil bearingon AS MOWING STRIP)
the baseplus any veni€l componentof the soil thrust for A" X A' CONCRETE FOOTING
a wall with any surcharge.Usinga safetyfactor of 1.5, BC WITH MO i3 REBARS,
> l.5wA. SET BELOW FROST UNE

FORCES RESISTED BY RETAINING BRICK WALL STONE/BRICK VENEER WALL

\/vALLS
GALVANIZED CONCRETE DEADMAN
ROUND WOOD POLES AT EVERY OTHER POST,
4-O"O.C.\ Sff SIDE BY SIDE Sfr OUTSIDE ANGLE OF
REPOSE OF SOIL
HORIZONTAL TIE
4X60R6X6
GRAVEL FILL
ROD
HORIZONTAL TIMBERS,
FOR DRAIN
UY WITH OVERUPPING GRAVEL FILL
JOINTS FOR DRAIN

2 X HORIZONTALS

IMW
'c:*,Ar610'ocr

(OR CONT!NUOUS
HORIZONTAL DEADMAN)

GRAVEL FILL
FOR DRAIN

ST ON UNDISTURBED SOIL

4 X 4 POSTS SET SIDE

BY SIDE ANO SUNK 2'.O'
FOR WALG UP TO 2'.O" HIGH, USE
INTO SOIL WILL RETAIN
4 X 4 POSTS AT 4!O- O.C.:
2 0" oF sotL
FOR WALLS FROM 2IO" TO 4:O"
HIGH. USE 4 X 4 POSTS AT 3'€" O.C.:
FOR HIGHER WALE- USE 6 X 6
POSTS AT 310- O C

SOIL TERRACING HORIZONTAL TIMBERS VERTICAL POLES POST AND BOARDS

NOTE
A structural engineer should be consulted fo. the linal
desrgn.

WOOD RETAINING WALL

DonaldNeubauer,
P. E.; NeubauerConsulting
EngineersjPotomac,Maryland

WALLS
RETAINING
 172 Concrete RetoiningWqlls

a"
. rMtN.
zt suoptrc \ sLoPtNG
2-MlN+ I 7 BACKFILL
+>t .'
t t l t /
(SURCHARGE)
BACKFILL
(SURCHARGE)

GRAVEL FILL
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
F FOR DRAIN
I
q
U
I
z
'.llil FILTER
FABRIC
FILTER
FAARIC

I
o I TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT

DRAINPIPE
; DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO
SLOPED TO OUTLfl AWAY
OUTLET FROM WALL VERTICAL EXPANSION JOTNT
AWAY
(OPTIONAL
(OPTIONAL 2- WEEPS AT
2" WEEPS AT 410" O.C.)
4 -O" O.C.) --+2'MtN
a

I
O 67 H (LEVEL BACKFTLL)
FROST DEPTH
FROST
O€PTH
-o . 5 5 H
I .25 H (SLOPING BACKFIT I .@ H (WITH SURCHARGE)
L.TYPE RETAINING WALLS

o.oa H NOTES
A- MIN 'l-
\sLoPrNG Provide control and/or construction joints in mcr€te
/ retaining walls about every 25 ft. Every fourth @ntrol
BACKFILL
ll'/ (SURCHARGE) and/or constructionjoint should be an expansionjoint.
Coateddowels should be used if avsragewall height on
either side of a joint is different.
FABRIC 2. Consult with a structuralengineerfor final design of all
concreteretainingwalls.
F
I GRAVEL FILL 3. Concretekeys may be requiredbelow retainingMll f@t-
I FOR DRAIN Ing to prevenl sladanqin high walls and those built on
I moist clay. VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
CONCRSE 4. T = the lateralthrust of the soil on the wall in the drawing
I RSAINING of a gravityretainingwall. RETAINING WALLJOINTS
o
o
I DRAINPIPE
SLOPED TO
OUTLET AWAY
FROM WALL
(OPTIONAL
2- WEEPS AT
4,O' O.C.)
-f"- PRELIMINARY DIMENSIONS FOR CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS
o.5 T i-T--- ",t. APPROXIMATE CONCRETE DIMENSTONS (FT-tN.)
fi .o T wtTH
FROST DEPTH BACKFILL SLOPING DlA. = 29o 45i (tV.r | ) BACKFILL LEVEL-NO SURCHARGE
o.5 H
T=O.l3H (0.67 H W|TH HEIGHTOF WI DTH OF WIDTH OF HEEL { E I G H T O F WIDTH OT t/lr'IDTH OF H EEL
(o_tTHwtTH
SURCHARGE) WALL (H) B A S E ( B ) WALL (a) (b) (c) Nr'ALL (H) BASE (B) WALL (A) (b) (c)
SURCHARGE)
3{ 2-a 0-9 t-5 0s 3{ 2-1 0€ 1-0 0-5
GRAVITY RETAINING \iVALL
44 3-5 0-9 24 G8 4-0 2a u{ l-7 0-5
5{ 4€ Gl0 2$ 1-2 fi 3-3 0€ 2-2 0-5
m 54 G10 2-11 1-7 6{ G8 2-5 0,8
74 0-10 3-5 74 0€ 24 'I -O

8{ 74 l{ ?9 24 8{ 4€ 1{ 2-A 1{
LEVEL
BACKFILL
7$ l{ 24 9{ u2 1{ 1{
I TEMPERATURE
I REINFORC€MENT
r0{ 8€ 1-0 4-9 2-9 10{ 5-9 'l{
3-7 1-2
I l1{ l1{ l-l 7-2 2-9 l1{ G7 -l 4-1 1-5
GRAVEL FILL
I FOR DRAIN 124 124 7-10 124 7-3 2 4-l
d
o DRAINPIPE t3{ 14 &5
SLOPED TO
3-3 | 3-0 7-1 0 5-0 1-B
OUTLET AWAY 14-o t4,0 ,5 9-1 -3
I
FROM WALL
35 I4-0 8-5 5-5 1-9
(OPTIONAL 1$0 15{
2- WEEPS AT
3-9 15,0 9{ 5-9 1 - 11
4 -O" O.C.t 'r6{
--T." 16-0 7 1G5 44 16-0 9-7 -5 6-2 24

"'" 174
t8{
14
18{
1€
1-10
11 - 1

€ 4S
174
18-0
10-3
10-10 6
6,7
1-1
2-2
2-3
LINE
r9{ 19{ 1 - 11 124 4-9 r 9-0 I t-c -7 2-5
204 2G0 24 m 20-o 124 7-r0 2-6
STRUCTURAL
214 21.o 2-2 s3 21-O 12-7 -9 a-2 2-A
STEEL REINFORCEMENT 224 22-O 24 144 tu 22-0 l-1 1 a-7 2-9
T-TYPE RETAINING vt/ALL

DonaldNeubauer.P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;potomac,Maryland

RETAINING
WALLS
 ReinforcedCMUond PrecqsfConcrefe RetoiningWqlls 173
NOTES SLOPING BACKFILL S ARE GROUTED
(sEE NOTES FOR DESTGN) --\__-,
AND REINFORCEO
1. Materials and construction practices for concrete ma
IN RffAINING WALLS
sonry retaining walls should comply with "Euilding Code /-cR^oE
Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACl
5 3 1) . -
2. Use fine grout when grout space is less than 3 in. in)he
ruO {4 BARS IN
least dimension. Use coarse g.out when the least dr
BOND BEAMS AT
mension of the grout space is 3 in. or more | 6- O.C. OR JOrNT
3. Steel reinlorcement bars should be clean, free from REINFORCEMENT
harmful rust. and in compliance with applicable ASTM AT 8" O.C.
standards for deformed bars and steel wire.
4. Alternate vertical bars may be stopped at the mid height 2h" rN a- wALs,
3" IN 12" WALLS
oI the wall. Vertical reintorcement is usually secured in
place after the masonry work has been completed and
before grouting.
5. Designs shown are based on an assumed soil weight
(vertical pressure) of 100 pcf. Horizontal pressure is DOWEL (SAME
based on an equivalent fluid weight for the soil of 45 SIZE AND SPACING
pcf. AS V,BARS)

6. The walls illustrated are designed with a safety factor

F,BARS
against overturning of not less than 2 and a safety factor
against horizontal sliding of not less than 1.5. Computa-
tions in the table tor wa,l herghts are based on level --iF ,' ,,*
-F
backfill. One method of providing for additional loads
from sloping backfill or surtace loads is to consider them
as additional depth of soil. In other words, an extra load #3 BARS
oi 300 psf can be treated as 3 ft of extra soil weighing AT t 2- O.C NOTE
100 psf. Long retainingwalls shouldbe brokenwith verticalcontrol
7. The top of masonry retaining walls should be capped or ioints into panels20 to 30 ft long. These panelsmust be
otheffiise protected to prevent water from entering designedto resistshearand other lateraltorceswhile per-
SECTION
untilled hollow cells and spaces. lf bond beams are mittinglongitudinalmovement.
used. steel is placed in the beams as the wall is con- DIMENSIONS AND REINFORCEMENT SHEAR-RESISTING CONTROL JOINT
structed. Horever, horizontal ioint reinforcement may FOR CMU RETAINING WALLS
be placed in each ioint {8 in. o.c.) and the bond beams
omrtted. H B T V.BARS F.BARS
8. Allow 24 hrs tor masonry to set betore grouting. Pour 8' *3@ 32' *3 @ 27'
groul in 4 ft layers. with one hour between each pour.
Break long walls into panels 20 to 30 ft long with vertical l0' #4@ 32' *3 @ 27'
control joints, Allow seven days lor finished walls to set 4'€' l0' 12', *5@ 32' #3 @ 27'
before backfilling. Prevent water from accumulating
behind walls by reans ol 4 in. diameter weep holes r0' t4' #4 @ 16' #4 @30'
spaced 5 to 10 ft apan (with screen and graded stone) 6'{', 12' #6 @ 24' s4 @ 25'
or by a continuous drain with lelt{overed open joints
combined with waterproof ing. 12' 3'€' l0' 14', *4 @ 24' *3@ 25'
9. When backfill height exceeds 6 ft. provide a key under 6'{' 12' 15' #4 @ 16' *4 @30'
the f@ting base to resist the tendency of the wall to
6'€' 12' to #6@ 24', #4 @ 22'
slide horizontally.
10. Heavy equipment used in backfilling should not come 1'4' 4 ' - 1 0 ' 12' 18' #5@16' #5 @ 26'
closer to the top of the wall than a distance equal to the 8',{' 5'-4' 12' 20' #7 @ 24' #5 @ 21'
wall height.
8',8' 5',-10' 14' 22', #6@8' *6 @ 26'
1 1. A structural engineer should be consulted for the linal
deslgn. 9'-4' l4' 24' #8@8' *6 @ 21'

TYPICAL CANTILEVER RETAINING PRECAST CONCRETE

WALL

ANGLE OF
SURCHARGE PRECAST
VARIES TIE

SLOPE (BATER

r"',u,
r" ,
VARIES ( I :4

DEAOMAN

I
V; DOUBLE.DEPTH

I CU trOF
4" DIAMffER CRUSHED
WEEP HOLES, STONE OR
5!O" TO GRAVEL AT
to-o" o.c., EACH WEEP
HORIZONTALLY HOLE

UNDISTURBED

SECTION

N OTE

For retaining walls taller than a cenain height, double- or tri-

pleiepth walls may be needed. Fill composition varies from
crushed stone to granular soil, according to condilions. Con-
sult a structural engineer.

PRECAST CONCRETE CRIB WALL

DRAINAGE DETAILS FOR RETAINING \^/ALLS SYSTEM

P.E.;NeubauerConsultingEngineers;
DonaldNeubauer, Potomac,Maryland

WALLS
RETAINING
174 FreestqndingMosonryGorden Wqllsond Coping Detoils

GRAOE EOUAL
ON BOTH SIDES

TERMINATION

NOTES
1. Design straight garden walls (without piers) with suffi-
cient thicknessto providelateralsrability.
2. To resist 10 psf wind pressure,the height above gradq
(H) and thickness(T) should relate as follows: H < .75T'
(H andT are in inches).
NOTES
1. The radius of curuature (R) of a 4in. thick serpentine wall The running bond brick pattern is best {or serpentine
should be no more than twice the height of the wall wails.
above finished grade. No r€inforcing steel is used in this type of wall.
2. Th€ depth (D) of curvature of a s€rpentin€ wall should be Serp€ntine walls are not recommenoed for use in seismic
no less than half the heighr of the wall above grade lmax. areas.
height = 5 ft 0 in., typical).

STRAIGHT GARDEN WALLS SERPENTINE GARDEN WALLS

EUSTIC SEAUNT
%% 2z
'% hmrun[-l
r2" TO
COPING (CAST t6---><
STONE SHOWN)
F
GALVANIZED I
OR STAINLESS
o
E
STEEL OOWEL I
(2 PER frONE) )
FUSHING
NECESSARY)
(IF -
BRICK
t--l [-l
STONE

COPING {ROWLOCK
BRICK SHOWN)

GALVANIZED
OR STAINLESS
STEEL ANCHOR
PANEL WALL
REINFORCEMENT
STEEL, TYP,

BRICK PANEL
(NO FOOTING
WALL
UNDER)
e@e
TERRA.COTTA

24" O.C

FUSHING
PIER REINFORCING
STEEL rlllt n fi|-)
\ ptEn roottruG
( I A- TO 24- DIAMtrER)
l--l t--l
BRICK (NO DRIP SHOWN)
NOTE Erfl /\
L.-r.'--l
In general, throughffill flashing should be used immediately
under the coping of garden walls. However, this decision
depends on several factors, including th€ type of coping PIER-ANO-PANEL SYSTEM
l--l
CAST STONE/CONCRETE
f--_]
used, the number of ,oints used, and ths climatic condilions
of the area (whether there is high or low precipitation and NOTES
the number of frezing and thawing cycl6s).
1. Copings and caps prev€nt water from entering the inner

w-- .%-,%=-,
COPING DETAILS rellfrom abov€ by shedding water to the sides. where it
is thrown clear of the ffill, usually by means ot a drip
REQUIRED EMBEDMENT FOR PIER €dge.
2. Anchor coping 6 necessary. lf the coping material is dif-
FOUNDATION*
(to PsF) ffi''t(ffi"t(ffi':
',,_m l.mi\,M/
.,ru,i
ferent from the wall material, compare their thermal and
moisture expansion characteristics and make provisions
fordifferential movement,

\,%/ W__-/ COPING TYPES FOR VI/ALLS

w%w PIER REINFORCING

WIND LOAD WIND LOAD
STEEL*

(lo PsF) (r5 PSF)

PIER TYPES
WALL HEIGHT (FT)

'For wall sizes shom within heaw lines, a 24-in.diameter

NOTE
loundalion is required. All other values have been obtained
The pier€ndfanel wall is composed of a se.ies of relatively
using an 18in. diamet€r foundation.
thin (4-in. thick) reinforced brick masonry panels. which are
NOTE braced intermittently with masonry piers. This wall is rela-
tively easy to build and is economical because of the narrow-
To tigure the vertical spacingand size of reinforcingsteel ness of the panels. lt is also €asily adapted to varying terrain
requiredfor panelwalls.considerthe probablewind loadand conditions. shown wrthrn heavy ftnes, i 2 x 16 In. prers are
the wall span between piers- Consult a structuralengineer
for assistance. PIER-AND-PANEL GARDEN livALLS

DennisCarmichael;EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria,Virginia

RETAINING
WALLS
 Freestonding
MosonryGordenWolls,SeotWolls,ond Slep Detoils 175
FREESTANDI NG GARDEN WALLS Design factors that should be addressed when designing /- 2 X 6 PRESSURF.TRFATFn
freestanding garden walls include these: WOOD OR REDWOOD
Freestanding garden walls provide a physical or visual barrier
-.---! x4wooD
to outdoor areas. Walls higher than eye level (approximately Oualrty and durability of materials (unit material, mortar, %" x 2' wooo SPACER
5 ft 6 in.) provide both a physical and visual barrier; typically and.einforcement) and detailing when exposed over time 3/S" DIAMETER
they are situated near and designed to blend with an adia- to rain. wind, sun, thermal movement, and degradation
cent architectural structure. Walls designed under eyb'le,/el GALVANIZED
provide a sense of partial enclosure while maintaining a Appearance of both sides of the wall THREADED ROD

view, which is sometimes framed by the wall design. Foundation design WOOD PLUG
Adiacent plantings wooD
SCREW.
TYP.
_SLOPEDOWN %" GALVANIZED
STEEL PUTE
tl 1 %" STUCCO
3" DIAMNER
GALVANIZED
COPING WITH 8" OR r2"
STEEL POST
DRIP. EACH SIOE CMU WALL o
%" DIAMETER
BRICK HEADER X 6" LONG
REBAR (AS
(AS PER BOND GALVANIZED
NECESSARY)
PAfrERN) UG SCREW IN
LEAD ANCHORS
PAVERS
FACE BRICK

: %" SAND
SEfrING BED

CONCRETE 6" COMPACTED

FOOTING AGGREGATE
BASE
CONTINUOUS STONE PAVING
FROSI
WELD
LINE

WOOD SITE BENCH

SOLIO MASONRY STUCCO OVER CMU

STONE COPING
(2 STAINLESS
STEEL DOWELS
PER STONE)
BRICK COPING
WITHDRIP STONE VENEER
(4" MIN- DEPTH)
MASONRY
FACE BRICK ANCHORS

GROUT REINFORCED
CONCRETE
REBARS (AS
NECESSARY) BRICK VENEER SEAT WALL
STONE PAVERS
CONCRETE ON REINFORCED
FOOTING CONCRETE SUB TOP AND BOtrOM POSTS FOR %" THICK
RAIL_Sff IN 2" DIAMETER EXPANSION
HOLE. ALL WITH GROUT JOINT FILLER

STONE OR PRECAST
STEP SET IN MORTAR

%" RADIUS OF
CURVATURE AT
LEADING EDGE
(ADA)

GROUTED REINFORCED MASONRY STONE VENEER OVER REINFORCED CONCRETE

FREESTANDING MASONRY GARDEN WALLS

ARTCK PAVER SET INTO ]' TO 2' %" EXPANSION JOINT FILLER
SANO OVER FILTER FABRIC STONE RISER
ANO COMPAqED FILL -......._--
STONE STEP
RowLocKcouRsE ---'- SET IN
MORTAR BED
STRETCHER
COURSE FINISH

SLOPE REINFORCED CONCRETE

DOWN (% FOOTING TO FROST DEPTH
CAST STONE TOP AND BONOM

NOTES
REBAR IN
NOSING. 1. Provide handrails on both sides of all stairs along accessi
ble routes.
REBAR IN 6" GRAVEL 2. Steo sur{aces should be slooed so waterwill notaccumu-
NOSING.
late on the walking surface.
REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE
FOOTINGS. TO FROST DEPTH FOOTING. TO FROST DEPTH 3. These details are for reference onlv. Consult ADAAG for
tread and handrail requirements for specific applications
BRICK and BOCA for riser-to-tread ratios

MASONRY SITE STEPS

EDAW,lnc.:Alexandria,
DennisCarmichael; Virginia

WALLS
RETAINING
 176 Freestonding
SloneWollsond Hedges

COPING. TYP
t\
-lf --tt--- t\ -tr
MORTAR JOINTS ## nli
RAKEO OUT %" MIN
--:-f:-T
--__-lf--lr
__Jr I l[
HEADER STONES
-Tr:=--'=--
BATTER BOTH
SIDES OF WALL COURSED WITH COURSED WITH
IRREGUUR COURSES REGULAR COURSES
t\ l-
l--
- ---tr---l p-
-.'-------1>:-
l.!<=4=-
__=_)=/ T V -
l(.-

-l*(
FOOTING (STONE OR COURSED WITH RANOOM-COURSED
CONCRflE, TYP.) BROKEN COURSES RANOOM BONO

ASHLAR STONE WALL PATTERNS

fIT''"
NATURAL FIELOSTONE (UNCOURSED) ASHUR (COURSED}

MORTARED STONE WALLS

TSLOPEl
COPING, TYP

OVERLAP JOINTS, UNCOURSED WITH COURSED WITH

AVOID LONG VERTICAL ROUGHLY SQUARED
ROUGHLY SOUARED
JOINTS IN WALL
RU BBLE

SLOPE (BANER) BOTH

WALL FACES. TYP.

HEADER STONES
(25% TO 30% OF WALL)
UNCOURSED WITH
ROUGH RUBBLE

RANDOM RUBBLESTONE WALL

l-ll' PATTERNS

DOUBLE TIER WALL SINGLE TIER WALL

DRY STACK STONE WALLS

RANDOM.RANGE
QUARRY-FACEO ASHLAR

o
COURSED
DRESSED ASHLAR
NER ASHI.AR WITH MARGIN DRAFT
BOTH SIDES
NOTE
Most types of stone canbe used for ston€ walls, but granite,
WELL.COMPACTEO limestone. sandstone, and slate are preferred. Ashlar and
EARTH FILL
rubbl€ are th€ main types of storework used for walls.
soo sTRrPs Ashlar is stone that has been cut and squared and can be
BETWEEN laid in straight courses to create a uniform, stable wall; its
surface can have any texture. Rubblestone has not been cut
FORM JOINTS or dressed. and stability is largely achieved by using header
STONE HEOGE CORNISH
stones that run through the wall, binding it together.
HEDGE

H EDGES STON E TYPES FOR \ffALLS

r-a --llrI-
(-
rl
rs9Tfifirgl
r#F F -+-+-C -a'-f--lrY
-\
lrl
--
< n\/
--

'"ffi -ffi r{
?5
-+r-!ffi (

\/
f
./
I
-.>-'l-'l'*:
-r.w+A.e

i--1 am
ffi.'"
R UB BLE

rusqrr[fi] ^nnnnnn
l4rrJd#JAp
-5-t
t1
-jffi.

-=ff
d{,qrl{hilnF''ilnnntr

t- ffi
l J
(
/
)
1
l % I _
+#k1-
!4
BUCK ANO TURF/GRASS

STONE WALL COPINGS

DennisCarmichael;EDAW, lnc.; Alexandria,Virginia

RETAINING
WALLS
 EnvironmentolEffectsof Trees 177
GENERAL TREES PROTECT VIEWER
The physical environment of the site, the design needs of FROM GURE OF SURFACES
SUCH AS WATER. PAVING.
the project, and the design character of the trees are all fac
tors that must be considered in selecting trees and preparing
a landscape plan for a build'ng.

Soil conditions (acidity, porosity) at the site, the amount and

intensity of sunlight and precipitation. and the seasonal tem-
perature range in the area create the physical environment in
which trees must be able to suryive. As well. consider how
th'e location and topography ot the site will direct the wind,
resulting in cold winds and cooling breezes that can af{ect
the health of trees.

Trees can be used to address the design needs of a proiect

by directing pedestrian or vehicle movement, framing vistas,
screening objectionable views, and defrntng and shaping
exterior space. Trees can also be used to modify the micro-
climate oI a site and to help mnserye building energy use
NOTE NOTE
from heating, c@ling. and lighting systems.
The venical angle of the sun changes seasonally; therefore, ln summer, trees obstruct or filter the strong radiation from
The design character of the trees themselves plays a part in the area of a building subject to the glare of reflected sun- the sun, cooling and protecting the area beneath them. In
which species are best suited for a particularapplication.The light varies. Plants of various heights can screen sun (and winter, evergreen trees still have this effect, while decidu,
shape of a tree can be columnar, conical, spherical, or artificial light) glare from adjacent surfaces. ous trees. having lost their leaves, do not.
spreading, and the resulting height and mass will change
over time as the tree matures. Some trees grow quickly and GLARE PROTECTION SHADE PROVISION
others more slowly. and their color and texture varies from
coarse to medium to fine, affecting their character. The
appearance of deciduous trees changes with the seasons,
while the effect of an evergreen remains relatively constant.

CROWN: HEAD OF
FOLIAGE OF TREE

LEAVES: FOLIAGE
UNIT OF TREE THAT
NOTE
FUNCTIONS PRIMARILY
IN FOOD MANUF A combination of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs
NOTE reduces sound more effectively than deciduous plants alone.
Planting trees and shrubs on earth mounds increases the
Large masses of plants physically and chemically filter and
attenuating eff€cts of a bufler belt.
ROOTS: ANCHOR THE TREE deodoriz€ the air, reducing air pollution. (Top) Particulate
AND HELP HOLD THE SOIL matler trapped on the leaves is washed to the ground during SOUND ATTENUATION
rainfall. Gaseous pollutants are assimilated by th€ leaves.
{Bottom) Fragrant plants can mechanically mask fumes and
odors. As well, these pollutants are chemically metabolized
in the photosynthetic process. LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE
COATED WITH THIN FILM OF
AIR FILTRATION WATER HOLDING IT FROM
ROOT HAIRS: ABSORB MINERAS
FROM THE SOIL MOISTURE AND
SEND THEM AS NUTRIENT SALTS
IN THE SAPWMD TO THE LEAVES

HEARruOOD. NONLIVING CENTRAL

PART OF TRE€ GIVING
STRENGTH ANO STABILITY
SHELTER

ANNUAL RINGSj REVEAL

AGE OF TREE AY SHOWING
YEARLY GROMH H = HEIGHT OF TREES

OUTER BARK: AGEO INNER

BARK THAT PROTECTS
TREE FROM DESSICATION
AND INJURY
tr
INNER BARK (PHLOEM):
CARRIES FOOO FROM 8
J
-*
LEAVES TO BRANCHES
TRUNK. AND ROOTS
6 25%
z
CAMBIUM: UYER = o%L
BETWEEN XYLEM AND
PHLOEM WHERE CELL to 5051ot52025
ADDING GROffiH
OCCURS, NEW MULTIPLE OF SHELTER BELT HEIGHT
SAPWOOD TO INSIDE
AND NS INNER NOTE
BARK OUTSIDE Shelter belt wind protection reduces evaporation at ground ROOTS ABSORB WATER
level, increases relative humidity, lowers the temperature in RUNOFF FROM BRANCHES
SAPWOOD (XYGM): CARRIES summer and reduces heat loss in winter, and reduces blow
NUTRIENTS ANO WATER ing dust and drifting snow. The amount of protection af- NOTE
TO LEAVES FROM ROOTS
forded is directly related to the height and density of the Mature trees absorb or delay runoff from stormwater at a
shelter belt. rate 4 to 5 times that of bare ground
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
TREES \ivlND PROTECTION RUNOFF REDUCTION

James Urban, ASLA: James Urban Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Maryland

PLANTING
178 PlontingDeloils
DO NOT STAKE OR - AVOTD PURCHASING TREES WITH ruO LEADERS SOIL IMPROVEMENT
WRAP TRUNK; MARK // oR REMovE oNE AT pLANTTNG: orHERwtsE. oo
THE NORTH SIOE OF The quality of soil available for planting varies widely fro'
,/ NOT PRUNE TREE AT PLANTING EXCEPT FOR
THE TREE IN THE' SPECIFICSTRUCTURALCORRECTIONS site to site, especially after construction activity har
,/
NURSERY ANO LOCATE occurred. The nature ol construction results in comDaction
TO THE NORTH frl|ng, contaminatron, and grading ot the oilgrnal soil on
, ,' ./ / FOLD BURUP AWAY FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL
IN THE FIELD site, rapidly making it useless for plantlng Previous huma
!:t - '/
!!-..:2 ,/ activity at a site can also affect the ability o{ the soil to sul:
i.;:" ROOT BALL FLUSH TO GRADE OR SEVERAL
,,' /-SEr port plants.
INCHES HIGHER IN POORLY ORAINING SOIE

Ouring the design phase. assumptions must be made

4" BUILT,UP EARTH SAUCER
regarding the probable condition ot the soil after construc
tion is complete. The health of existing or remaining so
2" BARK MULCH (DO NOT PUCE MULCH determines what types of soal preparation will be requirec
IN CONTACT WITH TREE TRUNK)
and the volume of soil to be prepared. Conditions will vary
X = MINIMUM WIDTH
from location to location within a project, and details musl
OF PREPARED BEFORE PUTITING, ADO 3" TO 4-
be condition-specific. For large projects or extreme cond
OF WELL.COMPOSTED LAVES
OR RECYCLED YARD WASTE TO tions. it is useful to consult an expert experienced in modify
BED AND TILL INTO TOP 6- ing planting soils at urban sites.
OF PREPAREO SOIL
NOTES
1. lf site or design constraints prohibit use of the dimen
sions shown on this page, follow the guidelines for planl
4" TO 6' DEEPER THAN ROOT BALL ing in urban areas.
2. Whenever possible. the soil improvement area should b.
PREPARED SOIL FOR TREES connected from tree to tree.
3. Always test soil for pH and nutrient levels and adjusr
DIG WIDE, SHALLOW CUT TOP BANDS OF WIRE BASKET
HOLE WITH TAPEREO SIOES these as required,
AND FOLO AWAY FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL
4. Loosen soil wilh a backhoe or other large coarse-tillinc
TAMP SOIL SOLIDLY
AROUND BASE OF ROOT BALL
\;gRrgll%lhBi,isl oquipment when possible. Tilling that produces large,
coarse chunks ot soil is prelerable to tilling that results in
line grains uniform in texture.

NOTES 5. The bottom of planting soil excavations should be rough

to avoid matting of soil layers as new soil is added. lr is
1. For container{rown trees, use fingersor smallhandt@ls 3. Duringthe designphase,confirmthat water drainsout ot preferable to till the first lift (2 to 3 in.) ot planting soil into
to pull the roots out of the outer layerof poning soil: then the soil; designalternativedrainagesystemsas required- the subsoil.
cut or pull apart any r@ts circling the perimeter ol the 4. Thoroughlysoak the tree root ball and adjacentprepared
container. soil severaltimes duringthe first month after plantingand
2. Incorporate@mmrcially prepared my@rrhizaspores in regularlythroughoutthe followingtwo summers. STANDARD ROOT BALL SIZES FOR
the soil immediatelyaroundthe root.ballat rates specilied NURSERY.GROWN SHADE TREES
5. The planting process is similar for deciduousand ever-
by the manufacturer. green trees. MIN. MIN.
HEIGHT MAX. BALL BALL
TREE PLANTING DETAIL (BALLED AND BURLAPPED PLANTS) CALI PE R* RANGE HEIGHT DIA. DEPTH
(lN.) (FT-tN.) (FT) (|N.) (tN.)

ffi 8 2 9
FOLD BURUP FROM TOP OF PREPARE SOIL IN THE ENTIRE ffi l0 4 10-
ROOT BALL OOWN INTO GROUND BED USING PROCEOURES
SET TOP OF BALL FLUSH OUTLINEO IN CHART BELOW 1 8-10 11 6
WITH FINISH GRADE
&10 12 1B 13)12
BEFORE PSNTING. ADD 3- TO 4"
2' MULCH (OO NOT OF WELL.COMPOSTEO LEAVES AND 1t lz G t4 20 13r l,
PUT MULCH AGAINST RECYCLEO YARD WASTE TO BED
THE BASE OF THE PLANT) AND TILL INTO TOP 6' OF 1fl, 14 22
PREPARED SOIL 2 2-14 24
2r l, 2-14 28 18r /,
t2" TO 18- (FOR
URGER SHRUB
3 4-16 18 32 19)12
ROOT BALG, UWN OR PAVING
4-16 18 38 23
MAKE DEPTH
MIN,4" DEEPER CONTAINER GROWN PLANT
4 1G18 22 42 25
THAN BALL) WITH ROOTS PULLEO OUT OF BAL - 5 18-20 26 54 32-
*Up to and includingthe 4in. calipersize,the calipermea
SOIL SURFACE ROUGHENED
TO BIND WITH NS SOIL surement indicatesthe diameter of the trunk 6 in. above
ground level. For larger sizes, the caliper measurementrs
a" To 12"
taken 12 in. aboveground l€vel.
PREPAREO SOIL FOR SHRUBS BALLED AND BURUPPED PUNT

NOTES NOTES
1. For conlainergrown shrubs, use fingers or small hand the soil imdiately aroundthe r@t ballat mt€s specified 1. See American Standardfor Nursery Stock, ANSI 260.1.
tools to pull the r@ts out of the outer layerof potting soil; bv the manufacturer. for mmd€te list of nurserystandardsfor other types and
then cut or pull apartany r@ts that circletho perimeterof 3. Confirmthat water drainsout ol the soil duringth€ design sizesof trees and shrubs.
tne contarner. phase;designalternativedrainagesystemsas required. 2. Se IntemationalSmiety of Arboriculture's"Principlesand
2. Incorporate@mmrcialv preparedmyorrhiza spores in Practicesof PlantingTreesand Shrubs," 1997.
SHRUB PT.ANTING DETAILS

GENERAL RANGE OF SOIL MODIFICATIONS AND VOLUMES FOR VARIOUS SOIL CONDITIONS
POSTCONSTRUCTION SOIL CONDITION MIN. \lv|DTH PREPARED SOIL FOR TREES (X) TYPE OF PREPARATION

Good soil (not previously graded or compacted, topsoil layer 6 ft or twice the width of the root ball, whichever is greater Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in
Intact) details above.
Compacted soil {not previously graded, topsoil layer disturbed bul 1 5f r Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in
not eliminated) details above; add composted organic matter to bring the organic
content up to 5% dry weight.
Graded subsoils and clean fills with clav content between 5 and 20ft Minimum treatment:loosenexistingsoil to widths and depths
35v" shown, add compostedorganicmalter to bring organiccontent
up to 5?o dry weight.
Optimumtreatment:removetop 8-10in. or the existingmaterial,
loosenexistingsoils to the widths and depthsshown, add 8l 0
in.of loamtoDsoil.
or qualaty tills, heaw clay soils, soils contaminated with rubble 2011 Remove existing soils to the widths and depths shown, .eplace
toxic malerial with loam topsoil.

James Urban,ASLA; James Urban LandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis,Maryland

AmericanNursery& Lands€pe Association(formerlyMN); Washington,D.C.

PLANTING
 TreePlontingond Protection 179
CONSTRUCTION AROUND
EXISTING TREES
<2O
Great care should be taken not to compact, cut, or fill the I
earth within the crown area ot existing trees. Most tree doo
roots are located in the top 6 to 18 in. of the soil and often
spread considerably tarther than the drip line of the tree.
Compaction can cause severe root damage and reduce the
,- wooD, sToNE, oR cMU
movemenl of water and ai. through the soil. To avoid com
pacting the earth, do not operate equipment or store matera- ;ood ,// ORY WELL (WITH NO
FOOTING)
als within the crown spread.

Eefore construction begins, inject the soil within the crown

area of nearby mature trees with commercially prepared
kelp+ased lertilizer and mychorrhiza lungus developed to
invigorate tree roots. Prune tree roots at the edge ol the root
save area, as roots pulled during grading can snap or split OLD
DIAMETER OF TREE
CROWN OR GREATER
+ .
TOPSOIL

PERFORATED VENT
CAP TO PROTECT PIPE
well into the root save area- Rot and disease that enters GRADE FROM CLOGGING ANO
dying roots in compacted or filled areas can move into the : PERMIT AIRFLOW
tree it root pruning has not been carried out. Install tree prc
tection fencing and silt protection at the limits of construc-
tion activity near trees.
NEW
GRADE T PERFORATED PIPE UID
GRAOE (4" DIAMETER
ON OLD
MtN.)
During construction, apply additional water in the canopy
area to compensate tor any root loss beyond the crown
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH
spread- Have all mature trees inspected by a certified
BEYOND VENT LINE
arborist before construction begins to identify any special
oroblems. Remove all deadwood and treat all tre€s for exist-
ing insect and disease problems. When possible, begin fertil- DRAIN TO
ization and problem treatments at least one full growing DAYLIGHT :t_-:::_::=: 'o" o.c., MIN.
season betore construction. VENTEO T SECTION COLLECTS
DRAINAGE FROM ORY WELL
Removal of significant portions of the crown will affect the AREA CONNECTING TO DRAIN
health of a tree by reducing its ability to photosynthesize in CRUSHED STONE LEADING TO DAYLIGHT
proportion to the mass of its trunk. Younger, healthier trees
FILLING AROUND EXISTING TREE
withstand construction impacts better than older trees.

ROOT PRUNE TRENCH

CUT WITH ROCK SAW
OR TRENCHER (FILL
AtrER WITH SOIL)

2X PLANKING
LOOSELY CABLED WITHIN CROWN SPREAD
AROUND TREE WOOD AND
AREA RETAIN EXISTING wtRE sNow
VEGETATION OR APPLY FENCE ON
2- TO 3" MULCH

wooD cHtPs SIGN . "KEEP

OUT: TREE
PROTECTION SILT
AREA"
PLruOOD (25-O'O.C.)
MANING

lr+ NOTE OIAMffER

OF TREE CROWN \
lf constructionoperationsmust take place wilhin the crown MULCH OVER
NOTE spreadarea, install6 in. of wood chips on top of the soil to SILT CLOTH
A root prune trench seversroots with a clean cut, protecting protect it. Us€ pl'4aoodmatting over mulch in areaswhere
equipment must operate.Protect the trunk of the tree wath NOTE
remainingr@ts from cracking,rot, and disease.
plankangl@selycabledaroundthe tree to reducescarringby A barrier such as that illuslrated can keep construction
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH equipment. Remove planking,matting, and mulch as soon equipment and personnel from compacting the soil around
as op€rationsare linished- rfee r@G.

TREE AND ROOT PROTECT]ON

Fewer roots are severed by tunneling under a tree than by

digging a trench beside it.

UNDERGROUND UTILITY LINE NEAR CUTTING GRADE AROUND EXISTING FILLING GRADE AROUND EXISTING
EXISTING TREES TREE TREE

James Urban,AStA; James UrbanLandscapeArchitecturejAnnapolis,Maryland

PLANTING
180 TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
CROWN EXPANDS 6" IO I 8"
EVERY GROWING SEASON

INSPECTION

NUTRIENTS

RooM \T
TO GROW
D '
ROOM
TO GROW

[--l o"o'*oo.
\-.2
CLOSELY SPACED TREES (OR
TREES NEXT TO BUILDINGS) CAUSE NOTE
SIGNIFICANT CROWN COMPETITION,
Soil volume provided for trees in urban areas must be suffi
INSIDE BRANCHES DIE AND TREE
DEVELOPS LONG,TERM
cient for long-term maintenance.
STRESS.RELATED PROBLEMS
SOIL VOLUME-REQUIREMENTS FOR
TREES
DRIP LINE OR CANOPY PROJECTION

TRUNK EXPANDS AY A RATE OF

%- TO I " IN OTAMETER PER YEAR

TRUNK SWAYS SEVERAL

30" oR INCHESIN HIGH WIND
MORE

510" TO 6:0'
RAOIUS AROUND TRUNK IS
ZONE OF RAPID ROOT TAPER
TRUNK FURE EXPANDS AT
ruICE THE RATE OF THE TRUNK
(€A5ILY DAMAGED AND OAMAGES
ADJACENT PAVII{G AND TREE GRATES)
TREE STRUCTURE_PARTS
INTERCONNECTED SOIL VOLUMES
UNOER PAVING FROM TREE TO TREE
NOTE
ROOTS GROW HORIZONTALLY
WELL BEYONO ORIP LINE The interconnectionof soil volumes from tree to tree has
(12" TO 24" DEEP WITH NO TAPROOT) been observedto improvethe healthand vigor of trees.
AND GROWING CHARACTERISTICS SOIL VOLUME_INTERCON NECTION

GENERAL criticalfactor in determininglongterm tree health.Bmt-sup-

porting soil is generallydefined as soil with adequatedrain-
Areasof denseurbandevelopmentleavelitde rem for tree age, low compaclion, and sufficient organic and nutrient
roots to develop.Largeareasof pavement,compotitionwith componentsto supportthe tree. The root zone must be prc
Ioundationsand utililies tor space below ground,and exten- tected from compactionboth during and atter construction.
sive soil compactionand disruptionlimit the amunt oJ soil Root zones that are connectedfrom tree to tree generally
availablefor trees.When the area of groundsroundthe tree producehealthiertrees than isolatedr@t zones.
open to the rain and sun is less than 40O to 5OOsq ft p€r
tree, the following design guidelinesshouldbe followed to sotL MootFlcATtoNs
encouragethe growth of largehealthytrees.
Thoroughlytill organicmatter into the top 6 to 12 in. of most
Five maior parts oI the tree structure musl be accomme plantingsoils to improvethe soil's abilityto retainwater and
dated in the designprocess: nutrients.(Do not add organicmatter lo soil more than 12 in.
deep.) Use composted bark, recycled yard waste. peat
CROWNGROWTH:The tree crown expandsevery growing moss, or municipalprocessedsewage sludge.All products
season at a rate of 6 to 18 in. per year. Once the crown should be composted to a dark color and be free of pieces
reaches a competingobject such as a building or another with identifiableleaf or wood structure. Recvcledmaterial
tree canopy,the canopygroMh in that areaslows and then shouldbe tested for pH and cenified free of toxic materialby
stops. Eventuallythe brancheson that side ot the tree die. the supplier.Avoidmaterialwith a pH higherthan7.5.
As the €nopy expansionpotential is reduced,the overall
groMh rate and tree healthare also reduced. Modify heaw clay or silt soils {morethan 40% clay or silt) by
adding compostedpine bark {up to 30ry.by volume)and/or 1. Coarseplanlingskeep pedestriansout of planters.
TRUNKGROWTH:The tree trunk expandsabout 1/zto 1 in. gypsum. Coarsesand may be used if enough is added to 2. Curbsprotectplantersfrom pedestriansand deicingsalts
per year. As the tree increasesin size, the lower branches bring the sand content to more than 60yo of the total mix.
lmprove drainage in heavy soils by planting on raised 3. Undergroundsteam lims must be insulatedor vented to
die and the trunk lengthens.Tree funks move mnsiderably protect plantersoil.
in the wind, especiallyduring th€ early years of d€velop- moundsor beds and includingsubsurfacedrainagelines.
ment, and are damagedby close objects. SOIL PROTECTION FROM
Modify exrremelysandy soils (morethan 85yo sand)by add- COMPACTION AND DEGRADATION
TRUNK FLARE:At the point where the trunk leaves the ing organicmatter and/ordry, shreddedclayloam up to 30yo
ground,most tre speciesdevelopa prqdned swellingor of the total mix. RAPIO AXIS OF
flareas the trre matures.This flare gros at rure than twice GROMH SYMMffRY
the rate of the maintrunk diareler and helostho tr€ remain
structurallystable.Any hardobject pla€d In this area,suchas SOIL VOLUME FOR TREES
SLOW
a tree grate or con{iningpavement,will eith€r damg€ the 12@24 GROMH
tree or be ruved by the tremendousfore of this grovvth.
s20
ZONE OF RAPIDROOTTAPER:Tree roots b€gin to form in o:
the trunk llare and divide several limes in the immediate 64/t 6
areaaroundthe trunk. In this area,about 5 to 6 ft away from
FQ 4AO/12
the trunk, th€ roots rapidlytaper from about6 in. in diameter
to about 2 in. Most damageto adjacentpavingoccurs in this
<; 320/8
area immediatelyaroundthe tree. Keepingthe zone ol rapid >]
taper free of obstructions is important to long-term tree 144t4
ilj
health.Once a tree is established,the zone of rapidtaper is l
generallyless susceptibleto compactiondamage than the
rest of the r@t zone. 2m 4m 6@ 8m lm 12m 1d 1m TREES IN LARGE TREES IN SMALL
SOIL VOLUME SOIL VOLUME (PUNTERS)
sorl voluME aeeutaeo trt3)
ROOTZONE:Tree roots grow radiallyand ho.izontallyfrom 'The ultimate tree size is defined by the projected size ot
NOTE
the trunk and @cupy only the upper layers(12 to 24 in.) of lf visually symmetrical tree planting is requrred, symmetrical
the soil. Tres in all but the most welldrained soils do not the crown and the diameter of the trree at breast height.
soil volumes are also reauired to oroduce trees of similar
have tapr@ts.A relationshipexists betwmn the amount of croM size.
NOTE
tree canopyand the volume of r@t-supportingsoil required
(see the ac@mpanyingchart). This relationshipis the most For example. a lGin. diameter tree requires 1000 cu ft of soil. VISUALLY SYMMETRICAL TREES

James Urban,ASLA:James Urban LandscapeArchitecture:Annapolis,Maryland

PLANTING
 TreePlontingin UrbonAreqs r8l
Although it is possible to design uncompacled sorl volumes MAKE OPENING
GENERAL for trees under pavement, this is very expensive and the soil
REINFORCED CONCRETE
AS URGE AS
OVER SOIL TRENCH
Traditional urban designs in which trees are regularly spaced is never as efficient as that in open planting beds. Increasing POSSIBLE
LOOSELY
in small openings within paved areas generally result in poor trunk size can only be accommodated by using tlexible mate-
COMPACTED
tree performance. This is because such designs generally do rials that can change configuration gver time. Urban designs LOAM SOIL
not provide adequate soil for root g.owth and ignore the fact that have flexible relationships between trees, pavrng, aod CONTINUOUS
that trees musl significantly increase trunk srze every year. planting beds and large areas of open planting soil offer the FROM TREE
As well, competition for space, both at ground level and best opporlunity for long-term tree heallh and lowet matnte' TREE
below, is intense in urban areas nance cosls.

CONTINUOUS
MULCHED OR
PUNTEO AREAS
-r
SIDEWALK

CONTINUOUS SOIL TRENCH

NOTE

A continuoussorltrench provides very good sorl but ln ltm-

!MPROVED SOILS
ited quantity. Use in areas where adiacent backfill is com-
NOTE pactedsoilsor fills
Best designoption: Plantingtreesbetweensidewalksand CONCRETE OR SAND
buildingscreates the lewest conflicts between roots and PRODUCES
WIDE SPACING
pavingby permitting rooting activityon adiacentproperty. TREES
HEALTHIER GRAVEL.
ASTM {57
NOTE

CONTINUOUS Best design option: Separate planting and walking areas ORAIN LINE
MULCHEO OR Avoid small disconnected soil volumes to minimize roovpav-
PUNTED AREAS ing con{licts.
SIDffALK

STRUCTURAL SOIL
IMPROVED SOILS
+ u'"", _+ MIX CONTINUOUS
OVER ENTIRE AREA
NOTE STRUCTURAL SOIL
Acceptabledesign option: Plantingbetween curbs and side- NOTE
walks in a continuous unpavedplantingbed providesgood Structural planting soils replace subgrade material with a fill
soil levelsfor trees but contributesto roovpavingconflictsas that can be mmpacted to meet normal engineering compac-
rrees malure- tion requirements and still suppon root groMh below the
#i
-O- ' pavement. The principle is that when the gravel is compacted,
\2O'-O- TO 2s
- NARROW SPACING the soil is rct because the amount of soil in the mix is insuffi-
NOTE INCREASES TREE PRoaLEMS cient to fill all the voids. Hydrogel, a crosslinked polassium
copolyrer, is used to help bind the mixture during the mixing
process. The soil mix includes ASHTO #4 gravel (100 lb calcs
10'-o" lated dry weight), shredded clay loam (1t18 lb). hydrogel
OR LESS {0.03 lb}, and water r10 (including the water calculated in the
gravel and the soil). For further information, contact the Urban
Horticulture Institute at Cornell University (lthaca, NY).
10 - o"
OR MORE ROOT PATH TRENCH
SET IN RADIAL CONCRflE
PANERN
CONTINUOUS FROM
GRAVEL,
CONTINUOUS TREE {4" ASTM #57
INTERCONNECTION OF WIOE X
SOIL FROM TREE TO TREE
REOUIRED UNDER PA DEEP)
NOTE
Difficulr design option: In highly developed areas wrth park'
ing adiacent to the curb, planting in long narrow tree open- INTERCONNECTION OF TREE SOIL
ings with an 18-in. wrde walk along the curb accommodales FROM BED TO BEO REOUIRED
pedestrians exiting cars. RmVpavrng conflicts are probable.
NOTE

MAKE Oifficult design option: Shading. slow tree groMh, and poor
OPENINGS health are problems. Roovpaving conflicts are likely.
AS URGE
AS POSSIBLE ROOT PATH TRENCH

MAKE WALK NOTES

WIDTH AS
NARROW AS 1. In urban areas where the pavement subgrade is com-
POSSIBLE PUNTED pacted soil that is free from rubble, toxic. or poorly
AT TREE SOIL BED drained fills, a system of root paths can be inslalled to
(oo NoT guide roots under the pavement, where they have room
USE TREE to grow. These roots grow deeper in the soil, causrng
GRATES)
fewer roovpaving con{licts than roots left to exploit the
normal minor weaknesses in paving and subgrades.
2. A root path trench is made by installing a length of strip
CONTINUOUS drain material {a 12-in. wide x f -in. thick plastic drain core
INTERCONNECTION wrapDed in filter fabric) in a narrow trench and backtilling
OF SOIL FROM TREE with loam topsoil. This allows air and water to tlow more
INTERCONNECTION OF TREE SOIL
TO TREE REOUIRED freely into the soil under the pavement. lnstall geotextile
UNDER PAVING FROM BED TO BED REOUIRED
fabric and the gravel base material and then the paving.
NOTE 3. R@t paths cannot replace larger soil trenches or struc-
NOTE tural planting soil in areas in which existing soil conditions
Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Tree open-
ings are undersized for future trunldroot development. Severe Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Slow tree are extremely poor for root exploration.
roovpaving conflicts are very likely. groMh and severe roovpaving conflicts are to be expected.
TREE SOIL INTERCONNECTION
SIDEWALK PI-ANTING OPTIONS PI..AZA TREE PLANTING OPTIONS OPTIONS UNDER PAVING

Annapolis,
Architecture;
JamesUrban,ASLA;JamesUrbanLandscape Maryland

PLANTING
 182 TreePlontingin UrbonAreos

a -o"To |o -o"oPT|MUM
TRASH COLLECTS (COST AND STRUCTURAL
UNDER GRATE
MULCH I " - SLOPE DOWN AT 5%. MIN R E O U I R E M E N T SL T M I TS I Z E )
TO 2" THICK

WRAP FILTER FABRIC OVER

EXPOSEO ENDS OF DRATNAGE
CLEANOUT FIPE MATERIAL AND OVERUP
BACK SIDE 6", MtN.
EACH DRAIN

WATERPROOF MATERIAL
WRAP FILTER WITH PROTECTION BOARD
FABRIC UP SIDES
OF ALL RISERS
PUSTIC ORAINAGE
AND CONDUITS
MATERIAL ON BONOM
AND TIE OFF WITH
AND SIDES TO WITHIN
COPPER WIRE
2" OF FINISHED GRAOE

RING DAMAGES
WOVEN FILTER FABRIC TRUNK OR REAUIRES
\:
lLE_qqErr_iryqa9l!9,/
AND EVENTUAL REMOVAL/
REOUIRED SIDEWALK EDGE
STRUCTURE ALTERS ROOT PANERN
ruO,LEVEL PUNTING SOIL (COMPACTED
SOIL COMPACTION REOUIRED FOR
ROOF ORAIN TO 80% DRY DENSITY)
SIOEWALK SUPPORT REDUCES ROOT ..))
SLOPE DOWN AT 2% NOTE
OVERUP FILTER COMPACT PAD UNOER ALL TREES Tree grates decorate the base of a tr€e but provide no signif
CLOTH JOINTS I 2' WITH 2" CALIPER (TRUNK DIAMETER) i€nt benefit. Many aspects of tree grates can damage a tree
MIN. AND PIN TOGtrHER OR LARGER or reduce its potential for growth.
ROOFTOP PT.ANTER TREE GRATES
SELECTING PLANTS FOR for shrubs.24 in. deep:and for lawns, 12 in. deep ('lO in. if
ROOFTOP PLANTING irrigated).
When choosingplantsfor a r@ftop setting,@nsiderthe fac- SOIL VOLUME: To determino sufficient soil volume- see
tors outlinedbelow: chart on SoilVolumesfor Trees (on anotherAGS pagein this
section).
WIND TOLERANCE:Higherelevationsand exposureto wind
can euse defoliationand incr€asethe transpirationrate of SOIL WEIGHT: The saturated weight of normal soil mix
plants. High parapet walls with louvers can reduce wind rangesfrom 10Oto 120 pcf, dependingon soil type and com-
velocityand provideshelter for plants. paction rate. Soils can be made lighter by adding expanded
shale or perlite. Soils lighter rhan 80 pcf cannot provide
HIGHEVAPORAIIONRATE:The drying effects of wind and structureadequateto suppon trees.
sun on the soil in a planter redu@ soil moisture rapidly.lrri-
gation, mulches. and moistureiolding soil additives (diate DRAINAGEFABRIC:Plastic drainagematerial should be a
roceous earth or organicmatter) help reducethis moisture minimum of 1/,in. thick. Most drajnagematerialcomes with
toss. a filter fabricanached.but the overlapjoints providedar€ not
wide enough tor the unconsolidatedsoils tound in planters.
RAPIDSOILTEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION: The variation A second layer of woven filter fabric, delivered in rolls
in cmduction capacityof plantermaterialsresults in a broad greaterthan 10 ft in width, shouldbe instalted.Tuck the fats
rangeof soil temperaturesin plantersof different materials. ric over the exposedtop of the drainagematerialto keep soil
Cold or heat can causesevere rmt damagein certain plant out of the drainagelayer.
species,Properdrainagehelpsalleviatethis @ndition.
INSULATION:Most plantersdo not requireinsulation:how-
TOPSOIL:lmprove topsoil in planters to provide optimum ever, in colder climates planters with small soil volumes
growing conditionsfor the pbnts selected. A general for- l@ated over heated structures may require insulation.Con-
mula calls for adding fenilizer {d€terminedby soil testing} sult localsourcesfor a list ot cold-hardyolants.
and one part peat moss to fiv€ pans sandy loam topsoil.
More specific requirementstor certainvarietiesof plants or
grassesshouldbe considered. SIZE OF GUARD TO
FIT OUTSIDE OF
ROOTCAPACITY:Choose plant speciesGrefutly, consider- ROOT BALL ANO
NOT DAMAGE
ing their adaptationto the size of the plant bed. lf species SWAYING TRUNK
with shallow,fibrous roots are used insteadof soecieswith
a c@rse root system, consult with a nurseryadvisor_Con-
siderthe ultimale maturityof the plant specieswhen sizinga
otantet- URGE OPENING
ON SIDES ANO
PLA,NTING DETAILS BOTTOM TO AVOID
TRASH REMOVAL
SOIL DEPTH:Minimum soil depth in a planter varies with PROBLEMS
SAND ONLY
the plant type: lor largetrees, the soil shouldbe 36 in. dep
or 6 in. d€eperthan the r@t ball;for srull trss, 30 in. deep:

LOOSE.Sff SUPPORTS
DESIGNEO TO BE SANO.SET PAVERS
REMOVAALE
IN IO YEARS

NOTE
Tree gurds €n protect young trees from trunk damage
- - - - - 7 'I causedby bicycles.lf made too small,however(lessthan 30 LOW FENCE AND GROUND COVER
uwN--t in. in diameter ), th€y can damage the tree as it grows and
are difficult to remove.The high cost and potentialharm to NOTE
NOTE
trees outweigh the minor protetion tree guards afford a Alternatives to tree grates (and guards) include softer, or-
Young tre€s planted in lawn areas face substantial competi- trunk. They should only b€ used in areas with particularlv ganac coverings that suit the purpose better, are less expen-
lion trom the roots of grasses. high traffic. sive, and require less maintenance over the life of the tree.
TREES PLANTED IN LA\ivNS TREE GUARDS TREE BASE PROTECTION

James Urban,ASLA;James UrbanLandscapeArchiteclure;Annapolis,Maryland

PLANTING
 t84 Economyof Concrete Formwork
GENERAL
FLAT BEAM -\
Formworkcosts are a substantialparl of the total cost of
putting concrete in place-anywhere from 35 to 60 per-
COLUMN
cent.Thus,by developingdesignelementsand detailsthat
simplifyor standardizeform requirements,
the architectcan
help containoverallcosts:

1. Reusefoms: Thisis crucialto economvof construction.

The designercan facilitateform reuse by standardizing
the dimensionsof windows, columns, beams, and foot-
ings, using as few different sizes ot each as possible.
Where columnsmust changesize,hold one dimension
(e.9., width) constant, while varying the other (depth). RECOMMENDED
LOW.COST FORMWORK
This enablesat least half of the torm panelsto be used R,ECOMMENDED
maqy times. Repeat the same floor and column layout
from bay to bavon each lloor and lrom floor to tloor. This - PARTIALLY
improves labor productivityand permits reuse of many UruRNED
IOrms. BAM

N=il6
2. Use a preconstructionmockup:The architectand builder saB
./-
should agreeon the locationand desired appearanceof COLUMN
architecturalsurfaces before any of the exposed con- @LUR
crete work begins. Specify a ful-scale preconstruction @LUMN
mockup to help achieve this and to avoid postconstruc-
tion disagreements.
36rs^?s CONSTRUCT(
3. Handleforms in largepanels:This also reducesconstruc-
tion costs. Wherever possible, make uninterrupted
formed areasthe same size. Increasingthe size of such
areasenablesthe builderto combineform panelsinto
w folP MID-c:c)ST
JOTNT -

gangs for efficientcrane use-
a. Simplifydesjgn details: Intricaciesand irregularitiescost
more and often do not add proponionatelyto the aes-
thetic effect.
MID-COST
HIGH-COST
FORM\^/ORK FORM\n/ORK
N OTE
In general,the least costly designto form has columnsthe
same width or narrower than the beams they suppon.
allowinglhe beam form to be erectedin a continuoustine.
In midrost formwork design, the beam bottom foms are
cut to fit around the column tops. ln high{ost formwork
design, the beam lorms are fitted into p@kets on both
sides of the column{orms.
HIGH-CO€iT
FORMWORK FORMWORK
NOTE
Flat beams designed to be equal in depth & the floor
assembly are th€ least costly, since they mod €fficientlv
accommodateflying form construction.Deeps. harrower
beams cost more, but if deeper beams are necded, costs
can be controlledby making the beam the sam thickness
as the column depth and at least panially uFclrrned.The
most costly option is a column thickerthan the bam, since
this requiresa columncollarwith constructionirirt.

awooD
BEAM-TO.COLUMN
ECONOMIES
FORMWORK sE Cm -
ONOMIES
FORM
FACING 2',-O', 4 €', OR
A'-O' MODULE. WP.

TIES. WP.
(2'O' O.C.. -
STANDffiD
ERTIGL) DIMENSIONAL
AT PANEL LUMBER
JOIMS FORMWORK 7." R,WOOD
FOruWORK
4-'
MODULE OR DEflH G
F@TING
A'O' MODULE DROP
S1-.A,B FORMWOFIK
4'{' TO RECOMMENDED N OTE
8',-O' MODULE
FOOTING DESIGN Adapting design elements to the modular si€ of torm,
NOTE work lumber and plywood and dimensioning p€ns o{ the
structure to fit the modules can save the expme of cus
When stepped footings are required.use lewer steps and lom formwork. For example, to save the waste ild time of
PANEL design them to standardlumber and plwvood dimensions sawing and piecing together the edge form, make the
HANDLE or modulardivisionsof thesedimensions. depth of the drop in a slab equal to the aclual size of stan
WALL FOOTINGS dard lumb€r plus % in. for the pl.iryood's thicknss.

2 €' MtN
CONCRETE STEEL PUTE OR ANGLE
CAST INTO CONCEIE

L-.,,"
frEN WELDED TO
ADOINING WALL NATE
MTTAL
@NCRETE POURED ONTO
EXSTING FL@R %B ON

i*
GroE (FORM LIMRS UID
FORM
oN smB onroN4)
T*EADED
LIMNC
HffiDWARE
C€T INTO
CdCRETE
(4'MrN.)
HOLE FOR
PN (S/EDGE
THROUGH
sLoT rN qN) BLMKOU]
FG
aY cof
FItrING OPENING

NOTES
1. Commonly made of steel-{ramed plywood, panels are
also availabl€ in aluminum. Wall tles (typically flat ties)
and wall forms are held together by slotted pins that run
through adjoining holes. A wedge pushed down into the
slot alongside the wall lorm tightens the joint. SeMce life
can be extended by turning or replacing the plyw@d
Iace.
2. Reusable plastic liners may be attached to inner surfaces
to oroduce oatterned concrete.
3. For maximum economy, panels can be assembled in
large gangs and set in place by crane.
HAND.SET MANUFACTURED WALL
FORMS
BLOCKING
AND BRACES
NOTE
EDGE FORMS
Installing and removing ties and patching tie holes are
some of the most labor-intensive operations in forming
TILT.UP WALL FORMWORK
wlls. Also. getting a durable, inconspicuous patch often
proves difficult. Avoid this problem by specifying smooth N OTE
cone fittings at the tie ends, then either leaving the result- ln tilt-up construction, walls are cast on the completed lloor
ing unitorm tie holes exposed or plugging them with pre- slab, which must be level, smoothly finished, and treated
formed concrete plugs and a bonding agent. Leave no with a bond-breaking agent to permit easy separation. The
exposed corrodible metal within 1r/2 in. of concrete surface. wall is then tilted or lifted into vertical position and lastened
Contractors may propose tie spacing wider than 2 ft o.c. to to the adjoining wall piece. This method reduces formwork
reduce the total number ot ties to save monev. but this and labor and eliminates transportation requirements that
calls for stronger ties and heavier form suppons. mav limit oanel size.
FORM TIE PATTERN TILT.UP WALLS

Mary K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan

3 CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
 ConcreteFormworkfor Columnsond Footings lg5

REBAR ,-2X4
TEMPLATE SPACER
/

2X4TEM-
PLATES FOR
REBAR OR
ANCHOR
BOLTS

7." STEEL
AAND
PANEL OF %'
ROD _'
WITH2X4CLEATS 2X4
STAKE

WALL FOOTINGS

PUNK OR FC)OTING PANEL OF 2 X 4 SPACER

SECoNDHAND STOCK ..-.-.-..-_

--2X4STAKE

WALL AEOW

ELEVATION
WALL FOOTING PLAN COLUMN FOOTINGS

rt
I
//-2X4 I
f

I
L
ts
I

L
I
I
E

SQUARE COLUMN @LUMN

SQUARE COLUMN I,-ARGE COLUMN PT--A.N

NOTE
removed. Consult manufacturers'guides and catalogs tor
It is recommended that chamfe. slrips be used at all out,
ideal materials, pour rate (fVhr), and outside temperature
srde corners to reduce damage to concrete when forms are
{oF). SECTION
COLUMN PLANS DROP PANELS AT COLUMN TOPS

TuckerConcreteFormCompany;Stoughton,Massachusetts

CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
186 Concrete Formworkfor Wqlls

DOUBLE WALERS
RUSTICATION
(PREFERRED)

PLYFORM GASKETED FOR

SHEATHING WATER TGffiNESS
STUDS

EPOXY ON
SILL OR PGTE 45'CUT
WALL TIES

F@TING
(CONCRETE)
TONGUE AND
|')'j'j#
GROOVED t\ /l
(WITH CAULKING) t><l
BRACE TO SOLID t/ \l
CONSTRUCTION.
AS NECESSARY
l -e . i v . I r

TAPED
o.c. l------/l
l-'-----l

: . . .3 : a

SPLINED IT
TYPICAL SITE.BUILT WALL FORM\ivORK (wtTH cA'r.JLKrNG) l\\-/- |
l/-\-l
COIL TIE - REMOVABLE
W@D OR
W@D SruD
CONE
BOLT AND GASKETED WITH
WASHER ruBLE CLOSED CELL rery | \ /
WAERS COMPRESSIBLE |I
MATERIAL |-
| ---"\

AFGM FORM SHEATHING JOINT DETAILS

SHEAfrING
@NNNUOUS
TIE LENGfr TO 2 X 6 SPIKED
REMAIN IN WALL ON IF GNGED
FORMS ARE
USED

TIE ROD
SECTION AT WALL TIE
NE END
SITE-BUILT WALL FORMS TYPICAL EXPOSED CONCRETE
ELEVATION
ruYFORM
SHilTHING

@RNER LOCK
CONCRETE

MO2X4
PLruOOD WALERS

2X4STUD
2X4SruD
NE
lX4SHOE
ruo2x4
WALERS

CONCRETE
NOTE
Verify size and spacing of components for each job. The
combination of plyform sheathing, studs, walers, and ties
must be chosen carefully to safely resist contrete pressure
and limit deflection of the lom face. St€el and aluminum
studs and Mlers my be used in place of wood.

TYPICAL WALL WITH OFFSET TYPICAL CORNER TYPICAL JOB-BUILT WALL SECTION

NOTES
1. The typical wood and plywmd framing details shown
2X4SruD 2X4SruD must b€ modified as necessary to accommdate the lat
eral pressure of fresh concrete on the forms. Studs and
walers of aluminum or steel are frequently used. Lateral
pressure varies depending on the rate at which the torm
is filled. lhe temperature of the concrete, vibration proce
dures. and the type of admixtures used in the concrete.
2. Consult manufacturers'recommendations for sate work
ing loads on ties. Consult the American Concrete Insti
lute's Formwork for Concrete (SP-4) for detailed design
recomrendations,
3. A great variety of form ties are commercially available
(see AGS page on concrete formwork hardware). For
ruo2x4 architectural surfaces exposed to weather, choose a tie
WALERS
that leaves no corrodible metal closer than 1'l, in. from
the concrete surface. Ties should be tighr fitting and
sealed as necessary to prevent leakage at holes in the
forms.
2X4SruD 4- Ties tift€d with wood or plastic cones should leave
depressions at least as deep as the surface diameter of
the cone. Th€ holes may be filled with recessed plugs or
PILASTER TYPICAL T WALL JUNCTION left unfilled if noncorroding ties are used.
5. Provide cleanout d@rs at the bottom of wall torms.

TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
Mary K. Hurd;€ngineeredPublications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan

CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
 Concrete Formworkfor Slobsond Beoms 187
GENERAL NOTES 3 Patented steel forms or tillers can be special ordered for
unusual conditions; see manufacture.s' catalogs Fiber
1. Scaffolding, steel shores, or wood posts may be used forms are also on the market in simila. sizes. Plyform
under stringers depending on loads and height require- deck is required for forming.
menls. 4. Plyform is usually % in. minimum thickness, Exposure 1
2. For flat slabs of {lat plate forming. metal "flying forhs"
are commontv useo.

CONCRETE
'at'

STRINGER ''-\
2b' \
.:+<
SCREW Foo€*.or- )
WIDE JACK N OTES 5.,a'RIBS) /
BOARD -
-a'To TUBUSR 1. Standard waffle slab forms are square for ease of use
SCAFFOLDING and economy. Dimensions vary slightly from manufac-
turer to manufacturer. Consult ANSI A48.2-l986 tor com'
plete dome form standards.
2. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass.
TYPICAL PAN FORM TYPICAL CENTERING Consult form manufacturer for options in material, tex-
N OTES tures, and dimensaons.

1. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass. naildown lorm but with board insert for smooth aooear- TYPICAL DOME FORM FOR WAFFLE OR
Consult manulacturers for forms with different dimen- (withoutflanges;producessmooth
ance);and adiustable TWO-WAY SLAB
sions and riF.form variations. Typically three types are rab).
FORMWORK SPLIT
available: nailiown llange (simplest, but produces 2. ConsultANSI A48.1-1986for comDleteoan form stan- TO ACCOMMODATE
rough, nonarchitectural surface); slip-in type (based on dards. WATER STOP
- CONCRflE sua
TYPICAL PAN FORM FOR ONE.WAY SLAB

QG SUB
'.'t'

LESS THAN
GUARDRAIL

KNEE WATER STOP

BRACE

CENTER BULB
FOLDING
NOTE
Waterslops are flexible barriers used to prevent the pas-
sage of liquids and gasses under pressure through joints in
concrete slabs. Waterstops are typically made of polwinyl
chloride, and their shapes vary according to application. lf a
center bulb is specified, it musl remain unembedded in the
OfRIGGER center of the ioint.
HEAD
SLAB FORMWORK WITH WATER STOP
ADJUSTABLE
WIDTH
THREADED
HANGERS
RYFORM
. -'---- DECK

TYPICAL SLAB AND SHALLOW BEAM FORMING

GUARDRAIL
@NCREE [.
PLYFORM
JI II
BEAM SIDES
ll ll
/- JOTSTS il' tl BAM
LEreER/ STEEL
WALER -.\ l.
\ WPE
HANGER
COIL

AEAM BLOCKING
aofroM
SCAFFOLDINlG
|uNKS BEAM
SIDE

JOIST

CLEATS - - corl BoLT

TOE
PLATE - OHREADS
! STRINGERS rNTO CO|L
ARRIER - END OF
STRINGERS HANGER)
FLAT WASHER
4 €" W|DE 2 -O' W|DE AND CLAMP --
SGFFOLDING TIEDOM SCAFFOLDING
TO BL@K
IN rcURED
FLOOR
NOTE
This type of tormwork is used to fireproof structuralsteel
beams by wrappingthem in concrele.
TYPICAL SLAB AND HEAVY BEAM FORMING TYPICAL SUSPENDED FORM WITH
COIL SADDLE-TYPE HANGERS

TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts

CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
 r88 Concrete FormworkHordwqre
GENERAL waLER PLruOOD FORMWORK \ STItrF BACK
\ CAM:
Concreteformworkhardwareincludesties,anchors,hang-

I'1
ers,and spacersused to holdformsand reinforcements in
placeagainstthe forces of unhardenedconcrete and other
loadsappliedduringconstruction. Concretd.tiesare tensile
units adaptedto hold concrete lorms together and may be
classifiedby use or by loadrarrying capacitta.Classifiedby
use are two main concrete tie types: "continuous single WALL SECTION
member," in which the entire tie rod extends throuoh the
TrE GRTPPEF</
wall and through both sides ol the formwork (this ca; be a
pullout tie or a snap{ff tie},and "internaldisconnecting," CONE
in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded
connectronsto removableexternalmembers.Classifiedby CAM BRA*ET
-fitrlao%'Dra
load{arrying capacityare lightiuty {safe working loads of NorE WALL SECTION
TIE ROD I OOP
up to 3750 lb) 6nd heavy{uty (loadsot more rhan 3750 tb) CONNtrCTS ] O
concreteties. SaIe working load shouldbe set at no more Fiberglassform ties, straight rods secured with reusable
than half the tie's ultimate strength. Other hardwaresvs- external metal grippers, have safe working loads ranging
tems and configurationsmay be available;consult manutac- lrcm 2250 to 25,000 psi. The ries are readilybroken off or
turersfor comoletedetails. cut at th€ concretesurface,then groundflush.
FIBERGLASS FORM TIE
"*1;d+ffiBRAcKtrr
caMBRA.KET=^,.rq-ft+ -\
C:aMCRAN(/ I
srlFF BAcK aM (FASreNS aND -flJ
TIGHENS WRf ICAL STUDS
TO HOR|ZONTAL WALLRS) ,..-/
NOTE
Thislightiuty system is suitablefor iob-setforms.
WALL SECTION
CAM LOCK BRACKET/TIE SYSTEM
CONE
WALER (offiroNAL) SCAF-
FOLDING ,/-FORVWORK
-SETBACK 6'
WALL SEC:TION HE-BOLT MIN.

9', MrN.
SPREADER
BaD. LocarEs HOT FC)RGED
SPRADER WASHER- HAD
COiL-END
LOOP
CONCRETE ANGOR
BREAKBACK
Coil ties are medium- to heavyduty ties fabricaled to WASHER TYPE
ANTITURN FATURE
accepta threadedbolt, which passesthroughthe lormwork (FUT OR CRTMP) WALL SECTION
tummr. PUSTTC CONe
WTH e}REAKBACK -AE-BOII
(C..ATED wlTH
cotL TrEs INSIDE CONE E /-
(
r.- TO /
RELilSE AGENT)
r; orn /
CONE TYPE
\ rrrnnrnnr+m ffi
reDGE NOTE
AND BOLT
Snap ties are a type of through tie for lightduty use, fabri-
"oi= 9ffi3"13.^ --'N
cated so the exposed ends ol the tie cah be snapped of{ at The coil anchor is embedded near the top of a concrete lifr
the breakback (a notch in the rodl. The antiturn device to support the formwork of the succeeding lift. The reus
MOOUUR
j /
FORM makes it easier to break off the exoosed end. able hebolt is threaded into the coil.

SNAP TIES HE.BOLT WITH COIL ANCHOR

WALL SEC:TION
_1

waLL THICKNESS {- ROCK

(6'TO 24', ryP) ANCHOR SHE.
BoLT/
N OTE \^'/ALL SECTION
WALL SEC:TION TAPERED END
Flat ties are lightiuty ties used with a wedge and bolt to RMK

a+
secure and space modular wall forms. aNcHoR --__\
cotL TtE __\ l(@--
n A ,*
FLAT TIE
gF;- ilnr .nsmrry- W_E fNSrDe rE RoD
(1hao 1. DA.)-
,/
l

N OTE
NS---_\ - '
@tL noo txctraDco
NOTE corL RoD She-bolts are reusble heavyduty tie components threaded
onto an internal tie rod permanently embedded in the con-
Rmk anchors are used with coil ties to facilitate one-side
crete. They are typiclly used with crane+andled forms.
FUT torming of walls.
WASHER / SHE-BOLT/TIE ROD
ROCK ANCHOR
WALL SECTION
11/4' fO
DIA,
2\h' -- WATER
WASHER
BARRIER
(1'OR
t
I '4. Dta.)

CONE (LENGTH -
1" rO 2.h'frp.)

STAB
TO aCCEPT TrE
)
A,.rir
u)7 dk
34. TO
Steel wedges are placed at the outside threaded ends of HIGH CHAIR SIDE
W
NOTE
pullout or snap tie rods, holding the tormwork in place. N OTE
Generally used lor heavyduty loads of up to 5O,O0Olb, the Plastic or wood cones mav be placed on the tie rod at the Bar supports are used to maintain the reinlorcement's
taper tie system is a versatile forming system whose parts Jormwork wall surface, so that when the formwork is design distancefrom the wall sides or slab bottom. They
are removed after the concrete sets and mav be reused. removed the tie rod ends are set back Jor subsequent fin- are typicallymade ot stainlesssteel or epoxy- or plastic
Tres may be installed after lorms are in place. ishing (with plugs, erc.). coatedsteel.
STEEL TAPER TIE TIE ROD ACCESSORIES REINFORCING BAR AND MESH
SUPPORTS

Ma.y K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan

3 CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
 ReinforcingBqrsond Wire r89

ffi;==-ffi,-^*
H
GENERAL
Steei reintorcement ior concrete conslsts of rernforcrng
bars and welded wire fabric. Bars are manulactured by hot-
roll p.ocess as round rods with lugs, or deformations, which
inhibit longitudinal movemenl of lhe bar in the surrounding
concrete Bar sizes are indi€ted by-numbers. For sizes #3
through #8, the numbers are the number of eighths of an
inch in the nominal diameter of the ba.s. Numbers g, 10.
and 1 1 are round and cotrespond to the former 1 in., 1rls in., NUME}ER SYSTEM
and 1rL in. square sizes. Sizes #14 and #18 correspond to
ONE LINE MO LINES
the former 1rl, in. and 2 in. square sizes. The nominal diam-
eter of a deformed bar is equal 10 the actual diameter of a MAIN RIBS
plain bar with the same weight per foot as the deforred
SYMBOL OF
bar. Epoxy-coated, zinc{oated {galvanized}, and stainless PRODUCING
steel reinforcing bars are used when corrosion protection is MILL TRANSVERSE --''
needed: stainless steel also has nonmagnetic properties. in LUGS
some instances. a fiberreintorced plastic (FRP) rebar is
used for highly specialized concrete reinforcement because ryPE STEEL GRADE
of its high tensile strength and light weight. corrosion resis- (NEW BILLET) MARKS
tance, and dielectric (nonconductive) properties. FRP rebars GRADE 40 GRADE @ GRADE 75
are manufactured in the same sizes as steel rebars and also GRADE 50
have deformations on the surface. Consult manufacturers LINE SYSTEM
NOTE
for f urther information.
Steel iype grademarks:S-billet (4615).l-rail (4616).lB-
Welded wire fabric is used in thin slabs. shells. and other railmeetingsupplementaryrequirements, Sl (A616),A-axle
designs in which available space is too limited to give (4617),W-low alloy(A706).
orooer cove. and clearance to deformed ba.s. Welded wire
tabric. also called mesh. consists ot cold drawn wire REINFORCING BAR GRADE MARK IDENTIFICATION
(smooth or delormed) in onhogonal panerns; it is resis-
tance welded at all intersections. STANDARD STEEL WIRE SIZES AND GAUGES
PLAIN WEIGHT
Wire in the form of individual wire or groups of wires is WIRE (LB/
used in the fabrication of prestressed concrete. NUMBER LIN. FT)

ASTM STANDARD .490 .r 8 9

REINFORCING BAR SIZES w1e Dr8 .419 .180
.462 .168 .571
w16 D16 .451 .160 .544
.431 .146 .496
w1o oro .422 .140 .476
.394 .122 .415
w''z 25r .391 .120 .408
.374 . 11 0 .374
w10.5 .366 .105 .357
.363 .103 .350
wr0 D,1O .357 .100 .340
w9.5 = .348 .095 .323
W9 .338 .090 .306
.331 .086 _292
w8.5 .329 .085 .289
W8 .319 .080 .272
vw.5 * .309 .o75 .255
.307 .o74 .251
D7 .299 .070 .234
w6.5 .248 .065 .221
NOTE
Melrication of reinforcing bars is being considered in the G D6 I .283
.216
.063
.060
.214
.204
w5.5 .265 .055 .147
United States: as of October 1995. a decision had not been
made about what metric rebar sizes would apply in the
W5 _ t .252
.054
.050
. 18 3
.170
United States. Metrication may result in a reengineering of
reinforced concrete structures using the new bar sizes. 3 .244 .o47 .160
wa.s .239 .045 . 15 3
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE tj i .226 .040
REINFORCEMENT FOR w3,s .211 .035 . 1t 9
5 .207 .034 . 11 5
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE W3 .195 .030 .102
PERCENT
cRoss-
OF vv2.9
:
; .192 .o29 .098
SECTIONAL AREA
w2.5 7 .118 .o25 .085
OF CONCRETE, w2.1 I .o21 .071
ONE WAY w2 .160 .020 .068
I .148 .017 .058
w''.0 .124 .0't4 .048

REINFORCING BAR GRADES AND STRENGTHS

COMMON 5TOCK STYLES OF WELDED \/VIRE FABRIC
MIN. YIELD
STRENGTH
(PSl)

SHEETS AND ROLLS

steel

LOIGITUoINAL
-------#"
Spacing Wire Size LONGITUDINAL
WIRE
1l-'
T R A N S V E R SE
" >- TRANSVERSE
wtR€ -_-/ WIRE
Weldedtabric<W1.2
METHOD OF DESIGNATION FOR Vi/ELDED \^r'IRE FABRIC S i z e> W 1 . 2

Concrete Reinlorcing Steel Institute; Schaumburg, lllinois

Gordon B. Batson, P.E.: Potsdam, New York

CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
 t90 ReinforcingBorsond Wire
orueNsror I oR G,
DETATLTNG
_-*_'--_--t--t DETAILING DIMENSION

+r____r-.-"..---------..---
|-----T-.------.-;-
-l 14 ("/
'(l
|
.1.-ff
#
oR 2rl2'MIN
STANDARD HOOK

STIRRUP HOOKS AND TIES

STANDARD REINFORCING BAR HOOK DETAILS

COMPRESSION LAP SPLICES AND ANCHORAGES FOR TFNSTON LAP SPLTCES ANO ANCHORAGE
REINFORCING BARS F C = 3OOO PSI. NORMAL WEIGHT
STEEL CONCRETE LAP DOWELS. TOP BARS OTHER BARS
GRADE COMPRESSION SPLICE IN tN db(a tN. CATEGORY CATEGORY
(FY-KSr ) STRENGTH (F'c) db>t2 tN. MrN.) BAR LAP
stzE CLASS 2 5 I 3 6
JUUU ZU
40 4000 20 to t( to to l3
5000 20 B tl ,1 21 t1 21 21 16 l6
't/
JUUU z3 tz tz
50 4000 to B 30 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 22 22 22 22
5000 22
,| I
JWU B 46 35 35 36 aa 7 7 27 27
60 4000 30 19 5U 4U 35 32 3Z J I
5000 30 18 B 65 52 46 42 42 42 40 J5 32
JWU JO JO 30 29
75 4000 44 24 B 89 71 63 50 49 49 Aq 55 39 38
5000 44 23 bJ 51 45 43
N OTES B 1 1 7 94 a2 66 56 90 72 63 cl 43
'| 114 Y I UU b4 57 4U
. db = reinforcing bar diameter.
B 148 1 1 9 104 6J 74 63 114 9l 80 64 57 48
2. Reinforcing bars #14 and #18 may not be used in lap splices exept when lapped to #1 1 bars
or smaller. To find the lap dimension, take the larger figure of either 22 db of the larger bar or ttc d l t2 69 td OJ 56 45
30 db of the smaller bar. B 1 8 8 1 5 1 132 1 0 6 94 76 45 I to 102 81 73 58
't25
3. Consult Concrete Reinforcing Steel Insritute (CRSI) for tension splices and anchorages. 174 100 6Y
B 231 1 8 5 r 6 2 1 3 0 93 7A 142 r 0 0 89
1to tto 't21 '|
242 242 121 1Al 1 31 1 3 1 93 93
'|
1 BAR DrA. (dh) OR J5ti 3btt zbt) 2bl) ltE IA 274 274 192 192 137
3lr" wHtcrev-en
NOTES
t,tz
3/." FoR suRFAcEs NoT
MIN 1. Lap splice lengthsare multiplesof tensiondovelopmentlengths;ClassA = 1.0 ld.ClassB =
EXPOSED TO WEATHER 1.3 | d-0qcl 12.15.1)Valuesof ldfor bars in beams or @lumns are based on transwrse rein
FOR 15 OR SMALLER
(2" FOR *6 ANO URGER) torcementmeelingminimumrequirements for stirrupsin ACI 11.5.4and t 1.5.5.3,or meet-
ing tie requirementsin ACI 7.10.5:and are basd on minimum mver specifiedin ACI 7.7.1.
2. Conditionsthat requireCategory1 or Category2 lap spli@ lengnhsshould be awided if at all
3/4- MtN
possiblefor the larger bar sizes.Theseinordinat€lylong lengthspresent possible@nstruc-
tion problemsdue to placing,congestion,etc. Options availabl€in trying to avoid Category1
or 2 conditionsinclude:
34" MtN
3/." FoR suRFAcEs Nor ExposED a, Increasingthe concrete cover to moro than one bar diam€terand/or increasethe bar c.{.
I' MIN. OR NOT
TO WEATHER ( I r/2- EXPOSEO LEss rHAN I r/3" x
spacingto more than thre bar diamoters.
TO WEATHER FOR 15 OR COARSE AGGREGATE b- Utilizingthe A, allowancein ACI 12.2.3(b)for beams or colums. Noto thar if ties or stirrups
SMALLER: 2" FOR f6 AND LARGER) OR NOM. BAR DIA. meet the minimum Ar requirement.Category1 lengths ars reducedto Category5 lengths
JOTSTS and Category2 lengthsare reducedto Category6 lengths.
FLOOR SUBS BEAM OR GIRDER
o 3. The ACI 318-89code does not allow lap splicesof #14 or #'l 8 bars:The valuestabulatedfor
3/4-
z MtN those bar sizesare the tensiondevelopmentlengrths.
l
4. Top bars are horizontalbars with more than 12 in. of concretecast below the bars.
o_ 5. #1'l and smalleredge barswith c.{. spacingnot l€ss than6d b are assumedto havea side
l. cover not less than 2.5d b. OtheMise, Category5 appliesratherthan Category6.
o* t.
oi 6. Forlightweighlaggregate, multiplythe valuesaboveby '1.3.
u< I
0u
| 7. For epoxy{oated reinforcingbars,multiplythe valuesabov€by one of the followingfactorsl
I
oi I a.Cover< 3d b or c.{. spacing< 7db multiplytop barsby '1.31andall otherbarsby 1.50.
il6 | b.Cover> 3d b and c.{. spacing> 7d b multiplytop bars and all other bars by 1.20.
8. See CRSI'SReinfor@ment:Anchorages,Lap Splicesand Connectionsmanualfor tables of
tensiondovelopmentand lap spliceslor other concretestrengthsand epoxy{oated rebars.
1:

". 2'' MIN, FOR #6 AND URGER

WALLS COLUMNS

PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT

ConcreteReinforcingSteel Institute:Schaumburg,lllinois

CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
 Plqcemenlof SteelReinforcement t9t
oowELs

, IcoNTTNUATTON

I l/2 TURN FoR

ANCHORAGE
DOWES
REOUIRED VERTICAL
REINFORCING
(6) BARS MIN
CLOSED {ONLY 2
STIRRUP BRICK sHowN)
REOUIRED / LEDGE f KEY REOUIRED
UPTUR NED
EDGE BEAM
TYPICAL BEAM
OR GIRDER
SPANDREL OR
EDGE AEAM
I
, J TOP BARS
I
r-- -{t,'| , cC o
O R EE oOr IaA ,

1-6" MNf BARSsHowN

FOR VERTICALLY
PROVIDE
SHRINKAGE @ A'MIN,
SPIRAL
TIE
MAX. TIE
SPACING
4A TIE DIA.
REINFORCE
AS REOUiRED I6 BAR DIA
PROVIDE LEAST COL
BY DESIGNER SHRINKAGE
(TYP,) MAX.3- DIM.
REINFORCING MlN. l3/s oR
AS REOUIRED I '|/3X AGG. 11/2TURN FoR
BY ST,RUCTURAL SIZE J ANCHORAGE
EARTH
DESIGNER

EXPANSION 6TH FLOOR

JOINT

BOnOM I {,.- MrN.l

THRUST
TIES
BARS la
REOUIREO
;f 15-neean
FOOTING 3'MIN =t il. tl MAX. TIE
DOWEL COVER :l ll H
@l lll. J | \#3 TrEs SPACING
PLAN OF -iLt- MtN 4A TIE DIA
PUN OF PLAN OF
16 BAR DIA
BASEMENT WALL BASEMENT WALL BASEMENT WALL FOUNDAT
INTERSECTION INTERIOR CORNER LEAST COL
EXTERIOR CORNER DIM.

REINFORCING DETAILS
WELDED
1 . 15 BAR AT TOP OF SUB SPLICE
OPENING MAY HAVE ANY
SHAPE OTHER THAN O
ANGLE
SHOWN HERE

RECTANGLE SMALL
. o rs ( M A X . ) FOR REINFORCING BAR S
APPLICATION
p46E pp AREA (MlN.)
3,,MAX. 2 - *5 BARS AT 4TH FLOOR

CLEAR SPAN LN CENTER OF SLAB

FACE OF
4-O
SUPPORT
MAX,
C. SPAN L
EXTEND TRIMMER OOUBLE
BARS2,.6'' MIN.
BEYONO SIOES OF t+/---
OPENING OR AS FAR l.T5BARAT rfln TENSION
ITII BAR
FUT PLATE CONSTRUCTION - MIODLE STRIP TOP OF SLAB
AS POSSIBLE ANO HOOK
N OTES ilt\
rl li v srEevE -
1. Provideextra bars (not shown) parallelto ;' lt tl ll cuMP
sidesof openings,equalto areasot inter-
rupted slab bars. Extend Jull length of rl I
spanor to top barsas applicable. rTl
2. This detail is typicalat openingsup to 4 ft ftt
maximum dimensionsexcept as other- COMPRESSION
wrse snown. sPLrcE (
3. Circularop€ningsless than 18 in. diame- REBAR I
LAP
ter requireno rein{orcing. I ENGTH //

OPENING IN SLAB OR WALL 2ND FLOOR

FUT PLATE CONSTRUCTION _ COLUMN STRIP

/- REBAR
8 " , l o " , AND I 2" FOR 20. PANS
/ BUNDLES
a " , l o - , 12 .14". 16"- AND 20" FOR 30, PANS
TEMPERATURE rffil DOUBLE
TIES

lN&'*
REINFORCEMENT
2t t2" ao 4t t2

OISTRIBUTION RIB t 4 ( M t N . )T O P MIN. CONSTRUCTION

(l)-SPANS20TO30 AND BOfrOM DEPTH = SPAN/I8 5 (EXTERIOR
(2) , SPANS OVER - SPAN/21 (INTERIOR) USUALLY
OEPTH
20" oR 30' srD
LONGITUOTNAL SECTION-{NE WAY
CONCRETE JOIST CONSTRUCTION a- EXPANSION
WELDED a-
o.33 LN

TO 4't2

MIN DEPTH - SPAN/24

6 o125L OI5L(MAX)

C. . C. SPAN L
COLUMN STRIP WAFFLE FUT MIDDLE STRIP 24'TO 36
SLAFSQUARE BAY CONSYRUCTION c.-c.

CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

Anthony L. Felder: Concrete Reinforcing Steel lnstitute; Schaumburg, lllinois

Kenneth D. Franch, AlA. PE; Phillips Swager Associates, Inc.; Dallas, Texas

REINFORCEMENT
CONCRETE
 192 Concrefe Admixtures
GENERAL Concrete should be workable, finishabte, slronq. durabte.
NOTES
watertight, and wearaesistant. These qualilres cian usuallv
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other tban
be achreved by selectrng surtable matefials or bv chanaina 1- The effectiveness of an admixture depends on such fa.
portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to
the mix proportions. Sometimes airentrainrno jdm,rt,]rei tors as type, brand, and amount of cement; water con
the mixture immediately before or during.mixing. Admix-
are necessary, but in most cases admixturei can be for_ tent; aggregate shape, gradation, and proponions: mix;ng
tures can.be classified by function as follows: air€ntraininq
gone. No admixture can substitute for good concreting trme; slump: and concrete and air temperatures.
admxturesj water reductng admixtures; retardrng admix.
practice. 2. Trial mixtures should be m€de with the admixture anrt
tures:.accelerating admixturesj superplastjcizers; tinely
divided mineral admixtures; miscellaneous admixtures thai the iob materials at temperatures and humidities antic
The major reasons for using admixtures are to reduce the pated on the job to ensure compatibility wjth otheJ
aid workability, bondrng, dampproofrng, gas-tormrng, grout_
cost of concrete construction; to achieve certain properties admixtures and job materials and to allow obseruation ot
Ing lrcnsnnnk,, and colonng and help reduce p€rmeability
rn concrete more effectively; to ensure the qualitv 6l con_ how the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete
and inhibit corrosion.
crete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in are affected by lmal conditions.
adverse weather conditions; and to overcome certain e;er_
3. The cost ol using admjxtures should be compared wrth
gencies during concreting operations.
lhe cost of changing the basic concrete mixture. Deter
mrne how using an admixture will affect the cost of
TOTAL TARGET AIR CONTENT FOR C O N C R E T E ] kansponing, placing. linishing, curing. and protecting the
AIR CONTENT (PERCENT)2 concrete.
NOMINAL MAXIMUM
AGGREGATE SIZE (IN.) 4. Recommended total air contents for dif{erent exoosure
SEVERE EXPOSURE3 MODERATE EXPOSURE3 MILD EXPOSURE3 conditions are shown for diflerent aggregate sizes in thp
table below.

3,/,

rExperienceshows that hardened 3 S€vereexposureis an environmentin

concrete with the ajr which concreteis
ontents specifiedin this table, as sampledand tested in exposedto w€t freez&thaw conditions,de-icers,or other
tF plastic state, performs satisfactorily.The air content aggr€ssive agents. Moderate exposure is an envaron_
of hardenedconcretemay be smewhat different. ment in wtlich concrete is exposed to freezing but will
, Projectspecificationsoften allow not.be continuallymoist, not exposedto watei for long
the air content of the
delivered concrete to be within several percentage periods befor€ freezing,and will not be in contact with
pcintsof the table target values. d+icers or aggressivechomicals. Mild exposure is an
environmentin lvhich @ncrete is not exposedto treez_
ing conditions,cleicers,or aggressiveagents.
CONGRETE ADMTXTURES BY CLASSTFICATTON
TYPE OF ADMIXTURE
MATERIAL

Type C)
€lcium nitrite
d€trainers
dibutyl
silicones
Arr€otratntng admixtures
(/ASTM C 260) resrn);some
._"11"-' proternaceousmateriat;fatry and resinousacidsand rheir sitts; altyibenzene
segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated !..",y^*yl :."lt",of
surronales;sails ol su[onated hvdrocarbons
reoucers
lrthrum and barium, enrrarnrngagents

caoon phthalrcyanine,
(ASTMC 979)
, sodium benzoate, pnosphates
admrxtures
calciumor ammoniumstearateor srearate;
aomrxlures
Cementitious Hydraulic properties; partial cement replacement G@nd granulatedblast-furnaceslag (ASTMC 989)j naturalcemenu hydraulichydratedlime
ASTMC 141r
Pozolans Pozzolanic activjty; improve workability, plasticity, sulfate
shares,
vorcanic pumicites
(AsrM
resistance; reduce alkali reactjvity. pem;ability. heat of
hydration; partial cement replacement; filler
31"Jift1"fi"&i8:3tr""i1"":^3l""i,iJ:r,'; tuffs, c 618,
crass
N);fry

P@olanic and cementi- Same as cementitious and pozzolan caregones High€lcium fly ash (ASTMC 61B, ClassC);groundgranulatedblast-furnacestag
tlm {ASTMC 989)
lmprove workability; filler Marble,dolomite,quartz,granite
Nminally inert

insecticides

powder;r€srnsoap
admixtures,accelerators,retardes
shnnk grout tor sefting steel on masonryor mncr€te, till
regletsand cracks)
grounosrag mtural pozzolans;water
U'rgan|candsynthetic'polymers;organicfloccu|ents;o@
pyrcgenicsiticas;naturatpozzotans(ASTMC 618, CiassN); fty ash
3:y"::t-T-1t?11","ld
oru, LrassesI andC);hyd.atedtime(ASTMC 141) {i
Lignin: sugar; tartaric
B) delay initial set lor difficult placement, or for special finish-
rng, such as exposed aggregate

sates;lignosulfonates
5uperpEs!czer- and
retarder (ASTM C 10't 7
fype 2l
reorcer
TvDeAl
* Superplasticizers
are also referredto as high-rangewater both ASTM 494 a n d C ' 1 0 1 7specilications
reducers or plasticizers.These admixtures often meet neously.

Robert W. Shuldes.P.E.;PorttandCementAssociation;
Skokie.llljnois

3 CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
 Concrete Foundotions 193
REINFORCING STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
DOWELS COLUMN
/- FOOITNG
BELow] CONCRETE
/ ,/ CAP

\ /- FINISH
\ FLOOR

GROUND CONCRETE
WATER ,,'\ SHAfl IN
TABLE/ \ TEMPORARY
CONCRETE CASING
COMPACT
FOOTING, TYP
SAND
SLOPE AS caYJ
R E O U I R E OB Y REFUSALOR
LOCAL CODE HARDCUY
(UNDISTURBED

(rrr**
COMBINED
FoorrN) a COMBINED
o MAT OR BELL
E COMBINED DIAMETER
L
\ couuur 3
o
J NOTES
U
FOUNDATION o 1. Test soils to determin€ their allowable bearingcapacity.
Refer to localbuildingcodes.
'H'is tunctionof the passiveresistance of the soil,gen-
SECTION 2. a
erated by the moment appliedto the pier cap.
SPREAD FOOTINGS 3. Piersmay be used under grade beams or concretewalls.
Forvery heaw loads,pier foundationsmay be more ecG
nomicalthan piles,

BELL PIER FOUNDATION

STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
0
& CONCRETE CAP
FOR MULTIPLE
- COLUMNS
OR PIERS
dz
MJ

ANCHOR
BOLTS
REINFORCEMENT
FOR COLUMN OR
MOMENT DESIGN
CONCRflE SHAtr IN
F TEMPORARY CASING
o
o
E

;o
J
o ^oan----"

I
HAND OR MACHINE I'.
EXCAVATED SOCKET
CUT INTO ROCK
PILE-SUPPORTED FOUNDATIONS

DEPTH OF SOCKET
N OTES (CONSULT ENGINEER)

1. Set pier into a s@ket in r@k to transmit high compres'

FOUNDATION WALL
sion or tensionloadsinto rock by bond.
2. Pier shaft shouldbe poured in dry conditionsiI possible,
but tremie pourscan be used.

SOCKET PIER FOUNDATION

GRAOE

AREAWAY WALL
MAXIMUM IF NEEDED WITH REINFORCING
STEEPNESS

SEAUNT

SUB ON GRADE

POROUS FILL
FOR ORAINAGE
CONCRETE
FOOTINGS ,/, AREAWAY SUB
ABUTS BUILDING
DISCONTINUOUS FOOTINGS CONTINUOUS FOOTING

STEP FOOTINGS AREAWAY WALL

Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers; Potomac, Maryland

Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York

CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
 194 ConcreteSlobson Grqde
GENERAL srderable traffic by hard wheel vehicles. such as forklifts. A r/s"RADrus--
semrrigid filler Shore Hardness "A" of at least gO should be /-PREVENTBoND
Factors to consader in the design and construction of all
slabs on grade include the intended use o{ the slab or slab
used in joints supponing forklitt traf{ic.
'z
section, the condition and preparatton oI a unilorm sub-
grade, quality of concrete, adequacy of structural capacity,
Concrete fl@r slabs are monolithically finished as a qeneral f''-':''1,;;: .>
pr@edure by tloating and troweling to a smooth and-dense
lype and spacrng of,oints, frnishing, currng. and apptrcalion BUTT
top surface finish. ACI 302 provides specific guidance for JOINT CONSTRUCTION JOINT
ol specral surfaces The subgrade support must be reason-
appropriate linishing procedures to control the achievable
ably uniform and the upper ponion of the subgrade (called
floor flatness. ACI 302, ACI 360, and ACI I I 7 Drovide ouid-
the base) should be of uniform material and densitu. Both
ance for tlatness selection and the techniqubs bv ';hich
should be properly compacted. A thin laver of comoactable flatness and leveln€ss are produced and measured. Two
granular fill may be placed rmmediatelv beneath the slab lo
systems are used. The preferred method of measurinq flat-
act as a Oercolation barrier. ness and l€velness (documented in ACI 302 and ACI li 7) ,s BUTT TYPE CONSTRUC:TION JOINT
the F-Numb€r System. Special linrshes are available to
Wear resistance (abrasion) is directly related to the condi- PUSTIC OR PREFORMED
rmprove appearance as well as surface oroDerties. These
tion ol the top portion of the concrete slab. Surface hard- HARDBOARD STRIP
include sprinkled (shake) finishes or high-strength toppings,
ness.and abrasion resrstance may be provided by special
erther as monolithic or separate (two-stage floorl surfaces. IF SAWCUT ONLY,
addrtrves or hardeners to the surface. The quality of the
Where propagation of water vapor is undesirable, a water- FILL WITH SEALER
overall concrete slab will be enhanced by proper water-te proof vapor barier, with permeance not to exceed O.2O (SHORE HARDNESS > 80)
cement ratro, reasonable slump limits, and wellgraded perms, can be used SAWEO OR PREMOLDED CONTRACTION JOINT
aggregates with the maximum size of the coarse aggregate
as large as placing will permit. Exterior concrete subleited PREFORMED METAL
THICKNESS DESIGN OR PLASTIC JOINT
to freeze-thaw cycles should have 4 to 7yo entrained ;ir.
In general, the controlling loading to a slab on grade is the MATERIAL
Rein{orcement in concrete slabS is unnecessary where fre- heavrest mncenirated loading lhat it will carry. This is fre-
quent lornt spacings are used. Where less lrequent ioint quently the axle loading of an industrial lift truck or the set
spacrngs are used, reinforcement is placed in the slab, at or of post loadings {rm heaw rack storage shelves. The con- TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT
above the mid{epth (generally'/3 down from the top sur- cretg slab thickness required will depend on the toading SAWCUT FILL WITH
lace) to act as crack control. Common conlraction ioint itself, the modulus of ruptur€ of the concrete (usuallv based SEALER {SHORE
spacing rs 15 ro 25 ft, depending on the thickness ofthe on the comprossive strength of the concrete). the selected HARDNESS > 80)
slab and the construction type. Checkerboard placemenl oI factor of safety used in th6 design, and the modulus of sub-.
grade reaction (kl of the soil suppon system (subgrade). COAT OOWEL WITH
slabs is no longer recommended bv American Concrete NONBONDING AGENT
lnstitute (ACl) 302.1 "Guide tor floor and slab construc- Procedures and examples are shown in ACI 360, ACI 330,
'1,
tion,' where strip placement of slabs is recommended for and ACI 302. Class 2, and 3 fl@rs should be no thinner CONTRACTION JOINT WITH OOWELS
€rge areas. than 4.or 5 irches. Loading and usage frequently require
floors thic*er than 6 inches. JOINT SEALER
Three types of ioints are remmmended:

EXPANSION JOINT
1. ISOLATION JOTNTS latso cailed expansion joints): Ailow
MATERIAL
movement between slab and fixed pans of the building
such as columns, walls, and machinery bases. AONO BREAKER
DOWEL SIZE AND SPACING (IN.)
2. CONTRACTION JOINTS (also called conrrot ioints):
USE AT NONBEARING
Induce cracktng at preselected locations MASONRY PARTITION
3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: ProMde stopping places dur- WITH 2 *4 REBARS
ing fl@r construction. Construction joints also function CONTINUOUS(MIN.)
as control and isolation joints-

Sawcutcontrol joints should be rode as early as is practical

after tinishing the slab and should bo fjlled in ireas with wet
conditions. hygienic and dust control requirements. or con- '4 REBAR AT 24" MIN

TYPICAL DETAILS
CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE SLABS ON GRADE
RECOMMENDED
RECOMMENDED 2A - DAY
SLUMP COMPRESSIVE USUAL CONCRETE
C LASS 0N.) SPECIAL FINISHING
STRENGTH (PSI) TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS TECHNIQUE
3000 Lrght lool ncsrqciludt Suilaces; braoe tor dralnage; level slabs
mainly with floor coverings suitable for applied coverings; curing
3500 rool unrces and churchesi sunace tolerance 0nctudtnq - elevated
usually with floor slabs); nonslip aggregates nonsliptinish
covenng In specrtrc areas where required
Decorative Colored mineral aggregate; hardener or As required
exposed aggregate; artistic joint layout
c 3500 l-oot and pneurutic Exterrcr walks, drivewavs, Grade tor drainage; proper air l-loat,trowel. or
wheel garage floors, and sidevialks content; curing brmm finish
4 5 4000 l-oot and light rrrS!tu!onal ano Level slab surtable for aoolied
vehicular traffic commetctal coverings; nonslip aggregate trowel finish
ror spectTtc areas an€l cuflng
4000 hdustnal vehaelar Lrght{uty Industrial tloors for u@d unrtormsubgrade;surtac
traff ic---pneumatic whel manufacturing., processing, tolerance;joint.layout;abrasion trowel finish
ano wa16nousrnq restslance;cuflng
4500 Inous(rar ventcu6r lndustnat fl@rs subject Umd unrtormsubgrade:surface SDectal m€tallic or maneral
traffic--+tard whe€ls to heavy traffic; may be tol€rance;ioint lavout;load transfer; aggregate; repeated
subject to impact loads abrasionresistance;curing hard steel troweling
4 6ase Industraal vehicular tsonded twHourse floors odse sraHooo untrorm suborade:
3500 traffic--+lard wheels subject to heavy traffic reinforcement; ioint lavout j lev;l suitable tor subseauenl
and rmpact surface: curino bonded topping
Toppingr-Coriposed of welt!raded Special power tloats
alFmineral or all-metallicaqqreoatei
- with repeated steel
Mrneral or metalhc aggreglie trowelings
applied to high-strengrh plain topping
to toughen; surface tolerance; curing
I opprng As in classes4. 5. and6 Unbondedtopoinas--+reezer Bond breaker on old surface; mesh Hard steel
5000 - 8000 floorson insulition.on otd reinforcement: minimum thickness trorel finish
floors, or where construction 3"(nominal 75mm) abrasion
scheduledictates resrstance. and curing
ot Supertlator criti€l surface Natrow-arsle,hrgh-bay varyrn9 concrete quality requirements
tolerancerequired.Special warenouses: tetevtston Shakmn hardeners cannot be used technrques as indacated in
materials-handling vehicles studios unless special application and great seclion 7.'15 of ACI 302
or roboticsrequiring care are employed. Proper ioint
specifictolerances arrangement

Boyd C Ringo;Cincinnati,
Ohio

3 CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
 Concrete Stqirs r95

RAILING TYP

I
F
o
;
E.
F
o
r/2 REeUTRED
N FULLY
WIOTHMIN OPENED, DOOR
SHALL NOT
PROJECT MORE
1t tz" MtNa REOUIRED THAN 7 "INTO
ICLEARANCE THE REQUIRED DETAIL A
WIDTH
SLIP RESISTANT
NOSING AND ANCHOR

PLAN SPAN
't
SLIP RESISTANT
OETAIL B ABRASIVE ON
STEPS AND LANDINGS

Lr==.=
DffAIL A

REINFORCEMENT PRELIMINARY
AS REQUIRED SL.AB THICKNESS
SHOULD BE
DETAIL B SPAN/26
oEr^tL c
//
THICKNESS
REOUIRED TO
ACHIEVE FIRE
RATING AND
STRUCTURAL
NEEDS (ASSUME
r2 -o MAX .NOMINAL FOR
A
OR
CONCRflE)

FLOOR LEVEL DETAIL C

NOTES
1. Structural engineer to determine reinforcement specifi
cations and specilic placement in stairs.
2. Check codes for dimensions and clearances tor accessl
bility standards.
s€cTloN

U_TYPE CONCRETE STAIRS

SPAN = CENTERLINE
OISTANCE BETWEEN
THE TWO FIXED ENDS

PRELIMINARY
SUB THICKNESS

PR€LIMINARY SLAB
THICKNESS - SPAN/26
TREADS MAY BE
TILTED INWARD
SLIGHTLY TO
COMPENSATE FOR
THE OUruARO
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
OF SOMEONE
WALKING DOWN
THE STAIR

N OTE N OTE
NOTE
Use of helicoidal concrete stairs depends on very stiff fixed Reinforcement must develop full bond in masonry walls
Extend hinge only as required by stair width, unless other
end support and small support deflection. and have tull development length in concrete walls
wise permifted by struclural engrneer.

HELICOIDAL CONCRETE STAIR CANTILEVER CONCRETE STAIR

FREESTANDING CONCRETE STAIR

Krommenhoek/McKeownand Associates;San Diego,California

Ka.lsbergerand Companies:Columbus,Ohio

CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
 196 Concrete FloorSystems
GENERAL NOTES
1. Theinformation presentedon thesepagesis intendedonlyas a preliminary designguide.All 2. Spansshownare approilmdleandarebasedon use ol m,ldreinforcrnq steel.Soansmav b,
structural
dimensionsfor slabthickness,beamandjoint sizes,cblumnsizes,eti, U" increased25 to 50yo wrth the use ot prestressrng.
For spansgreateithan ao tt
calculatedand analyzedfor each proiect conditionbt a licensedprofessronar "ioutO
engrneer. Posttensionino_ """ri.r.,

NOTES
l.Advantages: Inexpensiveformwork; ceilings may be exposed; minimum thickness; fast NOTES
erection;flexiblecolumn location. 1. Advantages:Longerspans than flar plate:typicallyposttensioned;minimum thiclness.
2. Disadvantages: Excessconcretefor longerspans;low sh€arcapacity;greaterdsflections. 2. Disadvantages: Must reuse formwork many times to b€ economical.
3. Appropriatebuildingtypes: Hotels,motels,dormitori6s.condominiums,hospitals. 3. Appropristebuildjngtypes: High-risebuildings;sare use as flat plates it flying forms can be
4 is best for moderatespans beeuse it is the most ffinomi€l floor system and used more than 10 tim€s.
l-f]1?l?!"
nas me bwest structuralthickness.Avoid penetrationslor pipingand ductwork through the
- 4- A bandedslab has most of th€ adv€ntagesof a flat plate but permits a longer span in one
slab nearthe mlumns. Spandrelbeams may be necessary.
dirpction.lt can resist greaterlateralloadi in the direition of th; beams.
FLAT PLATE
BANDED SLAB

DRC)P PANEL
DIMENSIONS:
%G OF SPAN
FG EAG
DIRECTON

OtrIONAL
COLUMN
DES;IGN

N OTES

N OTES
1 . Advantages: Economial for design loads greater than 1SO psf. 3. Appropriate building types: Schools, offices, churches, hospitals, public and institutional
2. Disadvantages: Formwo.k is costly. buildings, buildings with moderate loadings and spans.
3. Appropriate building types: Warehouses, industrial structures; parking structures 4. This is the best scheme if slabs are too long for a flat plate and the strucrure rs not exposed.
The slab thickn€ss between joints is determined by fire requirements. ro,sts are most
4. Flat.slabs are most commonly used today for buildings supponing very eco-
heaw ' loads. When nomrcar Ir beams are the same depth as the
live load exceds 150 lb per sq ft, this scheme rs by fa-r tne'mosi e-conomical. ioists. Orient joists in the same direction
throughout the building and in rhe long direction of long rectangular bays.
FLAT SLAB
JOIST SLAB

RussellS. Fling,P.E.,Consutting
Engineer;Cotumbus.
Ohio

CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
 Concrele FloorSystems 197

\ go rooo w"

NOTES NOTES
'1
1. Advantages:Uses less conqete than joist slab; lower rebar placingcosts; ioist space used . Advantages: Long span in one direction.
for mechanicalsystems.Permitslights and equipmentto be recessedbetween ioasts. 2. Disadvanlages: Beams interfere with mechani€l seryices; mor€ expensive forms than flat
2. Disadvantages:Simalarto idst slab;ioists must be designedas beams; {orms may require Dlare.
specialorder. 3. Appropriate building types: Parking garages, especially with posttensioning.
3. Appropriate buildingrype:Sameas for ioistslabs,especially for longerfire ratings. 4. This scheme is most favored lor parking garages, but the long span of about 60 ft must be
4. Ensurethe availabilityof fmwork before specifyingskip joists. For larger projects.a skip prestressed unless beams are quite deep. Shallow beams will deflect excessively.
joist slab should be less exp€nsivethan a ioist slab, and it permits lights and equiprent
recessedbetween ioansts.
SKIP JOIST ()NE-WAY BEAM AND SLAB

N OTES
1 Advantages: Longer twcway spans; attractive exposed ceilings: heavy load capacity.
2. Disadvantages: Formwork costs more and uses more concrete and steel than a joist slab.
3. Appropriate building types: Prominent buildings with exposed ceiling structure; same types
as are suitable tor flat slab but wth longer spans.
4. Column spacing should be multiples of pan spacing to ensure uniformity ot drop panels at
each column. Drop panels €n be diarcndshap€d, square. or reclangular.
NOTES
1. Advantages: Long span in two directions; small detlection; can carry conceotrated loads.
2. Disadvantages: Same as lor one-way beams, only more so.
3. Appropriate building types: Portions of buildings in which twlway beam framing is needed
tor other reasons; industrial buildings with heaw concentrated loads.
4. The high cost of the formwork and structural interference with mechanical systems make
this scheme unattractive unless heaw concentraled loads must be carried.

\ivAFFLE SLAB TWO-WAY SLAB AND BEAM

Columbus,Ohio
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,C onsultingEngineer;

CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
 198 Concrete Surfqces,Finishes,
ond IntegrolColor
GENERAL NOTES
Architectural concrete and structural concrete are both 1. Choosing a placing technique (pumping vs. bottom drop
made from portland cement, aggregate,and water, but or other buckel type) is an important step toward achiev, STANDARD
lhey have entirelydifferent concretemix designs.A variety ing a desired architectural concrete surface and finish. JOINT
o{ architecturalfinishes and colors can be achieved bv Evaluate whether architectural concrete forms can also DffAL

changingthe mix of these three simple ingredrents. The
cost of productionusuallydetermnes the limlt of finish
choi@s.There are three basicways to changethe appeatr
ance ol a Concretesurtacelinish:
MATERIALVARIATIONinvotveschangingthe size, shape,
texture,and color of the coarseand tine aggregate,particu-
larlyin exposedaggregateconcrete,and ch@sing whit€ or
graycemenl.
MOLD OR FOHM VARIATIONinvolves changingthe tex-
ture or pattern of the concrete surface bv means of form
design.form liners,or ioinVedgetreatments.
SURFACETREATMENTinvolvestreatingor tooling the sur-
face after the concretehas cured.
Design drawings for architecturalconcrete should show
lorm details, including openings, jointi (contraction,con-
struction, and rustication),and other important specifics.
Other factors that affect concrete surfacesare mixing and
placing techniques, slump control. curing methods, and
rereas€agents.
be used for structural concrete. Verifu that the vibrators BEARING
used are of the proper size, frequency, and power. AREA
2. Shop drawings should be carefully checked to determine
form quality and stel reinforcement placement. Require
approval of forru and finishes; field mockuD is advised to
evaluate the appearance o{ the concrete panel and the
quality of workmnship.
3. Release agents are chemical treatments applied to the
liner or face of the form that react with the cement to
prevent it from sticking to the lorm. The safest way to
select a release agent is to evaluate several products on
a test panel under actual job conditions. The curing com-
pound, used to retard or reduce evaporation ol moisture REruCED
from concrete or to extend curing time, is typically BEARING
applied immediately after final finishing of the concrete
AREA
IMROWS
surface- Consult manutacturers and the American Con- TIGffiNESS
crete Institute for mora detailed informataon about the OF rcINT
compatibility of th€se treatments and the form surface
material or other finishes and surfaces to be applied to
the concrete.

EXPOSURE METHODS FOR ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE SURFACES

METHOO FINISH EFFECT CRITICAL DETAILS ARCHITECTURAL FEATURE AT
Slump = 2rl2to i CORNER
Joineryof forms
Properreleaseagent
Pointform joints to
avoidmarks

surfaces

a- Brushblast Uniformscour cleaning Cement and fine Scouringatter 7 days

aggregate have Slump = 2tl, to 31/r'
equal intluence

b. Light blast Blastedto exposefine Fine aggregate pri" 'loYo

and some cGrse
aggregate(sandblast,
water blast,air blast,ice
blast)
c. Medium exposed Blasted to expose coarse
aggregare aggregate (sand blast,
water blast, air blast, ice
blast)
d. Heavy exposed Blasted to expose coarse
aggregate aggregate (sand blast, ice
blast)
80% visible
more coarse
mary, coarse aggregate
aggregate and Slump = 2t7,1e3t7r"
cement secondary Blastingb€tween 7 and
45 days
Water and air blasting SHEAHING
used lvhere sand blast-
ing prohibited
1500 PSIconcretecom-
pressivestrength,min.
Coarse aggregate All smooth Hagherthan normal
coarseaggregale
Slump=2163"
Blastbefore 7 days HORIZONTAL
FORMWORK JOINT
Coarse aggregate All smooth Specialmix coarse
N OTE
aggregare
Slump=0to2" A notch at the joint between two form members reduces
Blastwithin 24 hours the bearingareaat the point of contact.improvingthe tight
Use high-frequenry ness of lhe joint. A non-notchedioint is acceptable.but a
vibrator notch is recommended.

of surfaceset mines etch depth

Strippingscheduledto
prevsnt long drying
betlv€en strippingand SHEAfrING
mshoff

surfaces,s€ling, for scaling and tooling

bush hammering,jack- 2r/2' minimum @ncrete FORM LINER
hammering,tooling cover over reinforced SHEETS
steel
4000 PSIconcretecom-
pressivestfenglh, mini-
mum
on type
rrregurar rsh desared
pattern Corrugated/abra- Wood flute kerfed and
srve nailed loosely
Venical rusticated/abra-
sive blasted
Reededand bush ham-
mered
Seededand hammered
Reededand chiseled
and polashang blemashes FORM LINEFI JC)INT
shouldbe patched N OTE
5000 PSIconcretecom-
pressivestrength,mini- Placing the inner sheet above the outer sheet reduces
mum shadows, particularlv on sm@th surfaces.

JOINTS IN FORMWORK

D. Neil Rankins;RGAy'r'irginia;
Richmond,Virginia

CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
 ond lntegtql Color
ConcreteSurfoces,Finishes, t99
AGGREGATE SURFACE TEXTURE/FORM LINER INTEGRALLY COLORED CEMENT

Aggregate is one of three components ot concrete and
greatly affects the final appearance of the concrete surface.
Aggregate should be selected on the basis of color, hard
ness, size, shape, gradation. method of exposure, durabil-
itv, availability,and cost. Aggregate hardness and densitY
must be compatible with structural requrrements and
weathering conditions.
Sources for coarse and fine aggregates should be kept the
same lor an entire iob to avoid variations in the final surface
appearance, paniculady in light-toned concrete. Following
are the common types of aggregate available:
OUARZ is available in clear, white. yellow, green, gray,
and light pink or rose. Clear quartz is used as a sparkling
surtace to complement other colors and prgmented
cements.
GRANITE is known for its durability and beauty and is avail-
able in shades of pink, red, gray. dark blue. black. and
white. Traprock such as basalt can be used for gray. black.
or green.
MARBLE orobablv offers the widest selection ot colors-
green, yellow, red, pink, gray, white, and black.
LIMESTONE is available in white and gray.
MISCELLANEOUS GRAVEL, after being washed and
screened, can be used for brown and reddish-brown fin
ishes. Yellow @hers, umbers, buff shades, and pure whate
are abundant in riverbed gravels. Check local supplies.
CERAMIC exhibits the most brilliant and varied colors when
vitreous materials are used.
EXPANDED LIGHTWEIGHT SHALE may be used to
duce reddish$rown. gray, or black aggregate. Porous
crushable. this shale produces a dull surface with soft
ors. lt should b€ tested for iron staining characteristics
must meet ASTM C 330.
RECYCLED CONCRETE aggregate is produced when old
concrete is crushed. Primarily used in pavement work, this
material generally has a higher absorbsion rate and lower
density than conventional aggregate. lt should be tested for
durability, gradation, and other properties, as wath any new
aggregate source.
EXPOSEO AGGREGATE
An exposed aggregate surface is a decorative tinish for con-
Patterned lorms and liners make it possible lo simulate in
concrete the textures of wood, brick, and stone at a lower
cost. The texture and resulting shadow patterns conceal
minor color variations or damage that would be conspicu-
ous and unacceptable on a smooth surface. Use ol rustica-
tion strips at joints n textured liners simplifies form
assembly work.
NOTES
1. The choice of liner material may depend on whether the
work is precast, cast-in-place, or tilt{p. Thin liners thal
work well lor horizontal casting may wrinkle and sag in
vertical forms, where sturdier liner materials are
required. Form liners such as plastic foams can usually
be used only once, while many elastomeric liners are
good for 100 or more uses with reasonable care.
2. Reusable aluminum wall forms, textured with various
patterns, can also be used; sections are held together
with metal pins. Typical sizes are 3 x 8 {t and larger.
3. Making a preconstruction mock-up is helpful in choosing
patterned liner materials. lf built on site, the mock-up can
be used as a reference standard for inspectors and work-
ers. lf ribbed liners are specified, the largest aggregate
pa(icle should be smaller than the nb.
4. Typical form liner materials are
a. Plyform: Sandblasted, wire$rushed, or striated ply-
form can be used as lorm sheathing or as a liner inside
other structurally adequate forms.
b. Unfinished sheathing lumber: Used to produce rough,
board-marked concrete. this lumber can be used as
form sheathing or liner. Ammonia spray on wood will
raise grain and accentuate the wood pattern.
c. Rigid plastics: ABS, PVC, and high-impact polystyrene
prc sheets can be molded or extruded to produce nearlv
and any pattern or texture. Although typically supplied in
col- sheets of 4 x 8,4 x 10, and 4 x 12 ft, they can be spe-
and cial ordered in lengths up to 30 ft or longer.
d. Glass tiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP): These look
much like other plastics but are stronger and more
durable, particulady laminated GFRP. Extruded GFRP
is less expensive (and less durable). Custom lengths
up to 40 tt are available.
e. Elastomeric plastics: These rubbery liners, typically
polyurethane, are the most costly, but they are very
strong and durable and flexible enough to accommq
date finer details. Standard sheets in sizes up to 4 x 12
ft arer available,as are larger custom sheets. Typically
attached to lorm sheathing with adhesive, they are
Colored concrete can provide a cost-effective simulation of
natural stone or other building materials. Two standard
types of cement ar€ available, ot{ering different shades of
color: standard gray portland cement and white cement.
lntegrally colored concrete is made by adding mineral oxide
pigments to concrete mixes made with one of these two
types. Fine aggregates should be selected caretully, since
they can enhance the color effect. The amount of coloring
material should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement;
any excess prgment may reduce concrete strength, and
strong colors can be achieved with less than 1070 pigment.
White cement is used when lighter, more delicate shades
ol concrete are desired, although it is more expensive;
da.ker hues can be produced using gray cement.
N OTES
1. Variations in all components ot the concrete mix make
color formulas only approximate. After a basic color is
selected, the exact shade may be determined by prepar
ing a number of small panels, varying the ratao ot pig
ment to cemenl, wrth aggregate playtng a more
import3nt role in exposed aggregate mixes. To evaluate
panels properly, store them for about five days under
conditions similar to those on the construction site. Pan-
els lighten as they dry.
2. Batching, mixing, placing, and curing practices must be
uniform, and sources of ingredients must be constant
throughout a iob to maintain color uniformity. Avoid
admaxtures lhat contain calcium chloride, since it can
cause discoloration. Ciean forms and nonstaining release
agents are vital. Consult pigment manufacturers'recom-
mendataons.
3. Pigments should meet the quality standards of ASTM
C979. Finely ground iron oxides are the most widely
used pigments for coloring concrete. Colors and their
sources include blue (cobalt oxide). brown (brown iron
oxide). buff (yellow iron oxide), green (chromium oxide),
red {red iron oxide}, gray/slale (black iron oxide).
4. Colorconditioning admixtureso{fer integral color and
have additives that improve workability, better disperse
color and cement, and reduce color bleeding for
imoroved uniformitv. Consult manufacturers.
STRIP
-HARDWOOD
-y /-/ REMOW
R FMOW AND
AND
---4J--- C A U IK J O T N T
E*+
||lfiJ-------"",
ryru
-
\br

crete work achieved by removing the surface cement to sensitive to temperature change and may deform; WOOD FORM INSERT
expose the aggregate. Aggregates suitable for exposure consult manufacturers.
'-
may vary fromr/. in. to a cobblestone more than 6 in. in SHEET METAL WITH
f. Polystyrene foam: Single-use liners are used to pro- WOOD FILLER, RE.
diameter. The extent to which the pieces of aggregate are
duce unaquepat'ternsfor specilic jobs. MOVE AND CAULK
revealed is largely determined by their size. Size is generally JOINT
selected on the basis of the distance from which it will b€ 5. Joints in the forms and Iiners must be executed carefuliy
viewed and the aDpearance desired. and the liners handed properly to achieve high{uality
workmanship. Check liners for compatibility with release
Aggregates with rough surfaces have better bonding proP agents and adhesives.
enies than those with smoother surfaces; bind is impor SPLIT FACE SHEET METAL FORM INSERT
JOINT DEtrH N OTE
tant, particularlv when small aggregate is used. For better SURFACE
OPTIONAL
weathering and appearance. the area of exposed cement In flal concretework, a rotary saw may be used to make a
matrix between pieces of aggregate should be minimal.
contractionjoint.
which makes the color of cement in exposed aggregate
concrete less rmportant. CONTRACTION J()INTS
SUGGESTED VISIBILITY SCALE
AGGREGATE OISTANCE AT WHICH
srzE, tN. (MM) TEXTURE IS VISIBLE, FT (M)
ROUGH MOLDED ENEND
SHIPT-AP BELOW
MASONRY

W,;
PANERN FORM TO
EXERT
MAIMUM
RESSURE
EXPOSED ON GASKET
AGGREGATE ON LUG
* FACE -

rIF**
OffIONAL
f-7- -u'' -o,'
RADTUS

r(
I /rr
'*
t

ROUGH RANDOM
RIETE}ED
TIE ROD CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
BOARD
RADIUS TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION JOI NT
CORNER rcnc-Fr Fq

7.'TO 3'\
'l+
)-f..'.-l +
%'TO
1,/"' ryP. --.
fr NPffi:""J; oFrroNAL-\
PREFERRED
LOCATION

CONSTRUCTION
f-:---7
tl
rol
l.
|
I lr;
.l iro | / / ' 't Ni
JOINT
4't | :i l3' l,/
,iI L---, +- ', /. / 1.ao
2'+
RANDOM STONE STRIATED
X CENTERLINE
TRAPEZOID NOTE GROOVE
(TYPICAL FOR RIGHT TRIANGLE
RUSTICA,TION JOINT) CHAMFER Consult manufacturers for other available patterns

MISCELLANEOUS CONCRETE REUSABLE FORM LINER PATTERNS RUSTICATION AT CONSTRUCTION

JOINT/EDGE SHAPES JOINT

D. NeilRankins;RGA/r'irsinia: Virginia
Richmond,

CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
 200 Concrete Surfoces:Defect Prevention,Repoir,Cootings,ond Treotments
CONCRETE REPAIR
Damage or deterioration of concrete can occur at any time
during service life. Minor repairs may be reqoired durjng ini-
tial construction, for example, filling form tie holes; patching
lifting l@ps on precast concrete; or repairing broken edgei
on beams, walls, and columns. Distress my result from
inadequate design or construction, or deterioration, natural
eftects, or exposure to aggregate chemicals_ Most repairs
rmprove appearance, blending adjacent surfaces by match,
ing texlure and color. The repair area should be perma
nently bonded to the adjacent concrete and sufficientlv
rmpe.meable lo lquid penelratron lo keep it from shnnkrng
or cracking. Repairs should withstand freezelthaw cycles as
well as surrounding concrete does.
The American Concrete lnstitute delines generally accept-
able architectural concrete surfaces as those with minimal
color and texture variation and minimal surface defects
when viewed at 20 lt. Most architectural concrete contains
some irregularities, such as blowholes or buqholes. Criteria
for acceptabiltty should be defrned in advancl. but oatches
should match lhe surrounding area as much as posstble
REPAIR MATERIALS
Prepackaged cementitious and latex-modified cementjtious
repair materials are available, with tormulations tor thin or
thicker repairs. Where aesth€tics are important, use the
same cement and aggregates as in the surrounding work.
Most types of Portland cement are acceptable, but match
lhe origtnal type, rf posstble. Certain prepackaged mrxes
must conform to ASTM C 928. Aggregates should match
the existing concrete aggregate, it possible. For exoosed
aggregate, matching the texture and color may require spe-
cial mixtures to meet the specitications. Any admixture
used in concrete work can be used in reoair mixtures.
Bonding agents may be requrred for some repairs, espe-
cially thin ones; they are typicalty either cement-based.
latex-based (ASTM C 1059), or epoxy-based {ASTM C get ).
Acrylics, methyl methacrylates, and polymers are less
expensive than epoxy bonding agents but are more likely to
shrink. Repaired areas should be sealed or coated to the
same specifications as the surrounding concrete work to
protect against natural forces. corrosives, and chemicals.
SIDES OF HOLE
AT RIGHT ANGLES -
OULINE
DEFECTIW
CONCRETE
ARA W|TH 1/4.-7.. ./
OEEP SAW CUT
PROTECTIVE AND
DECORATIVE COATINGS
Concrete
surlacesmayrequirea sealeror coatingto pro
tecl against severe weather, chemicals, or abrasions: lo
prevent dusting of the surface layer; to harden the surface
layer; or to add a decorative finish.
Sealers are usually clear and are expected to penetrale thF
surtace without leaving a visible film. Coattngs are clear o,
opaque and, while they may have some penelration. thev
leave a visible lilm on the surface. Sealers and coatinqs
should allow vapor emission from the concrele but at the
same time keep moisture from penetrating after curing.
Decorative coatings usually protect as well and are formu
lated in a wide selection of colors. Decorative coatinqs
Include watetrbased acrylic emulstonj elaslomeric acryIr
resin; liquid polymer stain; solvent- based acrylic stain; port,
land cement-based finish coating; and water-based acidic
stain {a solution of metallic salts).
PROTECTIVE
COATINGS AND SEALERS

MrN.
+ + CONCRETE ARA
tl
I IMAY BE SOUND
I I EITHER CONCREE LEVEL
I IRECES-
I lsED oR
I IFLUSH NOTE
I lwTa
I ISUR' Larger and thicker patches should be anchored mechani-
I FACE \ cally to the surroundingconcrete.
I. t. \
PATCHING OF DEFECTIVE CONCRETE
SURFACES
GUIOELINES FOR PATCHING
L Designpatch mix to match original,with smallamount of
white cement; may eliminatecoarseaggregateor hand
place it. Trial and error, the only reliablematch method,
shouldbe perlormedon a mock{p lirst_
2. Remov€defectiveconcrete down to soundconcrete:for
expos€d aggregateconcr€te. chrp slightty deeper ihan
maximumsize of aggregate.
EPOXY
OVER TIE SOLID PLUG PATCH 3. Cl€anarea;saturatewith water and arpplybondingagent NOTES
to base of hole and to water of patch mix.
NOTE
1. Floor-hardeningagentsare appliedto reducedustingand
4. Packpatch mix to densityof originat. Increasehardnessslightlyat the surface.
Solid plugs may be made of pre€st mortar, plastic, or lead. 5. Placsexposedaggregateby hand. 2. Consult a quallfied specialistto determine the corect
Monar oI a drytamp consistency will be less likely to smear 6. Bristleirush after setup to match existingmaterial, coatingor sealerfor a particularapplication.
on surrounding concrete_ lf surrounding concrete is
smooth, recess plug or patch. 7. Moistrure to minimizeshrinking. 3. There may be restrictionson the use of solvent-based
8. Use form or finishto match originat. coatingsand sealersin some areasdue to the Dresence
TIE HOLE TREATMENT OPTIONS of VOCs{volatrleorganrc compounds}.

CRACKING IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

BEAMS, WALLS, COLUMNS.
SLABS ON GRADE AND STRUCTURAL SLABS
SU RFACE EARLY CONCRETE
CRAZING PLASTIC SHRINKAGE OTH ER
VOLUME CHANGES OTHER CRACKING SETTLEMENT CRACKS CRACKI NG
5hrnkage ot cement water al the concrete sur- As concretecools and hardens,con- JUOgraoe
paste at exposed con-
rrematute 5ameas tor slabs rrexrotelorms SubgradeOrtorm-
tace evaporates too rapidly crete volumeshrinks;crackingwill setflement excesstve on graoe;atso, and insufficient wrk settlement,
crete surfaces due to due to job site conditions occur if slab is restrainedat any point loading on slab heavaeramounts vibrationcan earlyvolume
concrete mix, toGwet such as low humidity, high of reinforcement increaselik€li- changes,construc-
excessive bleeding, wand speeds, high concrete
and natureof hood tim overloads.
overtroweling sur- temperatures, high to mod- formed or shored errorsin design
face, rapid drying of erate air lemperatures construction and detailing
surface
unsrgnry cracktng ot Parallel cracking, laidy wide Handomor regularlyspacedqacks, LOngrtudrnal
surface layeralthough at the exposed surface but usuallypassing@mpletelythrough and crack through al cracks develop
surface is probably shallow; doesn't typically slab; duringsawcuttingof ioints, edge by heaw over reinforce-
sound extend to slab edge; crack crack may iump aheadof sawcut equipment. ment bars; can
spacing and length vary eIc. cause reinforce-
greatly
ment bar
corrosion
heouce amount and neouce rale at wntch 5ufiac€ Not alwayspreventable;carefuljoint LOillljdct uenefaIy, rroper lorm LOnSUltWth struc-
sureS rate ot shrinkage at morsture evaporates by designor reinforcementmay help; subgrade well curangperiods design and tural concrete engi.
concrete SUrface by erecting windbreaks or other measures:tool or sawcut ioints of4toTdays, sufficient neer or consultanl
avoiding wet mixes, building walls betore slab, rL of slabthickness,min.,time
tollowed by 1 vibration or to prevent
limiting bleeding by avoidangwet mixes, damp- sawcut accordang to concretecuring to 2 days of revibration: use
increasing sand or ai. ening subgrade before rate; locatecontractionjoints at oryrng lowest possible
content, limiting trow- concrete pour, curing as columnlines, min.:for unreinforced slump, increase
eling/not troweling soon as possible, avoiding slabs,spacejoints at 24 to 36 times concrete cover
too early, curing as vapor barrier under slab slab thickness.max.: posttensionat
soon as possable unless necessary slab; isolateslabstrom adjoining
structureswith preformedioint filler
or if continuityis required,increase
slab reinforcement

NOTE
Expecl gme cracking in concrete conslruction. Generally, ever, not all cracks indi€te errors or Oerlormanceorob-.
cracking is controlled with ioints and reinforcement; how- lems,andnot all cracksneedto b€ reoarred.

Grant Halvorsen, S E., P.E.; Wheaton, lllinois

CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
 - PrecqstLong-SponDecks,Girders,ond Beoms 203

nPLa a-o" ,
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM SPAN FOR STEMMED DECK SECTIONS
/1
frPtra roo"
L DECK
omroNau roeerruo ------.,
I ] TYPE

ffi5ntr
u U---
,lt +ot:
I o o' l-'\vaRrES
- I
| 50'
DOUBLE TEE (DT)

1
i+ 5-o' -
,f +\ 37.'OR 47.'

PRETOPPED DOUBLE TEt

NOTES
l.Sate loads shown indicatedead toad of 10 psf for
untopped members and t5 psf for topped members.
Remainderis live load.
2. Contactmanufacturersin the geographicareaot the pro-
rcsed structure to detemine availabilitY,exacl dimen-
sions.and load tablesfor wrious sections.
3. Check camb€r for its effect on nonstructuralmemb€rs
{partitions.folding d@rs. elc.), which should be placed
with adequateallowancefor error. Calculationstor top- NOTE
ping quantitiesshouldalso remgnize cambervariataons Strandpattern designation: Toppingconcrete = 3000 Psi
4. Normal-weightconcrete is assumed to be 150 lb/cu ft: - Numberof strands(201
lightweightaoncreteis assumedto b€ 115 lb/cuft. I -S = straisht,D = depressed 150 lb/cuft lc = 5000 psi for normalor lightweightdeck
208 Dr
STEMMED DECK MEMBERS I L Number of dePressionPoints
I Diameterof strandin sixteenths

SAFE SUPERTMPOSED SERVTCE LOAD (PLF)* FOR PRECAST BEAM SECTIONS

5PAN (FT)

m=*
[.,'.:;.'lI
f,r,t"I
[.';.l I
|5=-_+ oc te'
-f-9;ftz-

7E+
['l':.1 .,|
l: r'{ |
|
|
l :. -; . : ' -.J_
:: l I . xl
1 .-..: _l_ |
fl -.-.; r. :t: .. :'i;l t ", 1
r I, II
l---+--1

I l--i t__ * J-
I l.;1:'l | |
I Ii::.11 |*'i I
Iri F-"', , i;r--f
, ,Ii l I " Il
'rl
ft :,.;:.'..:,.;.l
'.1:-'.::'.1:.t I
+ +
P
INVERTED TEE

' Safe loads shown indicate507. dead load and 50% live
Ioad;800 psi top tension has been allowed, therefore
additionaltop reinforcerent is required.

ConcreteInstitute:Chicago,lllinois
SidnevFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed

CONCRETE
PRECAST
 204 PrecqstConcreteWqll ponels

:'fr+
wRrry -- SPECIAL WINDOW WALL PANELS
FINISH - INSUUTTON
FINISB OPENING
a€' Carefully distinguish between the more specialized arcj
tectural wall panel and the structural wall parel that is.

rffi
derivattve ot floor systems. Always work *itt, ^"nuii"ru,
ers early in the design prcess. Careful anention must b.

lil[]ll lNqll
grven lo manufactufing and joint tolerance during
des,a
Inoroughtv examrne ioinl sealants tor adhesron an
expected joint movement.

ill|l|l
F!NISHES
Form liner molds provide a wide variety of sm@th and tex

FI-AT OR
ilLllj_tltNtl *----!J
lured finishes. Fintshes after casling but prior to hardenrnq
Inctude exposed aggregate, broom, trowel, scred. float. o,
stippled. After hardening, linishes include acid€lched
sandblasted, honed, polished, and hammered rib.
.V'GROOVE
?8="ttt s(
SCULPTURED
V,tr?BK SANDWICH
PANEL
HOLLOW
SANDWICH
C:ORE
PANEL coLoRs
Select a color. range, as complete unilormity cannot be
guaranteed. White cement offers the best cols uniformitv
F\-
N
gray. cement is subject to color variations even when
sup

lill
N-
plied from one source. Pigmenls require hrgh{uality manJ

N
tactunng and curing standards. Fine aggregate colo
requires control bf the mixture graduation; c@rse aggra
l/--l
=-J
ill
t{
gate color provides the best durabrlityand appearance.

\\\j

L(::&TE.'OIN
TE .'OINTS - SRUfrURAL
TO OiANNEL \ffiHE
WATER -
SPANOREL AND
TRUSS TYPE COLUMN CI.ADDING MULLION
SRUCTURAI
WALL WHE

PANEL VARIATIONS
f]J,,Ci.-]
NON.
STRUCTURAL
WTHE

RIGID
INSUUTON
PUE \\-
INSERTS smucTURAL
(vvELDED \ffiHE
TGETHER)

STANLESS SEEL
OR GALVANI.ZEO
REINFORONG BAR
PANELS

MESH

RIGID
INSUUNON

BONO BRAKER
IF REOUIRED

VERTICAL SECTTON AT TIE

WALL N OTE
PANEL TO WALL PANEL SLAB-TO-WALL PANEL
Panel requires accurate location of ties and reinforcemenr
NOTE
and established concrete qualitv control.
Pocket onnection may be at top of panel.
SAND\/VICH WALL CONSTRUCTION
BEARING PANEL CONDITTONS

DISCOMINUE
SAUNT
AT VERTICAL
JOINTS TO
DRAIN JOIM-

SEMM
COMINUES AT
HORZONTAL
JOIMS
HORIZONTAL
MLD BNWEEN VERTICAL JOINT JOINT
CLIP ANGLE AND SEEL BEAM
CASTIN PUTE T\^/O-STAGE SEALANT JOINTS

<SNCRETE FLoOR
SAUM AND
STEEL ANGLE BAAER ROD
WELDED TO
STEEL BAM

CONCRETE
7a" MIN

TAPER OR
REVEAL

RECESSED JOINT AUIRK DETAIL

SPANDREL CONDITIONS
JOINT DETAILS

SidneyFreedman;PrecasvprestressedConcr€teInstitute;Chicago,lllinois

PRECAST
CONCRETE
 PrecqstConcreteWoll PonelToleronces 20s
GENERA,L alt,
Architecturai precast concrete rs subiect to the same erec_
tion and manulacturing tole.ances as other building materts
als. When srch tolerances are considered in the design
stage, the task oJ determining and specifying them is sim
pler. By requiring realistic tolerances, architects strengthen
and simplify their standards lor acceptance. Unrealistic,
close tolerares are costly, panicularly tor custom-pro-
duced elerents.

Tolerances set the limits of size and shape for precast con-
crete units. Three groups ot tolerances should be estab-
lished in pre€st concrete design: product (manufacturing)
tolerances, erection tolerances. and interfacing tolerances.
Product and etection tolerances usually do not cause site

"1"
oroblems. Tolerances are most oroblematic at the intertace D# dr,
of precast concrete and other building materials. tx
Tolerances should be established {or the lollowing reasons:

STRUCTURAL: To ensure that structural design properly

accounts lor faclors sensitive to variations in dimensional
control. Examples include eccentric loading condition. bear
ing areas, hardware and hardware anchorage locations, and
locations of reinforcing or prestressing steel.

FEASIEILITY: To ensure acceptable performance of ioints

and interfacing materials in the {inished structure.
{
VISUAL: To ensure thet the variations will be controllable ELEVATION
and result in a structurs that is visually acceptable.
A = Overall length and width {measured at neutral axis of
A = Plan location from building grid datum t'/z in.'
ribbed members): l0 ft or under i1ls in.; 10 to 20 ft +1/s
ECONOMIC: To ensure ease and speed ot production and 41 = Plan location from centerline of steel 1rl2 in.2
dimensions for precast in., -3116in.; 20 to 40 ft:1/a in.; each additional 10 ft trl6
erection by having agreed{pon
B = Top elevation from nominal top elevation: exposed in. per 10 ft.
concrete Products.
individual panel trl in.; nonexposed individual panel B = Total thickness or flange thickness -'ls in., +1/a in.
LEGAL: To avoid encrGching on propsrty lines and to trh in.: exposed relative to adjacent panel r[ in.; non-
C = Rib thickness |/B in.
establish a standard against which the work can be com- exposed relalive to adiacent pan6l 1/2in.
D = Rib to edge o{ flange irls in.
pared in event of a dispute. C = Suooon elevation from nominal elevation: maximum
lowr/, in.: maximum high '/a in. E = Distance between ribs ir/s in.
CONTRACTUAL: To establish a known acceptabilitY range D = Maximum plumb variation over height of structure or F = Angular variation of plane of side mold ir/3, in. per 3 in.
and responsibility for developinq, achieving, and maintain- 100 ft, whichever is less 1 in.r of depth or frlj6 in., whichever is greater.
ing mutually agreed-upon tolerances. G = Variation from square or designated skew (difference
E = Plumb in any 10 ft of element height 1l in.
in length of the two diagonal measurements) lr/s in.
F = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges ![ in.
per 6 ft of diagonal or trl, in., whichever is greater.'
->EXrcSED G = Joint width (governs over ioint taper) 1r/a in.
FAG- H = Length and width of blockouts and openings within
H = Joint taper max.3/s in. one unit t1L in.
Hro= Joint taper over 10 ft length 1/ain- Hr = Location and dimensions of blockouts hidden from
| = Max. iog in alignment of matching faces l/a in. view and used lor HVAC and utility penetrations t3l.
tILENGTH
l OF BOW I
J = Differential bowrng or camber as erected between in.
adjacent members of the same design r/. in. H2 = Sore types ot window and equipment frames require
1 For precast buildings taller than 100 ft, tolerances A and more accurate types of openings. When this is the
Pt-AN PI,AN case, the minimum practical tolerance should be
(CONVEX (coNcavE D can increase at the rate ot'/e rn. per story to a maxi-
mum ol 2 in. defined with inDut trom the oroducer.
ElowrNG) BOWING)
2 For precast concrete erected on a steel frame building. I = Dimensions oI haunches lll in.
LENGTH this tolerance takes precedence ovet tolerance on J = Haunch bearing surface deviation from specified plane
OF BOW
(ELEVATION) dimension A. t'le in.
BOWING
(PUN) K = Difference in relative position of adjacent haunch bear-
EXrcSED FACE ERECTION TOLERANCES FOR WALL ing surfaces from specified relative position trla in.
(co|.'lr) PANELS L = Bowing tL,/360 max. 1 in.
M = Differential bowing between adjacent panels ol the
(coNcavE) sare design 1/, in.
N = Local smoothness r/. in. in 10 ft. {does not apply to
l-sowNo TRUE PUNE
(ELEVATION) visually concealed surfaces.

I MS|MUM O = Warping oI distance from nearest adjacent cornerl/,u

wNG CORNER in. per ft.
i
RECAST P = L@ation of window opening within panel 1r, in.
CONCR€E
PANEL O = Position of olates t1 in.
R = Tipping and flushness of plates trl. in.
'Applies both to panel and to major openings in the
\ paner.
te*et"
G BOW Position tolerance for castin items measured lrom datum
line location as shown on approved erection drawings: weld
PANEL EIOWED IN plates t1 in.; inserts i,l, in.; handling devices 13 in.: rean-
EIOTH PI-AN ANO OISTANCE TO NEAREST forcing steel and welded wire labric where position has
ELEVATION ELEVATION ADJACENT CORNER structural implications or affects concrete cover 1'l4 in , oth-
emise t'lz in.; tendons irls in.; flashing reglets 1'la in.;
BOV\/ING DEFINITIONS FOR PANELS \^r'ARPING DEFINITIONS FOR PANELS flashing reglets at edge of panel trls in.; reglets for glazing
gaskets irlro in.; groove width for glazing gaskets trlr6 in.:
electrical outlets, hose bibs, etc. +1/, in.; haunches irl. in.
GUIDELINES FOR PANEL THICKNESS'
PANEL OIMENSIONS
TOLERANCES FOR PANELS,
SPANDRELS, AND COLUMN COVERS

' This table should not be used for FEnel thickness selec- bowing and warpage tolerances should be reviewed and
tion. possibly increased. For ribbed panels, the equivalent
, This table shows a relationship between overall flat panel thickness should be the overall thickness of such ribs if
dimensions and thicknesses below which suggested continuous from one end ot the panel to the other.

SidneyFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois

CONCRETE
PRECAST
 206 PrecqstConcreteConnections
rN TOPPTNG TOPPING
SLAB z-aST_lN
/-ltBARS /. METAI
THREADED . PUTES;
BAR
.WTHOUT
TOPPING RECAST
BAR FLOOR
GROWED SLAB
IN SHEAR
KIY
DOWELS
IMO MIN CAST1N
2'frrcK METAL
TOPPING PUES

BEARING BARING
STRIP STRIP

HOLLOW CORE SL.A,E} DETAII.-S FLOOR-TO-BEARING \^/ALL CONNECTIONS SPANDREL CONNECTIC)N

FLOOR-TO-WALL CON N ECTIONS

GENERAL PRECAST
'-
To fasten members lo foundations.set them on shims, COLUMN
tighten nuts to level,then fill spacewith nonshrinkgrout.
PRECASf
CdPLER GIRDER
PRECAST WALL PANEL

POSTTENSIONED RODS

SHIMS AND GROLJT

FOUNDANON WEL

OOWEL
frRADED
IMO AN
INSERT IN
BARING PAD
JUST BEFORE
ERECNON
NOTE
The girder sits on the bearingpad, wl]ich providesuniform NOTE
Verticalposttensioningcan be used to resist uplift forces; bearing and accommodates sroll movements du€ to Steel haunches are small€r than concrete bearing pads,
moment resistanceis achi€v€d. shrinkage.creep,and temperaturechanges. which is imrcrtant if headroomis critical-
POSTTENSION ED WALL.TO- DOu/ELED BEAM.TO.COLUM N HAUNCHED BEAM.TO-COLUMN
FOUNDATION CONNECTION CONNECTION CONNECTION
ffiECAST
COLUMN
STEEL
REINFORCING
PRECAST LOCKNU
CAST IN WALL
PANEL (SINGLE @LUMN - RETNFORCING
BAR, OMONAL) BARS
STEEL BASE SHIM
|uE AND
GROf
STEEL
SHIM AND POCKnS
GROUT
SHIMS. 1'MIN.
ruBLE NU'S.
2' MtN.
CORRUGATED
SEEL SLEEE
asT rN
FOUNDANON COLUMN
WtLi FILLED FOUNDANON
WTH GROUT
ANCHOR
PANEL
PUCEMEM
@LUMN
FOUNDANON

GROUTED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION COLUMN-BASE CON NECTION OVERSIZED BASE PLATE AT COLUMN-

CONNECTION BASE CONNECTION
WELD PUTE
AST IN
WAU PANEL ru
UE REAST
CAST IN WALL PNEL PUE
ANCHORS AND IN SEEL PUTE
FOUN- ffiLDED TO
DATION W{L AND
FOUNDATION FOUNDATION
SHIM MH ruTE
DRY-PACK
OR NON- SHIM AND
SHRINK DRY PACK
OR GROUT

ASTIN FOUNDATION
BOLT
SHIM WtG
DRY.PACK OR
NONSHRINK
GROUT
STEEL PUTE
DRILLEDJN WELDED TO
APANSION NOTE ANCHOR FOUNDATION,
BOLT BATED TO WALL
(offroNAL)
Two connections per panel are typical.
(omloNAL) PNEL (OMIONAL)

BOLTED WALL-TO.FOU NOATION r^/ELDED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION v\/ELDED PLATE.TO-FOU N DATION

CONNECTION CONNECTION CONNECTION

Sidrey Freedman;PrecasvPrestress€d
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois

PRECAST
CONCRETE
 PlecqstConcrete Connections 207
PRECAST
PANEL

INSERT -- PRECAST WALL STRUCTURAL

PANEL TUBE
ROD OR
BOLT CASTJN STEEL
PUTE

-- sHrM (oR
LE€LING BOLT)
OVERSIZE
HOLE OR - STEEL BRACKET
SLEEVE (SHOP
INSTALLED LEWLING
BOLa s
GROUT
COLUMN

STRUCruRAL
COLUMN BEAM J

PRECAST /

N OTE gi*'E.
Shim stacks occur at two points per panel adjacent to con
nection.
DTRECT BEARING CONNECTION DIRECT BEARING CONNECTION ECCENTRIC BEARING CONNECTION

SLONED OR PRECAST WALL

PANEL _ _ _----\
THREADED INSERT
THREADED ROD PGIN ROD
. WTH THREAD
CLIP ANCLE, AT ONE END
BARS, ETC. TO OR STRAP

WITH SLOT WELD- ---

PERPENDICUL4
TO INSERT STRUCruRAL
\
BEAM
WELD

EXPANSION STRUCTUUL
BOLT BEAM

PREAST WALL SLONED OR

PANEL THREADED INSERT
N OTE
Accommodates large tolerance with expansion bolts.

BOLTEO TIE-BACK BOLTED TIE-BACK CONNECTION WELDED TIE-BACK CONNECTION

ALIGNMENT
PUTE. WP

CAST.IN
STEEL
PLATE

RECAST
PANEL

WELD
PRECAST WALL
PANEL

NOTES
1. Good shear transfer. N OTE
2. Rigid connection. Alignment plate is welded to one plate only to allow for
3. Possible volume change restraint problems possible volume change ot panels.

BOLTED ALIGNMENT WELDED ALIGNMENT \/vELDED ALIGNMENT

PANEL ANACHED A|ruR

WELDING SUB
STRUCruRAL
COLUMN WELD
/- GSTIN-PUCE
PREAST PRECAST FL(:ff ONCRETE
CONCRETE T SUB
COLUMN
COVER

.DOWEL
WELDED
TO BOTH
PUTES
CAST1N
STEEL
PUTES PRECAST WALL PANEL

THREADED ROD
OR COIL ROD NOTES
WtrH Nf AND
WASHER 1 . Avoid use ol this detail at both ends of slab to Drevent
excessrve restrarnt. N OTE
INSERTS CAST
IN PANEL 2. Rotation of wall elements and ef{ects on bracing wall Onepiece spandrels may require support and restrict place.
connections and volume changes must be considered. ment of concrete.

COLUMN COVER CONNECTION SLAB.TO-\^/ALL CON NECTION PRECAST PERMANENT FORMWORK

Pre€svPrestressed
SidneyFreedman: ConcreteInstituteiChicago,lllinois

PRECAST
CONCRETE
 208 Tilf-upConcrete
GENERAL tilevers of 10 ro 1 5 ft. Panels are designed structurally to
resist lifting stresses, which frequently exceed in place TOP OF PANEL -_---\
Tilt-up concrete construction is a fast, economical method loads. Floor slab design must accommodate panel and
of enclosing a building with durable. load-bearingwalls. The crane toaos.
wall panel units are formed and cast horizontally at the job t
BEAM
sate,on either the building slab floor or on a temporary cast-
ing slab. Since the panels do not have tg be transported, FINISH PULLTY
there are tewer restrictions on panel srze. Wood formwork
is typi€lly used to deline the edges, reveals, details, and Most of the finishes used for factorv orecast concrete are
CABLE MIN.
openiogs in the panel. Once the concrete has reached suffi- possible in tilt-up construction. Panels €n be cast either TOTAL LENGTH .
cient strength. the pan€ls are lifted, or tilted up, by crane face down or face up, depending on desir€d finish and PANEL HEIGHT
formwork methods. The faceiown MINUS 1€'-
and placed on isolated or continuous foundations (usually method, however, is
grade beams). The panels are braced against the floor slab usually easier to erect. Casting method, desired finish, and
or a btrace toundation until thev are tied to the roof and floor available aggregates affect concrete mix design. Control of LIflING
the concrete mix design and placement of the concrete in ANCHOR
system and become an integral part of the completed
structure. Although tilt-up concrete construction is mainly the torms are more difficult than with factory{ast units.
restricted to buildings ol one story, walls up to four stories Discoloration occurs if cracks and joints in the castrng are
tall have been cast and lifted inlo position. not sealed. Commonly used finishes are as follows:
CONCRETE
'1. TILT-UP
Sandblasting (light. medium, or heavy exposure)
OESIGN 2. Fracture (similar to bushhammered)
Panel
thickn€ss
variesfrom5112
to 11114
in.depending
on 3. Form liner (metal deck. plastic, fiberglass, EPS) NOTE
height. loads. span. depth of reveals,surtace finish, local 4. Paint {usually textured) The rigging and anchor configuration show is the mo
codes,and conslructionpractices.Full-heightpanelwidths - 5. Brick or tile veneer common for tilt-up coostruction for plain panels withc.
of 20 ft and weights of 30.000 to 50,000 lb are tvpical. openings. Other configurations may be required depend .
Spansof 30 ft are common for spandrelpanels.as are can- 6. Aggfegate (cast lace down in sand bed)
on the size and shape of the panel; consult a tilt-up coi
struction srecialist.

TILT-UP PROCEDURE
UTERAL BRACE
LOATED AT
MID LENGTH
BRACE
(MUST BE
coMNUOUS)
$1r15)
ROVDE END
ARAG FOR
TOTAL BRACE
STABILfr

PIPE

BRACE (PPE)
FLOOR SUB
NAILING
|uEFOR
TATERL BRACE
CONCRETE SPRilD FOONNG

PANEL TYPES TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION

BRACING

SURFACE-MOUffiD
@UNTERFUSHING
BUILT UP
ROOF

STEEL DECK

STEEL JOIST

frP. 3' DEEP

PO*ET AND
EMBEDDED
STEEL ANGLE
IN PANEL 2%'
MIN. BEMING
NCHOR PUE.AND
PARAPET AT PARAPET AT ANCHOR BqTS AT FULL
JOIST MULTIBAY Ft-AT EIEAM MULTIEAY DOCK HIGH BUILDINGS

LOAD.BEARING PANEL CONNECTTONS AT ROOF (SECTIONS) PIER CONNECTION (SECTION)

CASTIN-PUCE HOLLOW MtN
2%'
MET& DOC)RFWE
PANEL JOINT
coNcRm-
FILLED PIPE
rcWNSrcUT
BOLURD
OERHEAD ADDITIONAL
INSIDE FACE D@R TRACK REINFORCING
SAGNT AND BACKER
.. PERSONNEL GP
ROD ON EACH SIDE JOINT -
|:rcR S4B RECESSED
AT rcORSILL

++k
rllr
PANEL

RIBBED
REBLS
PRODUCED FROM
FORMED
LINER

OVERHAD
moR

45' JOINT
CHNFER AT JAMB ANGLE
PANEL JOIM (GIVANlzED)

PANEL DETAILS (PLAN)

HaynesWhaleyAss@iates,StructuralEngineers:Houston.Texas
RobertP. Foley,P.E.; Con/sr@l Tilt-upSysrems;Dayton,Ohio

3 PRECAST
CONCRETE
 210 Mortorond Grout
INTRODUCTION ASTM C 2o7-Hydrated Lime for Masonry purposes is \^/ATE R
available in four types: S, SA, N, and NA. Because unhy-
Mortarand groutare the cementitiousbondingagentsthat Clean. potable water that is free o{ deleterious aclds, atta
drated oxides and plasticity are not controlled in tvDes N or
. ntegrate masonry units Into masonryaassemblages. NA, only type S hydrated lime should be used foi masonry lres. or organacmaterials is suitable for masonry mortar ano
becauseconcrete,rilasonrymonar, and gr6ut contarnlhe grout.
mortar and grout.
samepnncipalingredients, some designersqssumewhat is
gmd practicefor one will also be good praciicelor another.
MASONRY CEMENT COLOR ANO OTHER ADMIXTURES
In reality.the three materialsdifter in proponions,working
consrstencies, methods of placement.and structuralDertor_ These proprietary mortar mixes are widely used in mortar Many difterent types of admixtures can be added to mortar
mance. because of their convenience and good workability. grouts. Admixtures are used in monar to prov.de
color,
Masonry cements. however. should not be used in oroui. enhance workability, reduce water penetration, accelerate
Mortar and grout structurallybind masonryunits together, The requrrements for masonry cement are coverid in curing, and substitute lor @nventional materials. Admix,
whereasconcreteis usuallyitself a structuralmaterial.One ASTM C 91-Standard Specifrcation for Masonry Cement. tures are used an grout to increase flujdity, accele.ate cur
of the most importanttunctions of concreteelementsis lo Masonry cements are prepackaged as types M, S, or N ing, and decrease shrinkage. Admixtures must be used
€rry load. whereas the principal lunction of mortar and monar mixes. Most building codes have lower allowable wrth extreme caution so the performaoce of the masonry is
grout ts to devetopa complete.strong.and durablebond stresses when masonry cements are used. not aftected. Admixtures containing chlorides should never
with masonryunits.Concreteis pouredinto nonabsorbent be used because theV tend lo corrode metal.
tormswith a minimumamountof water. Mortarand orout AGG R EGATE
are placed, with much more water, between absor-ptrve Air entrainment has the detrimental effect of reducing the
torms (masonryunits).The waterrcementratio,as mixed.is Eilher.natural or manufactured aggregate may be used. bond between monar and masonry units or rernforcerienl.
very imponant in concrete work, but it is less imoortantin Uradatron lrmits are giv€n in ASTM C 144 and C 404 tor use.or arr€ntrarnrng ponland cements (typ€s lA, llA, ol
aggregate used in monar and grout. Only tine aggregate .rne
working with mortaror grout for brick masonrv.When mor_ lllA) and air€ntrained lime (types SA and NA) tor masonry
tar or grout is placedwith masonryunits, the water/cement may De used rn mortar; fine and coarse aggregate may be monar and grout may not be appropriate. Two different ai;
ratrorapidlydecr€asesbecauseof the bricks,absorbency.it used an grout. Gradation can be easily altered by adding fine entrarnrng agents should not be used in the same mortar or
is imponanl to distinguish between the requirementsfor or coarse sands. Only clean sand is recommended fo-r use grout. Air€ntraining admixtures should not be used in
concrete,masonrymortar, and grout. in masonry mortar and grout. struclural masonry Euildrng cddes mandate lower allow
able flexural lension stresses rf air€nlratneo cements ol
lime are used in monar.
ASTM SPECIFICATTONS TABLE l: PROPORTToN REQU|REMENTS FOR MASONRy MORTARs*
ASTM C 27O-MORTAR FOR UNIT MASONRY PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
(CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS)
This standardspecificationcovers four typ€s of mortar in
each of two methods: proponion specificationsand Droc PORTLAND MASONRY CEMENT HYDRATED AGGREGATE RATIO
erty specifi€tions. Vvhen specifying a panicular monir CEMENT OR LIME OR {IVIEA5UKEU IN UAMH
type,.erther the proportion or the property requirements MORTAR TYPE BLENDED CEMENT M N LIME PUTTY LOOSE CONOITTONS)
shouldbe given.but not both. When neithei proponionnor lame
propertysp€cificationsare specified,the proportionspecili_ s ovet I14 to 1/2
cation is mandat€d.Table 'l shows the proportionequire_ N ove( l12to 1 114 Not less than 2 r/aand not
ments tor types M, S, N, and O monars. o over 1 ,lato21f more than 3 times the sum of
M I lhe separatevolumesof
Mo.tar mnlorming to the p.operty speciticationsmust be
establishedby tests of laboratoryprepa.edmortar. which
cement
s
j cementttrous materials.
should be mixed from the monar materialsto be used rn
the masonry strucrure. Table 2 provides th6 propertv
requirementsfor types M, S, N, and O monars.
s
N I
AlthoughASTM C 270 uses the same leners to desionate N OTE
mnar type under both the proponion and propertysftcifi_ * Two
etions, the propertiesof these mortar types are not bquiv- airentraining materials stE l not be combined in mortar
alenl. A mortar mixed to the type N proponionspecificaiion
will havea laboratorypreparedcompressivestrenothsionif_
i€ntly higherthan that of a type N mortar requir6dbv-the
prop€rty specitictions. Monars mav b€ made with either
ptrtland cement or masonrycemnl. TABLE 2: MoRTAR PRopERTy SpEC|FTCAT|ON REeUTREMENTS,
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE AGGREGATE
ASTM C 476_GROUT FOR MASONRY STRENGTH RATIO
AT 2A DAYS (MEASUREO IN DAMP
MORTAR MIN. PSI (MPA}
This is the standardspeciticationgoverninggrout for rern- LOOSE CONDtTtONS)
rorceo and nonrentorced masonry assemblies.Two lypes
ot grout, tire and coarse, are specitied by proponionsof
ingredients.Both types should be proportionedwithin the
limits given in Table5. Not less than 2 '/4 and not
more than 3 '/2 times the sum
Grout consists of cementitious materials and aggregate of the separate volumes of
thoroughlymixed with sufficientwater to attainthe desired cementtttous materials_
consistency.Grout should b€ wet enough to pour without
segregationof the constituents.Grout can be used to bond
two wythes of masonry. to provide additionalmaterialto
resist load, or to bond steel reinforcementto masonryso
the two mterials exert common action under l€d. N OTES
1. Laboratorypreparedmortar only.
MATERTALS 2. \Men structuralreinforcementis incorporatedin ementlime morlar, the maximumair content is
12yo.
3 when structuralreinforcerent is in@rporateoIn masonrycement mortar, the maximum air content
PORTLANO CEMENT is l gyo
Portland. @rent. a hydraulic cement, is the principal
cerentitaousingredientof mrtar and grout.ThreeWpesof
ponrandcerent mvered by ASTM C 1so_Standard Specifl
cationfor PortlandC€ment are recommenoeo: TABLE 3: GUIDE FOR THE SELECTTON OF MASONRY MORTAR,
Typel: For general use when the specialpropertiesof MORTAR TYPE
Typesll and lll are not requjred LOCATION BUILDING SEGMENT RECOMM ENDED ALTERNATIVE
Typell: For use when moderate sulfate resistanceor grade LOaOmanng watl
moderateheat of hydrationis desired
l\ SorM
Non]@d bearing wall o2 NorS
Typ€lll: For use when high early strengthis desired Parapet wall N S
The allowable stresses for the structural design of brick grade founoalron wail, retarnrng wall, manholes,
masonry are based on the results ot tests in which onlv or
sewers, pavements. walks, and patios
portlandcementswere used The use of blendedhvdrault;
cerents and naturalcements rs not recommendedunless Load beanng wall l\ orM
the strengthof rhe masonryis tirst establishedby appropii Non$earing panitions o N
ate tests. Ftr nonstructuralmasonry,such cements may be NOTES
substitutedfor regularponlandcement without testino.
1 This table does not include many specializedmortar uses, such as chimney reinforcedmasonry
and acid-resistantmortar.
HYDRATEO LIME 2 Type o mortar is recommendedfor use.where-themason.yis unlikelyto.be frozenwhen saturated,
-' or
- -unlikely
' to be subjected
to high winds or orher significantraterarroads.Types N or s monar shburdbe used i" ;Gr;;;;;;.
Hydra_ted lim, a dry powder, is made by adding water to
quicklime,thus convertinglhe calcium oxide rnio calcrum 3 Masonryexposedto weather in a nominallyhorizontalsurfaceis extremelyvulnerableto wealheriog.
Mortar tor such masonry
hyd,oxide.Hydratedtime can be used without extra prepa_ shouldbe selectedwith due caution.
ration and thus is more convenientto use than ouict<tirire.

GraceS. Lee;ftippeteauArchitects,pcj Washingron, D.C.

BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America:Resion,Virginia
StephenS. Szok€,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAss'ociition;Herndon.Virginia

MASONRY
MORTAR
 Mortqrond Grout 211
RECOMMENDED TYPES TABLE 5: GROUT PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
AGGREGATE (MEASURED IN A
MORTAR PARTS BY VOLUME OF PARTS BY VOLUME DAMP. LOOSE CONDITION)
PORTLAND CEMENT OF HYDRATED LIME
No s'ng,letype ol mortar rs best surted tor arl purpose!. but OR BLENDED CEMENT OR LIME PUTTY FIN E COARSE
TYP E
there a.e several rules lor selecting mortar lYpe. NevQluse
a mortar that is stronger in compression than nee*d by Ine groul 2 '4'3 trmesthe sum ol
the structural requirements. Always select the mortar the volumes of
weakest in compression that is consistent with the perfoL cementitious materials
mance requirements of the project. However, this guideline grout 2 L - 3 t t m e s t h e s u m 1 - 2 timesthe sum ot
should be coupled with good engineering judgment: for the volumesof the volumes of
example, it would be uneconomical and unwise to change cementitious materaals cementitious materials
mortar types in various parts of a structure lf mortar is
used with reinlorcement in a collar ioint or in a cell of a hol-
low unit, then the air content must be less than 127o for
portland cement-lime mortars and 187o for masonry
cements. The use of mortar is recommended only in unre-
inforced collar ioinls of 3/r in. (19 mm) or less.

Following are the recommended uses fo. different types o.f

mortar:

Tvoe N mortar: A medium strength mortar surtable for 9en

eral use in exposed masonry above grade and recom- Brick more than 75olosolid Hollow unil
mended specificaily where high compressive or transverse Net area equals gross area Full mortar bedding
masonry strengths are not required. Full mortar bedding (requires
alignmentof crosswebs)
Type S mortar: A high strength mortar suitable for general
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
use and soecificallv for circumstances where high trans
verse strength of masonry is desired; for reinforced
masonry, where mortar bonds the facing and backing; and GROUT
PRorRUSroNsr S ! K
for areas subiect to winds greater than B0 mph (130 kph). Groutshouldbe mixedthoroughlyin a plasticmix suitable
for olacementwithout seoarationof the constituents.Add n( \ [dEq
Type M monar: A high strength mortar suitable for general enoughwater to achievea slump of 8 to 11 in. (200 to 275
+--L-r \ m-l E
use and recomrended specilically for masonry below
grade or in contact with 6arth, such as foundations, retaan-
ing walls, or paving.
mm). The compressivestrength of the grout should match
that of the brick masonry but must have a minimum com-
pressivestrengthof 2000psi (13.9MPa).
j-ffi
.4ffi wr#
Type O mortar: A low strength mortar suitable for use in
non-load b€aring applications in walls of low axial compres-
sive strength and where masonry ts not subiect to severe
Finegrouti Can be used for groutinginteriorverticalspaces
between two wythes ot masonryor aligned,unobstructed
vertical spaces in hollow masonry units. See Table 4 for
HTH
SECTION A'A
weathering. groutspacerequirements.
a > Minimumgroutspacedimension
Coarsegrout May be used when the groutspaceexceeds b > Minimum grout space dimensionplus
2 in. (50 mm) in width. l{ the minimum grout space dimen' horizontalbar diameter olus horizontal
sronexceeds6 In. (150 mm), a largeraggregatesize may orotrusions(see table)
be specified.
pRorRUSroNs
_ -<
B \WMvz
TABLE 4: GROUT SPACING REQUIREMENTs \wm
SPECIFIED
GROUT TYPE
MAXIMUM GROUT
POUR HEIGHT (FT)
MINIMUM WIDTH OF
GROUT SPACE (IN.)
MINIMUM GROUT SPACE
DIMENSIONS FOR GROUTING CELLS
OF HOLLOW UNITS (IN. X IN.}
Wo\WW
ry.ia **w
5
I

2 2x3
2 1 1 x, 3
%WffiW- ffiaz
12 21lt ed sEcrroN a,B
24 3 3 x3
I 1'lz 1 , 1 2x 3
a > Minimum grout space dimensionplus
5 2 2 1 l zx 3
2'1, horizontalbar diameter plus horizontal
12 3 x3
protrusions(seetable)
24 3 3 x4

N OTES
1. Groutspacedimensionis the clear dimensionbetween any masonryprotrusionand shall be increas€dby the diametersol the
horizontalbarswithin the cross sectionof the grout space. GROUT SPACE REQUIREMENTS
2. Areaof verticalreinforcementshouldnot exceed670of the area of the grout space

TYPES OFJOINTS
Monar serves multiple functions:

1 . Joins and seals masonry, allowing for dimensional vaia-

tions in masonry units.
2. Affects overall appearance of wall color, texture, and pat- .V"
WEATHERED EXTRUDED BEADEO
terns. CONCAVE SHAPED (FAIR) (POOR) (POOR)
(GOOD)
3. Bonds reinforcing steel to masonry, creattng composrte OR RODDED
(GOOO)
assembly-

MORTAR JOINT FINISH METHODS

1. Troweled: Excess mortar is struck o{f. The trowel is the
only tool used for shaping and finishing.
2. Tooled: A special tool is used to compress and shape
mortar in the ioint.

RULED FLUSH OR GRAPEVINE STRUCK RAKED

(FAIR) PUIN CUT (GOOD) (POOR) (POOR)
lFAIR)

TYPES OF JOINTS (WEATHERABILITY) TERMS APPLIEO TO JOINTS

MORTAR JOINTS

GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Architecrs,PC;Washington, D.C.

ErianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcrete Masonry Herndon,Virginia
Association;

MORTAR
MASONRY
 212 Anchorogeond Reinforcement
GENERAL

TH
Masonryconstruction hasnot alwaysrequiredthe inclusion
ot metal elements- Historically,composite masonry con-
structionconsistedof multiple wylhes of masonrybonded
together by headers.However, contemperarvmasonry
walls requireties between the inner and.hJter wthes.
whichare thenancho'red to lhe strucluralframe Manvoeo
ple use the terms wal, ,rb and arcrror interchangeably,but
Elti
J*J
In practrcethe term tie r€ters to combining a wythe oI
masonry to its backing system. while anchor rctets to a
componentthal secures structuralelementsto a structural
STONE TO MASONRY TYPICAL
METAL DOWEL !l ||
ttl
support.A fasteneris a deviceused to attach nonstructural
elementsto masonry.Anchors and ties with flexiblecom-
ponentscan accommodatedifferentialmovemenl between
the structuralframe and the masonrywall by allowing for
In-planemovement.

CORROSION PROTECTION
The durabilityof any metal accessoryis usuallybasedon its
ability to resist corrosion. Since masonry walls are often
@
\L---
lr'l
.l'-fr1
#
ANCHORBOL

subjectto moisture.metal items must be protected.either

by galvanizingthem or by use of corrosionresistantmetals. $o"rt5tto,"J=.ot
The following ASTM standardsapply to corrosionprotec-
tion oI carbonsteel metal accessoriesbased on their loca-
tion and the sizeof the piece:

1. ASTM A 641-Mill galvanizing: joint reinforcement,

ffi
@
inte
nor
2.ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized: joint reinforcement,
wire ties, and wire anchors,exterioror moist interior
3. ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized:sheel metal ties. exte-
rior or moist int€rior
4. ASTM A 52s-she€t metal tios. interior
V
Ys??tlt" STONE OR PRECAST
5. ASTMA 123 or A 153-steel olatesand bars CONCRETE TO
MASONRY
Corrosion protection is also provided by stainless steel
anchorsand ties conformingto ASTM A 167,Type304. ANCHOR DETAILS

ANCHORS,AND REINFORCEMENT
Selectionof anchors and reinforcementis determined bv
the relationshipol the masonry element to the struclur;l
support.Reinforcingbars may b€ placedhorizontallyor ver-
ticallyin masonry.The reinforcementmay be placedin the
cores or cells of masonry units or between vMhes of
rusonry. The use of dovetailslots welded on steel or con-
dete columnsrequirescoordinationduringthe steel or con- ANCHOR BOLT/REINFORCING BAR
SPACERS
crele tabrication stags. Th€ typ€ of anchor specified.
includingits size, diameter, and spacing,should be called
out on the contractdocum€nts. I SIGN
MffAL CAP
FUSHING
THREADEO
ANCHOR AOLT
ROD ANCHOR SET IN
CONCRETE WALL
NUT WITH STEEL
PLATE OR
WEDGE INSERT WASHER AS
NECESSARY

ASKEW CMU SUPPORT

LEAD BOLT WALL FILLED
WITH GROUT

REINFORCING
BAR

SIGNAGE DETAIL

BRICK

TIGHTEN
NUT AY
HANO ONLY

ANGLE CLIP ANCHOR REBAR SPACERS 8"x8'xllz"

SLONED
TIE SPACING RECOMMENDATIONS* STEEL
PUTE
MAXIMUM
HORIZONTAL SMOOTH
TIE AND GAUGE SPACING (IN. FUSHING
ON
ROOFING
FELT

ANCHOR
BOLT

FOUNDATION

NOTE
' Masonry MASONRY WALL TO FOUNDATION
laid in running bond. Consult applicable building code for special bond patterns such as stack bond.
ANCHORAGE DETAIL

ANCHOR BOLT DETAILS

Trimbl€;Brick Institute of America:Reston,Virginia

4 MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
 MosonryTies 213

m MASONRY TIES

<y Wall tres perform one or more functions: they provide a

run N
connection, transfer lateral loads, permtt In-plane move
1ilil ment to accommodate differential movements, and may
act as hoflz-ontal structural reintorcemenl. As shown on
thrs oaqe, wall ties include unit ties, loint reintorcemenl
adrustable unrr lres. and adiustable ioint telnlorcemenl Wall
trq soacinq rs |sted rn a table on the ACS page on Anchor
aoe and Aeinforcement. The tres should be staggered in
aiiernate ro*s. and only one row of ties should be located

$+
in the same bed ioint to allow proper embedment in the
mortar.

oo,,s",,,,." ln wall construction in which masonry wythes are built up

toqether and the toints align, a srngle piece rs la'd ove. bolh
w.lthes. Where one wylhe ol masonry rs lard up before the
other wythe or when joints do not align, adjustable ties may
be necessary Adlustable tres are advantageous tor several
reasons: (1) interior wythes can be constructed betore the
exterior wythe, allowing the svucture to be enclosed
faster, (2) lhe risk of damage to the tles when the exletior
wythe is constructed is reduced; (3) adiustable tres can
more readily accommodate construction tolerances; and (4)
adiustable ties can accommodate larger differential move-
ments. Howevet, adjustable ties must be installed properly
or the tie may be rendered useless. Location of the first
piece rs critical s nce the second piece must engage the
ftrst and be properly embedded in the exterior wythe. I arge
eccentricities may occur between the two pieces, which
would result in less strength and stillness than anticipated.

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM TIE

TIE OETAIL ADJUSTABLE JOINT REINFORCEMENT DIAMETERS AND GAUGES
NOT E MINIMUM SPECIFIED
OIMENSIONT
Differential movement must always be accounted {or in
stud-backedwall systemswith adjustableties. DIAMETER
TI E SYSTEM (|N.) GAUGE
ADJUSTABLE UNIT TIE FOR STEEL
STUD BACKUP Unit
TRUSSTYPE LONGITUDINAL LONGITUOINAL
Rectangularand "2"

€€€z{\l
WIRE LADDER TRUSS TYPE
TY Corrugated 22
REINFORCEMENT FOR Jointreinforcement
JOINT 9
MASONRY BACKUP Ladderand truss
Tab I

€-r{4l
UNIT TIES_STEEL FRAME
ll a&?
Unit
Bectangular and "2"
Dovetail/channel slot

Corrugated
Connectior slot

Slot plate
Backer plate
Joint reinforcement
Standard section
Tabs
'Thicker diameters and gauges are available

ADJUSTABLE UNIT TIE-STEEL FRAME

BACKUP
AOJUSTABLE UNIT TIES_MASONRY

p
-.s9- \" /
s>' V

TIE DET

NOTES
1. Z ties can be used only with solid masonry veneer units
r/, in. onto solid
2. Tie must extend a minimum of 1
masonry unils and be fully embedded in mortar on the
outer face shell of hollow masonry units.
TIE
UNIT TIE FOR MASONRY BACKUP TYPICAL ADJUSTABLE UNIT TIE
ADJUSTABLE UNtT TIE FOR CONCRETE
FRAME BACKUP

BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Beston,Virginia

ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
 214 MosonryAccessoriesond Reloledltems

PUSTIC OR 3 TO 4'' OF PEA

COATEO GRAVEL TO
ALUMINUM FACILITATE NAILING ALOCK
WEEP HOLE D R A I N A G EA N D SET FLUSH TO
VENT PREVENT ADJACENT
(RESTRICTS BRICKS
CLOGGING
INSECT BY MORTAR
TRAVEL)
CONON ROPE ATTACHED
WICK, COILED ANCHORS
HEAD JOINT FUSHING
INTO CAVITY SET INTO
BEHIND VENT MIODLE OF
KEPT FREE SHELF ANGLE FUSHING AED JOINTS
oF oEaRts
24" O.C. SHELF ANGLE
HORIZONTAL NAILING BLOCK
WEEP HOLE VENT ROPE WICK

3 TC 4" OF PEA
GRAVEL (ALSO
RECOMMENDED:
I2" HIGH PUSTIC
DRAINAGE MESH)
FLASHING
PUSTIC METAL WALL
SHELF ANGLE
WEEP HOLE PLUGS Sff IN
BED JOINT
(OPTIONAL
HEAD JOINT
INSECT WRAP
KEPT OPEN MTAL WALL
OVER END)
AND FREE PLUG Sfl IN
OF DEBRIS FLASHING HEAD JOINT
SHELF ANGLE
OPEN HEAD VENT WEEP HOLE TUBE METAL WALL PLUGS

V\/EEP HOLE DETAILS \^/EEP HOLE DETAILS NAILING RECEIVERS (SET IN MASONRY)

\/VEEP HOLES AND VENTS NAILING BLOCKS AND WALL

CAST ALUMINUM
BLOCK VENT Withproperdesignandinstallation.
weepholesand PLUGS
drscharge water and moisture as vapor in wall cavrtre
WATER STOP The prrcedure for attaching other materials,tixtures. and
musl always be used with flashing. \/vhsn vents are lr
the like to brick masonryis relativelysimple and can be exe-
at the bottom of the wall. directly abore flashing and ,.
INSECT SCREEN cuted either during or after construction.postconstruction
lunctron with small openings at the top o{ the cavrr. fasten€rs, such as lag bolts and sh,elds, are commonlv
vord rs vented, allowing moisture removal from the
used b€€us6 ot their flexibility in placement. However.
Ine rype or weep hote chosen is not critiel as long a
properly sized and spaced at the required lmtioni.
when the prgcise l@ation of the fastener is determined.
t nailing blocks and metal wall plugs are an acceptable
holes are sometimes created by placing greased ol
means of attachmentto brick masonry.They are placedin
tubes or coils into the mortar and then extractino
mortarioints as the bricksare lajd.
when the monar is ready to be tmled. For CMUi
adverse weather conditions, it ruy be n4essary to
Wood nailingbl6k shouldbe of seasonedsoftwood to ore_
weep holes at the base of the first @urse at all oDen c
DRIP EDGE
vent shrinkag€and be treated to inhibrtdeterioration.Thev
as well as at the head,oints for wall €vity venting
shouldonly be placedin the head,ornt.Metal wall plugsare
holes should never be lo€ted below grade and sho
made of galvanizedmetal and may containwooden oi fiber
BRICK OR BLOCK VENT small enough to keep out rodents.
ins€rts.,Suchplugs may be placedin either the heador bed
JOtnISOTmasonry.

GALVANIC CORROSION (ELECTROLYSIS) POTENTIAL BETWEEN COMMO LASHING MATERIALS AND SELECTED
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
-\--{.t u
ucTroN MATER|ALS
l
o
(n
t!
N gO
^^a
:x< u
E U UGF !J
= z U rrX O
\.\ U
E
f
zd
<u
<J
>u
JU o o
N
z
o
)U
z
tr<z
3
Exx F
o
z
FLASHING MATERTALS o J FF
00
<F
(1d
z
il J
c :5f;
f>u ;ige; t
a a o o o O o o o o
Aluminum
o o o o o o O o O
o o a a a a) C a
Zinc alloy
o o o O o o o
Lead
o o o a) o a
NOTES
a o a C o
'1.
i Galvanic action will mur. hence direct contact should be avoided.
ellon ray @cur under cenain circumstances and/or over a period of tim€.
tl ::lwl!c
(J baNanrc actron rs Insrgnttrcant: metals may come into dir*t contact under normalcircumstances
2 Galwnic ctrrosion is apt to occur when water runoff from one material comes
In contact wtth a Dotentaallv reaclve mare1.

ASTM STANDARD REINFORCING BARS FOR MASONRY

NOMINAL DIM IONS _ ROUND SECTTONS
BAR SIZE OESIGNATION \/lr'EIGHT (LB/FT) DIAMETER (IN.) cRosS-s
0-3,/ti
#4 0.668 0.500
#5 1.043 0.625
t.bu2 0. /50
*7 2.O44 0.875
#8 2.670 1.000
3.400 tza
#10 4.303 270
#lt' 5.313 410
' Bar sizeslarg€rthan
*1 I are not permitted in masonrywork

Grae S. Lee and A. HarrisLokmanhakim.AIA; RippeteauArchitects,pC: Washington,D.C

BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America; Reston,Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAsjociation; Herndon,Virginia

MASONRY
ACCESSORIES

INTRODUCTION
The various materials and elements used to construct a
building are in constant motion. All building materials
change in volume in response to internal or external stimuli,
such as temperature chang€s. moislure expansion. €nd
elasl,c deformatron due to loads ot creep. Restraining sich
movements mav cause stresses within the building'ble-
ments, which in turn may result in cracks.
To avoid tracks. the building design should minimize vol-
ume change. prevenl movement, or accommodate ditler-
ential movement between materials and assemblies. A
system oI movement joints can prevent cracks and the
problems they cause. Movement joints can be designed by
estimating the magnitude ot the several types ol move
ments that may occur in mason.y and other building materi
als.
MOVEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
The designand constructionof most buildingsdo not allow
precisepredictionof movementsof buildingelements.Vof
ume changesdepend on materialpropeniesand are highly
variable-Age of materialand temperatureat installationalso
influence exoected movement. When ntean values oI
material prop€nies are used in design, the actual move-
ment may be underestimatedor overestimated.Designers
shouldusediscrelionwhen selectingthe applicable values.
The types of movement affectingvariousbuildingmaterials
are indicatedin the table.
MosonryMovementJoints
MOVEMENT JOINTS
Thereare varioustypes of movementioints in buildrngs:
expansionjoints, controljoints,buildingexpansronjoints,
and construction joints. Each type oI movement ioint is
designedto perform a speci{ictask and should not be used
interchangeably.
Expansionioints are used to separatebrick masonry into
segments to prevent crackingfrom changes in tempera
ture, moisture expansion,elasticdeformationdue to loads,
and shrinkageand creep in concreteframed buildings.
Expansionjoints may be horizontalor venical. They are
formed ot elastomeric materials placed in a continuous,
unobstructedopening through the brick wythe. This con-
struction allows the ioints to close iI the size of the brick-
work increases.Expansion joints must be Iocatedso the
structural integrily of the brick masonry is not compre
mised. In some casesexpansionioints are necessaryin
concrete masonry walls. Architects often designatethese
joints as control joints.
Controljoints are used in concrete or concrete masonryto
create a plane of weaknessthat, used in conjunctionwith
reinforcementor loint reinforcement,conrrols the location
oJ crackscausedbV volume changesresultinglrom shrink-
age and creep.A controljoint, usuallyvenicaland formed ot
inelastic materials. will ooen rather than close. Control
joints must be locatedso the structuralintegrityof the con-
crete masonrywall is not afJected.
A buildangexpansion(isolation)joint is used to separatea
building into discrete structural sections so that stresses
developedin one sectionwill not affect the integrityof the
215
entire structure. The isolation joint is a through-the building
joint, including the roof assembly.
A construction (cold) ioint is used primarily in concrete con-
struction when construction work is interrupted. Construc-
tion joints are located where they will least impair the
strength of the structure.
SPACING OF EXPANSION AND
CONTROL JOINTS
No single recommendation on the positioning and spacing
of expansion and control joints can be applicablelo all struc-
tures. Each building should be analyzed to determine the
extent of movement expected within that pa.ticular struc-
ture. Provisions should be made to accommodate these
movements and their associated stresses with a series of
exDansion and control ioints.
Generally, spacing of expansion joints is determined by
considering the amount of expected wall movement and
the size of compressibility o{ lhe expansion joint and expan-
sion joint materials. Expansion joints are often sized to
resemble a mortar joint, usually 3/r in. {10 mm) tor/2 in. (13
mm). The maximum size of the expansion joint may
dep€nd on the sealant capabilities. Extensibility of highly
elastic expansion ioint materials is typically in the range ol
25 to 507'. Compressibility of backing materials can range
up to 75olo.
Expansion and control ioints do not have to be aligned in
cavity walls; however, they should be aligned in multi-
wythe walls.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT OF BUILDING MATERIALS

BUILDING REVERSIBLE IRREVERSIBLE ELASTIC
MATERIAL THERMAL MOISTURE MOISTURE D EFOR MATION CREEP
bncKmasonry X
Concretemasonry x x X
SEAUNT AND x
Concrete X
AACKER ROD
Steel x :
Wood x X
CONTROL JOINT
UNIT
CONTROL JOINT SPACING FOR
MOISTURE CONTROLLED, TYPE I
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

CONTRACTION
JOINT
CONTROL BLOCK

PR€FORMED
GASKfl

SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROD INTERIOR EXPANSION
JOINTCOVER -

SASH BLOCK
UNIT VERTICAL EXPANSION JOINTS

BRICK

FLEXIBLE SEAUNT AND

CONTRACTION METAL TIES
GASKET TYPE JOINT BACKER ROD

EXPANSION JOINT AT
MASONRY CAVITY WALL

BUILDING
PAPER
CONTRACTION
JOINT
CORE FILLED
WITH MORTAR

SEAUNT ANO
BACKER ROO

EUSTIC SEAUNT
AND BACKER ROD
CONTRACTION
OUT-OF-PUNE R€STRAINT JOINT HORIZONTAL EXPANSION JOINT OOUSLE WYTHE MASONRY

CONTROL JOINTS EXPANSION JOINTS EXPANSION AND CONTROL JOINTS

GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington. D.C.

BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociaiion; Herndon,Virginia

MASONRYACCESSORIES
 216 Floshingin MosonryWqlls
PURPOSE
Flashing in masonry construction is necessary to collect
moisture that enters the wall system and to channel it to
the exterior through weep holes. Moisture enters masonry
walls through condensation, penetratiotr of winddriven
rains, failed sealant joints, interfaces with other compo-
nents, or other components themselves. such as windows
or roofs.
There are two types o{ flashing. Exposed {lashings can be
applied to all masonry construction, while use of embedded
flashing is usually limited to drainage-type watls. Masonry is
a durable, long-lasting construction material- Thus, the
flashing materials selected should also be durable and have
a long life. especially embedded flashing materials. which
are difficult to replace.
MATERIALS
Flashingmay be made of sheet metal {copper,lead, stain-
less steel, galvanizedsteel, or aluminum).plastic,or com-
posite materials {usually paper-backed,coated, metallic
sheet, or fibrous glass mesh). When selecting flashing
materaals, avoid those that would have €thodic reactions
with mortar, other metals, or other constructionmaterials.
The thicknessof the flashingmaterialspecifiedshould take
into accountthe span between embedment,bends,or con-
nections.Coppermay cause a patina,which may be desir-
able. Lead and galvanized metal may result in some white
staining. but this may be minimal if coated materials are
used. Choose aluminum as an embedded tlashing only if it
is properly coated, so it will not react with the mortar. Poly-
ethylene should not be used as flashing unless it has been
chemically stabilized so it will not deteriorate when
exposed to sunlight (ultraviolet radiation). Asphalt impreg
nated building paper (building telt) is not air acceptable
flashing material. Adhered flashings must be held back
from the lace ot the wall to avoid deterioration and stainino
caused by high temperatures.
INSTALLATION
Embeddedflashing is typi€lly used in drainagewails at the
base, above all openings,at sills and shell angles,and
under copings. Continuousembedded tlashing should be
lappedat least 6 in. and sealedwith an appropriatesealer.
Discontinuousflashing should have the ends turned up at
least I in. to form a dam. Dams Dreventwater collect€don
the flashingfrom drainingoff the ends of the tlashingback
into the wall system or into framingor mullions.
Emb€ddedflashing should extend at least 8 in. vertically
within the wall system; it shouldextendat least 't% in. into
the Interiorwythe and throughthe exteriorwythe at teastlL
m. to fom a drip. The drip minimizes possible staining.
Sometimes,it may be necessaryto avoidthe drip, as with
rough textured units and ribbed,scored,or fluted masonry
unrls. The tlashingmust be €refully broughl to the surtace
ot the recessed portion of the masonry. Plastic flashino i.
often exposed and cul off llush wrth the tace of lh.
masonry lf the flashing is recessed and d@s not reach th.
surlace, water collected on it may be channeled by mo.tar
under the flashing and back into the wall svstem.
Weep holes are required in the head ioints oI the course ol
masonry immediately above all embedded flashing. Weel,
holes may be open head ioints, holes formed with nvlorl
rope o. oiled rods, plastic or metal tubes, fib.ous rooe. o
conon sash cord. Open head ioints are often titted wrtt
vents or screens to keep out insects or rodents. Formed
weep holes should have a minimum diameter of r[ in.;
tubes used for weep holes should have a minimum inside
diameter of l/a in. Weep holes are preferred as open head
joints occurring no more than 32 in. on center, although il
brick masonry it is generally recommended that thev be
spaced no more than 24 in. on center. lf cord or roDe is
used, the material should be at least 16 in. long. Weep
holes other than open head joints should be spaced no
more than 16 in. on center.
Drainage within the wall syslem is critical for proper perfor
mance. Placing two to six inches of gravel or draanage
material immediately above embedded flabhing will hetp
ensure proper drainage within the wall and effective chan
neling of water to the weep holes. The drainage material or
pea gravel will act as a drainage field within the wall svstem
and help keep mortar dropprngs from clogging the wepp
notes.

CONTINUOUS SON
JOINT
/ RETNFORCED
/ CONCRETE
SPANoREL
/
CONTINUOUS MSAL SILL
I DOVETAIL FLASHING FLASHING

ANCHOR SLOT

CONTINUOUS MASONRY
FUSHING

CONTINUOUS
(:
FLASHING
REGLS SILL FLASHING
- CONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUS REGLET
gEEL
CONTINUOUS
ANGLE SEAUNT FLASHING
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR SPLICE
SLOT CEMENT
FULL
TAL LIPPED
sofl JorNT BRICK HORIZONTAL
SON JOINT

HORIZONTAL
SOtr JOINT
\-- wEEP HoLE
CAVITY WALL FLASHING CAVITY WALL FLASHING OUTSIDE CORNER FLASHING

AOJACENT CONsiTRUCTION VERTICAL

CONTROL JOINT
CONTROL JOINT
STEEL ANGL€
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING
COMPRESSIBLE
FI|JR

BACKER ROO

ELASTOMERIC
SEAUNT

SEAUN]

LIP BRICK

CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
STEEL ANGLE

COMPRESSIALE
HORIZONTAL
FI[ER HORIZONTAL
50tr JOTNT
son JorNT
BACKER ROD
WEEP HOLE AT 24" O,C
EUSTOMERIC
SEAUNT TUBE WEEP HOLE

HORIZONTAL SOFT JOINT END DAM HORIZONTAL SOFT JOINT AND

VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT

Lsqa!'re D. Sherman,AIA; Lev Zetlin Assmiates, Engineersand Designers;New york, New york
ErianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America;Reston,Virginia

MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
 Linlels 217

BOfrOM OF FLOOR BONOM OF FLOOR

OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION '-
OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION

Simple lintel wth arch actron car- Simple lintel without arch action Lintel with uniform lloor load car- Lintel with concentrated load car- Lrntels at movement lornts requrre
ries wall load only in triangle above carries less wall load than triangle ries both wall and floor loads in ries wall and portion of concen- special design considerations.
opening:C>BandD>B above opening: Hr or H, < 0.68 rectangle above opening: C < B trated load distributed along
length B,

LINTEL LOADING COND|TIONS (CONSULT STRUCTURAL HANDBOOK FOR DESIGN FORMULAS)

ALLOWABLE UNIFORM SUPERIMPOSED LOAD (IN LB) PER LINEAR FOOT

FOR STEEL ANGLE LINTELS
SPAN (FT}
\/vEIGHT (CENTER TO CENTER OF REQUIRED BEARING)
PER FT
ANGLE SIZE (LB) 5 9 to l2
3\J 'l2x '14 YCO
x b/ro 6.6 11 6 6 637 323 144 113
3 1lrx3 llrx lla 5.8 1281 406 232 1M 65
^ ,16 7.2 1589 891 507 290 179 118 80
4x3 tlrx lla 6.2 1622 910 338 210 139 95 68
7.1 2110 11 8 4 262 173 85 62
CARRY BRICK PUTES 24- O.C x 3/a 9.1 2434 1365 855 490 305 20'l 138 98 71
ACROSS OPENING 1548 978 349 230 113 a2 60
10.6 2760 t5d
CAVITY WALL '1460
FIREPROOF WALL 5 x3'l2x 1la 7.O 2600 398 2U 184 132 97 73
x 6ls 4.1 3087 1733 I 106 486 323 224 1r9 89
NOTE j/n 't2.0 2371 1047 655 302 217 160 120
x 4224
FireprooJlinlel for long spans. All steel members to be 6 x 3 1 l 2 x1 l a 1.9 3577 2009 1283 888 439 306 221 124
designed by structuralengineer Flashing details must be I s/ro 9.8 4390 2465 1574 1090 798 538 375 271 201 t5l
designedto suitiob condition. , 3/e 1 1. 7 5200 2922 r 865 1291 945 443 320 237 179

STEEL LINTEL DETAILS NOTE

Allowable loads to the left of the heavy line are governed by moment, and to the right by deflecrion. Fy = 36,000 psi. Maximum
MlN. I deflection 1t00. Consult structural engineer for long spans.
AIRSPACE

REINFORCED
CMU LINTEL
8'BEARING REQUIRED REINFORCING FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY LINTELS

REQUIRED REINFORCING CLEAR SPAN

#4

STEEL LINTEL
WITH FUSHING
MIN.4- AEARING

MASONRY LINTEL DETAIL NOTES

1. Includes weight of lintel
2. Wall loads assumed to be 300 lb per linear ft
3. Floor and roof loads including wall loads assumed to be 1000 lb/linear ft
4. 8 in. lintels assumed to weigh 50 lb/ft
5. 16 in. lintels assumed to weigh 100 lb/fi

MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE LINTELS (LBILINEAR FT)

CLEAR SPAN

REINFORCEMENT 3 -4 4-O 4 -A 5 -4 9 -4" o -o ro -a

rtoc IUU t45 115
2*4 1855 1300 9 1 0 665 500 380 300 235 150 120
2*5 1425 1410 r 005 725 535 410 315 250 195 155 125 100

NOTE
pRECAST CONCRETE LTNTEL DETAIL L i n t epl r o p e r t i e s i w i d t h = 7 % i n . , h e i g h t = 7 % i n . , w e i g h t = 6l b0i 4 i n e a r lf't".= 2 5 0 0 p s i

GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Architects,PC;Washington,D.C.

BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia
StephenS. Szoke,P.E; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation; Herndon,Virginia

ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
 BRICK BONDS

Vvhena circular rusonry wall is to b€ laid up in running

bond, the proiectionsot the @mers ot units beyond the MINIMUM RADII OF MASONRY
face of the units on the @urs6sabow and b€low mav need '/. tN- EXTERTOR MORTAR JOTNT '/z tN. EXTERTOR MORTARJOTNT
to be limited for aestheticr€asms. Gonerally,projectionsof
approximatelyr/s in. for nomiml I in. long units and i/{ in. NUMBER NUMBER
for nominal16 in. long units are a@ptabl€. lf the wall sur- OF UNLTS OF UNITS
NOMINAL tN 360' rN 3600 PROJECTION
face is to be stucco€dor otheNi$ covered,prcjectionsof LENGTH \^/ALL
r/, to in. may not be objectionable.However,if it is OF UNIT (IN.)
% desir-
able to obtain a sm@th appeatancefor the curye or limit
lhe shadows createdby th€ priiected @rners, the projec-
tronsshould not exceedtho$ indieted abov€. proiections
of less than t/s in. are usuallyimpraclicalbecauseof con-
structrontolerances. 27',-5'
41'-9"
In. {"/. In., cuts
! interiorface, both
enos,

b?li:r l)
In. {t tn., cuts
interiortace. both

"o,_i{...JL_ €nos,

i J u p p E R \ , r \ l \P
l\ /l zls['.) Yr Interaormortarjoints maintainedat approximatelyr/" in.

_/'
RADIAL \^r'ALLS AND BRICK PROJECTIONS

4 IN. WALL TO 4 IN. WALL 5 IN. WALL TO 6 IN. WALL

A IN. WALL TO 8 IN. WALL

I Z IN. WALL TO I2 IN. WALL IOIN.WALLTO IOIN.WALL

CORNER LAYOUT SHO\/vTNG ALTERNATING COURSES

A. Harris AIA: RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C.

,Lokmanhakim,
Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonrvAssociation: Herndon.Vrroinia
Brian E. Tnmble.;BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia

a\
-Lr
MASONRY
UNITS
 Cloy MosonryUnits 219
ent applications in which brick can be used. Bricks must APPEARANCE
BRTCK AND TILE CLASSIFICATION
meet a grade ot SW. MW, or NW based on the weathering
Brick tvpes are related to the appearance ot the unit, and
Brick and tile are classified accordrng to the specific location index and the exposure thev will receive. The weathering soecificallv to limlts on dirensional tolerances. distortion
where thev are used. Standard specificalions have been index is the producl of the average annual number of freez- tolerances, and chippage. The brick type can be selected
develooed to produce uniJorm requirements for brick The ing cycle days and the average annual winter rainlall in
depending on whether a high degree of precision is neces-
American Societv for Testinq and Materials (ASTM pub inches (see map below). The exposure is related to
sary, a w,der range of color or size is permitted, or a charac
lishes the lnost widely accepted standards on brick Stan- whether the brick is used on a vertical or horizontal surface teristic architectural effect is desired. The tvpes of bflck tor
dard specifications include strength, durability, - and and whether the unit will be in contact with the earth (see each soecrfication are listed in table 4
aesthetlc requtrements. table 3). A higher weathering index or a mo.e severe expo-
sure will require face brick to meet the SW requirements
The grade is typically based on physical properties of the TABLE 4: APPEARANCE
CLASSIFICATIONS brick. The grades {or each specification are listed in table 2. AST M TIGHTER LOOSER
A5T M STA N DAR D TOLERANCES TOLERANCES
TYPE OF BRICK UNIT D ES IG NATIO N
TABLE 2: GRADE REQUIREMENTS
Buib-frg_-brcl< c62 FOR FACE EXPOSURES* C 216 Type FBX FBS FBA
Ech-sEak c216 C 652 Type HBX HBS HBB HBA
C652 c 902 PX PS PA
t-tottow brick
AND applicatron
Pavingbrick LS02 C 126 Grade SSS
Ceramic Alazed brick c 126 C1088 Type TBX TBS 'BA
C 1088 ln contact wrth eanh C 32 sewer None
Thinbrickveneerunits None
Not in contact with earth
Smr and manhole brick
ln other than vertical surfaces:
Chemiml resistant brick ' C279 ln contact with earth
AESTHETICS AND SHAPES
l n d u s t r i a lf l o o r b n c k C410 Not in contact with earth
Brick is readilv available in many sizes, colors. textures, and
TYPE OF TILE UNIT *See map below
shapes, all adaptable for vinually any style or expression.
Structural clay load bearing tile C34 Brick's small module can be related to the scale of the wall,
C 56 and its sizes can be combined to create different appear
Sreturet clav non-toad bearrnq tile
ances and oatterns. Sizes available are shown in table 1.
Structural clay facing tile C212
C530
TABLE 3: EXPOSURE When specifying the size of units, dimensions should be
51rus1srs1elav non-load bearing
screen !te listed in the following order; width by thickness by length.
ASTM VERE SEVERE The size of the brick influences cost because larger units
Ceramic glazed lile C 126 STANDARD POSURE EXPOSURE
require fewer bricks, normally resulting in less labor. Spe-
cially shaped bricks are available to add interest to a wall,
C 2 16 Grade SW includrng water table bricks. radials, caps, copings, corners,
C 652 Grade SW and others. Consult the manufacturer lor specilic sizes and
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS MX NX
Termsusedin eachstandard mayinclude
tor classification
C 902 Grade
c 1261 1 availabilitv.

exposure, appearance. physical iloperties, efllorescence, Cl088 Grade tsxrenor

dimensional tolerances, distortion, chipping, core, and C32 sewer2 SS SM
froos. Bricks can be classitied by use, grade. type, and/or Grade manhole MS
cla;s in most specifi@tions. All options should be sp€cified,
NOTES CORNER
as each ASTM standard has minimum requirements for
BRICK
grads and type that apply automatically il an option is omat- 1. No requirementstor durability.
ted. lf the desired requirements are not specified, a delivery
may contain bricks unsuitable for the intended use.
2. Basedon durabilityand abrasion

EXPOSURE
Soecific qrades of brick are required to accommodate the RADIAL
v;rious climates found rn the United States and lhe diffeF BRICK

TABLE l: STANDARD NoMENCLATURE FOR BRICK SIZES

MODULAR BRICK SIZES

NOMINAL SPECIFIED
DIMENSIONS (IN. JOINT DIMENSIONS' (IN.)
UNIT THICKNESSI VERTICAL
OESIGNATION d N.) COURSI NG

covE

TABLE

BULLNOSE
WATER
TAALE

BRICK SHAPES

NONMODULAR BRICK SIZES

! necrtctare wEATHERTNG
N OTES
uoornlre wEATH€RrNG
L Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Actual joint thicknesses vary between bed joints and head joints. I
I sevene weerHERrNG
2. Specified dimensions may vary within this range among manufacturers.

U.S. WEATHERING INDEXES

Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke. P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute of America: Reston, Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 220 Concrele MosonryUnits
GENERAL VOLUMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL
Concretemasonryunits (CMU)conlormto ASTMstandard
HOLLOW CONCRETE
MASONRY UNrTS (7 "/.x ts % tN.)
specitications.The most common concrere masonryuntts
used in buildingconstructionare load bearingunits a;d c;;_ MINIMUM THICKNESS 2 CORE UNITS
GROSS
cretebrick.Non-ioad bearingunitsmay be specifred for par \^/IDTH VOLUME, CU PERCENT
Irlronsand are commonlyused for lrre protdctronof steel
cotumnsand frre-rated oanittons
ilN.) IN. (CU FT}
432
SHELL (IN.) wEB (tN.) SOLID VOLUME F3l'JXi,'.:t'.,'"?i''
u.t5 0.75 b4
(0.25) 1.00 1.00
Typ_eI or moisture{ontrolledunits are specifiedto obtain a 73 2.66
unitormdegreeot volume changedue to moistureloss in a .00 5l
pa.trcutarctimate.The specification of Type I unils facili_ {0.388) .12 .00 3.43
tatesthe l@€tronof controljoints.Type li or non_moislure .25 .00 64 3.60
controlledunits may be more economicalbut will typically .37 3.A2
requrrecloserspacingof controljoints_ YUU 25
(0.526)
53
12 4.35
ln addirionto type, concrete bricks are specifiedby grade. 50 12 59 4.50
GradeN is intendedfor use as architecturalveneerin! fac-
I 145 .25 12
ing units in exteriorwalls and for use when high strength (0.664) 46 4.62
and resistanceto moisture penetration ana s-everefr6it .37 12 51 4.91
actronare desired.GradeS is intendedfor generalmasonry .50 54 5.20
where moderatestrengthand resistanceto trost actionand 1. 1 2 5.12
morsturepenetrationare required_ (0.803) 1.37 1. 1 2
't.25 46
1.50 49 5.10
Concretemasonryunits are availablein a varietyof colors. 1.75 1.25 52 6.05
sizes,lextures, configurations,and wetgnts to accomme
qate oesrgn,deta,ltng,and @nstruction.Colors
are now
providedwith ligtttfastmetallicoxide pigments conforming
to ASTM C 979. Tle texturesmay be sr;oottr, grouna,spiii The weight of the units also varies.Dependingon the
aggregateused. concrete masonryunits are typicallymade ASTM STANDARD
floDeo,or otheMtse preparedto maxrmizedesign versatil_
rry. )mootn tnrshes and more color options ar6 available usrngMcretes with densitiesrangingfrom g5 to 140pcf. SPECIFICATIONS
with pretaced,'integral glazed"concrete masonryunits. rne trghteruntts tend to providemore fire resistance and C sG-Concrete Brick
have an improved noise r€duction coefficient. and lhev
Concretg.rusonryunits are specitiedas width by height by often are more economi€l to place in tt" ffejuili C THalcium SilicateFaceBrick (sand-limebrick)
rengrn.Ine nomrnatdimensionsare usually in. larger unrts tend to provide increasedcompressivestrength,
".in- bet_
% ter resastanceto sound penetration,higher water
than the actual uoit dimensions.The most common nomi- f,enetra- C gH-oad BearingConcreteMasonry Units
nal widths of @rcret€ masonryunits are 4 in-, 6 in., g in., ton resrstance,and greatorthermalstoragecapabilities.
'10
in.,and l2 in.The nominalheightsare mostlyg in.and 4 C 12g-Non-load BearingConcreteMasonry Units
rn., except concrete bricks are typicaily 2
% in. high. The
nomrnarrengthsare usually16 or tg in. Concretebrick C l3Honcrete Masonry Unrts tor the Constructionol
tengthrs usually8 in. but is often 12 In. Lengthsmay be I g Latcn Bastnsand Manholes
ot 24 in. in some regions.Theselonger leng-thsare usually
more economtel tor Dlacement C.144--Prcfaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry
Units

ce3'-solidconcretelnterlockinsPavinsun
(h

we@CAW_J
6h

STRETCHER
@ao
/a>

COREO
z>,

FROGGED
-.s,

FROG OPEN
IN REAR
_..\

I 0096 so|-tD LINTEL

@ @ffiffi @ffiffiffiffi
CORN ER CORNER
RETU RN
CONTROL
JOINT
JAM B JOIST UNIT CLEANOUT UNtT

4
ffi &
L4r"
AOND BEAMS
A.BLOCK H-BLOCK U-BLOCK - A-BLOCK
BOND BEAM BOND BEAM OPEN-ENtr UNITS

ffiffi@ffi@@@@tu
A X A SCOREO FACE SPLTT FACE

RIGID
RIBBED OR SCORED SPLTT RIBBED FLUTED COLUMN PILASTER
IN SERT
INSUUTION

A*
<///>) | il tl
\lv !ry
CHIMNEY UNITS
SCREEN

TYPICAL CONCRETE MASONRY T J T { 1 AS H A P E S

StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConrete.Masonry Association;

- - ' Herndon,
- --' Virginia
GraceS. Lee; Ripp€teauArchitects,pC; Washingtdn,O.C.

MASONRYUNITS

GENERAL
Masonry walls have long served as foundations tor struc
tures. Today, most masonry foundation walls consist ot san-
gle wythe, hollow or solid masonry unit construction.
depending on the required bearing capacity. The wall sys-
tems may be used as perimeter walls for slab{n-grade
construction or to form crawl spaces or basements. The
walls are reinforced as necessary to resist laleral loads.
Generally, such reinforcement should be held as close to
the interior lace shell as possible. to provide lhe maximum
tensile strength most economically-
Foundation systems, especially basement walls, need to do
more than simply support the structure. They must protect
against heat, insect infestation (particularly termites), fire,
and penelralron of warar soil gas.
"nd
THICKNESS OF FOUNDATION WALLS
FOUNDATION WALL CONSTRUCTION
hollow unrts, ungrouted
MosonryFoundotionWqlls
Thermal protection may be provided with interior turring
and batts or rigid board rnsulation, an exterior rigid board
insulation and protection system, or with rntegral rnsulation
strategies. The latter include foamed-in-place insulation.
granular lill insulations, and premolded polystyrene inserts.
Use of interior and exlerior insulation rather than premolded
inserts allows reinforcing steel to be installed more easily
Optimal insect protection can be achieved using anterior or
integral insulation and a termite shield. Metalllashing mate-
rials often perform well as termite shields. For extenor insu-
lation strategies in locations where termites are a concern,
the termite shield musl extend over the exterior insulation.
Waterprooting and dampproofing are specified by building
codes, as discussed in chapter 7. Generally, waterproofing
makes the foundation or basement wall resistant to air infil
NOMINAL MAXIMUM DEPTH OF
THICKNESS (IN.) UNBALANCED FILL (FT)
22r
tratron and thereby resistant to soil gases such as radon.
Typical waterproofing consists of a minimum 3/ain coat of
cement stucco pargrng and an approprate lrquid applred
membrane, but some lrquid-applied membranes alone or
combined with built-up membranes are acceptable. Sur-
face-bonding mortar mixes are also effective for resisting
water and soil-gas penetrat,on. A good perimete. drainage
system in contact with open air or connected to a sump pit
should be used for effective drainage.
lf radon is a major concern, the top course of the masonry
and the course of masonry at or below the slab should be
constructed of 100% solid unrts or hollow unifs fully filled
with grout. French drains (drainage channels at the Inter-
taces of foundation walls and floor slabs), which often are
used to collect and drain condensation moisture in base-
ments, should be avoided in areas where soil-gas entry rs a
concern.
Architectural masonry units may be used to improve the
appearance of foundation walls, often in the above{rade
portion of the walls. Masonry units with architectural fin-
ishes facing the interior can be used for economacal con
structron of finished basement spac€.

Masonry easily accommodates any floor plan, and returns

solrclunrts
and corners increase the structural oerformance of the wall
tor lateral Ioad resistance. Returns and corners that supoort
porches, fireplaces. and the like may also serye as wane cel-
hollow or solrd unrts, lars. Returos for window wells permit an increase in day-
lighting. making below{rade areas more atlractive as
habitable soace.

N OTE
Drainagemust be providedon surfaceand below gradeto removegroundwater from foundationwall. The backfillmust be granu-
lar and soil conditionsnonexpansive.

,d
CONCRETE
UNIT LINTEL
MASONRY

SOLID GROUT FILL

ANCHOR BOLT IN
FULLY GROUTED CELL f-T
WITH REINFORCING

WINDOW WELL

BASEMENT WINOOW

FREE DRAINING
AACKFIU

TYPE S MORTAR

OAMPPROOFING
AND PARGING

^I
-2

p shz

o.1

Wherei

P = allowable total horizontal projection of corbeling

p = allowable projection ol one unit
t = nominal wall thickness (actual thacknessplus the
CONCRETE thickness of one mortar joint)
FLOOR SLAB
h = nominal unit height (actual height plus the thick-
GRAVEL BED ness of one mortar joint)
d = nominal unit bed depth {actual bed depth plus the
COMPRESSIBLE
thickness of one mortar joint)
FILLER

FULL MORTAR BED N OTE

PERFORATED PIPE
CONCRETE
Corbeling is used to increase wall thickness to suit bearing
MASONRY UNIT requirements above foundation. Corbeling may be equal on
both sides of the wall.
CONCRETE FOOTING

LIMITATIONS ON CORBELING
TYPICAL FOUNDATION WALL

Grace S. Lee; RappeteauArchitects, PC; Washington, D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke, P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 222 MosonryFoundolionWqlls
NOTE FLOOR DIAPHRAGM FOUNDATION WALL
INCLUOING JOIST ANO
S = spacing of vertical reinforcing bars SUAFLOOR TO PROVIOE REINFORCEMENT
LATERAL SUPPORT TO
B = bar size VERTICAL REINFORCEM ENT
TOP OF WALL
H = height of backfill BAR SIZE AND MAXIMUM BAR SPACING
H EIGHT OF BACKFILL. H

VERTICAL BAR
POSITIONER IN
MORTAR BED
ONE COURSE
BELOW BOND
BEAM

HOR IZO NTAL JOI NT R E I N FO RC EM E NT

HEIGHT OF BACKFILL. H
MORTAR
JOI NT a a
l3

ga 9ga Y ga. I ga. 9a

VERTICAL BAR 6 ga. 9ga 9ga I ga.

POSITIONER IN
ga
MORTAR BED
TWO COURSES I ga. I ga. v ga. 9 ga.
ABOVE FOOTING

u ga. Y ga. 9ga I ga.

v ga. 9ga I ga. ga.
8 ga. v ga. 9 ga. Yga

NOTES
1. The empiri€l design method of the Building Code
CONCRflE Requirementsfor MasonryStructures,ACI 530/ASCES,
FOOTING chapter9. allorc up to 5 ft of backfillon an 8 in. nonrein-
forced concretemasonrywall.
2. As an alternate,9 gauge joint reinforcementplaced in
ioints numbers3, 4, 5, 7, 8, andl 1 may be used.

VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT SPACING

8" CMU (TYP JOINT

REINFORCEMENT A- CMU {TYP.)
CONTROL
AT I 6" (TYP.)
JOINTS
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I6" (TYP.)

CONCRETE

SOLID CMU
8"X8'Xt6

DOWELED FOOTING DETAIL

8- CMU (TYP.)
CONTROL 8- CMU (TYP.)
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I 6- ffYP. )
CONTROL

WALL FOUNDATION FOR INTERIOR \/VALL FOUNDATION FOR NON.BEARING REINFORCED FOUNDATION
BEARING WALLS OR BEARING INTERIOR V\/ALLS WALL DETAIL

GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC; Washington,D.C.

StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon.Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 o! GRAVEL STOP
)--.--
AND FASCIA
.Xoo9; noorrnc \. STEEL
/-
AEAM
BAN
INSUUTION '/4' x a LoNG
BENT PLATE AS
R E Q U I R E DA T
4 -O O.C.(TYP.\

INSUUTiON 2 DtA
WASHER
STEEL JOIST

CONTINUOUS
STEEL BAR
1/z otA
ANCHOR
ANCHOR BOLT EMBEDDED
VENT /
t5 AT6 0C I
GROUTED
\ ANGLE
BOND AEAM
CORES 5X3XY1 X6
REINFORCING FILLED LONG AT
BARS 4' - O" O.C
GROUT { T Y P .) .
THROUGH
METAL
FUSHING LATH

CMU LINTEL

wtNoow PREcAST t
lt{ Bgl
HEAD --__\
LTNTEL
wtNDow _ _lg1 [ . tffil
.:El
FrNrsH lf ..i El
VERTICAL
vaRrES----ll:.' .". .ffi|
JUy'/l HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD
REINFORCEMENT
BEARING WALLS - STEEL FRAME
IN GROUTED t;4%4
sEAuNr --l I ll I I
RIGID
_L\,/|LI
INSUUTION
INSERTS
:T.' _ METAL DECK WITH
OR WITHOUT CONCRFTE
I O GAUGE PUTE
8,' LONG (TYP.)
SEAUNT

JAMB
-_rffiru|
iH?J=
PRECAST
STONE SILL
ffi
t tl|
WITH ORIP EDGE -L---4. 1[
JAMB -
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNIT

FURRING PRECAST
STRIPS SILL
ANGLE
ruo-wtRE 5x3xr/4x6
TRUSSOR LONG AT
UDDER TYPE 4 -O" O.C
HORIZONTAL
JOI NT
REINFORCEMENT

FUSHING

GRAOE
\

WALLBOARD

GRAVEL
BASE HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD
BEARING \^/ALLS _ METAL DECK
% PREMoLDED
JOINT(TYP,)
INSUUTION
(IF REOUIRED)

;LE WYTHE MASONRY WALL \^/ITH SINGLE WYTHE MASONRY WALL WITH
=L FRAME WOOD FRAME

GLE WYTHE MASONRY

wythe masonry wall construction is common for
lpolications, both load bearing and non-load bearing
terior and exterior walls. These systems are lre-
used as interrot partrtions for file pfotectio..
r single vvythe walls may be integrally insulated with
rr fill insulation, foamed-in-place insulation. or site
d or {actory installed molded polystyrene inserts.
wthe walls mav also be insulated on the interior or
r lhe insulation mav be adhered or mechanically
fastened directlv to the masonry, or it may be installed in
coniunction with conventional furring or studding sYstems.
The benefits of thermal mass are generally optimized with
Integral and exterior insulatron strategies.
When single wythe walls are used as exterior walls and a
high degree ol water penetration resistance is required. the
use of integral water repellents; exterior coatings, sealers,
or finishesj or both may be required {or concrete masonry
construction- Clay masonry does not requrre these treal
ELECTRICAL OUTLET BOX IN CMU WALL
ments.

S Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington. D.C.

:n S. Szoke. P.E; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
Trimble; Brick lnstitute of America; Reston, Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 224 SingleWytheWolls
GENERAL
Design oi multistory bearing wall buildings rs based or
combaned structural action of the {loor and root svstem
JOINT with the masonry walls. Floors carry the venrcal loads and
REINFORCEMENT actrng as diaphragms, also distribute tateral loads to rhe
AT 16" O 3/B"ANcHoR walis. In masonry bearing wall buildings, lateral {orces fronl
FINISH ROD I 2" LONG winds or earthquakes are usually resisted by shear wal|:,
VARIES parallel to the direction of the lateral force. Bv thejr shearjno
and flexural resistance, these walls transfer lateral forces t6
CONCRffE ON GROUTED CMU the ioundation.
MffAL DECK ON BOND B€AM
REINFORCE AS
REOUIRED The action of roof and floor diaphragms affects the distribu.
tion of lateral forces to the shear walls. Diaphragms are
classified into three groups: rigid, semirigjd (or semiflexi
ble), and flexible. In design, the rigid diaphragm is assumec
to distribute horizontal forces to vertical shear walls in pro
ponion to their relative rigiditi€s (longer or thicker walls
being more rigid than shorter or thinner walls). More com.
plex design approaches may consider the diaphragms to be
semirigid or flexible. The distribution of toads in th!se more
complex designs is similar to @ntinuous beam desion and
design based on tributary areas, respectively

r/." x 3/16 TW|STED For the diaphragms to be effective, there must be adeouare
STEEL PUTE AT 4" MtN. connections between the rool and floor systems and the
6 - O" O.C. FOR BEARING masonry walls. In many instances, adequate connection is
achieved with the walls supported on masonry bond
beams. Horizontal members (roofs and floors) are often
connected to the walls with reinforcing steel. Adequate
connections may be reinforcing steel into bond beams or
may be coordinated with the masonrv wall reinlorcement
Connections will vary with the requirement to resist loads.

CMU WALL TO WOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU WALL TO STEEL JOIST ANCHORAGE
PRECAST COPING
PROVIDE METAL
CRAMP AT JOINTS

CONTINUOUS
FUSHING

REINFORCEMENT
WATERPROOFING
VERTICAL
AS REOUIREO TREATMENT
REINFORCEMENT
(FILL CEL6 AT
REINFORCEMENT
BASE AND
FINISH I COUNTERFUSHING
vARlEs=-_l
PRE.FAB CANT
PREcAsr Horrow I
I
BUILT-UP ROOFING
ON INSUUTION ON
PRECAST HOLLOW
CORE SLAB

3 MtN. REINFORCEMENT
AEARING
#4 REINFORCING
ROD IN JOINT
LEOGER 3,' X 8" MtN BOND BEAM
X 2, . O,, LONG (TYP.)
MIN. CONTINUOUS GROUT SOLID
WITH AOLTS TYP.
(USE WITH SAME GROUTED CMU BOND
DEPTH AS JOISTS) BEAM REINFORCE
AS REOUIREO

INTERIOR WALL TO JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU WALL TO CONCRETE JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU PARAPET TO CONC:RETE
ROOF ANCHORAGE

WALL ANCHORAGE DETAILS

STANDARD 5/16"Roo WELDED

GROUT CEL6 CONCRETE OOVETAIL
BENO I " (TYP,) TO COLUMN
COLUMN SLOT
AT 5" O.C

3/ro" FLEXtBLE
ANCHOR

,/,.
WALL TO COLUMN ANCHORAGE DETAILS

Grace S Lee; RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
Brian E. Trimble;Brick Instituts of America;Reston,Virginia

(-1r
/\
MASONRYUNITS
REINFORCEMENT STANDARD MATERIALS SELECTION FOR REINFORCED MASONRY
In many applicarions,single wythe wails are reinforced. The MASONRY UNITS MORTAR ANO GROUT REI N FORCEM ENT
E(m paniatty reinforced is erroneous. Reinforcement beaflng
schedules are designed for a particular appli€tion, ant all MasonryUnits MasonryConstructionASTM A 615 Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
the required reinforcement is necessary A S T MC 2 1 6 FacingBrick(solid ASTM C 476 Groutfor Masonry Bars
masonryunits madelrom ASTM A 616 RaifSteel Deformed and Plain
Walls are often partially grouted, that is. only the cells or clayor shales) Bars
cavities of the wall containing reinforcement are grouted. ASTMC 652 HollowBrick (hollow ASTM A 706 Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars
When walls are partially grouted, special units or construc- masonryunits made from uBc 24-15 Joint Reinforcement tor
tion fabric are used for vertical containment of the grout. clayor shale) Masonry
Horizontal containment is usually provided by mortaring the
webs of the masonry units. When steel placement is lre-
quent, it may become economical or nece$ary to fully
grout the walls-

Structural components of a building using reinforced

masonry combine the tensile strength of reinforcement
BOND BEAM COURSE
with the compressive strength oI the masonry to resist EVERY 4A" O,C (TYP )
design loads. Walls. columns, pilasters, and beams are
designed to resist dead, live, wind, seismic, and lateral
earth pressures using reinforced masonry. The benefits of HORIZONTAL STEEL
incorporating reinforcement are improved ductility. struc- IN BOND BEAM -
tural integrity, and resistance to flexural and shear stresses.
Reinforced masonry walls are extensively used Jor ware-
PUCE METAL UTH OR WIRE
houses, institutional buildings, retaining walls, shear walls,
SCREEN UNDER BOND BEAM
basement walls, and load bearing walls, particularly in TO CONFINE GROUT
multistory hotels and apartment bualdings. Reinlorced
masonry provides economical construction, especially
when a high degree of resistance to lateral loads is neces- VERTICAL STEEL
sary.

S€ismicperformancecategoriesA and B requireno special

orovisions.In manv instances,the wind loads will govern
the minimum reinforcinglevetsin seismicperfomance cat-
egory C and above.

For designs in seismic performance €tegory C, venical

reinforcementof at least 0.20 in. in cross-sectionalareas
shall be providedcontinuouslyfrom suppon to support at
each corner,at each side of each opening,and at the ends
of walls. Horizontalreinforcementof not less than 0,20 in.
shall be providedat the bottom and top of all openingsand
extend not less than 24 in. nor less than 40 bar diameters
past the op€ning. Horizontal reinforcement should be
installed continuouslyat structurally connected roof and
floor levels,at the tops of walls, and at the bottom of the
wall or at the top of ths foundation;maximum spacingis 10
ft unless uniformly distributedioint reinforcementis pre
vided.

For designs in seismic performancecategoriesD and E,

walls shall be reintorced both vertically and horizontally. CELLS CONTAINING STEEL ARE
Reouirementsin additionto those for seismicperformance Fl[ED SOLIDLY wlTH GRoUTi
category C include that spacing shall not exc@d 4 ft, VERTICAL CELLS SHOULD
except for designs using moment resisting space frames, PROVIOE A CONTINUOUS
where the spacing ot principal reinforcement shall not SPACE, FREE OF MORTAR
exc€ed 2 ft. Also. the diameter of the reinforcementshall DROPPINGS, AND AT LEAST
t112, x 2,, tN stzE (TYP.)
not be less than % in., excepttor ioint reinforcement. (SEE GROUT TABLE. PAGE 2 I ! )

PLACE MORTAR ON CROSS

WEBS ADJACENT TO CELLS
THAT WILL BE GROUTED
TO FORM OAMS

METHODS OF REINFORCING

C = 24 in. minimum bul not Iess than 40 bar diameters.ln seismicperformancecategoryC,

S = 10 ft maximum:in seismicperformance categoriesD and E, S = 4 ft maximum.

REINFORCED LOAD BEARING BRICK OR CMU WALLS

GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Architects,PC;Washingron, D.C.

StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon.Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America:Reston,Vrginia

MASONRYUNITS
 MULTIWYTHE MASONRY
Multiwythe masonryconstructionis common for many
applications,both load bearing and non- load bearing and
tor interiorand exteriorwalls. Thesesystemsare frequently
used as exteriorwalls or other applicationswhen exposed
architecturalmasonrv units are required on one or both
sides ol the masonrv.Such walls are constructedwith full
collar joints between wythes of masonry.The most cofr
mon multiwythewall is the compositewall, which consists
ol a clay brick wythe and a concretemasonrywythe with a
3/ain. collar,oint, and brick headersor anchors.The collar
ioint is often difficult to fill and may be {illed by pargingthe
backupor by grouting.Generallythe method of lilling the
joint sh@ld not be specified.The mason shouldbe permit-
ted to use the method that is most etlective based on the
talent available,the wall configuration, and the construction
sequence. Often a single wythe of the wall might be rein,
forced. See the section on single wythe walls for a discus-
sion of reinforced masonry. In multiwythe construction the
collar ioint may contain reinlorcement lf this is so, the col-
lar joant width must be increased to provide adequate cov-
erage for the reinlorcement. The diameter of the
reinlorcement should not exceed half the collar ioint thick,
ness. When fine grout is used there must be at ieast,/. in
between the reinforcemenl and the masonry. When coarse
grout is used. the space must be at least '/, in.
Multiwythe walls may be constructed as pa.tially grouted
walls, using cavity wall or multiwythe wall construction. For
this type of wall, the grout is contained horizontallv wth
building fabric and vertically wrlh dams. The ddms are tvol
cally masonry units placed withan the cavitv. In oartiailv
grouted hollow wall construction, {lashrng may be neces
sary at horizontal interruptions in the cavity.
Insulation tor exterior walls may be integral in a wythe ol
masonry or may be on the exterior of the wall, but it is usu
ally on the interior. The insulation may be adhered or
mechanically tastened directly to the masonry, or the insu,
lataon system may be pan ol a conventional furring or stud
ding system. The benefits of thermal mass are generally
optimized with integral and exterior insulation strategies.

GRAVEL STOP
METAL COPING
wlTH I/2" DtA.
ANCHOR (TYP.)

CAP ANO BASE CONCRflE

FUSHING OR STONE
wooD CAP
NAILERS PREFAB CANT

BUILT,UP ROOFING
BRICK CAP

ROOF ON FUSHING AND

wooo WEEP HOLES
JOISTS
JOIST

REINFORCEO RECESS AND SILL DETAILS IN BRICK

GROUTEO \/VALLS
CMU BOND I r/a" x 3/,6" TwtsTED
EEAM STEEL PUTE AT
6' - O" O.C. OR EVERY
TWO WIRE 4TH JOIST (TYP-)
TRUSS.TYPE
JOINT MflAL TIES AT
REINFORCEMENT r6 0.c. (TYP.)

FUSHING WITH DOVETAIL

WEEP HOLES AT ANCHOR
REINFORCED 24 O.C. (TYP.)
CMU LINTEL

STEEL SOLID CMU TRUSS OR

LINTEL UDDER,TYPE
DOUBLE ANGLE HORIZONTAL
wtNDow STEEL LINTEL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
SEALANT SEAUNT
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES
(otr.) coRRosroN
RESISTANT
CMU WYTHE WIRE TIE
BRICK WWHE SEAUNT

SEAUNT SILL UNITS

WNDOW I5" MIN SLOPE

When backup
'-''--- SILL FUSHING SEAUNT wythe is more than
WITH END OAM
FUSHING WITH 4 an.nominal,use three-
MASONRY TIE WEEP HOLES AT wre horizontal joint
AT | 6" O.C. ftYP.) 24' O.C. (TYP.) reinforcement.

INSUUTION
WALLAOARO coRRosroN
RESISTANT
SEEL WIRE TIE
fUO WALL
FILLEO COLUR
3/.' coLLAR JOINT
JOINT (flP.)
coRRostoN
TWO WIRE RESISTANT
LAOOER- WIRE TIE
WPE JOINT
REINFORCEMENT FUSHING WITH
AT r6- O.C. (TYP.) WEEP HOLES AT
24" O.C. (TYP.) RECTANGULAR
CONCRflE
suB
FULLY GROUTED

WIREMESH OR
HARDWARE
CLOTH

FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP

r/r- PREMoLDED
JOINT (TYP.)
RIGIO collar joint is intended as an
INSUUTION barrier, flashing is not
necessafy

MULTIWYTH E MASONRY \,VALL ALTERNATE MULTIM/YTHE WALL STEEL AND CONCRETE COLUMN
SECTION ANCHORAGE

Grace S. Lee: RippeteauArchitects.PC;Washington,D.C.

Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America:Reston,Virginia

A
'rJ
MASONRYUNITS
 Multi-WytheWolls 227
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
OR METAL
WALL TIES

FIRECUT
EXPANSION
JOINT
WOOD FLOOR
ON WOOD JOISTS

DOVETAIL
ANCHOR

t t/o'x 3rro rutsrED

STEEL PUTE JOIST
ANCHOR AT 6'' O O.C
OR EVERY 4TH
JCIST (TYP.)
3" MIN BEARING
GROUTEO CMU COMPRESSIBLE FILLER

COLL}R JOINT
BACKUP ROD

\A/ALL TO \,VOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE

JOINT
REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE BEAM AND COLUMN ANC
OR METAL TIES
AT t 6" O.C. (TYP.)

\l \l
I a2/
PRECAST
CORE SUB
HOLLOW
w Mz'.<
NOTE
Placement of positaoners
or other means ol secur-
ing anchorage is required
to prevent displacement
by construction loads or
by placement ot grout or
mortar.

TYPICAL REBAR POSITIONERS

G R O U T D A M _ V E R T I C A LC O U R S E
OF UNBONDEO MASONRYUNITS;
USUALLY BROKEN BRICK OR BLOCK

WALL TO CONCRETE JOIST

ANCHORAGE

CONCRTTE ON HORIZONTAL REIN FORCING

METAL DECK STEEL. SPACING AS REOUIRED
ON STEEL
JOISTS

3/s- encHon VERTICAL

ROO. I 2- LONG
POSITIONER

r/4" MtN. covER

4" MIN. EEARING FOR FINE GROUT
t/2'FoR coARSE
CMU
GROUT
GROUTED

NOT E
COLUR JOINT
Cleanouts are required at bottom o{ wall (tirst
JOINT course of masonry) if grout pours exceed 5 ft
REINFORCEMENT Cleanouts should be adiacent to vertical rebars
OR METAL TIES and soaced no more than 32 in. on center.
AT 16" O.C. (TYP.)

WALL TO STEEL JOIST ANCHORAGE GROUTED HOLLOW WALL

GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C

SteohenS. Szote, p e.; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America;Reston.Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 GENERAL
Cavity walls consist of two wythes ol masonry separated
by at least a 2 in arrspace The airspace may be increased
lo 4rl2 in. wrth only minor increases rn tie size and or spac-
METAL COPING
ing. lf the cavity is to be more than 4rl2 in., the wall system
ASSEMBLY
should bc approprrdtely engineered. Either or both w!.thes
ot the wall system may be load beari.g.

The cavity wall is a drainagetype wall that provides excel-

lent resistance to water penetration. The mass and discon- ADJUSTABLE
tinuity of construction provided bv the metal ties result in MASONRY TIE
optamal sound penetration resistance. The calculated fire
resistance of cavity walls usually exceeds 4 hours. Interior ROOFING '\
and exterior wythes may be considered as the.mal mass CEIL!NG
for sp€cific thermal requirements. Either or both wvthes JOIST
VERTICAL
may be used to provide the desired archit€ctural finishes. REINFORCEMENT Il z ' X 2 0 '
anterior or exterior. For these reasons, the rusonrv cavitv IN GROUTED ANCHOR
wall is generally prefetred. CELLS BOLTS
4 'O OC.(TYP
When the cavity wall is selected because of its thermal Der-
fomance, generally only the interior wythe is load bearing. 3x6x1/4"
This construction permits the insulation layer to be continu- PUTE (TYP,)
ous within the wall and pass the slabs, minimizing thermal
bridges. The Insulation may be granular fill or rigid board INTERIOR
insulation. lf rigid board insulation is selected, there musr FINISH
OOVETAIL OPTIONAL
b€ a nominal 1 in. airspace between the back of the exterior
ANCHOR
wythe and the exterior surface of the insulation board. The
insulation board may be held in place with the wall ties. SHELF ANGLE
Twepiece adiustable ties serye well tor this application.
Seams in the insulation should b6 made with tongue-and, EUSTIC SEALANT
groove joints, shiplapped, or sealed with tape, lf the ties AND AACKER ROD
INSUUTION
selected are not appropriate for holding the insulation WOOD TRIM
against the backup wythe, then the rigid board insulation
stlNld be adhered or mechani@lly fast€ned to th6 backup. REINFORCED JOINT
It granular fill is used, it is necessary to select weep hoie LINTEL REINFORCEMENT
END OAM
systems that wll permit drainage bul ksp the granutar till WINOOW HEAO
within the wall system. Typical cavity walls may contain 2 WEEP HOLE
to 4 r/2 in. of granular fill insulation or 3 1/, in. of rigid board SEAUNT PRECAST
insulation- FLASHING STEEL LINTEL
LINTEL

M ETAL 2 X lO BLOCKING
FUSHING PUTE

WALL TIE

METAL
SEALANT
24 0.C.

t/2- BoLT
COMPRESSIBLE
4 -O"O.C MATERIAL BRICK SILL

3X6Xr/4-
STEEL PUTE wlNDow
WELDED CEILING
TO BOLT wooo TRrM
RIG'D
INSUUTION
t: FUSHING
cypsuu
DRYWALL
CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
ALTERNATE ROOF DETAIL
AIR SPACE

WALLBOARD
WEEP HOLE
ADJUSTABLE
ELASTIC MASONRY TIE
SEAUNT
WITH BACKER
ROD FUSHING

MtN. l/e z coNcRfiE

SPACE
BELOW
SHELF
ANGLE SEAUNT
(=T
ALTERNATE 2'
EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL RIGIO
INSUUTION
RIGIO (TYP,)
INSUUTION
PEA GYPSUM WALL WEEP HOLES
GRAVEL */- AT 24- O.C. {TYP
BASE
WEEP HOLES
FACE FINISHEO
ARICK FLOOR
JOIST ANCHOR
GROUT EVERY FOURTH
WIRE MESH AND JOIST (TYP.)
ORIP
BUILDING PAPER
sofl BOND AEAM
JOINT OR SOLID UNIT

EXPOSED SLAB DETAIL BRICK AND CMU CAVTTY WALL ALTERNATE BRICK AND CMU CAVITY
WALL SECTION

GraceS. ^Leeand A HarrisLokmanhakim,AIA RippsteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C

StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Hemdon,Virginia
BrianE- Trimble;Brick lnstitute of America;Reston.Virginia

A
-1r
MASONRYUNITS
 Covity Wolls 229

METAL WALL TIES 4. MIN BEARING

METAL WALL TIES
AT 16''O C (TYP )
AT I6" O C ITYP )

rtrtsr vlRtES' CONCRETE ON METAL

DECK ON STEEL JOISTS FINISH VARIES
WOOD FLOOR
ON WOOD JOISTS PRECAST HOLLOW
CORE SUB
FIRECUT
PAPER DAM

3/s" ANcHoR GROUT FILLED

RoD.
I IL X3/T6 TW|STED 12' LONG
STEEL PUTE JOIST
A N C H O RA T 6 ' - O O C .
OR EVERY FOURTH JOIST GROUTED CONCRETE 4" MrN BEARTNG
MASONRY UNIT
3'' MIN. BEARING
METAL WALL TIES . GROUTED CONCRETE
AT 16" O.C. ffYP.) MASONRYUNIT
GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT

FLOOR PRECAST HOLLOW CORE FLOOR

WOOD FLOOR STEEL JOIST

WALL TO FLOOR ANCHORAGE AT CAVITY WALLS

METAL WALL TIES

AT | 6" O.C. (TYP.)

OOVETAIL SLOT

DOVETAIL ANCHOR

COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COMPRESSIBLE

GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT

SPANDREL DETAIL COLUMN AND BEAM ANCHORAGE DETAILS

DOVETAIL ANCHOR SLOT

FLEXIBL€ DOVflAIL BOX TIE I PER 4 HORIZONTAL
ANCHOR AT I6'' O.C SO fr OF MASONRY
REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE COLUMN
VERTICAL

CONCRETE
CONCRETE DOVETAIL
MASONRY UNIT GYPSUM DRYWAI COLUMN
SLOTS

CONCRETE
FUSHING
suB
BRICK RIGID INSUUTION
BRICK

FUsHING REGLET
AT COLUMN
HORIZONTAL
R€INFORCEMENT - CONCRtrE
SHELF
METAL ANCHOR ANGLE lz
SET IN DOVETAIL
SLOT
BOX TIE WHEN ANGLE
GYPSUM ORYWALL t PER4 BOLTS ARE GREATER
THAN 9'' FROM CORNER,
FURRING MASONRY WELD '/S" THICK PLATE TO
CONCRETE BOTOM OF RELIEVING
RIGID CONCRETE M A S O N R YU N I T ANGLE (BOTH PIECES)
INSUUTION MA5ONRY UNIT

DOVETAIL ANCHORS AT CORNER SHELF ANGLE AT CORNER COLUMN

GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Architects,PC:Washington,D.C

SteohenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation; He.ndon.Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 230 Covity Wolls
NOTES NOTES
'1.
Eoth wythesof solidmasonryunits (75% solidor 1 . Horizontal ioint reinforcement as tles at g, I 6, or 2.1
m.ore). in. on center vertically (typical) as required.
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or less. Wythes should 2. Both wythes constructed simultaneously.
h erectedsimultaneouslyfor this tie strategy.

MtN. I t/2" .
EMBEOMENT

UDDER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT

REINFORCEMENT. WITH THREE
LONGITUOINAL WIRES

TWO LONGITUOINAL
WIRE UDOER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT

LADDER-TypE HORTZONTAL JOTNT RETNFORCEMENT AS TrES LADDER.TYPE HORIZONTAL JOTNT REINFORCEMENT

FOR 4 IN. V\/YTHES OR LESS AS TIES
FOR MORE THAN 4 IN. VI/YTHES

MtN. l/2" NOTES NOTES

EMBEDMENT
ON FACE 1. Rectangulartab ties and horizontalioint reinforce- 1. Rsctangulartab ties and horizontalioint reintorce-
SHELL ment in alternatingcoursss (typical). ment in allernatingcourses (typical).
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or lass. tt2' MtN.2. Both wythgs mnstructed sjmultaneously,
3. Both wythes constructedsimultaneouslv.
4. Z-ties are ac@ptable if both wythes are con-
structedof solidmasonry.
RECTANGUTAR
RECTANGUUR TAA TIES
TAA TIE

WWHE OF HOLLOW TRUSS OR UDDER-TYPE

MASONRY HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT. ruO
LONGTTUOINAL WIRES
WWHE OF SOLID
MASONRY soLro
MASONRY
NOMINAL 4
TWO LONGITUOINAL OR LESS
WIRE TRUSS
OR UDOER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
HOLLOW
REINFORCEMENT
MASONRY
MORE THAN
NOMINAL 4-

RECTANGULAR TAB TIES FOR 4 IN. WYTHES OR LESS RECTANGULAR TAB TIES FOR MORE THAN 4 IN. \/VYTHES

NOTES NOTES
souo 4"
NOMINAL 1. Maximummi$lignment ol couGes is I r/! in. 1. Maximum mi$lignment of coursesis j '/4in.
SOLID HOLLOW
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or loss. MASONRY
-
MASONRY 2. Both wythes not constructedsimultaneously
/
3. Both wyth€s not constructedsimultanoously NOMINAL 4" I MORETHAN
3. Pintelshold rigid boardinsulationin prace.
OR LESS Ir NOMINAL 4"
4. Pint€lshold rigid board insulationin prace.
MtN. I '/2"
EMBEDMENT
FOR SOLID
UNITS
EYE AND
PINTEL TIES
HOLLOW 4"
NOMINAL
OR LESS

l/2" MtN
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT
a" oR | 6' o.c. a" oR r 6" o.c.
VERTICALLY VERTICALLY
(TYP.) AS (TYP.) AS
REOUIRED

ADJUSTABLE TIES FOR 4 IN. \^/YTHES OR LESS ADJUSTABLE TIES FOR MORE THAN 4 TN. WYTHES

GraceS. _Lee;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:Brick Institute oI America;Reston,Virginia

A
-1r MASONRYUNITS
 BrickVeneer 231
- 2' MtN
AVEL STOP ATRSPACE
D FASCIA /

1-t
BUILDING
PAPER
ROOF JOIST
-
I MtN.
FLASHING
AIRSPACE

INSUUTION ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
BRICK VENEER
STEEL BEAM WEEP HOLE
METAL TIE BUILDING
AT STUDS EUSTIC
JOINT
SHEATHING ADJUSTABLE SEAUNT
Tl€
WALLBOARD
FUSHING
MATERIAL
FUSHING
EXTERIOR BELOW
STEEL LINTEL SHELF ANGLE
SHEATHING
WEEP HOLE
TRACK
wrNDow WOOD TRIM
HEAD WINDOW ADJUSTABLE
END DAM HEAO WIRETIE
SEAUNT
AOJUSTABLE SILL FLASHING
TIE AT STUDS DAM
STEEL LINTEL
ENO

BUILOING PAPER 2" MlN.

AIRSPACE SHELF ANGLE DETAIL
I,, MIN. AIRSPACE AOJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
WINOOW JAMB AT STUD
wTNDOW
SEALANT JAMB CONCRtrE
MASONRY WALL
SILL FUSHING wtNDow
END DAM SEAUNT
WINDOWSILL WINDOWSILL WIRE UTH
BRICK SILL
- BRICK SILL
TRACK
FUSHING SCRATCH COAT
ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
BUILDING AT STUD
PAPER AUILDING BOND COAT
PAPER
INSUUTION
BETWEEN INSULATION
STUDS
SHEATHING THIN BRICK
BRICK VENEER STEEL STUD
WALLBOARO WALLBOARD
1;;il; FUSHING
PLYWOOD WEEP HOLES
FLOOR JOIST Ar 24- O-C.
(TYP ) THIN BRTCK VENEER ON CMU
RUNNER

FUSHING

THIN BRICK
CORROSION
RESiSTANT
METAL SCREW
MASTIC
AOJUSTABLE WEEP SLOTS ADHESIVE
TIE AT STUD
\y^\\ys WITH
MORTAR
FUSHING
WEEP HOLES
AT 21" O.C.

.
Hl%,F,.'
CEMENT BOARD

WOOD STUD

;\:fb\\\YN lJ,,r'. . l:, WALLBOARD

PAPERilIRE MESH

si^AXff: BRICK VENEER ON WOOO FRAME

BRICK VENEER ON STEEL STUD THIN
BRICK VENEER ON WOOD STUD
BACKUP BACKUP

VENEERS
ANCHORED
Masonry veneers provide an aesthelrc, durable noncom-
bustrble, weather resislant tinish for structural masonry or
lioht tramrno construction. The inherent mass of the veneer
sound penetra-
piovrdes inireased thermal perlormance
iion resistance. and lire resistance. Anchored veneers typr
callv consist of nominal 3 or 4 in. wythes of masonry taed to
a backing system. Veneers are not intended to support any
loads other than their own weight All lateral loads are
intended to be transferred to the backing system. Empirical
design permits the construction of masonry veneers with a
nominal thickness of 4 in. to heights of three stories, 30 ft
at the plate and 38 ft at the gables. For veneers wlth a nom-
inal thickness of 3 in., the heiqht is limited to two stories,
20 It at the plate and 28 ft at the gable. For building heights
greater than two stories, the brick veneer must be sup-
oorted by a shelf angle at every floor.
Veneers are drainage-type walls. Although a nominal 1 in
airsoace is acceptable for drainage In most low-rlse, resF
deniial aoolications. a minimum 2 in- airspace between the
back of the masonry and the exterior surface of the backing
or exterior sheathing is recommended for masonry veneers
in mrGrise and high{rse conslruction.
ADHERED VENEERS
Thin brick veneer, also referred to as adhered veneer, is an
aoolication of thin brick veneer units-between
'/, to |
%
in. thick<n a backing system. Adhered veneer relres on
the bonding agent between the thin brick units and the
backuo subltrate. This construction may be classified as
either thin bed set or thick bed set. The thin brick can be
adhered to a stud backing, attached to a concrete masonry
backing. cast into € concrete panel, or laid into a preformed
modul;r oanel. Thin brack oanels can be prefabricated or laid
in place, depending on the size or intricacies of the project.

Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects. PC; Washington, D.C

Brian E. Trimble: Brick Institute of America: Reslon, Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 232 BrickVeneer

FRICTION FIT
METAL COPING
OPTIONAL FUSHING
DEPENDING ON
CONCRETE
TOLERANCES OF
MASONRY
STRUCTURAL FRAME
UNIT

SEAUNT

THREE WIRE FUSHING

UDDER-TYPE AT COLUMN
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT

HORIZONTAL
ROOFING EXPANSION
JOINT

REGLET FOR
FUSHING WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP

LIP BRICK

FUSHING ANGLE BRICK VENEER

COMPRESSIBLE
ANGLE
MATERIAL

EUSrC
SEAUNT
AND BACKER
ROO

DOVSAIL
SLOT

REINFORCEO
LINTEL

STEEL LINTEL WALL ANCHORAGE IN CONCRETE COLUMNS AND BEAMS

WEEP HOLES ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR

24- O.C. FASTENED THROUGH
SHEATHING TO STUD
RIGIO
INSUUTION
INTERIOR
INSERTS
SHEATHING

INSULATION
A'RSPACE
(TYP.)
S.rt.",o*
wtNDow
SHEATHING

SEALANT

WOOD TRIM

WALLBOARD

.BRICK
VENEER
BRICK
VENEER
THR€E WIRE
LADDER.TYPE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT BUILDING
PAPER

THROUGH
ANCHOR ROD
FUSHING WELOEO TO
ADJUSTABLE
CONCRETE ANCHOR WELOED COLUMN
suB \ TO STRUCTURAL
STEEL FRAME
AOJUSTAALE
ANCHOR
STEEL ANGLE KICKER

WEEP HOLES
VERTICAL STEEL AT 24' O C. (TYP
ANGLE SUPPORTING
SHELF ANGLE

STRIP WINOOW
WEEP SLOTS
AT 24' O_C. (TYP STEEL SHELF ANGLE

wtNoow
FUSHING MULLION

qRrcK VENEER ON CONCRETE

MASONRY UNIT BACK-UP
WALL ANCHORAGE IN STEEL COLUMNS AND BEAMS

GraceS. LeejRippeteau Architects,pC; Washington,

D.C.
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot Amenca;Reston,Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 ond Beoms
Columns,Pilqsters, 233
FULL HEIGHT OF
REINFORCING UTERAL

D li'r'i r, I
[:jilt---l
ti::ij t -') t CAGE NOT SHOWN

EMBED EXTRA
TIES OR PART
OF REQUIREO
TIES

VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
LATERAL TIED TO OOWELS
UTERAL REINFORCE EMBEDDED IN
T I E S E M B ED D E D O N
TIES IN MORTER FOOTING
MORTAR JI )INT5
JOINTS

CONTROL
JOINT

TYPICAL SPECIAL PILASTER UNIT FOR

) t] ntr REINFORCED
CONCRETE
FOOTING WHEN CLEANOUTS
ARE NOT PROVIDED
MAX. POUR HEIGHT
USE v\/ITH CONTROL JOINTS COLUMN CONSTRUCTION SHOULD NOT
TIES E EM MI B E D D E D O N USING LOW.LIFT EXCEED 4,
M O R T rAR
A R JOINTS GROUTING TECHNIQUES
UTERAL
ALTERNATE COURSES DOWELS EMBEDDED
IN FOOTING

UTERAL
TIES IN
MORTAR
JOINTS

r/4" DtA. BARS BENT

IN FORM OF U.
GREASED LEGS AND
12 IN. SAUARE 20 IN. SQUARE SPACED I 6- O.C.
BRICK COLUMN BRICK COLUMN
ED WALL'PILASTER FOOTING.
REINFORCED COLUMNS TYPICAL PILASTER LAYOUTS ZE AND RETNFORCEMENT AS REQUIREC

COMPRESSIBLE PILASTER CONSTRUCTION USING

FILLER LOW.LIFT GROUTING TECHNIQUES
NOTE

4 BRTCK HORIZONTAL Cut block in first course before laying to form cleanout
STEEL openings at base of cells to be lilled. Remove all mortar
PUCED IN ALTERNATE JOINT droppings, set and inspect venical reinforcement, and form
COURSE TO AVOID SEAUNT over opening before filling with grout or concrete. When
CROSSOVER OF STEEL BONO BREAK cleanouts are not provided maximum pour should not
IN SAME JOINT exceed 4 ft.

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY COLUMN REINFORCEO BRICK MASONRY PILASTER

COLUMN AND PILASTER
CONSTRUCTION
BRICK CURTAIN WALL AND PANEL WALL REINFORCEMENT
STEEL STIRRUPS NUMBER AND SIZE OF REBARS
, 75b" SPACED 3'' APART REQUIRED

t-fr."d
['i;' ..,-trl
CONTINUOUS
REINFORCING
RODS TOP
INTEL TYPE
'PAN
MAX. )
} BRICK

ao LB./SQ
:T)
a cMU
(5O LB/
AND BOTOM
l.:.o....'iY:{ 'l'/2" MtN. letnlorceo concrere 4',- Q' 4-*3 4-#3
CONCRETE {7 5/s" square section) 4-#4 4-*3
COVERAGE 8',-0' 4-*5 4-*4
Concretemasonryunlt 4-O- 2-#4
FFir-6.--Il
r::: .1.I GROUT {7 %" squaresection) 2-#5 2-#4
lx SETTING AED n o m i n a8lx 8 x 1 6 u n i l 8'- 0" 2-#6 2-#5
t-.f:......t11
Ie-.+3__+
' d * -
BEARINGZONE (W X H)
MUST BE CONCRETE,
NOTES
DOUBLE
3ut" COR E
SOLID MASONRY OR 1. For precast concrete and reinforced concrete masonry
GROUTEO MASONRY unitlintelswith no suoerimoosed loads.
CONCRETE cMu
2. fc' = 3000 psi concreteand grout; ly = 60,000psi
PRECAST CONCRETE AND CMU BEAMS OR LINTELS

a- , 12'
ffi +F I
ffi IF CAVITY WALL. USE
METAL SCREEN OR

4{ Azr (Aazr vzr2vrz MASONRY GROUT

m
m m
l/,///)
mm
mm
mmm
nmm
DAM TO CONTAIN
POUR

m mma
METAL TIE

mm
m
v2
tu
ai}u
varn
Ai.iVt
OR GROUTED
AND
mmm
2',..::a.t..{4
m vvz vzm REINFORCED
mmm
REINFORCED BRICK BEAMS OR LINTELS

GraceS. Lee; Rippeteau Architects,PC;Washington, D.C.

BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia;S
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation; Herndon.Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
234 MosonryArches
SKEWBACK-r/2 pER FEET oF spAN
FOR EACH 4 " OF ARCH DEPTH

KEYSTONE

CAMBEF t/a-
PER FEET

OF

TYPES OF JACK ARCHES

FOUR.CENTEREO ANO TUDOR

\ -''
\l-'-
---l--t't
. ,l . t l \
---
;J";iJ-l---
G L|NE
I

Esonry must GOTHtc Arih is calledpointedwhen radiiare equal to span and

rtal thrusts. is calledlancotwhen radiiare gr€aterthan span.

York

MASONRYUNITS

GENERAL
The frreplaceand chimney are usually large elements In tes-
idences. but their scale can be adapted to any archltectural
style. The purpose of the residential fireplace has changed
over the years from heating to decoration. However.
increasing public interest in renewable forms of energy has
instigated a new demand for tireplaces tor heating homes.
Fireptace design and construclion are governed by building
and mechanical codes. The internal diagram of a working
fireplace shom the several required pans and their vertical
organization. Each part is illuslrated on succeeding pages.
The main function of the fireplace and chimney is to sustain
combustion and carry smoke away safely. Their design is
Fireploces:Generol Informotion
based on empirical data proven with years ot safe perfor
mance. The charts on the following pages show the appre
priate sizes o{ fireplace and chimney elements. One of the
mosl important design decisions is the l@ation of the lire
olace. To orevent heat loss to the exterior, it is best to
locate a fireplace at the center oJ the house. Again to
improve perlormance, a fireplace should not be located
opposite an outside door or near an open stairway leading
to an upper tloor, a forced air furnace, or a return air regis-
ter. Combustion can be improved by providing a measured
supply of outside air, independent of room air, to the fire-
place. This is done by installing an air duct trom the exterior
of the house to the fireplace. The chimney must be proP
edy sized to carry the combustion products away. Two fac-
tors primarily affect the chimney draft: size of the tireplace
235
opening and height of the chimney. The figure on the tol-
lowing page should be used to size the tlue accurately
based on these factors.
Several distinct types of fireplaces are currently used in res-
idential applications Single-face tireplace styles are the
most popular and include the conventional tireplace, the
Rumlord fireplace, the Rosin fireplace, and air circulating
fireplaces. Multiface fireplaces are also popular and include
the see-through fireplace, the corner fireplace, and the free-
standing fireplace. The masonry heater. or masonry stove,
is a specialized type of fireplace and is the most efficient of
all these types.

CONCRETE SEAUNT FLUE LINER

CAP

CONCRETE CAP FILLER

COMPRESSIBLE

COUNTERFUSHING
BASE FUSHING

CRICKET
ROOF FELT

ATTIC

SHINGLES

WOOO SHEATHING

SECOND
FLOOR
FIRE CUY
FLUE LINER MANTEL

STRUCTURAL SMOKE
SUPPORT FOR CHAMBER
FIRE CUY
FLUE LINER
SMOKE

DAMPER
INCLINED
BACK WALL INCLINED BACK WALL
FIRST FLOOR

FIREBRICK SMOKE SHELF

THROAT
FIREPUCE LINTEL
HEARTH
ASH OUMP
VERTICAL BACK WALL FIRE BRICK

AIR DIFFUSER ASH DUMP

ZOUTSTDE
/ AIR INTAKE
HEARTH SUPPORT
(INNER ANO OUTER)
AIR INTAKE

BASEMENT HEARTH

ASHPIT

CLEANOUT
DOOR -
CLEANOUT DOOR

BASE FOUNDATION

FOOTING

REINFORCEO
CONCRSE FOOTING

SECTION ISOMETRIC

Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute ot America; Reston, Virginia

Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.

MASONRYUNITS
 236 Typicol FireploceDimensions
CONVENTIONAL FIREPLACES
The design of single-face fireplaces has been well doc
mented, resulting in the development of a reasonably acc!
rate set ol design dimensions for fireplace openiogs
damoers. and {lue liners.

Single-face fireplaces can be efficient radiant heaters. Thl

amount ol heat radiated and reflected into lhe room :,
direclly proportional to the masonry surface area exposec
lo the fire. Th€ Rumford fireplace is a variation oI the singte
face fireplace with a shallow firebox, a high throat, and
widely splayed sides, all features that contribute to optima
direct radiant heating.

In addition, the energy efficiency of new fireplaces can b.

improved by following these recommendations:

1. Locate the fireplace on the interior of the house.

2. Supply outside air for combustion and maintenance ol
oositive rmm oressure.
3. Provide glass fireplace screens to prevent unwanted a|
inliltration when the fireplace is not in use.

CONVENTIONAL SI NGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DTMENSTONS*(tN.)
FINISHED FIREPLACE ROUGH
CONCRETE OPENING BRICK\^r'ORK
SUB
B E F H

1 14
26 '18
14 34 l'l 21
SID€ SECTION 28 24 to 5 14 21
14 J6 3
2t to 19 14 23 40 A 24
FIRE CLAY ] 36 tq 14 ta 6 2l
FLUE LINER4
to 't4
IJ 4U 6
42 32 29 24 50 7 32
48 18 16 56 r0
to ou 45
60 22 to 72 45
40 22 42 t8 30 72 45
'

,1, /
| CHAMBER

, -/\
\\
84
96
4t)
40
&t
76
td
l8
't8
30
30
4
96
108
36
42
56
ot
75
NOTE
'Determineflue linerdimensions, G. Dimensions are
DAMpER a
::+
- \ \ \l\ equalto ths outsidedim€nsions
of thefluelinerplusal
STEEL ANGLE \ leastI in.(25mm).

RUMFORD SINGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DIMENSIONS* (IN.)
FINISHED FIREPLACE ROUGH
OPENING BRICK\^/ORK
B D F H J

to to z6 44 t4
40 32 to 16 2a 48 to 29
40 37 to 33 48
40 40 20 20 20 32 48 29
FRONY ELEVATION
to ro
FRONT ELEVATION 48 & 2Q 32 56 r8 36
48 48 20 20 40 56 l8
2V zv JZ 6
4A 20 20 40 66 45
u 20 46 66 42
4A 2t) 20 20 40 12 24 45
NOTE
* Determine flue liner dim€nsions, G. Dimensions
are
equal to the outside dimensionsof the llue liner plus at
least 'l in. (25 mm) for airspacesurroundingflue liner.

(TYP,)
NONCOMBUSTIBLE
FIRESTOPPING TO I "
BELOW BONOM OF JOIST

FLOOR FRAMING AT FIREPUCE FIREPLACES BACK TO AACK IN PARTY WALL

CONVENTIONAL FIREPLACE RUMFORO FIREPLACE

GraceS. Lee; FippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C

MASONRYUNITS
 MosonryHeoters 237
CEILING 2 (50 mm) MlN. TO
GENERAL STRUCTURE COMBUSTIBLE FRAMING
Masonrv heaters male Jse ol two baSlc princlples lo oblarn HEATER
hiqh combustion and heatrng elictencies{onttolled arr
a" )-. CAPPING
iniake to the combustion chambe/firebox and d heat (2m mm) SUB
exchanqe svstem of baffled chambers through which hol utt \:
combuJtron gases are crrculaled Such heaters are elficlenl, MASONRY
clean burning devices. HEATER

Brick masonry heaters or masonry stoves used in North

America are adapted from those used in northern and east-
ern Europe, which were employed for cooking as well as
heating- Modern masonry heaters come in a wide variety of
shams and sizes. The size and layout of the house, the clF
mate, and the needs of the homeowner are all considered
in the design of a masonry heater. For optimum pertor-
mance. however, it should be located near the center of the
house. Masonry heaters may be custom built on sate or
assembled from pre{abricated components Modern
rusonry heaters may incorporate lire viewing, bake ovens, DOWNDRAN
stoves, and warming benches.

Two safety
but are not
concerns that apply to brick masonry heaters
listed in the maior model building codes are the FIREBOX OPENING' )
\x
,,><\
integrity of the enclosing walls of the healer and the tem- HEARTH EXTENSION
perature of the exterior surfaces of the walls: (1@ mm,
48 iI2OOmm)TO J
MIN
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAS
To maximize the integrity of masonry heater walls, theY NOTE
should be constructed of two wythes of brick (ASTM C 216
or C 62 for facing brick) with a nominal 1-in. airspace
For clearancestrom specifictypes of tirebox openingsand
between lhem- Fill the airspace with a compressible, non- other requirements,consultASTM E 1602 and localcodes.
combustible material such as insulation, and tie both
Most clearancesmay be reducedit an engineeredprotec'
wythes together with corrosion-resistant metal ties. Add tionsvstemis orovided.
horizonlal joint reinforcement every sixth course (only at CLEARANCE TO COMBUSTIBLES FOR
exterior wythe). MASONRY HEATERS
To safeguard against the effects ot the high surface tefr FLUE LINER
peratures of the heater (between 100" and 1 9ffF), a mini-
mum 12-in. clearance should be observed between the
heater and any combustibles and there should b€ a 2Gin.
extended hearth in {ront. SHUTOFF DAMPER

BYPASS DAMPER

KACHEL (MASONRY CAPPING SUB

HEATER TILE)
(4'' NOMINAL, INSUUTION
FIREBRICK
GERMAN TILE/BRICK HEATER
(GRUNDOFEN)

SHUTOFF

DOWNDRAff

CLEANOUT

FIREBOX

ASHBOX

COMBUSTION AIR

FIREBOX DOOR

N OTE
ln Finnish or contraflow heaters, heated air is forced from
the top of the smoke chamber doM through the baffles on
the sides of the heater, Mile room air rises by convectlon
along the exterior surfaces of the masonry. This construc-
tion allows for even heating of the masonry and efficient
radiant heating of the room. The baffles converge below
the firebox and open out to the flue at the base of the chim-
nev.
N OTE
Russian heaters are typically deep with a small opening to
the firebox. above which is a svstem of either vertically or
horizontally aligned batfles in place of lhe smoke chamber.
Alter circulating through the baffle system. exhaust gases
oass directlv into the flue.

FINNISH (FOUNTAIN-STYLE) HEATER RUSSTAN (MULTIFLUE) HEATER

Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C.

Brian E. Trimble, Engineer; Brick lndustry Association; Reston, Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 238 Cleoronces,Connections,ond Crowns

FIREPUCE OPENING -
EQUAL TO OR GREATER WHERE TRIM PROJECTS I EXTERIOR
THAN 6 SO FT MoRE THAN I r/2" FRoM FActNG

WHERE TRIM PROJECTS

uP to t ttz" FRoM FActf
FIREPLACE OP€NING
LESS THAN 6 SO fr

FIREPUCE
FACING

HEARTH
EXTENSION
REQUIREMENTS

FIREPLACE HEARTH FIREPUCE CLEARANCE

EXTENSION DETAILS TO COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL

FIREPLACE CLEARANCES

MORE THAN IO' AEOVE MORE THAN

CHIMNEY
ANY ROOF OR VENT
SURFACE
to' wtTHtN I O'
CHIMNEY CHIMNEY HORIZONTALLY
3 MtN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
3'MtN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
-+ CHIMNEY
3, MtN.
GAS VENT OR
CHIMN€Y TYPE L VENT
2 MrN_ 2,MIN-
3,MIN. 2 MtN.
GAS VENT OR
TYPE L VENT
2,MIN.

No height above parapet

WALL OR
CHIMNEY OR VENT required when distance
PARAPff
trom walls or parapet is
more than 10 ft
TERMINATION LESS THAN IO'FROM RIDGE, WALI.- OR PARAPET TERMINATION MORE THAN IO'FROM RIDGE, WALL, OR PARAPET

CHIMNEY CLEARANCES

BACKER ROD
MtN. t 2 TO AND SEAUNT
COMBUSTIBLES
( l2-oFBRtcK ANCHOR CONCRETE
NoNsoLUBLE
rACl.Onv_ REFRACTORY CROWN
\
E r R CEMENT)

l |FHI :srig+'""-tlN q'F+

J
L llF .'*=.*" \l I Jllll
U
z
frfr-tiilER"* ;Tr
=
I IHH- 1ffi;1". =F
J lF
USE CHIMNEY
o
lHH\.",**." \S--'*
'-
coNNLCron-\>
MANUFACTURER'S
PART TO ATTACH
CONNECTOR
tr I SECURELY

fflJs,? / SOLID INSULATEO

L'STEO FACTORY.
NOTES BUILT CHIMNEY
INS|DE OF // DETAIL AT CHIMNEY CAP
LENGTH
1. Minimum chimney clearance trom FLUE __--/
rusonry to brick, sheet steel suF SHES STEEL
ports, and smbustibles 2 in. SUPPORTS
ZSHEET
2. Masonry chimneys constructed to ,../ STEEL
TwoArR / / suppoRTs _ MtN.
N F P A2 11 . CHANNES ' f titeeaNce
EACH t- | /|-CHIMINEY f CEMENT
l | /l sEororu- ' l - WASH
J CHTMNEY l/|--- I AIRSPACE
L corurecroa ffi E /
?^
TO CHIMNEY
/l_-T
-_ i
1::2..
LENGTH
z
=
. MrN 6- Fl\ I =
CHIMNEY
CONNECTOR
GUSSFIBERIII I I
AIR CHANNELS I r N s u u T r o N" l I u
-. CHIMNEY
EACH I CONSTRUCTED
OF SHEET METAL | \ LENGTH

sHEffMffAL ""'"tev
coNNEcToR
\
SUPPORTS \2-lrnspaCg SUPPORTS

CHIMNEY CONNECTOR SYSTEMS AND CLEARANCES FROM COMEUSTIgLE \MILLS CHIMNEY POT

Grace_S.Lee; BippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C.

BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America;Resion.Virginia

MASONRYUNITS
 FlueSizes,Shopes,ond Fireploce Froming 239
HEIGHT OF ADJACENT FLUES *m
SHOULD VARY APPROX 4' lffi
-t ti
tr '--*f
- H
IHH
IHH
l|-,#
'k,.@,
'#

RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (STANDARD)

NOTE
Eachlareplaceor stove requires
its own separateflue.
INSULATION OF WOOO FRAMING
MEMBERS AT A CHIMNEY

RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (MODULAR)

INCOMBUSTIBLE FILL

BRICK CHIMNEY CONCEALEO

BEHIND STUD WALL

FLUE
ANGLE
NOT LESS
THAN 60' INCOMBUSTIBLE
CUT FLUE
TO ENSURE
TIGHT AIRSPAC
JOINTS.
MAINTAIN

N
ROUND FLUE LINING
DAMPER

FIREPUCE

BRICK CHIMNEY EXPOSEO

CLAY FLUE LININGS CHIMNEY FRAMING AND INSULATION

NOTES
1. Availability ol specific clay flue liners varies according to 3. Areas shown are net minimum inside areas.
location. Generally, round fiue liners used in construction 4. All flue liners are generally available in 2 {t lengths.
with reintorcing bars are available in the western states,
5. Fireplace flue sizes can be approximated using the tol-
while rectangular flue liners are commonly found
lowing rules of thumb: One-tenth the area of fireplace
throughout the eastern states- Check with lmal manufac-
opening recommended: one-eighth the area of opening
turers for available tyDes and sizes-
recommended if chimney is higher than 20 tt and rectan-
2. Nominal flue size for round flues is interior diameter; gular flues are used: one-twelfth the area is minimum
nominal flue sizes for standard rectangular tlues are the required; verify with local codes.
exterior dimensions and, lor modular flue lif,ings, the out-
side dimensions plusr/, jn.

TYPICAL RESIDENTIAL CHIMNEY

MASONRYUNITS
 240 FireplqceOpenings:Dompers,Ash Dumps,ond Cleqnouts

FRAMED
METAL
PRE.FAB
FLUE

COMBUSTIBLE

HIGH FORMED DAMPER (IN.) FORMED DAMPER (IN.) SQUARE FORMED DAMPER (IN.)

HIGH FORM€D DAMPERSprovide corect ratio of throat-
tefireplace opening with an optional pretormed smoke
shelf, which can reduce material and labor reouirements.
They are useful for both single and multiple opening fire-
oraces.
SOUAREFORMEDDAMPERS havehighslopingsidesthat
promote even draw on alfsides ot multiple opening fire-
places. They are prop€rly proportiored for a strong draft
and smokefreeoperation.
FORMEOSTEEL DAMPERSare designed to provide the
correct ratio of throat-t}tireplace opening,producingmaxi-
mum draft. Thsse dampers ar€ equippedwith poker type
controland ar€ easilvinstalled.

FORMED STEEL DAMPERS

''1.-\ NOTES
1. Locateboltom of damperminimum 6 to 8 in. from top of
fareplaceopening.
--.. 2. Mineral wool blanket allorc for exoansion of metal
| a\ damperwalls.
\/- 3. Dampersare availabl€in heavygauge steel or cast iron.
l\
I\ASHPIT.1 Checkwith l@l suppliersfor specificforms and sizes.
4. A cord of w@d consistsof 128 cu ft or a stack 4 tt high
and 8 ft wide, with logs 4 ft long.
5. A face cord ot w@d consistsof 64 cu ft or a stack 4 lt
high and I ft wide, with logs 2 ft long.
6. Logs are cut to lengths of 'l tI 4 in., 2 ft 0 in., 2 ft 6 in..
and 4 ft. Allow 3 in. minimum clearanc€b€tween loas
and each side of fireDla@.

CLEANOUT
DOOR

DOOR DIMENSIONS (IN.) DUMP DtMENStONS(tN.)

BlTlelr0
NOTE
Ash dumps and cleanout doors are available in heavy gauge
steel or €st iron. See local manufacturers for available
typ€s and sizes.

CLEANOUT OR ASHPIT DOOR ASH DUMP

Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C.

MASONRYUNITS
 Designof Speciol Fireploces 241
GENERAL
Multifaced fireplaces have more than one face ol the fire-
box open to the r@m. There are three types of multifaced
fireplaces: projected corner, with two adjacent sides open;
double faced, with two opposite sides open; and three
taced, with only one side built of masonry construction.
Multifaced fireplaces usually are not as energy€fficient as
conventional, single-faced fireplaces because there is less
mass surrounding the lire to hold and radiate heat to the
room. However, multitaced tireplaces usually are located
on the interior of a space, not on an exterior wall. and their
energyefficiency can be augmented by the features dis-
cussed below.

The addition of energy€fficient features to fireplace design

can increase both the combustion oJ the wood and the abi!
ity to heat the room or building. Energy€fficient features
for conventional lireplaces include glass doors, damper
controls, and outside air intake to the firebox. Designs that
increase radiant heat also are energy€f{icient. For example,
the obliquelv llared sides ot Rumlord-type fireplaces
increase radiant heat. Air{irculating tireplaces ancreasethe
amount of radiant heat emanating from a fireplace through
natural con /ection or by forced-air circulation.

TYPICAL DIMENSIONS (IN.)

TYPICAL DIMENSIONS (IN.)

NOTE
The sides of the lireplace are partiallyenclosedby recess-
ing the brick into the wall behind the fireplace.This design
helpseliminatesmoke from cross{rafts.
NOTE
The narrowness and length of narroslront fireplaces
require that they be fitted with two square€nd dampers.
To allow for expansion, the dampers should be neither sol-
idly emb€dded in mortar nor mechanically fastened to steel
angles.

TffiT- ffis-paggD, NARRow FRoNT

FIREPLACE FIREPLACE

SINGLE HIGH DOUBLE LOW

DAMPER ARRANGEMENT

BONOM OF DAMPER .

TYPICAL DIMENSIONS (IN.)

TYPICAL DIMENSIONS (IN.)

N OTE
The significant difference between a projectedtorner fire-
N OTE place and a conventional singlejaced fireplace is the shape
The fireplace must be l@ated and designed to allow proper of the damper. A proiected{orner fireplace uses a square
updraft through both openings. Exterior doors should not end damper instead ol a tapered€nd damper. The open
NOTE side should have a shon wall to help stop the escape of
be located opposite the tireplace on either side because
they may cause cross{ratts through the fireplace. This design is similar to the projecled{orner fireplace combustive gases when crossiralts occur-

T\^/O-FACED FIREPLACE THREE-FACED. \/vIDE FRONT PROJECTED-CORNER FIREPLACE

FI REPLACE_S ECTIO N

Architects,P.C.;Washington,
Rippeteau D.C

MASONRYUNITS
 242 StructurqlFocingTile:Wqllsecfionsond Properties
GENERAL WALL SECTIONS AND PROPERTIES
Structural clay facing tile rs chosen as an attractive and WALL TYPE NUMBER
durable wall system in many speciatrzedapplicatrons,espe.
loao
cially when maintenance and.esistance to vandalism are (lb/linear ft)
consadered. Applications include walls and-partitions in cor-
rectional lacilities. schools, public buildings. and food pro-
Marenar quanilty
cessing facilities. Structural clay tile can be glazed or (per 100 sq tt)
unglazed, load bearing or non load bearing, and behaves
similarly to brick. Structural clay rile is manutactured in
many sizes and shapes. Numbers and letters shown on the
units in the ligures indicate the standard shape classifica-
tions of structural clav tile used bv manufacturers.
(BTU/sqft hr "F)

Lateralsupportspacing
required{tt)

resrslance

NOTE S
'1.
% in. plasteron backof theseunitswill producet hourlire rating
2. lf collarjointis tilled,add 2.6 cu ft per 100sq ft of wall.

ffi
ll

GUZED ARICK

FACING TILE
FACING TILE

2- STRETCHER
4,' STRETCHER

4- STRflCHER MffAL TIES

] 6'' O,C, VERTICALL
MSAL TIES 36 0.C.
I6. o.c. VERTICALLY HORIZONTALLY

HORIZONTALLY

TYPE 4 TYPE 5
6 IN. WALL I O TN. CAVITY WALL
FACES BOTH SIDES BRICK ONE FACE
METAL TIE BONO TILE ONE FACE
SECTION

4 IN. WALL

FRAME
CLOSURE

6Trc2NL
6T54NR
EXTERIOR BUCK
6T54ANL
4 IN. SINGLE-FACED WALL WITH BULLNOSE 6 IN. DOUBLE.FACEO WING WALL BONDED
SILL AND JAMB; SQUARE LINTEL TO MAIN WALL WITH TYPICAL BUTT JOINTS
RUNNING BOND

SECTION SECTION FRAME FITTTNGS

GraceSj Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C.

FacingTile Institute;Washington,D.C.

MASONRYUNITS

TERRA-COTTA
Te.ra{otta is a high grade ot weathered or aged clay,
which, when mixed with sand or with pulverized f ired clay,
can be molded to a hardness and compactness no6obtain-
able wilh other materials. Used extensively until the 1930s,
terrarotta has been largely replaced with ceramic veneer.
Terra{otta was usually hollow cast in blocks, open to the
back lo reveal internal webbing.
Ceramic veneer is not hollow cast but is a veneer of glazed
ceramic tile that is ribbed on the back. lt is frequently
attached to metal ties that are anchored to the building.
Other tvpes of terra{otta are:
l.Brownstone terratotta. A dark red or brown block,
which is hollow cast. Used extensively in the mid- to late-
1gth century.
2. Fireproof @nstruction terra{otta. Inexpensive and light
weight, these rough-finished hollow burlding blocks span
b€ams. The blocks are available but not used widely
today.
3. Glazed architectural terra{otta. Hollow unats were hand
cast in rulds or carved in clay and heavily glazed. Some-
times called architectural ceramics, this terrarotla type
was used until the 1930s.
Teno-Cottoond Cerqmic Veneer
N OTES
Ceramic veneer can be anchored or adhered to masonrV.
The ceramic veneer manufacturer should provide scale
shop drawings as detailed from the architect's drawings. To
be used for setting, the shop drawings should indicate all
dimensions and sizes of joints, and all anchors. hangers,
expansion, and control or pressure-relievingjoints.
Nonferrous metal anchors should be embedded in the
masonry and encased for Drotection from corrosion.
The minimum thickness ol anchored-type ceramic veneer,
exclusive of ribs. should be 1 in.
Ceramic veneer should be set true to line in setting mortar.
Spaces between anchored ceramic veneer and backing
walls should be lilled with grout: spaces % in. or more in
width with pea gravel and spaces 3/. in. with monar.
The minimum thickness of adhesion-WDe ceramic veneer,
including ribs, should be lL in. with ribbed or scored backs.
An evenly spread coat of neat portlano @ment and water
should be aoolied to the wall and the entire back of the
ceramic veneer panel about to be set. Then one hall ol the
setting mortar coat should be immediately applied on the
chosen wall area and the other on the ceramic veneer
piece's entire back. Tap the piece into place on the wall to
completelv fill all voids, with the tolal thickness of the mor-
tar averaging % in. Th6re should be some excess mortar
forced out at the joints and edge of the c€ramic veneer.
243
MOLD-PRESSED CERAMIC
VENEER
The minimum thickness ol the exposed faces of mold-
pressed ceramic veneer is 1 in. Eacks of special shapes
should be open and ribbed.
For placement, turn all units bottom side up and fill solidly
with grout liller fo. mold-pressed ceramic veneer. When
the fill has set sufficiently to permit handling. set the units.
When applied to soffits, each piece of ceramic veneer. in
addition lo the usual centers and wooden wedges, shall be
supponed by bent and vertical wooden shores. A constant
upward pressure is needed unlil the mortar coat has set.
Adhesion can be tested with a 1 x 1 x 4 in. vitrified test bar.
First dissolve vinyl acetate in methyl iso-butyl keytone.
Applv to the ceramic veneer surface and test bar. The adhe-
sive is heated by means ol an infrared lamp until bubbling
ceases. Press the two surfaces together until cool. Then
knock or pry off test bar.
TERRA-COTTA VENEER PRECAST
PANEL
Terra{otta precast panels have a keyback design, which
allows each piece to easily become an integral part of the
precast unit through a mechanical bond. No fasteners are
neeoeo.
W I N D O WU N I T
SEAUNT

C E R A M I CV E N E E R
3/a" MoRTAR BED
r/s" ANcHoRs
METAL SUPPORT
MASONRY SYSTEM ANGLE
BACKUP CLIP WELDED TO
METAL PUTE
LOOP OOWEL ANO STUD CAST
ANCHOR AT I S- O.C IN CONCRffE (TYP.)
r/4" Roo
1/." PtNs AT JotNTS
. EXTRUOED TERRA.

.DOVETAIL SLOT

DOVETAIL ANCHOR

LOOP DOWEL l/s" ANcHoR

BACKER PANEL

CERAMIC VENEER METAL ANCHOR

(TYP.)

TERRA.COTTA PRECAST PANEL

CONCRETE OR
OOVffAIL SLOT
BLOCK BACKUP
IN AACKUP SYSTEM

DOVflAIL ANCHOR
3/4" MoRTAR BED
l/s" ANcHoR
-
I CERAMIC
CERAMIC VENEER VENEER

CERAMIC VENE ETE

r/4" RoD
METAL FRAMING
L@P- DOWEL
ANCHOR AT MffAL UTH
rs " o.c l/2" scRATcH
r/s" ANcHoR
COAT
3/i" MoRTAR BED
BACKUP SYSTEM
'
I CERAMIC
C E R A M I CV E N E E R VENEER

ADHESION TERRA.COTTA (ANCHORED) STUOS

WOOD FRAMF

MEMBRANE
MORTAR WATERPROOFING
DOVETAILED WIREMESH
VENEER BACK l/4" scRATcH
t/s'ANcHoR
COAT
3/a" MoRTAR BED
CERAMIC VENEER
TYPICAL AASE -
I CERAMIC
NOTE VENEER
ADHESION TERRA-COTTA (ANCHORED) CERAMIC VENEER ON WOOD STUDS
Design of Eest Products Corporation

TER RA-COTTA VI/ALL SECTION ANCHORING SYSTEMS GROUT-ADHERED CERAMIC VENEER

Architects,PC;Washington,D.C
EricK. Beach;Rippeteau

MASONRYUNITS
244 GlossBlock: DesignDolo
GENERAL PANERNS
OCCUR ON
Glass bloct rs a drverse buildrng malerial whose many apph- THE INTERIOR EXPANSION
catrons exhrbrt ils multilaceted: characteris{ics. I he varying SURFACE PRIOR STRIP
forms of glass block - 1ype, thrckness,.jlize, shape, and TO FUSING
patterns - along wrth the methods of insblfatron can com-
bine to create unique design solutions. Applications range
from entire facades. windows, interior dividers. and parti-
tions to skylights, floors, walkways. and staiMays. In all
applications. glass block units permit the control ot light,
both natural and artificial, for function or drama. Glass block
The basic glass blck unit is made of two halves fused
also allows for control of thermal transmission, noise, dust,
together with a panial wcuum inside. Facesmay be clear,
and dratts. With the use of thick-faced glass block or solid 3
figu.ed, or with integralrelief forms.
in. bullet-resistant block, security can also be achieved.
Glassblock is availablein thicknessesrangingfrom a mini-
mum of 3 in. for solidunitsto a maximumof 4 in. (nominal)
tor hollow units. Metric thicknessesranqe from 76 to 98
MORTAR mm
An optimummonarmixfor installingglassblockunitsis 'l
cement,I /2partlime,and4 partssand.
panportland
The table below gives the number of glass block that can
be installed with a mortar batch consisting oI:
1.0 cu ft (1 bag/94 lb) portland cement
0.5 cu ft (20 lb) lime
4.0 cu ft (320 lb) sand
SQUARE End block units have a rounded,finished surfa€ on one
GLASS BLOCK/MORTAR BATCH 41ltin.x 4'lzin. edge. They may be used to end interior partitionsor walls
6 in. x 6 in. (5% in. x 53/!in. actual) as well as spacedividerswhen installedhorizontally.
1lrin.x71l.in.
8 in. x 8 in. (73t in. x 73L in. actuall END BLOCK
91/,in. x 91/,in.
12in. x 12in. (11%in. x l1% in. actual)

1 1 5m m x 1 1 5m m
'190
190 mm x mm
240 mm x 240 mm
300 mm x 300 mm
NOTES
1. Includesl 57owaste Metric sizes are available from foreign manutacturers
through distributorsin the UnitedStates. PANEL
2- Basedon a r/. in. exposedjoint REINFORCING

*'tA'
# Jf*'t;

m
SOUND TRANSMISSION'
ASS EM B LY
sTc, stze PATTERN CONSTRUCTION
d

8
X5 XJ

x8" x4
AII panerns
All patterns
sy
REGUUR THICKSET
<>o9 p
All patterns Some manufacturersprovide thick blocks for criticalappli- t_trtL\,'
with LX cationswhere a thick-faed. heavierglassblock is needed.
fibrousfilter These bl@ks haw a superior sound transmissionrating 45" BLOCK

E xE x4 hrck blocl properti€s.Their faes are three times as thick as regular

thick {aced unrrs.
block

J"
THICK BLOCK
50ltd block
solidunits
NOTES
1- Testedin accordance with ASTM E90-90"... Measure-
rent ot AirborneSoundTransmission Loss..."
2.STC rating value in accordancewith ASTM E413-87
PANEL
"Classificationfor RalingSoundInsulation."
REINFORCING
3. Test method and STC rating value in accordancewith Solid glass block units (glass bricks) are impacl resistant CORNER
and allow throughvision. BLOCK
ASTM E9G81and ASTM E413-73accordingly.

Solarmntrol units have either insertsor exteriorcoatingsto fr,C

reduce heat gain. C@ted units requireperiodiccleaningto n
remove alkali and retal ions that can harm the surface
coating. Edge drips are requir€d to prevent moisture run-
dou,n on the surface.
fr rmo
THERMAL PERFORMANCE/LIGHT TRANSMISSION,'
HEAT THERMAL THERMAL CORNER BLOCK
TRANSMISSIO RESISTANCE' EXPANSION
U-VALU E R-VALUq cpEFFrctENT SHADING A few manufacturershave sp€cialshapes to execute cor
BLOCK TYPE ( BTU/H R FT" "F) ( H R FT' -FIBTU ) (rF\ COEFFICIENT'
ner designs. These units also may be placed together for
varyingpatternsand fo.ms.
SPECIAL SHAPES (CORNERS)

n{tt4-
sheet glass
ffi -suRFAcEDESrcN
NOT€ S
1. Valuesequalr 5%.
2. Winter night values.
3.To calculateinstantaneousheat gain through glass block panels, see ASHRAE Handbookof Fundamentals,1985, section Surfacedecorationmay be achievedwith fused{n ceramic,
22.41.8. etching, or sandblasting.Glass block units ruy be split or
4. Basedon I in. squareunits: ratio of heat gain throughglassblockpanelsvs. that througha single light ol doublestrengthsheet shippedin halvesin order to apply some decorationto the
glassunderspecificconditions. inside.Blocksthen must be resealed.Resealedblocks will
not perform the same under various stresses as factory
sealedunits. Placementin walls or panelsshouldbe limited
to areasreceivingminimum loading-

GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau
Architects,PC;Washington,
D.C.

GLASSUNITMASONRY
 GlossBlockDeioils 245

MAXIMUM PANEL DIMENSIONS

NOTE
METAL ANCHORS SECURE Full bed of mortar typrcallyr/a
PERIMETER GUSS BLOCK PANEL TO in. wide at face ot wall. Mortar
SUPPORT METHOD ADJACENT CONSTRUCTION
to be type S optimum mixture:
(BEND WITHIN '1
part portland cement
EXPANSION JOINT) '/, pan lime
4 pans sand

EXPANSION STRIP HORIZONTAL JOINT

TO ALLOW FOR REINFORCING AS REOUIRED
DIFFERENTIAL FOR EACH INSTALUTION
NOTE MOVEMENT
Maximum exterio. panel sizes are based on a design wind load ot 20 lb/sq ft with a 27 salely
tactor.
CLEAN SURFACES
AFTER E]RECTION
WITHORDINARY
H O U S E H O L D SCRUts
HOUSEHOLD SCRUB ./
BRUSH W|TH ,/
STIFF BntStUES --

GLASS BLOCK PANEL COMPONENTS

J32'' MIN. RAD

ELEVATION

NOTES
1. Area of exterior unbraced panel should not exceed 144
sq ft.
2. Area of interior unbraced panel should not exceed 250 sq
ir.
3 Panels are designed to be mortared at sill, with head and
jambs providlng for movement and settling. Deflection of
(65' MIN. RAD
lintel at head should be anticioated.
A" SOUARE BLOCK)
4. Consult manufacturers {or specific design limitations of
glass blek panels. Thickness of block used also deter-
mines maximum panel srze.

INTERMEDIATE EXPANSION
JOINTS ANO SUPPORTS
NUMBER OF BLOCKS
CURVED
FOR lOO SQ FT PANEL

GLASS BLOCK PANELS

PERMANENTLY €LASTIC
SEALING COMPOUND

RADIUS MINIMUMS FOR CURVED

PANEL CONSTRUCTION
MANUFACTURER'S JOI NT
THICKNESS (IN.)
EXPANSION JOINT MATERIAL INTERMEOIATE EXPANSION
JOINTS AND SUPPORTS
DO NOT BRIOGE EXPANSION BLOCK
JOINT WITH PANEL REINFORCING NOTES
1. lt is suggested that curued areas be separated from flat 4 XU
areas by intermediate expansion ioints and supports. as 6" x 6
N OTE
indicated in these drawings.
Expansion ioints should be installed at every change ol 2. When straight, ladder-type reinforcing is used on curued
direction ol a multicuryed wall, at points o{ curved wall walls, the innermost parallel wire may be cut periodically
intersection with straight walls, and at cenler of curvature and bent to accommodate the curuature of the wall.
in excess of 90 degrees.

GLASS BLOCK EXPANSION JOINT CURVEO PANEL CONSTRUCTION

D.C
Architects,PC;Washington,
GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau

GLASSUNITMASONRY
 246 GlqssBlockDetoils
TYPICAL SUPPORT DESTGN METAL FSSHING (STRIPPED IN) HORIZONTAL PANEL
CRITERIA . REINFORCING
STEEL STUD FRAMING
SEAUNT AND
When specifying supports and shelf angles. the installed
BACKER (TYP.)
werght and deflection limitation of the glass block should INSUUTION
STEEL CHANNEL
be taken into account. Local building coCes should be
STEEL TUBE
checked for any limits on panel sizes or installation details. WEEP
STEEL LINTEL
INSTALLED WEIGHT DEFLECTION CHANNEL . WELO
OF GLASS BLOCK SPACE TO TUBE

INSTALLED V\/EIGHT STEEL CHANNEL

(LBISA FT)
SEAUNT AND
BACKER (TYP.) EXPANSION
STRIP
HEAO AT STUB WALL WITH BRICK

EXTERTOR BLOCK
I
FrNrsH ---_\ | STEEL UNIT
DEFLECTION LIMITATIONS STUO EXPANSION

Maximum deflection of structural members supporting oerucloru ,) STEEL TUBE STRIP

SPACE --___j-l SEAUNT AT
glassblockpanelsshallnot exceed: CHANNEL
'" u'r$l WELO TO TUBE LINER (TYP. )
L JAMB AT STUD WALL WITH BRICX
600-
GUSS BLOCK UNIT BACKER(TYP.) SEAUNT AND
Where L = distancebetween verticalsuppons HEAO AT CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WALL AACKER (TYP.)

FILL SPACE WITH

GUSS BLOCK UNIT EXPANSION STRIPS
MORTAR

PRECAST - ASPHALT
CONCRETE lcuss
CONCRtrE -- I\ MASONRY BLOCK UNIT
SILL EMUsroN UNIT
i| HORIZONTAL PANEL
I /|NTER|OR FtN|SH
REINFORCING
ll" STEEL ANGLE
I ztt2x2xttal'fyp.)
tNTERtoR FrNrsH --l
SILL AT CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WALL JAMB AT CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WALL

EXTERIOR CONNECTION DETAILS

MffAL STUD FRAMING

STEEL BRACE .SECURE SEAUNT (TYP.)
TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
ELEVATION HORIZONTAL PANEL
REINFORCING

-t- rtr GUSS BLOCK UNIT

SEAUNT AND
MORTAR
BACKER (TYP.) /'"-
\ OEFLECTION
SUSPENDEO CEILING
souo PANEL ANCHOR
SPACE BLOCKING
ASPHALT SEAUNT (TYP.) EXPANSION STRIP
EMUT-SION
MULLION PANEL ANCHOR
EXPANSION STRIP
SEAUNT SEAUNT AND HEAO AT SUSPENDED CEILING JAMB AT INTERIOR PARTITION
BACKER (TYP )
METAL STUD (TYP.)
PANEL METAL STUD FRAMING
ANCHOR EXPANSION
\L-cYPsuM GYPSUM BOARD
STRIP
BoARD
HORIZONTAL PANEL
DEFLECTION SOLID BLOCKING REINFORCING
SEAUNT
SEAUNT (TYP.) GUSS BLOCK UNIT
MORTAR

MULLION EXPANSION STRIP PANEL ANCHOR

PANEL ANCHOR
ASPHALT
EMULSION EXPANSION
EXPANSION STRIP
SOLID
BLOCKING
Gt-ASS HEAD AT INTERIOR PARTITION JAMB AT PERPENDICUI-AR PARTTYION
BLOCK
SEAUNT ANO
UNIT INTERIOR CONNECTION DETAILS
BACKER (TYP,)

PANEL
ANCHOR (TYP.)
SHELF ANGLES IN MULTIPLE HOLLOW MffAL
EXPANSION
VERTICAL PANELS (TYP,) OOOR HEAO
STRIP JAMB ANCHOR , SECURE
SEAUNT (TYP.) TO STEEL BAR
STEEL BAR CONTINUOUS
LINTEL
STEEL BAR , SECURE
PANEL ANCHORS TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
ANACHED TO
STEEL PUTE
HOLLOW METAL
DOOR AND JAMB

HEAD AT OOORFRAME SECTION/ELEVATION HORIZONTAL PANEL

REINFORCING

SUPPORT IN MULTIPLE
HORIZONTAL PANELS PUTE
EXPANSION STRIP
N OTE
Panels with an expansion joint stiffener incorporating a con_
cealed vertical plate should be limited to 10 ft maximum
height.
HEAD AT DOORFRAME PUN (JOINT ABOVE JAMB)
SECTTONS AT SUPPORTS DOORFRAME DETAILS

GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C

GLASSUNITMASONRY

GENERAL
N a t u r a l s t o n e r s u s e d , n b u , l d i . g a s a f a c t n g .v e n e e r ,
and
oecoratron. lhe malor lactors affecbng the suilability and
use ot stone fall under two broad. bul overlappinq qj19q9_
nes: physrcal and structural propertres and aesthetic quilr-
lres. lhe three lacrors of burldrngStone that most influence
therr selection by archttects for aesthetic reasons are oaF
tern, texture, and color. Consideration also should be oiven
to costs, availability, weathering characteristics, phtsical
propenies, and size and thickness limitations.
Stone patterns are highly vailed, and they provrde special
teatures that make burldrng stone a unique material. Tex_
rufe rs vafled, rangrng trom coarse fragments to fine grains
and crystalline structures. Texture also varies with ththard-
ness of minerals composing the stone. To accuratelv com-
pare stone colors lhe rock color chart publshed by the
Geological Society of America (Boulder, CO) is recom_
mended. Samples also may be used to eslablish acceptable
color ranges for a panicular installation.
Pattsn, texture, and @lor all are affected by how the stone
is fabricated and finished. Granites tend to hold their color
and pattern, while limestone color and pattern changes
wrlh exposure Texiures may range from rough and flamed
lrnrshes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder lhe
stone, the better it takes and holds a polish.
StoneUsesqnd properties
The threeJock classes are rgneous, sedrmentary. and
mela_
morpnrC. UOmmon COnSlructiOnSlOneSare marketed
Under
the names grven in the table below, although specialtv
stoneS sUch aS soapstone and serpentrne a'so are avarlable
tach stone has various commerctal graoes. Ltmestone
grades are A, statuary; B, selectj C, sranOarO;D. rust,c;
E,
varegated and F, old Gothic. Marbte rs gradeo A, B, C, or
D
on the basis of working qualities, uniformity, and ftawi and
rmpertectlons.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
STONE
The physical characteflstics ot a panicular stone
must be
surraore lor tts tntended use. lt rs imporlant to determine
the physical p.operties of the actual stone being used
rather lhan using values from a geneilc table, *n,cn'can
Oe
very mrsreadlng. uonsrderations of the physrcal propentes
of the stone being selected include modulus ot,rpture,
shear.strength. coefticient of expansion, pe,maneni iirt_
versrore growlh and change in shape, creep deflectron,
compresstve strength, modulus of etastrcrty. moisture
resistanc€, and weatherability. Epoxy adhesrves, otten
used wrth slone, are affected by cleanlness ot surfaces to
be bonded and ambient temperature. Cunng time rncreases
wrth cotd temperatures and decreases with warmer tem.
peratures.
241
FABR ICATION,AND INSTALLATION
With the rntroductron ot new syslems of tabr1s61,91
a.a
rnstailatron.and recenl developments rn the destgn
and
oelailrng ol slone cu[rng, suppoat, and anchoraqe. costs
are b€tter controlled. Correct design of ioinls, seieclion ol
monars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durabiljtv
of installation.Adequate design and Aetiitinq'of the anchei'
age of each piece of stone are required. The size and thick_
ness ol the stone should be established based on physjcal
propedies of the stone, its method of anchorage,
and the
loads it musl resist. Appropriate safety faclorishould be
developed based on the variabtlity ol the stone properlres
as well as other considerations such as imperfect work_
manship, method of support and anchorage, and degree of
exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for
stone support and anchorage may be necessarV to Oreclude
unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be
prolected from slaining and breakage during shipment,
delivery, and installation.
Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type o{
stone and installation, the designer should consult itone
supptrers,stone.-se_tting specialty contractors, industry stan
dards (such as ASl Ml, and other publicatrons to hetp selecl
ano rmptement a stone cladding system. Resource rnforma
tron is available in publications such as the Indiana Lime_
stone lnstitute's lndiana Limestffie Handb@k and the
Marble lnstitute of America's Dimensioned Stone. lvol. g.

STONE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO QUALITIES AFFECTING USE

C LASS
SPECIAL FEATURES HARDNESS CHIEF USES

red;may tarnishto brown

to black: also blue{rav and colorsor angularrock used tor building

may have irregular lractures stonebut usuallyin
light to dark otive gieeh; also pises or fossils
prnKtsn decoratavepanels
May be bandedwith pink, Not.necessanly anyregular
rgneousrock) whrte, or gray streaksand panrngDuttractures 6urldrngstone,but als
panelingif attractively
irregularly colored
Not necessarilyany regular Burldrngstone, but also use(
partrngbut may fracture an panels if nicely banded or
rrregulafly crystalline
Vafies: pank,purple, black;
usable, rarely almost white as strong as granite; if
buildingstone; not
decorative
txceltent ior burldrng but
hard to "shape"
dark brown, usuallygray; crystals give slaty {acture
may be banded quanzile: scratches easily

gray wrth some

ts No special paning; tends to
whtte. or hght gray bands very weak, however break along banding be decorative if banded

PHYSICAL PROPERTTES OF REPRESENTATIVE STONES

IGNEOUS ROCK SEDIMENTARY ROCK METAMORPHIC ROCK
PHYSICAL PROPERTY GRANITE LIMESTONE
SLATE

strength {psr)
Imate stress {psi)
stress(psi)
ensron - allowable Ing stress

water (percentage by

expansron

N OTE
P€nicular stones may vary greatlV from average properlres well as its allowable working values, always should be
shown In table. A panicular stone s physical propenres. as developed for each panicular application.

The McGuire & Shook Corporation: lndianapotis, Indiana

Christine Beall, RA. CCS; Austin. Texas

STONE
248 StoneMosonry;;;tt ono veneer
- -tl
I tl
tl
It
l{

_ ONE-HEIGHT PATTERN (SINGLE RISE)

COURSED ASHLAR RUNNING BOND
UNCOURSED FIELOSTONE PATTERN

tf

ililtl
llll
]|----''----.--l| =I
=-l IFL
lF-rr
ilil il lL

ASHLAR TWO-HEIGHT PATTERN QO A"f 2'1.IN.i

UNCOURSED LEDGE ROCK PATTERN RANDOM COURSED
6096 AT s rN.)

RANDOM BROKEN COURSEO ASHI.AR THREE - HEtcHT PATTERN ( | 5 AT 2rl. lN.;

UNCOURSED ROUGHLY SQUARE PATTERN 40% AT s lN.; 4s96 AT 7% tN.)

SPLIT STONE MASONRY SPLIT STONE MASONRY HEIGHT

RUBBLE STONE MASONRY PATTERNS - ELEVATIONS
PATTERNS - ELEVATIONS PATTERNS - ELEVATIONS

TYPE A OR B TYPE C OR D

€€gr
ANCHOR ANCHOR

STONE TO STRUCTURE STONE TO STONE

ANCHORS

NOTES
'L
A course is a horizontalrow oI stone. Bond pattern is
describedby the horizontalarrangementof verticalioints
(Se also Brickwork.)Structuralbond refers to the physi'
cal tying together of load bearingand veneer portaoisol
a comoosite wall. Structuralbond can be accomplished
ROUND/QUADRANT COLUMNS with metal ties or with stone units set as headersinto
SQUARE COLUMNS
the backup.
2. Ashlar masonry is composed of squared{ff building
INSTALLATION DETAILS stone units of varioussizes.Cut ashlaris dressedto spe
cilic designdimensionsat the mill. Ashlaris oflen used in
randomlengths and heights.with jointing worked out on
the job.
MORTAR SPOTS 3. All ties and anchorsmusl be made of noncorrosivemate
AT ANCHOR rial. Chromiufrnickel stainlesssteel types 302 and 304
LOCATIONS and eraydoalloyzincare the most resistantto corrosion
and staining.Use stainlesssteel type 316 in highlycorro-
BACKUP sive environments{potlutedor near the sea).Copper,
BACKUP WALL b.ass,and bronzewill stain under some conditions.Local
buildingcodes often governthe tYpesof metal that may
AIRSPACE be used for some stone anchors.
4. Nonstaining cement mortarshouldbe used on porous
and light colored stones.At all cornersuse extta tles ano
NONCORROSIVE SCRATCH when possible,larger stones. Joints for rough work are
CORRUGATED COAT usually1/, lo I 1/, in. and 3/sto 3L in. Jor ashlar.Prevent
electr@hemicalreactionbetween different metals com-
bined in the same assemblyby properlyisolatingor coat
Ingtnem_

VENEERED WALL (INTERIOR ONLY)

CAVITY VENEERED WALL THIN

TYPICAL WALL SECTIONS

GeorgeM. Whiteside,lll, AIA and James D. Lloyd: KennettSquare,Pennsylvanaa

BuildingSton€ Instilute: New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;RippeleauArchitects.PC;Washington,D C

STONE
 StoneCornicer, por d euoins 24g
HOLD GRour Fnov I 1lr" Dta HoLEs 3t4- Dta cALv
---__1 gXoJJu!?roDSrN /.
sieic oo;rLs /./ -3ta otA. GALV. srEEL
/- ;A"EADEDRoDs
- \
METAL FUSHING
FOR GUNER
BALUSTER

l-
II
BALUSTRADE
5' HOLE FOR
RAIN LEADER

ELEVATION GROUT AROUND ROD IN 3" DIA

CORNICE WITH BUILT-IN GUTTER HOLE INBALUSTRADE BASE
tlz'
t" - FusHtNG

!ft ( ,.o"rK rNREGLET

SECTION AT
CORNICE JOINT
SECTION

STONE BALUSTRADE
MtrAL FUSHING
OVER STONE
JOTNTS -=\

CORNICE WITH SEPARATE PARAPET

CAULK
METAL FUSHING IN
REGLET\

v
SECTION
WEDGE
.lo" oln. eorr-{ STONE STEPS AND CUR

MffAL
FUSHING BOLT FLASHING
OVER JOINTS DETAIL

N OTE
Dow^el between stone pieces allows flat interrupted flash:
ng. Dowel set vertically is typicdt for stepped ftashing (mrn.
z oowels oer stone)
GOTHIC-TYPE STONE COPINGS, INSTDEWASH

l t/2" MlN
2 VERTICAL
CENTER DOWEL DOWELS PER STONE
DRIPS EACH SIDE STEPPEO FUSHING
PARAPET AS CORNICE ALTERNATING PLAIN COPING
STAGGERED PATTERN PATTERN
STONE PARAPET DETATLS STONE QUOIN IN BRICK WALL STONE COPINGS

RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile.

Maryland

STONE
250 StoneDoorond WindowSurrounds
1t r"' x 31e" wRouGHT lRoN -sroNEWALL - - /-MFaal
ANCHOR GALVANIZED AND /ll/'ANcHoR
(3PERJAMb
SET INTO HORIZONTAL 1 I l/
sTONE JOINT
\tl

GROUT CAVITY METAL DOOR

FRAME
THAN FRAME

HOLLOW METAL FRAME

sToNE WALL
/

METAL ANCHOR

GROUT

CONTINUOUS
CAULK
HINGE DETAIL SHOWING STONE ANCHOR METAL DOOR
FASTENER
METAL
I l/e" x 3/e" GALVANIZED FRAME
WROUGHT IRON ANCHOR
SET INTO HORIZONTAL

HEAD ANO JAMS DETAILS AT STONE WALL

ELEVATTOTWOOD DOOR IN STONE WALL

'i,sTONE

\'
TRIM
wooD
SCRff
STEEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
AOLT
wooo
SIDELIGHI

HEAD (ANO JAMB) HEAD (AND JAMB) HEAD AND JAMB DETAILS AT CAVITY WALL
AT SIDELIGHT STRIKE DETAIL SHOWING STONE ANCHOR
AT DOOR
DOOR DETAILS ALTERNATE METAL FRAME DETAILS
\,VOOD FRAME DETAILS CONCEALED ANCHOR

STONE WALL STONE

LINTEL

STONE ARCH

LIMESTONE
TRACING

GUSS

3/e'DtA.
GALVANIZED
BARS. 12- TO I LEADEO ART
o.c. To
REINFORCE
GUSS STONE LUG SILL ANO LINTEL DETAIL

STONE
Z- SLIP SILL

LINE OF
sToNE St[ \ --

SILL DETAIL STONE SLIP SILL OETAIL

VI/ALL SECTION A_WINDOW IN STONE WALL ALTERNATE STONE TRIM DETAILS

ELEVATION-\^r'INDOv\/ IN STONE

RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland

STONE
 StonePonelson SteelFromingond SfoneCornices 251
N OTES
STONE CAP WITH STEEL
Use of the steel stud supporl system as shown requires an DOWEL ANCHORS
archilect o. engrneer to develop adequate and real.strcper
FUSHING
lormance criteria. including thorough consideration o{ the
long-term durability and corrosion resistance of light gauge HARD STONE PANEL CANT STRIP
members. mechanical fasteners, and other svstem comoc
ROOFING MEMBRANE
nents: provisions for adequale thermal movementj devel
opment of adequate system strength and stillness; FIRESAFING CONTAINED TREATED WOOD
recognition of the structural interaction between the stone IN STEEL CLOSURE NAILER

support system; and consideration of vapor retarders and RIGID INSUUTION

flashing to control moisture migration. lt also is important
STEEL SPLIT,TAIL ANCHOR CONCRETE FILLED
that adequate provisions be developed to ensure qualitv IN VERTICAL JOINT STEEL OECK
workmanship necessa.y to implement the system and to (SHIM AS REQUIRED)
achieve the expected quality and durability.

The
'| stone thickness depicted is a minimum oI 111, in.
hrcker stone malerials can use the same type of support
system; however, engineering analyses ot the system will
be necessary to ensure proper performance and compli-
ance with recommended design practices. INSULATION

Design criteria for stone anchorage must include consider

ation of the panicuiar stone's average as well as lowest
SPANDREL FUSHING
strength values for safety, particularly at ancho.age pojnts.
The proposed stone should be tested for adequate design
propenaes and values. Stone anchorage size and location
depend on establ;shing the particular stone's strength val STEEL SHELF ANGLE
ues, natural faults, and other properties; the stone's thick- WITH DOWEL WELD OR CEILING LINE
ness and supported area; the expected lateral as well as BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE
gravity loadjng; and the amouot ol thermal movement 10 be
accommodated. NOTE
SEAUNT WITH BACKER Required steel fireprooling has
ROO AND WEEPS been omitted for clarity.

ROOFING SECTION THROUGH ROOF PARAPET AT HARD STONE PANEL

AND ROOF
FILL ) WINDOW MULLION
(SHIM AS REQUIRED)
RAKE
JOINT REVEAL
SEALANT WITH
TO RELIEVE BACKER ROD
POSSIALE
COMPRESSIVE GYPSUM BOARD
I 5{ FELT OVER GYPSUM
BOARD SHEATHING {TYP )
SENING PADS
CONCRETE STE€L SPLIT.TAIL ANCHOR

STANOARD ROOF
STRUCTURE AUNKET
STRAP INSUUTION
ANCHOR
STEEL ANGLE WELD TO
ANCHOR EMBEDDEO STEEL ANGLE
LIMESTONE BOLTS ANO FLOOR
ARCHITRAVE PUTES FIRESAFING CONTAINED
SHOULD BE IN STEEL CLOSURE
LIMESTONE INSTALLEO CONCRETE FILLED
AT VERTICAL STEEL DECK
FACING EMBEODED STEEL
WITH POST ANCHOR

SPANOREL FUSHING
WALL SECTION
PUSTIC SHIMS
Shown here is the most common method of anchorino a
AS REQUIRED
co.nice, which has a projectron large enough to be balanc;d
in the wall. SEAUNT WITH BACKER
ROO WITH WEEPS PROVIOE SLEEVE
The bed ioint immediately below the heaw cornice is open
WITHIN STUD SYSTEM
far enough back to remove anv compresstve stress that STEEL SHELF ANGLE FOR VERTICAL
would have a tendency to break off stone below. WITH OOWEL WELD OR EXPANSION
BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE

STEEL SPLIT-TAIL
N OTE
ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT Required steel fireproofing
(SHIM AS REOUIRED) has
been omitted for clarity.

SECTION THROUGH HARD STONE PANEL AT WTNDOW WALL

I 5f, FELT OVER
GYPSUM BOARD
SHEATHING

t1--1--:

N OTE
Shown are live possible cornice
desagns. Indiana limestone can
be fabricated easily and economi- SPACER SLEEVE FOR
cally to almost any profile. See BOLTS THROUGH
examples. GYPSUM BOARD
STEEL SHELF ANGLE STEEL SHELF ANGLE
ON A STRESSLESS DISC STONE PANEL ON A STRESSLESS DISC
OVER A BED OF EPOXY, OVER A BED OF EPOXY,
DEAO BOLT TO REAR SEAUNT WITH DEAD BOLT TO REAR
FACE OF STONE FACE OF STONE

TRADITIONAL CORNICES SECTIONAL AT VERTICAL JOINT SECTION AT VERTICAL JOINT

The SpecterGroup;North Hills,New York

STONE
252 StonePonelson SteelFroming
CONTINUOUS 2 STAINLESS STEEL STRAP CONTINUOUS STAINLESS STEEL

COPING STONE ANCHORS WITH OOWEL AT JOINT COPING STONE STRAP ANCHOR WITH
DOWEL AT JOINT
SEALANT WITH FLASHING HEAVYGAUGE SLIDING
AOLT SEAUNT OVER FUSHING
BACKER ROD r/4 RouNo DR|P
OOWELED CONNECTION ORIP
STAINLESS STEEL
STEEL STUD CONTINUOUS KERF IN STONE TEEL STUD
SPLIT.TAIL ANCHOR
BUILT.UP HEAOER TO BE FILLED WITH SEAUNT AUILT.UP HEADER
IN VERTICAL JOINT
(SHIM AS REOUIREO) ROOFING MEMBRANE AflER ANCHOR IS PUCED ROOFINGMEMBRANE
3/a'' EXTERioR PLYwooD
I 5I FELT OVER GYPSUM 3/4" EXTERTORPLYWOOD STAINLESS STEEL CLIP
BOARO SHEATHING ANGLE WITH DOWEL ON STEEL STUDS
ON STEEL STUOS
TREATEO WOOD
FIRESAFING CONTAINED TREATED WOOO CHANNEL GRIO SYSTEM
NAILER
IN STAINLESS NAILER t 5I BUILDING FELT OVER
STEEL CLOSURE GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING RIGIO
STONE PANEL RIGID INSUUTION
INSUUTION FIRESAFING CONTAINED
INSUUTION IN STEEL CLOSURE
STONE PANEL
BRACING AS REOUIREO PROVIOE SLEEVE INSULATION
WITHIN STUD
STAINLESS STEEL HIN STUO
SYSTEM FOR STAINLESS STEEL
SH€LF ANGLE ON A FOR
VERTICAL SHELF ANGLE ON A
VERTICAL EXPANSION
EXPANSION STRESSLESS OISC OVER
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD A BED OF EPOXY. OEAO GYPSUM BOARD
BOLT TO STONE PANEL BOLT TO STONE PANEL
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF PUSTIC SHIMS N OTE
ANGLE BOLTED TO STEEL N OTE
STUD THROUGH GYPSUM has STEEL CHANNEL BOLTED Required steel firepr@fing has
Required steel fireproofing TO STEEL STUDS THROUGH
BOARO SHEATHING WITH been omitted for clarity.
been omitted for clarity. GYPSUM BOARD WITH SPACER

WALL SECTION AT ROOF PARAPET AND \/vINDOWLESS WALL

SECTION AT ROOF PARAPET AND WINDOVVLESS

SEALANT WITH SEALANT WITH

BACKER ROO BACKER ROD
STONE SILL STAINLESS STEEL
STONE STOOL (SHIM STRAP ANCHOR WITH
STAINLESS STEEL STRAP AT OOWEL AS REOUIRED) 2 DOWELS AT JOINT
ANCHOR WTTH 2
@WELS AT JOINT CONTINUOUS KERF IN
GYPSUM BOARO SEAUNT OVER STONE TO BE FILLED
FUSHING OOWELED CONNECTION WITH SEAUNT ANER
ANCHOR IS PUCED
SEAUNT WITH INSUUTION
BACKER ROO STAINLESS STEEL SHELF
CLIP ANGLE AND DOWEL GYPSUM BOARD
FLOOR
STAINLESS STEEL SPLIT.TAIL
ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT
(SHIM AS
STAINLESS STEEL FLASHING
SHELF ANGLE BOLTED INSULATION
TO STEEL STUD
I 5' FELT OVER GYPSUM THOUGH GYPSUM I5* BUILDING FEL
AOARO SHEATHING (TYP.) AOARO SHEATHING
FLOOR
WITH SPACER SLEEVE
STONE PANEL STAINLESS STEEL SHELF
CLIP ANGLE ANO DOWEL
FIRESAFING CONTAINED
IN STAINLESS STEEL
CLOSURE PROVIDE SLEEVE CONTINUOUS KERF IN
WITHIN STUO SYSTEM STONE TO AE ALLED
FOR VERTICAL WITH SEAUNT ANER
STAINLESS STEEL
EXPANSION ANCHOR IS PUCED
SHELF ANGLE ON A
STRESSLESS DISC OVER
BRACING AS REOUIRED
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD
BOLT TO STONE PANEL STAINLESS STEEL CLIP
INSUUTION ANGLE WITH THREAOED BRACING AS REOUIRED

PUSTTC SHTMS T PIN AT VERTICAL JOINTS

STAINLESS STEEL EPOXY.FASTENED WINDOW HEAD FUSHING

SPLIT.TAIL ANCHOR STONE RETURN
IN VERTICAL JOINT WITH OOWEL INSULATION
(SHIM AS REOUIREI (FACTORY FABRICATED) EPOXY.FASTENED STONE
RETURN WITH CONTINUOUS
STEEL STUD DOW€L (FACTORY
BUILT.UP HEADER FABRICATEO) BUILT-UP HEADER
SEAUNT WITH
BACKER ROO CEILING LINE
AND WEEPS CEILING LINE

N OTE
WINMW H€AD FLASHING
has SEAUNT WITH AACKER WINDOW HEAD MULLION
Required steel fireproofing
WINMW HAD MULLION ROD ANO WEEP HOLE
been omitted for clarity.

STONE SPANDREL AT \^/INDOW HEAD AND SILL STONE SPANOREL AT \MINOOV\/ HEAD ANO SILL

HEAVY GAUGE SLIOING BOLT

STONE PANEL CHANNEL GRID SYSTEM

15I FELT OVER G STONE PANEL

INSUT.ATION
BOARO SHEATHING
I 5I BUILDING FELT OVER STEEL STUDS
GYPSUM AOARD SHEATHING
STATNLESS STEEL SPLIT.TAIL GYPSUMBOARD
ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT
STAINLESS STEEL STRAP FLOOR
(SHIM AS REOUIRE
ANCHOR WITH DOWEL
(SHIM AS
FUSHING OVER
CONCRffE SUB FUSHING OVER
CONCRETE SUB

WEEP HOLE THROUGH HOLE THROUGH

WEEP

PUSTIC SHIMS PUSTIC SHIMS

AS REOUIRED AS REOUIRED

STONE SPANDREL AT GRAOE STONE SPANDREL AT GRADE

The SpectorGroup; North Hills, New York

STONE
 3 in. StoneVeneer 253
NOTES
l.Throughout this section, flashing, sealants, and other
ancillary materials necessary for sound weatherproof
CRAMP ANCHOR
constructron sometimes have been omitted for clarity.
DOWELS See flashing and sealant details elsewhere.
2.Allow lor tolerances by including correct shimming to
BACKUP WALL prevent installation problems or performance failure
DRIP EDGE ,

,^:::'^.'"".-sr
3. All stone anchors embedded in or in contact with stone
COPING
shall be slainless steel lype 300 sefies.
FASCIA PANFL
4 Stone support or anchor systems should be designed by
an a.chitect or engineer experienced in stone claddina
CO PI NG desrgn and construction.

BACKUP WALL

CLIP ANGLE WITH DISC AND ROD

WELDED BAR TO
RETAIN STONE SUPPORT ANGLE
EYE ROD AND DOWEL
DOWEL
TWISTEO STRAP

VERTICAL FIN
SELF.SUPPORTING
CLIP ANGLE WITH
STONE LINTEL
WELDED BAR

SUN SCREEN

WINDOW HEAD WINDOW HEAD

STONE VENEER

CRAMP
ANCHOR

ROD ANCHOR JAMB SHOULD

ANCHOR TO
EYE ROD AND DOWEL WALL NOT TO
STONE VENEER ADJACENT
STONE VENEER
STONE VENEER
BACKUP WALL WINDOW JAMB

ADJUSTABLE
WI NDOWS ILL INSERT

ANGLE WITH
WELDED BAR

CRAMP
ANCHOR

CONCRETE
WEDGE INSERT

CLIP ANGLE WITH

CLIP ANGLE WITH
WELDED BAR
WELDED BAR - BONO WALL ANO BASE

STONE VENEER DETATLS: OPT|ONS

NO. 4 REBAR DOWEL
HOOK ROD
HOOK ANGLE T , SUPPORT CLIP OR
CONTINUOUS
SENING ROD ANGLE
SOFFIT SOFFIT

HOOK ROD ANGLE WITH

ANCHOR WELDED BAR

PLATE WITH
WELDED
ROD CRAMP -
TIE.BACK f\f
STRAP ANCHOR
ROD
l,i .1r' "o*tt
METAL TURNED INTO | ;/1
I.f 1
STONE BOTH

r\-
ANCHOR
WAYSi WELO
TO COLUMN
t\
j t sxtv
COLUMN ANCHOR COLUMN ANCHOR

PLATE WITH OOWEL PI N

WELDED SAR CONNECTION
STONE VENEER ON CONCRETE WITH STONE VENEER ON STEEL FRAME BASE DETAILS
MASONRY BACKUP

George M. Whiteside. lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square, pennsyrvanra
Building Stone Institute: New York, New york
Alexander Keyes; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.

SIONE
254 I r/oin. lo 2t/ain. SfoneVeneer
ANCHORAGE DIMENSIONS
STAINLESS STEEL
'/., ir
Standard flat stck anchors are made of strap 1 md I

hhm
DOWEL WITH
HOOK ANCHOR wjde by'/s, 3/,6,andr/4 in. thick. Lengths vary up to6, 8, 10. an(l
12 in. Dovetail anchoG are usually 4 r/a in. overall with 3 '/, in
SEAUNT ANO prciection for fa@ o{ mncrete. Bends are %, 1, ard 1 r/. in.

ffiffiffi
FOAM ROD

Round stock anchors are made f.om stock ot any diametef

SENING BEO '/. and '/e in. (#11 ga l
% in. are most common for rods:
'/r and
through 3/16in. (#6 ga.) for wire anchors; and % in
FLASHING
are most common tor dowels. Dowel lengths re usually 2
to 6 in.
STONE VENEER
DOWEL HORIZONTAL ANCHOR BOLT NOTES
CONNECTION CONNECTION:
DOWEL ANO CRAMP 1. Refer to page on 3 in. stone veneer for additioal anchor
age information.
COPINGS 2. Allow for tolerances by including correct shimming to
prevent installation {itting problems or perfmnce lail
ure.
oowELs RIGID 3. Stone anchorage systems should be desigrEd by a pro
INSULATION
tessional engineer experienced in stone claddng design
SUPPORT ANGLE
AND MORTAR
4. Sizes may ditfer widely lrom the standard sizes listed
SUPPORT ANGLE
AND MORTAR
n€re.
5. Soecifv stainlass steel.
CRAMP AND
SEAUNT AT SLOTTED CLIP
JOINT

HEAD (JAMB SIMIUR) HEAO (JAMB SIMII.AR)

USE DOWEL TO
CONNECT SEVERAL
PIECES

STRAP AND
DOWEL

METAL INSERT
RIGID
INSULATION

STRIP UNER
WITH OOWEL STONE VENEER

SILL SI LL

WINDOr/v DETAILS SILL DETAIL

ASKS BOLT AND ASKEW BOLT AND

WEDGE INSERT WEDGE INSERT *4 REBAR
SUPPORT ANGLE BARS WELDED
WITH MORTAR IO ANGLE STAINLESS
STEEL CLIP
SEAUNT WEEP VENT AT ANGLE WITH
TOP OF CAVITY BARS WELDED

WIRE ANCHOR SLOT ANCHOR SEAUNT

RIGID
SLOT ANCHOR
INSUUTION

RELIEFANGLE WITH LINER ANGLE SUPPORT WITH SHEAR RESISTANCE EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL

RELIEF ANGLE SUPPORTS

N OTE
It is recommend€d that water repel-
lent treatment be provided at the
FLASHING sidewalk.

MORTAR

WEEP VENT WEEP HOLES IN

IN JOINT
VERTICAL JOINTS

GRADE

CONCRETE

CORNER DETAILS BASE DETAILS

GeorgeM. Whheside,lll, AlA. and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsylvania

BuildingStone Institute;New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.

STONE
 I r/oin. to 2tlt in. StoneVeneerGrid StrutSystem 255

DOWEL
FUSHING

CONCRETE
MORTAR JOINT
INSERT
STRIP LINING
METAL CLIP
MflAL STRUT
STRUT STRUTS
AND CLIP

STRIP LiNER
METAL
STONE VENEER CLIP

STONE
COPI NG
VENEER

COPING, FASCIA. ANO HEAD

STONE VENEER
AND LINER

METAL STRUT
FASCIA AND WINDOW HEAO

SOFFIT

ANCHOREO TO
EXISTING
BUILDING
FACING

EXISTING

STRUT ANCHORED
TO FLOOR
CONNECTION TO EXISTING FACING
EXPANSION SPACE
BETWEEN STRUTS

SHEAR WALL SUPPORT

STRUTS

RETENTION
ANGLES

ANCHOR SLOT
FILLED WITH
SEAUNT

SEALANT AND
SHEAR WALL SIOE RETENTION (PLAN)
BACKER ROD

BASE OR STARTER SUPPORT GRID STRUT SYSTEM . METAL FRAME COLUMN RETURN

GRID ANCHOR SPACING AND

STRUT SIZE - MARBLE
N OTES
1. Engrneering design of all supports for this type of con
WIDTH, DEPTH struction is essential.
AND SHAPE 2. Grid strut spacing is subject to engineering design.

NOT ES
CLIP ANCHORING SYSTEM
1- "X" = dimension between strut and outside face of stone
2. "X" = 1 5/"" lor 1/"" marble.
GRID STRUT SYSTEM . CONCRETE 3. "X" = 1 3/a" for I '/a" marble.
FRAME

George M. Whiteside, lll, AlA. and James D. Llovd; Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Euilding Stone Institute; New York, New York
Alexander Keyesj Rippeteau Archirects, PC: Washington. D.C.

STONE
256 PreossembledStonePonels

ELEVATION AND SECTION - SILL,

SPANDREL, AND SOFFIT UNIT
+-
Ew-Lr --\d.-l
-sEAuNTAND
ffi\'.l ,/- BAcKER RoD
STONE TRIM l--+-*.;.1,/
UNIT ON 5.,i!S:.i€
COLUMN I \-.- Outnrf O
CORNER
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE ELEVATION AND SECTION _ PARAPET UNIT PLAN - COLUMN TRIM UNIT

PREASSEMBLED STONE UNIT WITH EPOXY ON STEEL FRAME

PREASSEMBLED PANELS
Preassembledstone panel technologyotfers savingsin on-
site laborand accuratecomponontstone unit ioining.
+
i METAL
Shippingand erection stresses on the stone panels and
stone anchoragesyst€m to the preassembledunits should
SUPPORT
SYSTEM:
be evaluated.
ANGLE CLIP
; WELDED TO
METAL PLATE
Design of sealant joints between preassembled units
should include at least the following: thermal movement,
ANO STUO fabrication and erection tolerances, irreversible material
CAST IN groMh or shrinkage,and sealantmovementpotential.
CONCRETE
+ .+ STONE ON STEEL FRAME WITH EPOXY
J O IN T S
Stone units are mounted in a steel frame plus expansion
anchors and dowel pins (as recommendedby manufac
turer). Joints in stone are epoxied and held to approxi
ll j i + mately 1/sin. when finished for delivery.All stones in the
assembly are anchored as a unit to the structure. Preas
t t + sembledunit installationreducesindividual plumb-
leveling,
ing, and aligning,and on-site joint sealing is not as
UNIT ELEVATION extensiveas with individualstone oanels.

COMPOSITE ASSEMBLIES OF STONE ANO

CONCRETE
Stone units are bonded to reinforcedorecastconcreteDan
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE els with bent stainlesssteel anchors.A moisturebarrierand
a bonding agent are installedbetween the stone and con-
STONE UNIT PRECAST V\/ITH CONCRETE BACKUP crete in conditions where @ncrete alkali slats mav stain
stoneunits.

STONE ANO STEEL ASSEMBLIES WITH

SEALANT JOINTS
WALL UNIT B Stone units are shimmed and anchoredto a steel frame
(SIMILAR TO UNIT A)
using standardstone connecting hardware.Joints may be
sealedon site, along with joints betweenassemblies.

UNIT A

MAXIMUMPANEL STAINLESS
lo'-o"x20'-o' STEEL
THREADED
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE ELEVATION _ UNIT A SECTION _ UNIT A CONNECTION OETAILS ANCHOR

PREASSEMBLED STONE UNIT ON STEEL FRAME

GeorgeM. Whileside, lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsytvania

BuildingStone Institute; New York, New York
AlexanderKeyes;BippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.

STONE
 StoneDetoils-Residentiol 257

ryre w-;l
F *.. t'p,ffi I 7
w-, illp'fliflilflilt,
llllrlllllllrllllrrll ry
E -l
: -...-:l
1--..
E "....ilrF€| //zlt t.:,7
, "ryr l'=-...1
I fiil/ll/lll/llll/ii/ll
P-
E, s"" E
E" ' 72 "'/,2l;:r4
E 1 iliiiillillillillliiili
E--,-,.,-..j
p:::r:=:=.:.: l
f'*#--€ W o.. I, l--=l
,:,,2. 1 lllillllllllllillllllll
tll/iittlltillll/llt/tE
i 1 : - - - .-:r-- ' - - : . 1
ROCK OR SAWED FINISH SHOT SAWEO MACHINE FINISH

"n
POINTED FINISH
PITCH FACE (R O U G H ) ( PLANER )

[]ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SLIP SILL

4'' FOR BRICX

BUSH HAMMERED PATENT BUSH DROVE OR RANOOM+PARALLEL PEAN HAMMERED

HAMMER BOASTEO

-l
HANO TOOLED

[I$,,ffi ffitrffiffiWffi
[.:'i:.i,:l$,',i,:,1
illl]llIlll1Tll1llllll
il|Jffiillillf,ilmilffifi|il
EE=EE=EEI
lllllllllllllllllllllll
tr*"
E===E===l
I ;J;: I
LUG SILL

Nffi ffiffiilffiffiilffifril
il]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]1|
EEEEEEEEJ
[11
STONE SILL TYPES

PARALLEL+RANOOM PLUCKER FINISH MACHINE TOOLED TOOTH CHISEL SMOOTH-RUBBED

CRANDALLED (WET FINISH} OR
VERY SMOOTH
N OTE (CARBORUNDUM,
HONEO, ANO
Consult stone fabricators about which {inishes are appropriate for which type of stone. POLTSHEO)
TYPICAL STONE FINISHES

;t r+l SECTION
'-l
-f-
"--
MORTAR

RUBBLE ASHLAR SQUARED GRANITE. SANOSTONE. LIMESTONE SPECIAL

OF GRANITE STONE AND LIMESTONE (FINE WORK) INTERIOR
MASONRY (GENERAL USE) WORK

TYPICAL STONE JOINT SPACING

lti
tl -r-
(

aaa
lll
t--

RUSTICATED JOINTS

I+ L_
s+ l, I I
+_
[- r--
GROOVE
f- I
::::??" ELEVATION SECTION

TYPICAL JOINT PROFILES STONE LUG SILL PROFILES

STONE
258 StoneDetoils-Residenliql
GENERAL
A traditional structural stone wall typically consists of two FACE STONE
independent laces {interior and exterior) of. closely fitted ON BOTH SIDES
stones with a code-drescribed p€rcentage of bonding unit
stones that extend the full thickness of the wall. Together, STEEL REBAR
these two stone faces create a massivelv thick wall, rarelv sET 3 -O O.C.
less than 24 in. thick. An interior finish backup stud or AND PUCED
furred wall with a vapor barrier and insulation typically com- 3'-O" MtN.|NTO
pletes the wall system. STONEWORK,

For structural stone walls. it is best to lay the stone In regu-

'l STONE OR
lar courses, 2 to 15 in. high per course. Limiting the heighl
trom the top of one level course to the top of the next level CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
course ensures that the wall joints will be consistently
bridged, thereby avoiding long continuous vertical joints
both perpendicular to and parallel to the plane ol the wall
face. This will help prevent long cracks lrom developing,
which can cause large sections of the wall 1o split and tall
off. Control joints should be built into masonry construction
in wall sections up to 30 ft long to account {or expansion STRUCTURAL
and contraction of the stone. STONE WALL

N OTES RIGID
INSULATION
1- A simple rule{f-thumb for masonry construction is to
rely on gravity, not the bond of mortar, as the predomi-
FUSHING
nant "bonding agent" lor stone.
2. Consult codes to determine the minimum percentage of BONOING UNIT TYPE 2 STUD WALL
bonding units per structural stone wall. Some codes
require that 15% of the face area be composed of bond-
Ing unrts. STONE OR
CONCRSE
FOUNDATION
lt
€ r-1- a TOP OF LEVEL <t
-l il I / STONE COURSE
L_-JL-'Jc----l I RIGID INSUUTION BACKING
I
I tr ,l I I

STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL

FUSHING

STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING

STUD WALL

STONE WALL COURSES STONE OR

CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
ri.

STRUCTURAL SHEATHING BACKING

STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL

FUSHING

BONDING UNIT TYPE I ''

I AIRSPACE
N OTE
Some building codes require full span bonding units and STUD WALL
some permit a minimum 6 in. overlap between adjacent
stones, STONE OR
CONCRETE
STONEWORK JOINTS-NOT STONE WALL BONDING UNITS FOUNDATION
RECOMMENDED
,'
I AIR VENT
STONE

TYP.- VENTEO

INSUUTEO FLASHING
AACKUP METAL TIE
16" o.c.,
TYP VERTICAL

STONE STONE
SOLID VENEER
STONE
LINTEL REINFORCED A' CMU
CONCRETE
FUSHING BACKING FUSHING

SEAUNT RIGID
INSUUTION

wtNDow
UNIT STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION

SOLID STONE LINTEL STONE ARCH WITH REINFORCED STEEL LINTEL

STONE VENEER WITH CMU BACKING
CONCRETE BACKING

STONE WALL LINTELS TYPICAL \ilr'ALL SECTIONS

STONE
260 Propertiesof MetqG
PROPERTIES OF METALS
Basicmetalsandtheiralloysare ciassifiedin two broadcat-
egories.Ierrous and nonferrous.Ferrousmetals are marnly
iron,andnonferrousmetalalloysnormallycmtain no iron.
FERROUS METALS
lron. stel. and their alloys are usuallythe most cost-eftec-
tive metal choiceslor structuralapplications.
lron that contains no trace of carbon is soft, ductile, and
easilywqked. but it rusts in a relativelyshort time and is
susceptibleto corrosionby most acids.
The characteristicsof the many types of cast iron vary
widely arcng six basic groups: gray, malleable,ductile,
wiite, mpacted graphite, and high alloy iron. All cast
irons haw high compressive strengths, but tensile and
yield strengthsvary widely dependingon basic type. Cast
iron is relativelv corrosion-resistantbut cannot be ham-
meredor beateninto shaoes.
Gray irons are rather brittle becausethey have a high car-
bon and silicon content. Castings of gray iron possess
excellent tor damping {absorbingvibrations)and are prc
duced io eight ASTM classes or grades with tensile-
strength ratings lrom 20,000 to 60,000 psi. Applications
includedecorativeshapes, such as fences and posts, grat-
ings, and stair components,as well as utility uses such as
mnhole @vers and fireplugs.
Malleableiron.which is more expensiv€than gray iron, has
been usgd for decad€s in applicationsthat r€quire greal
toughress and high ductility. This lowcrbon white iron is
€st. reheated,and slowly cooled,or annealed,to improve
its wtrkabilitv.
Ductile irm is rude by adding magnesiumto molten iron
shortlybetore the metal is poured-intomolds. The magne
sium alte6 the surface-tensionmechanismof the molten
iron and brsipitates the carbon out as small spheres
insteadof flakes,which make the iron castingmore ductile.
Ductileirm is less brittle. stitter, stronger,and more shock-
resistant than gray iron. Ouctile iron castings are more
exp€nsiw than gray iron but usually less than mall€able
iron. Ductile iron is the fastest growing segment ot the
m€tal €sting industry.
Ductileirons are produced in strength ratings from 55,000
to 130,0@psi. Ductilecastingsusing a specialaustemper-
ing heat-treating process offer much higher lensile
strengths.rangingfrom 125,000to 230,000psi. CalledADI
€stings, tEy rivalor surpasscenain alloyst€€l castingsin
t€nsileand yiold strengths.
\A/hiteiron castings,which are extremely hard and brittle,
are used primarilyin industrialmachineryparts that experi-
ene high wear and requireabrasionresistance.
The characteristics of compactedgraphiteiron fall between
those of gray and ductile iron- The propertiesot this metal
are so difficult to control during productionthat very few
retal Gsters manulactureit.
Highalloyironsare gray,ductile.or white irons with an alloy
mntent of 3 to more than 30yo. Their propedes are signiti-
6ntly differenl from those ol unalloyedirons.
Wrought irm or steel is relatively soft. corrosion- and
fatigussistant, and machinable.lt is easily worked, mak-
ing it id€altQr Eilings. grilles, fenes, $reens, and €rious
types of marental work. lt is commerciallyavailablein
bars.rods,tubing, sheets,and plates.
Carbonst€l is iron lhat contains low to medium amounls
of €6on. A higher carbon content increases metal
strength and hardress but reduces its ductility and weld-
ability. The @rosion resistance of carbon steels is
improv€d by galEnizing, vvhich is a hot zinc dipping prG
@ss, q applying an organic coating. Some architectural
uses includestructuralshapes such as welded fabri€tions
or €stings, retal studs and joists, lasteners. wall grilles,
and ceilingsuspensiongrids.
Highstrength,low alloy{HSLA)steels havebetter corrosion
resistancothan €rbon steels, and th€y are chosen when
weight is a considerationand higher strength is specified.
Low allov stels are seldom used in exterior architectural
appli€tions that involve water runoff because adjacent
materialscould become stainedwith rust.
Eobert C. Rodgers,P.E.;RichmondHeights,Ohio
r=
rh\
tl/ METAL
MATERIALS
Tvpicalelements used to modity steel include the follow-
ing:
1.Aluminumlor surtacehardening.
2. Ch.omiumfor corrosionresistance.
3. Copperfor atmosphericcorrosionresistance.
4. Manganesein smallamountslor additionalhardening,
In largeramountsfor betterwear resistance
5. Molybdenum, combined with other metals such as
chromium and nickel, to increasecorrosionresistance
and raiset€nsilestrengthwithout reducingductility.
6. Nickel to increase tensile strength without reducang
ductility;in high concentrations,nickel improvescorrc
sronresrstance.
7. Siliconto strengthenlow alloysteelsand improveoxF
dation resistance;larger amounts produce hard, brittle
castingsthat are resistantto corrosivechemicals.
8. Sulferfor free machining,esp€cially.
9. Titaniumto prevent intergranularcorrosaonof stainless
steels.
10. Tungsten,vanadium,and cobaltfor hardnessand corro
sronresrstance-
'1.5%
Stainlesssteels are at least 1 chromium.Nickelis
addedto boost atmosphericcorrosionresistance;molybde-
num is added when maximum corrosion resistance is
needed,such as lvhsn iron will come into contact with sea
water. Stainlesssteel is used in constructionfor flashing,
coping,fasciae.wall panels.flmr plales,gratings.handrails.
hardware.lasteners,and anchors. Decorativeshapes and
statuarycan be cast in stainlessstee..
NONFERROUS METALS
Nonferrousmetals and their alloyscan be categorizedinto
seven major groups for architecturalapplications:those
based on aluminum, mpper (pure copper. brasses, and
bronzes).lead, zinc, tin, nick€|, and magnesium. Another
approachis to divide nonterrous alloys into tlvo groups:
heaw metals {copper-,zinc-. lead-,and nickelSased and
light metals(aluminum-and rugnesium- bas€d).
ALUMINUM
The nonterrousmetal workhorse {or architecturalapplica-
tions is aluminum.lt has g@d forming and €sting charac-
teristics and offe6 good--conosion rgsistance. When
exposed to air, aluminum dcs not oxidize progressively
becausea hard,thin oxide ceting lorms on the surfaceand
sealsthe metal from its environment.
Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds,are
widely availablein common commrcial forms. Aluminum
alloy sheets can be formed, draM, stamped, or spun.
Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded,
brazed,or soldered,and aluminumsurfacesreadilyac@pta
wide varietyof finishes.both mechanicaland chemical.
Althoughit is light in weight, commerciallypure aluminum
hasa tensileslrengihof about13,000psi. Most aluminum
alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures.At subzero
temperatures,on the other hand, aluminum is stronger
than at room temperaturebut no less ductile.Cold-working
the metal may nearlydouble its tensilestrength.Aluminum
can be further strengthenedby alloying it with elements
such as manganese,silicon, copper. magnesium.zinc, or
lithium.Th€ manganes+basedaluminumalloy3003 is usd
for roofing,sheet metal, siding,and electricalconduit.
BRASS, COPPER, AND BRONZE
G@d thermal and elst.i€l @nductivity,corrosion resis-
tance,and easy tormingand joiningall make copperand its
alloysusefulin construction.However.copperand rony ot
its alloys have relativelylow strength-teweight ratios,and
their strengthis even further reducedat elevatedtempera
tures. These metals are ofter€d in rod, plate, strip, sheet.
and tube shapes:Iorgings;€stings; and electricalWr6.
These metals can be groupedaccordingto compositionin
severalgeneralcategories:copper,high{opper alloys,and
many types oI brass and bronze.Monel metal is a copper-
nickel allov that offers excellentcorrosionresistance;it is
often used for corrosion-resistantfasteners.
Bronzeoriginallywas a copper-tinalloy,but today there are
aluminum bronzes,silicon bronzes.and leaded phosphor
bronzes,among others. Phosphorbronze is a copp€r-tan-
phosphorus alloy; and leaded phosphor bronze is com-
posed of copper,lead.tin, and phosphorus.
Brassis copperwith zincas its principal alloyingelement.lr
is importantto know that some brassalloysmay be called
bronzeseven though they have little or no tin in theri
Some common nonbronze brass alloys are commercia
bronze (9070copper, 10yo zinc), navalbrass (60% copper,
29Vozinc.and.17otin). Muntz metal (60% copper,40%
zinc),and manganesebronze(587ocopper,39%zinc,anc
1yotin and iron).When a metal is identifiedas bronze,the
alloy cannot contain zinc or nickel; if it d@s, il is probabiy
brass. Architectural brasses and bronzes are actuallv al
brasses;they are used for doors, windows, d@r and win
dow frames, railings,trim and grilles. and finish hardware
Muntz metal,also calledmalleablebrass,is a bronzealloy
resemblingextrudedarchitecturalbronzein cold. lt is avail
able in sheet and strip and is used in flat surfa@sin archi
tectural comoositions in connection with extruded
architecturalbronze.
Copperbased alloys characteristicallyform adherentfilms
that are relativelyimpervious to corrosionand protect the
base metal from further attack. Cenain alloy systems
darkenrather rapidlyfrom brown to blackoutd&rs. Under
most outdoor weather conditions. however, @pper sur
faces, such as roofs or statuary, develop a blue€reen
patina. Lacquercoatings €n help retain the qiginal alloy
color.
LEAD
An extremelv dense metal, lead is corrosion{esistantand
easilyworked. Alloys are added to it to improveproperties
such as hardnessand strength.Typicalapplicationsof lead
include waterproofing, sound and vibration isolation,and
radiationshielding.lt can be combinedwith tin alloyto plate
iron or steel, which is commonly called "terneplate." Care
should be taken how and where lead is used becauselead
vaporsand leaddust are toxic if ingested.
ztNc
Although it is corrosion-resistantin water and air, zinc is
brittle and low in strength. lts major use is in galvanizing
(dippinghot iron or steel in molten zinc), althoughzinc is
also used to create sandtast or die{ast components.
Major building industry uses are roofing, flashing, nails,
plumbing hardware, structural parts, and decorative
shaoes.
TIN
Key propeniesof tin are its low melting point (45O'F), rela'
tive softness, good formability. and readiness to form
alloys.Principaluses for tin are as a constituentof solder,a
@ating for st€el (tinplate. terneplate),and an alloy with
other metalsthat can be cast. rolled,extruded.or atomized.
Tin is most popularas an alloy for copper,antimony,lead,
bismuth. silver, and zinc. PeMer alloys contain 1 to 8%
antimonyand 0.5 to 3% copper.Alloy metal in tin solders
rangesfrom 40% lead to no lead and 3.57osilver,
NICKEL
Whitishin color,nickelis usedfor platingothermetalsor as
a basefor chromiumplating.Nickelpolisheswell and does
not tarnish. lt is also widely appliedas an additivein iron
and steel alloys as well as other metal alloys. Nickeljron
castingsare more ductile and more resistantto corrosion
than conventional cast iron. Adding nickel makes steel
more resrstantto rmoact.
CHROMIUM
A hard, steel€ray metal, chromium is commonly used to
plate other metals, includingiron, steel, brass,and bronze.
Platedcast shapescan be brightly polishedand do not tar-
nish. Severalsteel alloys,such as stainlessplate,containas
much as 189ochromium.Chromiumd@s not rust,which
makeschromiumalloysexcellentfor exterioruses.
MAGNESIUM
Lightest of all metals used in construction.pure magne-
sium is not strong enough lor generalstructuralfunctions.
(For comparison,if a block of steel weighs 1,000lb, equal
volumesof aluminumand magnesiumweigh 230 lb and
'186lb
Combiningothermetalssuchas alumi
respectively.)
num with magnesiumresultsin lightweightalloymateraals
used in ladders,lurniture,hospitalequipment,and wheels
lor automobiles.

METAL CORROSION
Corrosion. which is caused by galvanic action, occurs
between dissimilar metals or between metals and other
material when sufficient moisture is present to carry an
electrical. current. The galvanic series shown in the table
below is'a useful andicator of corrosion su$eptibility
caused by galvanic action. The metals listed are arranged in
order from the ieast noble (most reactive to corrosionl to
the most noble (least reactive to corrosion). The farther
apart two metals on the list are, the greater the deteriora-
tion of lhe less noble one will be it thev come in contact
under adverse conditions.
Metal deterioration also occurs when metals come in con-
tact wath chemically active mate.ials, panicularly when
moisture is present. For example, aluminum corrodes
when in direct contact with concrete or mortar, and steel
corrodes when in contact with certain treated woods.
Pitting and concentralion cell corrosion are other types ot
metal deterioration. Pitting takes place when particles or
bubbles of gas are deposited on a metal surface. Oxygen
deficiency under these deposits sets up anodic areas,
which cause pitting. Concentration cell corrosion is sim;lar
to galvanic corrosion; the difference is in the electrolytes.
Concentration cell corrosion can be Droduced bv differ-
ences in ion concentration, oxygen concentration, or tor-
eign matter adhering to the surface.
Casting rs a process in which molten metal is poured into
molds or torced into dtes and allowed to solidifv in the
shape of the mold or die. The castjng process is used with
vlrlually all metals; however, surface qualrry and physlcal
characteflstrcs are greatly atfected by the metal alloy aod
casting process selected. Almost all metals can be cast in
sand molds. Only aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are ord!
narily cast In metal dies in what is called either a dierasnng
or permanent'mold process. Round, hollow building prod-
ucts such as cast-iron pipe {or plumbing and sewer applica,
tions are made by centrilugal casting machines.
ln the drawing process, either hot or cold metal is pulled
through dies that alter or reduce its cross-sectional shape to
p.oduce archatectural product configurations. Common
drawn products are sheets, tubes, pipes, rods, bars, and
wires. Drawing can be used with all metals except iron.
Forging is hammering hot metal or pressing cold metal to a
desired shape in dies of a harder metal. The process usually
rmproves the strength and surface characteristics of the
metal. Alum'num, copper, and steel can be forged
Machining is used to finish areas of castings or forgings
requiring highly precise fits or contours. Shapes can also be
machined from heavy plate or solid blocks of metal
Eending produces curved shapes in tubing, pipe. and extru-
sions.
Propertiesof Metols 261
Piercing punches holes through metal without removino
any of the metal
Fusron welding is used to ioin metat pieces by melting filler
metal (welding rod) and the adjacent edges brjellv with a
torch and then allowing the molten metal to solidify. Two
common types of fusion welding are electric-arc and gas.
Electric-arc or metallic-arc welding normally uses metal
welding rods as electrodes in the welding tool
Gas welding is also known as oxyacetylene welding
because it uses a mrxture of oxygen and acetylene to fuel
the flames produced by the bloMorch. Oxvacetylene blow
torches are widely used in construction work to cut through
metal structural beams and metal plates.
Soldering is a metal joining process that uses either hard or
soft solder. The metal pieces being joined together do not
melt as they do in the welding process because solders
melt at much lower temperatures. Sott soiders consist of
lin with a high percentage ot lead and melt at temperatures
of 360'ro 370'F. Hard solders are comoosed o{ tin and a
low content ol antimony or silver and melt at temperatures
ranging from 430 to 460'F.
Erazing, which is sometimes called hard soldering, also
ioins two pieces of metal togeth€r by torch melting a filler
rod material between them. The filler has a high content of
coooer and melts between 800 and 900"F.

Brake forming of metal plate o. sheet metal is a process of

SHAPING AND successive pressings to achieve shapes with straight-line
FABRICATION OF METALS angles.
MELTING
Many different manutacturing pr&esses are applied to
In the spinning process, ductile types of sheet metal {usu- TEMPERATURES OF METALS
metal to produce structural forms and shapes required in
ally copper or aluminum) are shaped wirh tools while being
the construction and ornamentation of buildings.
spun on an axis.
Rolling hot or cold metal belween pressurized rollers prG
Embossing and coining are stamp€d metal with textured or
duces mosl ot the readilv available. standard construction
rarsed patterns.
material shapes. Baked enamel{oated aluminum is cold
rolled to make srding and gutters.
Blanking is shearing, sawing, or cutting metal sheets with a
punch press to achieve a desired configuration.
In the extruding process, heated metal ingots or bars are
pushed through a die orifice to produce a wide variety oI
Perforating is punching or drilling holes through flat plate or
simpl€ and complex shapes. Sizes are limited only by the
sheet metal.
size or capacity of the die.

THE GALVANIC SERIES

WEIGHTS OF
METALS FOR BUILDINGS

Electric current flows from

posative {+) to negative (-)

TYPES.AND PROPERTIES OF BRASS

ARCH ITECTURAL.
NAME BRONZE COMMERCIAL BRONZE MUNTZ METAL

Copper(Cu) 600
Zinc (Znl 400
Lead(Pb)
Light yelJow
workabrlrtY

Hot workabilily (and soldering and

polishing)
propertres
free-machiniog

Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio

METALMATERIALS
262 Finisheson Metols
GENERAL
The finishescommonlvused on architectural metals tall
into three categories,
. Many organiccoatingsare appliedwith brushesand rollers.
MECHANICAL FINISHES are rhe resultof physically chang-
ing the surfaceof the metal throughmechanicalmeans:the
lorming process itself or a subsequent pr@edure per-
lormed either before or after the melal is fabri€ted into an
end{se product.
CHEMICALFINISHES are achievedby meansof chemicals,
which may or may not have a physicaleffect on the surface
ol the metal.
COATINGSare appliedas finishes.either to the metal stock
or the fabricatedproduct.Thesecoatingseither changethe
metal itself, througha prmess of chemicl or electrochemi-
cal conversion,or they ar6 simply appliedto the metal sur-
lace.
Applicationenvironments,seMce requirements,and aes-
thetics together determine lvhich metal finish or coatingis
best to specify. Finishes are usually selected tor both
appearanceand function: Chromiumplatingon metal bath-
room water faucets and handlesor baked enamelon sheet
metal lighting fixtures, for 6xample, m6t be attractiveas
well as functionallyprotective.
For structuraland exterior metal buildingprodrcts. such as
steel lraming products. metal siding, and outd@r lighling
fixtures, function and operating environments are more
imponant dteria. From a designstandpoint.it is important
to recognizehow variousfinishesand cctings r€sist rear,
corrosion.and erosion. To chms€ the right @ting or fin-
ish, architectsmust know which materialor prcess is best
suited for a specificappli€tion.
MECHANICAL FINISHES
AS-FABRICATEDFINISHESare the texture and surface
appearane given to a metal by the fabri@tionprocess.
BUFFEDFINISHESare produ€d by successivepolishing
and buffing operationsusing fire abrasives,lubricants,and
soft fabric wheels. Polishingand bufiing improveedge and
surfacefinishesand render many types of est pans more
durable,efticient.and safe.
PATTERNEDFINISHESare availablein varioustexturesand
designs. They are produced by passing an as-fabricated
sheet betweon two rotchsd{esign rollers,embossingpat-
tems on both sides of the sh€et. or b€tween a sm@th roll
and a design roll, embossingor coining on one side of the
sheet onlv.
COMPARATIVE APPLICABILITY OF VARIOUS
TYPE OF FINISH
OR TREATMENT
MECHANICAL FINISHES
NOTE
For more information,see the "Metal FinishesManualfor
Architecturaland Metal Products,"publishedby the Archi-
l€ctural Metal ProductsDivisionof the NationalAss@iation
of ArchitecturalMetal Manutacturers
Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights. Ohio
r=
o METAL
MATERIALS
DIRECTIONAL TEXTURED FINISHES areproducedby mak-
ing tiny parallelscratcheson the metal surfaceusinga belt
or wheel and fine abrasive,or by hand rubbingwith steel
wool. Metal treatedthis way has a smooth.satinysheen.
PEENEDFINISHES are achievedby firinga streamot small
steel shot at a metal surfaceat high velocity.The primary
aim of shot peeningis increasingthe fatiguestrengthot the
component; the deorative finish is a byfroduct. Oth€r
nondirectionaltextured finishes are produced by blasting
metal, under controlledconditions,with silica sand, glass
beads,andaluminumoxide.
CHEMICAL FINISHES
CHEMICALCLEANINGcleans the metal surface without
affecting it in any other way. This finish is achievedwith
chlorinatedand hydr@arbonsolventsand inhibitedchemi-
cal cleanersor solvents(for aluminumand copper)and pick-
ling, chlorinated,and alkalinesolutions{Ior iron and stoell.
ETCHEDFINISHESproducea matte, frosted surfacewith
varyingdegreesol roughnessby treatingthe metal with an
acid (sulfuricand nitric acid)or alkalisolution.
The BRIGHT FINISH process. not used widely, involves
chemicalor electrolyticbrighteningof a metal surface,typi-
callvaluminum.
CONVERSION COATINGis typicallycategorizedas a chem-
ical finish, but since a layer or coating is produced by a
chemicalreaction,it muld be considereda coatingas well.
Conversionmatings typicallypreparethe surfaceof a retal
for painting or for rmeiving another type of finish but aro
also used to producea patina or statuaryfinish. A mmpc
nent is treated with a dilute solutionof phosphoricacid or
sulfuricacidand other chemicalsthat convertthe surfac€of
th€ m6tal to an integral.mildly protectiv€layerof insoluble
crystallinephosphateor sulphateor the lik6. Such mtings
can b€ applied by either spray or immersion and provide
temporary resistance to a mildly corrosive environment.
Th€y can be specifiedfor gray, ductile, and.malleabloiron
castingsas well as steel castings,forgings,or weldments,
such as railingsand outd@r furniture.
COATINGS
ORGANICCOATINGSon metal €n provideprotectiononly
or seru€ both Drotectivoand decorativs functions. Th6
former categoryincludesprimersor underffits, pigm€nted
topcoats in hidden areas,and clear finishes.OrganiccGt-
ings seruingdoubleduty includepigrented coatingsin visi-
ble areas,clear finishes used for gloss, and transparentor
translucentcloarfinisheswith dves add6d.
FINISHES FOR ARCHITECTURAL
METAL
Organiccoatingsusuallyfallunderthe generalcategories of
paints,varnishes, enamels,lacquers,plastisols, organisols.
and powders. Literallyhundredsof differentorganiccoalrn!
formulationsofler an almost unllmited range of prop€rties
but dipping and sprayingof paints account for most indus
trialand commercialbuildingprolects.Dippingis usefulfor
coatingcomplex metal parts,but sprayingis used for most
architecturalapplications.Sprayingis fast and inexpensive.
and new computertontrolled guns can lollow even com'
plex curyatures.Conventionalspraying,however, has two
disadvantages.For one thing, there is no easy, inexpensive
way to collect and re-use the coating material.And when
solvent-basedpaints are used, there is the addedproblem
of meeting environmentalrestrictions.
ELECTRODEPOSITION. an increasingly popularalternative
to spraying,is similar to electroplating,except that organic
resins are d€positedinstead oJ metal. Electrodepositionis
basedon the principlesof electrophoresis-the movement
of charged particles in a liquid under the influenceof an
appliedvoltage.
Electrodepositionoffers several advantages:The coating
buildsup to a uniformthicknesswithoutruns or sags;very
little paint is wasted; low levels of volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCS)are emitted; and coatingscan be deposited
even into deeply recessedareasof a complex shape.Elec-
trodepositionalso has disadvantages.Coatingthicknessis
limited,and becauseonly one coat can be appliedthis way,
subsequentcoats must be sprayed.
POWDERCOATING is perhaps the best known environ-
mentally acceptable painting process. Powder coatings
otfer several advantages.Beeuse the paints are solvent-
less, they are safer and "greener." In addition,the paints
cost less and last a long time.
Powderedpaints are formulatedin much the same way as
solvent-basedpaints, with the same pigments, tillers,and
extenders,but are dry at r@m temperatures.Heat{eactive
or "heatiatent" hardeners.catalysts, or cross]inkers are
useo as cunng agenrs.
Powdercoatingsare either thermoplasticor thermosetting.
As the term impli€s,thermoplasticcoatings,which include
vinyl, poly€thylene,and certain polyesters,are melted by
heat during appli€tion. Before such coatings are applied,
tho surfacemust be primedto ensuregood adhesion,Ther-
mosetting paints undergo a chemicalchange; they cannot
be remelted by heat. The thermosets do nol require a
primer. Coating powders include epoxies, polyurethanes,
acrylics.and polyesters.
APPLICATIONS
CARBON STEEL AND IRON

GENERAL
The two most common methods of applying powdered fin-
rsnes to metat are spraying?nd dipping, the same as those
used ror-solvent-based paint. Electrostatic sprayrng is used
tq apply powder litms from 't to 5 mjt thick. A mixt:re of air
and powder moves from a hopper lo a spray gun. ihe mix-
rure rs cnarged. etectrostatically as rt passes tl.rough lhe
spray,gun. ca.usingit to stick to any grounded metal;bject.
Powder lhat talls to the floor is recvcreo.
For cortings thjcker than 5 mit. ftuidized_bed dipping is
used. The powder is placed in a special tank into wircli air
rs blown, turning the powder into a fluidlike mass. parts
are
dipped in the "fluid" and baked to cure the finish.
ANODIC COATINGS
Anodic oxides are widely used to protect aluminum and
many of its alloys from corrosion. When the metal is anod_
rzed in one of a vafletv of acids, a protectrve oxide rs formed
on the,surtace. Dependtng on lhe acid, the oxide may range
irom thin and nonporous to thick and porous. three
typ6s
of anodizing are used for aluminum: ctrromic, sutturic,'inO
nardcoat.
CHROMIC ANODIZING results in a retativety soft coaring
and is the least used of the three types, but it does offei
several advantages. lt has excellent corrosion resistance,
so rinsing is_not as important. lt is suitable for complex casi
pans and offers a coating of the most consrstently
uniform
thickns55 366 tha rost endulng tatigue strength.
SULFURIC ANODIZING. the most widely used method,
produces a harder coating than chromic inoaizing,
but ii
can.be scratched. lt offers a pleasing appearance ind can
oe dyed In several colors. Corrosion reststance is good.
HARDCOAT ANODIZING produces a relatively thick,
extremely hard coating that can be dyed in a range ol sel-
ors,.Corrosion resistance is g@d. Hardcoats poroui,
makrng them suitable as a base for paints and adhesives.
"rj
Since alJanodrc processes produce porous alumrnum{xtde
coalngs, seatrng rs usuallv destrdble Ihe coat,no
rs
rmmersect In hot water, the oxide ls hydrated,
and the p;res
swell shut. Several manufacturers claim that their
sealino
agents do the same lhrng through catalylrc action
at lowei
Iemperatures. Chroric and SUlfuric-anodtzed coatings
nearry atways are sealed, but hardcoats are not.
VITREOUS COATINGS are composed ol Inoroanic qlossv
mateflats {glass). porcelain enamels are the most
com'_
monly used vitreous coating for architectural applications.
Arrnougn one ol the hardest and most durable finishes,
they are brittle. Deformation of metal surfaces
cir.e
cracktng and spltlting. porcelain enamel coattngs ""n
come in a
woe range ol cotors and finrshes and are typically
applied
to steel and alumrnum {bathtubs, srnKs, corumn covers].
Emoossed palterns and textures may be apphed bv alterrno
the metal backing surtace or the coaiing itselt.
HOT DIPPING of ferrous metal objects consisls of immers_
Ing crean parts Into a molten bath of the desired
coatino
metal- In general, molten aluminum, lead, zinc, and
som6
ailoys can b_e app|ed as hotdrp coatrngs to rrons.
Lach
orrers specrflc advantages. Hot_dip coatings are particularlv
surtabte tor rntflcately shaped cast ter.ous ilems such
as
merar rooirng components and natls and other fasteners.
METALLIC PLAI ING rs done by either electrodeposition
or
erectrootatrno
In electrodeposition, an electrical current is carried
across
an eleclrolyte and an organic resrn substance depostled
on
an erectrode {rhe metal oblect berng painted}. In electroolat_
-substance"
Ing, the rs a melal, such as chromium, in an
erect.otyte Water usually seryes as the solvent in the
elec_
trotyte. Although chromium is commonly used for
olatino_
many metals can be deposited on the substrate.
Similarly. a wide range of plating qualty is available.
For
exampte, a thtn coating of zrnc wll protect a metal compo
Finishes
on Metols 263
nent trom rust or co(osion for a short ltme chromrum
olar
-'
ing, on the other hand, protects longer and tqet
| 6p11.-r-
Materials widely used to plate complex metal components
Inctuoe Oronze, brass, chromium, cadmtum.
cbromates
copper, lead, lead-tjn, nickel, phosphates, silver, tin nickel
and tin-zinc. Not all of these matenals can O" o.oos,tea
on
all metal substrates. For example, ,inc erect,opriJlJn"
6f
used on steel but not on cast iron. Therefore. coat,nc/sutl
strate compatibiltty is a crucial constderation,r maichno
coatrng performance to application requrrements. IVOicaj
applcatons ror ptatrng include food servrcrng areas, plumb
Ing txlures, extenor metal, and architecturat products.
LAMINATED COATINGS
Lamination involves bonding preformed plastic lilms
to
metats wath adhesives. Laminated coatings provide finrshei
for products such as interior paneling, pJrtliions,
and exte_
rior metalwork..Three-types ot ptastli tit- _iO"fv u!"i,
potwjnyl chloride lpVC). polyvinyl fluoride (pVf),
"ru anU acrviic.
PVC films provide excellent stain and abrasion resrstance.
Available in five or six colors, these ta.,n"r"s -uv
Jo,i.""
wilh.grarning o, embossrng to simulat" *ooa gr",n, i""if,ei
orraoilc I ttm thrcknesses range from 0.004 i.. lo 0
04t In,
but most common and most economical are those from
0.008 and 0.014 in.
PVF iilms are usually laminated in a thickness of
0 OO2 in
and have a sm@th, medium gloss surface. Despite
their
thlnness.,.they are very strong, tough, and weather resis_
tant, making them panicularly suited to exterior apolications
such as.siding materials. Their color range as li;ited,
-well. bui
they resist staining and chemiel damage
Acrylic films are low cost products that sland up
well to
weather and are widely used for exterror melalwor*. Thev
restst UV radiation and yellowing and,etarn their fleribtltv
wrrn agrng I hey are usually applied in a thickness
ot 0.00i
In. and are reasonably priced.

REPRESENTA IVE ARCHJTECTURAL USES AND COMPARATTVE PROPERTIES OF COATINGS

BINDER T
WELDABLE
AS PRIMER
Solvent,reducible
Water-reducible: yes2
air dried
baked yes2
ye52

polyethylene

formaldehyde

chloride

s
0norganrcl

modified
polymers

(aliphatic{ured)

L-low; M-moderate; H-high; VH-very hrgh; NA{ot apDll I AII coatings

cabte or not available: p-pmr; F_fair; Ggmd; t+xcellent may be shop applied; all may be lield applied 2 For light nonstructural
except sotvenl reducible acrylics, baked acrylic, celluiose, welding only
ano tuorocarbons

Robert C. Rodgers. P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio

METALMATERIALS
264 StructurqlWelds
JOINT PREQUALIFICATION
STRUCTURAL \^/ELDING
Welded ioints that contorm to all American Welding Society
Structural welds can be made with hundredsot-different code ani specrficatron provistons tor design matellal and
welding processes.
'metat The most common are lorms ol workmanshio are prequalified joints There are a variety of
arc and oxyfuel gas welding These pro specific fillet and groove welded joints that meet most
"tieiaei
*.!"i designed tor the speci{ic welding conditions: siructural work requirements and are recommended lor
metal, siructural requirements weld position' and
Wpe of "t" oeneral use in buildings and bridges. Joints that are not
l6inrsoeciticaiions. Normally,however,the designerdoes ;requalrtied under the AWS code are required to be
quali
hJ-s-i."itv the process whrch rs lo be used to make a iied bv tests as orescribed by the code
Ga,Io i"iirt. ihii designer specifies the tYpe.andsiz-eof
reld neededfor the specificioint and leavesthe detausor For ouick reference and more advanced considetation, the
how the joint is to be made up to the fabricator. coNvEx CONCAVE preqr]alilied joints are shown in AWS "Structural Welding
FILLET WELD NOMENCI-ATURE cod+Steel. "
The two most important types of structuralwelds are fillet The model cross section of a fillet weld is a right triangle
welds and groovewelds. They are the most useful in struc- with eoual leqs. The leg size designatesthe effective stze FLARE .V. GROOVE
tural aoplicitions.Back welds are used in conjunctionwith oi inii.r"ro. ihe length-ofa fillet weld is the distancefrom EFFECTIVE
iinot"'itooue welds to complete the weld penetration en+t@nd of the fulisize tillet, measuredparallelto its root
THROAT = R/2
FG, rr6t, ino tr"re *elds are ot secondaryimponanceand iin". Foi fillet welds the effective length is equal to FLARE .BEVEL-
are limited in application. length,measuredalonga line bisectingthe throat
ihe thrcat"uruea GROOVE
EFFECTIVE
THROAT -(5R)/16
INCLUDEO
ANGLE

FILLET u,ELO JOINTS
vvith a triangular cross section, fillet w€lds ioin two
surfaes appr6ximatelyat right anglesto each other in lap,
ts. and corner ioints. They are also used with gr@ve
@lds as reinlorcementsin cornerjoints-
The cross section of a fillet weld nBy diff€r irom the -right
trianqle model in severalways The includedangle ot the
*eid".av u"rv tto.60'to 135', ot unequalleg welds may
be emoloved.When unequalleg welds are used' the use ot
the no;ru| throat sizeas the effectiw size in weld str€ngth
calculationswill, in most cases,be conseryativeHowever'
-hln tn" included angle of weld deposit is substantially
oreater than 90 ", the etfectivethroat size shouldbe oeter-
;ined lrom the actualdimensionsof the weld acmrding to
AmericanWeldingSocietysp€cifi€tims.
FLAREWELD NOMENCUTURL
Flarewelds are sp€cialcasesof groove welds in which the
qr;ove surlaceoione or both partsot a,oint is convex This
ionvexity may be the result of edge preparation.but more
offen one or both components conslsts of a round rod ol
rcunaed Co.plete penetrationin a flare weld is usu-
tb acnieveand the qualityof the weld is difficult
"ttap".
attvaitticutt
iJ'"ont.t: therefore, design vaiuesshould be appliedcon-
seruativelvand special considerationsneed to be taken In
certaininstances.
FLARE \/vELDS

FILLET WELDS

Gr@w welds are welds made in a groove betwe€n adl& PLUG AND SLOT I\,ELDS
cent €nds, 6dges, or surfaces of two parts to be lorneo In a GROOVE ANGLE
butt. teo. or corner lolnl. Pluo and slot welds are used in lap joints to transmitshear
loais. oreventbuckling of lappedparts' or join component
The edqe d ends of pans to be gr@ve welded are usually mrts of built{p mehbers. Round holes or slots are
oremrdd bv flare cutting, arc air gouging' or edg€
planing
WED THROAT-
Lun"trea or oth!ruise forred in one component of th€
io orwide square. vee, bevel, U-' or J-shaped
gr@ves lhat
WELO SlZE LiniO"io*
'deposited With pans in position.weld metal is
ird straight dnd true to dimension. The preparation is.done the openings,which may be pa-rtially
in"""".01v. or com.
to ensure that the base metal is welded evenly comp€tely oletelv tilled, depending on the thicknessot the puncneo
rhrouoh the ioint. With thicker metal it is also done to open lrateriat.aWS "structuiatWeldingCode-Steel'shouldbe
up thiioint drea for welding. RelatrvelY thin rolerial may be
ROOT OPENING consultedfor atlowableproportionand spacingof holesand
gr@ve welded with square cut edges slots and the depth of welds.
FULL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD
SINGLE VEE CORNER JOINT
'
NOMENCLATURE It is necessaryto distinguishbetween plug or slot welds
WITH REINFORCING FILLtr
Except where backrng bars are employed, speci{ications
and fillet welds placed aroundthe inside of a hole or slot
DOUBLE VEE gUfr Filletwelds in a slot are easierto make and inspectand are
reouire that lhe weld roots generally must be chipped.or
JOINT WITH SPACER
lo sound metal before mking lhe second weld
uiuatty preterea ouer fillet welds in round holesor plug and
oouoed
-ourooses
SINGLE SOUARE For of stress computation. the throat dlmenston
slot wdds.
BUfr JOINT WITH full
BACKING oia iutt'p"n"ttarion groove weld is @nsidered to b€ the PLUG AND SLOT \,vELOS
BAR tnl"tneis of the lhinner part joined, exclusive of weld rein-
forcement, such as backing bars. ROOT GROOVE SIZE

SOUARE BUT
EFFECTIVE
. THROAT
ROOT

T JOINT WITH WELD

REINFORCING EFFECTIVE OPENING
FILLET THROAT

SINGLE BEVEL BUTT GROOVE WELD

PARTIAL PENETRATION
SINGLE U JOINT WITH BACKING BEAO
NOMENCUTURE
CORNER JOINT
J BUN JOINT WITH EXAMPLES OF PARTIAL PENETRATION Edoe oreoaration of base materral for partial
peneiration
WITH REINFORCING BACKING BEAD
FILLET GROOVE WELDS we-lds is simrlar to that for tull penetration groove welds
Out it uiuittv less than the {ull thickness. The etfec-
EXAMPLES OF COMPLETE PENETRATION Partial penetration groove welds are employed -when "ou"t. and, hence, the weld strength ot par
riu" tf,ro"t thickness
GROOVE WELDS .ti""sej to b" tt"n.ferred do not require full penetration, or
iiai oenetration groove welds is normally limited to less
wirLn wetaing must be done from on€ side of a ioint only
The two types of groov€ welds are complete penetrallon and it is not p.-ossibleto use backing bars or to gouge weld
than the lull ioint thickness.
and mrtial Denetratlon. A complete perettation weld is one ioors to, Oait welds. The applcation ot partiai
penetration
that;chieves fusion of weld and base metal throughout the qr@ve welds is governed by specrfications and may lmlt The use of partial penetration welds is subiect to AWS code
d"ottr ol th" ioint. lt is made by we ding {rom both srdes of thickness or the thickness of the mate- and other specilication provisions. These are more restnc-
ihe effective throit
th; ioint. from one side to a backing bar, or back welding tive in bridgb specifications than in building codes'
rial on which theY are to be used.
the iirst weld.

GROOVE VI/ELDS

METALFASTENINGS
 BASIC \n/ELDING SYMBOLS
BASIC WELD DEVICE SYMBOLS
The three basic parts needed to form a welding symbol are:
OR BUTT JOI NTS
an arrow pointlng to the joint, a (elerence line upon which PLUG GROOVE
the dimensional data are placed, and a weld device symbol BACK FI LLET OR FLARE FLARE
indicatjng the weld type required. The tail of the welding \^/E LD \/1/E LD SQ UAR E BEVEL U BEVEL
symbol is only necessary to indicate addttional data, such as
specification, process, or detail references.

The atrow indicates the joint where the weld is to be made. \ tf I V Y V

I )
tr
il
The basic weld device symbol or device indacates the type
of weld to be made. for example: fillet, U€roove, bevel, or
plug. The position ol the basic weld symbol or device indi-
cates which side of the joint is to be welded. The boftom SUPPLEMENTARY \^/ELD SYMBOLS
side of the reference line is designated as the arrow side, BACKING SPACER WE LD-ALL.A.ROU ND FIELD - WELD FLUSH CO NVEX
meaning any welding operation shown on this side of the
reterence line is to be performed on the same side of the
loint as the arrow. When an operation is shown on the top
side ot the reference line it is to be oerJormed on the ioint
side ooDosite the arrow. NoTE:
FI -fI- o F
For additional basic and supplementary weld symbols, see the American Welding Society A2.4,79

The weld dimensions, size. length, pitch, etc.. are placed on

the reference line next to the weld device. These dimen-
sions read from left to right regardless of which side the FINISH SYMBOL GROOVE ANGLE OR INCLUDED
arrow is on. CONTOUR SYMAOL ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK FOR
PLUG WELDS
ROOT OPENING, DEPTH
FILLET WELDS LENGTH OF WELD IN INCHES
OF FILLING FOR PLUG
The dimensions needed for fillet welds are weld size and AND SLOT WELDS
PITCH (C TO C, SPACING) OF
length and, for inremittenr fillet welds, pitch. The weld size WELDS IN INCHES
is equal to the weld leg size, Gsuming that the legs are equal.
DEPTH OF PREPARATION FIELD WELO SYMBOL
In the rare instance that ihe legs arc not equal, the sire is not
OR SIZE IN INCHES /.-
given in the welding symbol but instead the weld legs re di-
WELD-ALL-AROUND SYMBOL
mensioned iD the drawing to avoid confusion- Iftherc is a typ- SPECIFICATION, PROCESS
ical weld size for a paniculd dnwing, the sirc may be nored OR OTHER REFERENCE ,_--\;
in the notcs ad left off of the symbol. If the joint is to b€
welded on both sides, thcn both sides must be dimensioned, TAIL tOMlnED WHEN
even it they ile the same. REFERENCE IS NOT USED)

lf the length of a fillet weld is omitted, it is understood to
mean that the weld is to extend the full distance between
abrupt changes in the part of the joint outline specified by
the weld symbolarrow. lf the same size fillet is required lor
the full length of all sides of a particular joint. regardless of
abrupt changes in its direction, the weld-all-around symbol
can be used to simplify the drawing.
'/o\ zoo
' t 4 v 2 @6
/
--7-l
# shown for the near side shall be duplicated on the tar side.
STAGGERED
INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDS
Pitch is used with intermittent fillet welds to give the center
to center dimensions between welded sections. When
using pitch, length is the dimension ol the individual weld
sections.
COMPLETE PENETRATION GROOVE V\/ELDS
When detailing complete penetration groove welds the
dimensions usually include the weld size. root opening, the
groove angle for vee, bevel, J, and U welds. and the groove
radii for J and U welds. The length ot groove welds is not
given, because the welds are amepted to go from end to
end of pieces welded. Any deviation from lhis requires
additional detailino.
UNSYMMETRICAL GROOVE WELD CALLOUT
Normally the weld size ol a complete joint penetration
groove weld is understood to be the full thickness of the
thinner metal connected, and its dimension need not be
shown on the welding symbol. However. it the preparation
of a double groove weld is not symmetrical, the size of
each side of the weld must be shown.
The root opening is shown near the root of the gr@ve
device The g.oove angle is to be shown within the groove
REFERENCE LINE
BASIC WELD DEVICE
SYMBOL OR DETAIL ARROW CONNECTS REFERENCE LINE TO
ARROWSIOE OF JOINT. USE BROKEN LINES
SHOWN TO SIGNIFY THAT ARROW IS POINTiNG
THESE PARTS OF WELD SYMBOL ALWAYS TO THE GROOVED MEMBER IN BEVEL OR
READ THE SAME DIRECTION REGARDLESS ,/ J.GROOVED JOINTS
OF WHiCH OIRECTION THE ARROW IS POINTTNG-/
N OTES
1. Size, weld symbol. length of weld, and spacing must read in that order from left to right along the reference line. Neither orien
tation of reference line nor location of the arrow alters this rule.
2. The perpendicular leg ot \, / P lf weld symbols must be at left.
3. Arrow and other side welds are of the same size unless otheMise shown. Dimensions of fillet welds must be shown on bolh
the arrow side and the other side symbol.
4. The point ot the lield weld symbol must point toward the tail
5. Symbols apply between abrupt changes in direction of welding unless governed by the "all-around" symbol or otherwise
dimensioned.
6 These symbols do not explicitly provide for the case that frequently @curs in structural work, where duplicate material {such as
stiffeners) occurs on the far side of a web or gusset plate. The fabricating industry has adopted the following conventroni when
the billing ot the detail material discloses the existence of a member on the far side as well as on the near side. the wetdino
STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING SYMBOL
taces ot the device and above the root opening The angle can vary from the weld size due to welding process, weld-
is understood to be the total. or included. angle of the ing position, or the groove angle used. Depending on these
groove_ factors, the depth of weld deposit, or the ef{ective throat,
can be less than the depth of the groove, or weld size.
There is no provision for dimensioning radii of U and J
gr@ve welds in the AWS welding symbol. This is usually Panial penetration groove welds can be used as intermif
covered by the fab{icator's standard weld proportions, with tent welds. Consideration must be given to the transition at
reference to AWS prequalified ioints. lf not, it must be the beginning and end of the weld. Therefore, contract
shown by note or sketch in the drawing. design drawings should only specify the etJective weld
length and the required effective throat. The shop drawings
PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS should then show the groove depth and geometry that will
grovide for the reouired effective throat.
Partial penetralion groove welds require all of the same
dimensions as complete penetration groove welds, plus
two additional dimensions: effective throat and weld size. PLUG ANO SLOT \^/ELDS
With partial penetration groove welds, the weld preparation The saze for plug welds specifies the diameter of the
usually is less than the thickness of the material being punched hole. For slot welds the size includes the width
welded. Because of this the weld size must always be and length of the slot. Plug and slot welds will be com,
given. The effective throat must also be given because it pletely filled unless the depth of the filling is shown inside
the weld symbol. Slot welds are noted by detail references
in the tail that refer to dimensioned sketches of the slot for
clarity. The arrow and other side indicates which side of the
joint is to be punched. The flush weld symbol is used if the
top of the weld is to be leveled off.
CONTOUR SYMBOLS
The flush and convex symbols are used to modity the
shape of the weld face. The contour symbols are placed
over the weld device. Almost all of the basic weld symbols
can be combined with each other and with the spacer,
backing bar, back weld, and contour symbols to create
many di{ferent welds.
PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD
CALLOUT

METALFASTENINGS
266 SteelBeqmsond Columns:LoodToble
SAFE TOTAL UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (KIPS) FOR BEAMS
LATERALLY s;UPPORTED-ASTM A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL, ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN'

I For capacityof beams not shown see AISC Manual of NOTES Y

Steel Construction,2d ed. (load and resistance factor ALLOWABLE LoAD MUST BE
1. Consultstrucluralengineerto verify lateralsupport . aPPLrtrD rN PUNE oF Y Y ars
design)and gth ed. (allowablestress design). i

2 Depth = steel designation(in.);weight = lb/lt; kip = 1000 2. Multiply lffids by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitiesto(
, loadand resistancefactor designmethod.
tb.
+l

/ COLUMN

./ PAmtAL
-I\\EN

BOLED PLATE
CONNECTION

1' REruRN
\aCH END

SH@ WELDED TAA FIELD SHOP ffiLDED T€ FIELD SHOP reDED TAB TO COLUMN WEB.FIELD H.S- BOLED
HGH STRENGTH EOLTED HIGH STRENGTH BOLED reB ND fuTES FIELD H.S. BOLED FUNGE_PARTIAL PENETRATION

SHEAR CONNECTION NONMOMENT CONNECTION NONMOMENT CONNECTION COLUMN SPLICE

BEAM TO GIRDER BEAM TO COLUMN FLANGE E'EAM TO COLUMN WEE} FI.-ANGE AND WEB

CONNECTIONSAND SPLICES

5AFE TOTAL CONCENTRIC LOAD (KIPS) FOR COLUMNS_ASTM A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL
(w SHAPES) AND ASTM A sOO STEEL (TS-SHAPES AND PIPE, 46 KSt), ALLOWABLE STRESS DESTGN *
DESIGNATION

' For addirionalcolumns and actual dimensions
see AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 2d ed. (load and
resistancefactor design) and gth ed. {allowablestress
design).
** Weight per ft for W columns. Wall thickness for tubing.
N OTE
kip = 1999 lb: K = effective length factor (verify with
structural engineering consultant).
Multiply loads by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitieslor
load and resistancefactor design method-

Arerican Institule of Steel Construction;Chicago,lllinois

STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
 W qnd M Steelshopes 267
W SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILTNG
T H rcK-
NE
NATI O N ilN.) NATIO N

WEB
THICK.
NESS
NATION tN.)

M SHAPES_
DIMENSTONS FOR DETAILING

American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois

STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
268 S, HP,C, MC, qnd L SteelShopes
- MISCELLANEOUS CHANNELS- S SHAPES-
ANGLES FOR DETAILING
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING DIMENSIONS
DIMENSTONS FOR DETAILING
*+q-b d=deprh
n l tl
ttl . lrl b, = width
ill oxltx
t, = llangethrckness
'-tll-ill'1-----------.) -/tr-
L * -o:
tr = flange thickness . lll

tw = web thickn€ss { t* = web thickness

| - { " At I+

SIZE AND
TH ICKNESS
(r N . )
D E5IG.
NATION

AMERICAN
STANDARD CHANNELS-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING

d = depth
9.4
br = width

tr = flange thickness

t* = web thickness

HP SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING HICK
DESIG- ESS
NATION

D ESIG.
NATION

Ameri@n Instituteot Steel Construction:Chicago,lllinois

METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
 StructurolTees
Cutlrom W ond S Shopes 269
STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM W SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETATLING THICK
NATION
IN.) NATION
d = depth

STEM

DESIG-
tcK-
NE
NATION ilN .)

STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM S SHAPES_
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING

American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois

STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
270 SteelFromeSYstems
FRAME RIGID FRAME
MOMENT-RESISTING
{rame'slateralslabrlityand resrstance Rioid frame construction combines columns and a beam or
A moment-resislinq Such a
-venicalto make a rigid connection
oirier welded toaether
to wnd and seismri lorces dependon a fixed connecttonot loads and resist horizontal forces'
ls ir"-e c"n carry
beams and columns. A moment-resistingconnecllon *inO o, d"i"-ic. Rigid frame buildings are usuallv sin-
*tt"n the lop and bottom flanges ot each beam qle story and are available with provisions lor cranes, balce
"irtr"i
ire welded to the llanges of the connectingcolumns wrth
"inieu"J
mez?anrnes. The r@fs are generally sloped'
tulldeothwelds. By ditectlyweldingthe beamweb to the
ii"".
permits the use of combined r@{ decks and water-
which ",io
column flange, the beam's holizontalreactronto wlno piooini systems: the slope varies but is usually at least
1 STIFFENER
torces is transferred to the column. (A connection uslng i^ 12.
*"0 inslu" and high-strengthbolts is also permined ) The
ouitdinb;sttoors ae designed to act as draphragmsthal
Because thev span fairly long distances relatively cheaply
aff of the columni and beams, enablingthe build
"."."it t*idths ,"nq" between 30 and 130 ft), rigid frame struc-
ing to reactas a unit. lrgnt
tures are us;d for recreational buildings: warehousesi
Industrial burldingsj and commercial buildings, such as
Momentiesisting frames are uneconomi€l in tall steel ga'age-s-
suoermarkets, auiomobile dealer showrooms, and
L'uitiinqsO"""ut-" ttte largerlaleral lorces in such buildings 30
eii ;i."; ai" lsuaty 20 to 24 ft but mav be exiended to
cin Oe'tranateOmore efficiently by compressionand ten-
ft. the roof protile is most often configured as a symmerts
iion aiagonalmemuers. as found in braced{rames To save necessrty
cal oable. but such a profile is not a structural
co"ts, oiien the upper stories of a braced lrame building n.oii i'0. *"rt" aie usually covered with 26-gauge col-
i."'.omtnt-resi"ilng beafrcolumn connectionsto resist "^o siding; insulation options vary. Some manufactutr
ANCHOR
orld steel BOLT (DEPTH AS
wind loads. tsre-
ers offer precast concrete and masonrY sldlng NECESSARY, 2 PER
roor
STEEL WIOE- -...-,.-----STEELWIDE- engineered buildings most often use rigid frames lor COLUMN) Sff INTO
FUNGE BEAM and wall suPports. CONCRffE FOUNDATION
FUNGE
COLUMN -.-..-._MOMENT' TYPICAL SEISMIC FOUNOATION CONNECTION
' RESISTING PURLINS
CONNEC'
TION (TYP.)
EMBOSSMENTS IN
RIGID
STEEL DECK PROVIDE
FRAME
KEYING EFFECT TO
RAFTER

EAVE
STRUT
STEEL OECK
WELDEO TO
STEEL BEAM
(SPAN 6.TO
GIRT

ROD BRACING .
ENO

COLUMN BEARING FRAME

RANER
RIGID FRAME

PURUN TIES
(2 PER BAY AT THIRD
POINTS FOR SRHI 60'
MOMENT.RESISTING STEEL FRAME THROUGH I 20' WIDE)
STIFFENERS WELD-
ED TO COLUMN AT
POINTS OPPOSITE
BEAM FLANGES
COLUMN
WELD
WEB CUT AWAY AT
JOINT WITH COL-
UMN TO ALLOW
CONTINUOUS WED NOTES
AT UNDERSIOE OF
TOP FUNGE 1. For nonlire-ratedceilingsituations
BEAM 2. Typicellyused for heavy loads; noncompositefloor sys
tem for light loads
C O M P O S I T EF L O O R A N D B E A M S Y S T E M
WELD CONCRETE FILL
STEEL DECK WELDEO
WELD TO BAR JOIST

BEAM ANO WELDED TO BEAM IN FIELE

COLUMN-TO-BEAM MOMENT-REgISTING
CONNECTION
COLUMN
STEEL ANGLE SHOP
WELDEO OR BOLTED
IN PLACE (WITH
ANCHOR BOLT) FOR ROD
HIGH.RISE CON. SPAN GIR
ARACE
STRUCTION (MORE
THAN IO STORIES) FLANGE
CONTINUOUS
WELD ALL AROUND SPAN GIRT

COLUMN

BASE PUTE ANCHOR BEARING PUTE

l ! .-:=-i' . . . i i BOLT
ii --nNcHoR BoLT sET
li lNTo coNcRffE BAR JOIS]
I: FOUNDATION SECONDARY {SPAN
:i (2 MtN. PER PLATE) STEEL BEAM t5'TO
COLUMN BASE PLATE OETAIL FOR NONCOMPOSITE FLOOR
20'TYP.)
LOW.RISE CONSTRUCTION
TYPICAL FLOOR SYSTEMS
MOMENT.RESISTING FRAME RIGID FRAME

Maryland
DonaldJ- N€ubauer.P-E.;Neubauer- Sohn.ConsultingEngineers;Potomc'
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Cromsville, Maryland

METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
 SteelFrqmeSystems 271
FRAMED TUBE lhe Sears Tower In Chtcago are the most conspicuous
lr the framed tlbe system. slruclural examples. Syslems lte rhat;l rne Sea,s fo*er, a
FLOOR BEAM steel members {orm fJm6i"#
rne roaO Deanng extenor perimeter wall, thrs wall rs tron of njne framed tubcs jn a 3 by 3 array a,. ,o-"t,il"-,
OesrgneoSo the ertrre building becomes, in effect, a struc- caileo 0undted tubes
turat steel tube. The tubular strength is achieved in
two
ways the,exteflOr Columns are spaced closely rogelher BRACED CORE
oernaps b ll on center, and connected to Spandrel beams;
ln the braced core system, walls around elevator shafts
GUSSET PUTE the slructure is stittened by the fl@rs to foim a tors,onalij and
starrweils are designed to act as vertical trusses that canti_
WELDED TO lgro tuDe. the spandrel beams are generally very deep. in
BONOM FLANGE lever up from the foundation. The chords of each truss
units of teet as opposed to inches. ihe columns and sfan_ are
building columns; the tloor beams act as ties. Diagonals
drel beams are welded together to c.eate a moment{esist. placed In a-K pattern (occasronallyin an X pattern) coriplete
Ing connection. Often thrs system is referred to as a
the truss A system employrng knee braces rs used in sers-
prerced tube, the pierced areas being lhe window
DIAGONAL BRACE oDen_ mrc. areas beca^Lseof its greater abtlrty to dtssrpate earth.
AOLTED TO ings.
quaKe energy. brdced core systems can be used effrcrently
GUSSET PUTE In srngte-storybuildings as well as in buildings over b0 sto-
The framejl tube system is most economical for very tall
ries.
buildings. The World Trade Center Towers in New yori and
LOAO BEARING
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION AT FLOOR EXTERNAL WALL BRACED CORE
BEAM-INTERMEDTATE (MIDSPAN) CORE BOX
KNEE BRACE AT
LONGITUOINAL
SIDE
-COLUMN
A,BRACE AT
SHORT SIDE

OIAGONAL BRACE
BOLTED TO
T-STUA GUSSET

T.STUB GUSSET
BOLTEO TO
COLUMN

TYPICAL
SHEAR
SPANDREL
BRACED CORE CONNECTION
COLUMN
N OTE
Bracing design to be determined by struCtural englneer
based on specific loading configurations
FLOOR BEAM (TOP COLUMN
FUNGE CUT OUT
FOR T.STUB) WELD TOP (AND
BOTTOM) FUNGE
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION TO COLUMN IF
AT FLOOR BEAM_END MOMENT
RESISTANCE
ALSO NEEDED
STEEL GUSSET
PUTE BOLTED STEEL ANGLE
TO CROSS
ARACES WELD (IN
SHOP)

OIAGONAL
CROSS BRACE.

Externalwall units typicallystaggeredin one-storyheights COLUMN.TO.BEAM SHEAR CONNECTION

P E R I M E T E RW A L L D E T A T L COLUMN GUSSET PUTE WELDED

TO COLUMN ANO BEAM

STEFL PUTE
CROSS BRACING CONNECTION- SPANOREL FUNGE BOLTED TO
INTERMEDIATE CUT OUT TO OIAGONAL
RECEIVE COLUMN STRUT
SPANDREL WEB
BEYOND
SPANDREL BEAM

CONTINUOUS
WELD BMEEN
FUNGE AND
BACK OF
SPANDREL WEB
-SHEAR PUTE
WELDED TO
DIAGONAL
SPANOREL;
STRUT
BOLTED IN
FIELD TO
ADJACENT
SPANOREL
AEAM

TIFFENER
WELDED TO
COLUMN-TO.
DIAGONAL SPANDREL,
COLUMN WELD
CROSS BRACE {OPTIONAL) SHEAR
BOLTED TO CONNECTOR
GUSSET PUTES
CROSS
TYPICAL DIAGONAL BRACE
BRACING CONNECTION_ENO
SPANDREL AND COLUMN OETAILS CONNECTION OETAIL

VERTICAL BRACING DETAILS FRAMED TUBE BRACED CORE

DonaldJ. Neubauer,P.E.;Neubauer- Sohn,ConsultingEngineers:

potomac,Marytand
RichardJ. Vitullo,AtA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville.
Marytind

SIRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
272 Spoce Flomes
GENERAL
RATIO FOR ROOFS
A soace frame is a three-dimensionaltruss with lnear ---.-- DLPTH-TO SPAN
1 1A IF COLUMN-SUPPORfED
-.-fiGis ttt"t tot. a series ol triangulatedpolyhedrons lt ryPIGL MODULES:
4 ' , 5 , e ' , .1 2 ' , 1 :2O lF WALL-SUPrcRTED
can be seen as a plane of constant depth that can sustaln
iiirly long spansand variedconfigurationsof-shape

N OTES
1''. The Drime attributesof spaco frame structural systems
arJ thelr light weight; inherentrigidity:their wide variety CANTTLEWR 15% TO

of form. size. and span; and compatibleInteractlonwlm

3@ OF SPAN

otner uultoindsuppdrtsystems, primarilyHVAC'

2. Most svstemsare d€sigred for sp@ificapplications,and
-'a
stru&uraf engineer with space frame experience
should always be consulted.Manulacturerscan provlde
the full rangeot capabiliti€s-loadingspans,shapes,spq N OTE module);is consistentwith th€ limitationsof the interfacing
cific details-for their products Standardizedsyslems In Select a space frame module that is compatible with
the svsieml 1".g.,the maximum span of the rgoj degk ollYll
4- and s-ft modulesare available buildinq planning module in shap€ (e.9.' a square module ri6n'ip""'itlii in" glazingsystim); and satisliesthe spatia
- Metal space frames ars classified as noncombustible
3. with orthogonal plan) and size (a multiple ot the plannrng and aestheticetf€cts in scaleand torm.
*ntttuition and can usually be exposed when 20 ft AND CHARACTERISTICS
abovethe fl@r. However,an automaticfire extinguishrng MODTJLE SELECTION

4sft
svstem or a rated ceiling may be requir€d.Consultapplts
cablebuildingand fire codes.
4. The finishes commonly availableare paint, thermoset
polyester,gaivanizing,stainlesssteel, or metal plating' =T
UTOLITI
NOTE
TETRAHEDFTON HEXAGONAL
Squaretubes or angles within their span range are often
the most economical.
MEMBER SHAPES GRID SHAPES

,r{
K
*V
BENT PTJATE FIJAT PLATE

a-\
MULTIFACETED

-\

SUPPORT TYPES

A
ElOX
SEOON
offi
GORD Y
FOLDED PTJATE
1'-
DOME

ffi ffi l\ ..f7--x

re
<t>
FOR DIRECT ANACHMEM
OF UDDING OR GL€NG-
PARTIAL SPHERE N
ffi
FULL SPHERE
NOTE
HYPERBOLIC
Space frame supports are at panel joints only, not along
members-
FORM TYPES
\,,W NODE CONNECTIONS
SPACE FRAME

MvM OFFSET
RATEO WOOD
MTTAL COANG. ftP
SAFEil GUSS

DIRECT 1/2 MODULE

BLOCKING. WP. GTJZING SPHERICAL
xxffi
ffi ruME NODE
ANGLE sEqroN
WXDOOK FI.AHING

ffi ffi SEMM

META
FLISHING,

res4 KXXD0(
reCIoe'eK
\izl\ro
STEEL

STMP,
JOIST

WP
SAl.AT
UPPER
MEMBER

W ruRLIN GLAZNG

DIRECT OFFSET
SKE\^/ED SKE\n/EO
GLAZING AT

M
ffi
ffi
\W
ffi ffiffiQ# LOWER MEMBER

AJS#A#A
WAI\A/ ffi METAL
AOSURE, WP.

\izlv\,w V_VV__V SPACE FRNE

SUrcRT
CONCRETE
6LUMN
BRACKET/
OR

SHAPE -
OFFSET STRUCruRE
iA MODULE CHANGE BEARING PUTE

Many proprietarynode systems are availablefor spectftc E}OTTOM ANCHOR BOLTS

aoplicationsand budgets.Keep {ield connectionsto a mrnF SUPPORT
mum: welded connectionsoften eliminatejoint pieces.
SLOPED GI-AZING ROOF AND FLOOR CONNECTIONS
COMMON PATTERNS

Severud Ass@iates:New York. New York

r=
LA\
el/ STRUCTURAL FRAMING
METAL
 Open-WebSteelJoists 273
PRELIMINARY JOIST SELECTION NOTES NOTE
'l.Total
The accompanying tables are not to be used for final iojst safe load = live load + dead toad. Dead toad The followinginformationappliesto both open-weband
design bul are Intended as an ard In selectrng steel lorsl; lor Includes the weight of the joists. For dead loads and rec long-spansteeljoists.
preliminary design and planning. Determining the final ommended hve loads, see pages on weights of materi_
design must be a separate and thorough process. involvino als. Local codes will govern JOISTDESIGNATION:
a complete Investrgatron of penrne.t condrltons; thrs pag; 2. Span should not exceed a depth 24 times that of a nomi,
is not intended to support that etfort Consult a structuial nal joist. 25 K 10
engrreer. i t l
3. For more information, refer to the standard specifications L- Chord
I
and load tables adopted by the Steel Joist Institute. I
An example of how to use the informatjon presented here ] K-series
follos: Assume a particular clear span. By assuming a lorst Nominat depth (in.l
spacing and estimating the total load, a joast can immedi-
ately be selected trom the table. Then proceed with prelim- FOr greater economy, the K-series joist replaced lhe H-
inary design studies. series Joist in 1986.

ROOF CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usuallv covered with

steel decfrng lopped with erther rigrd insutatron board or
-4 lightweight concrete fill and either a roof of built-uo felt and
gravel or single ply roofing with ballast. plywood, ooured
BEARING gypsum, or structural wood fiber deck systems can also be
used with a built-up roof.
2116" FILLET WELDS
1 " LONG OR CEILINGS: Ceiling supports can be suspended from or
- AfrACH EVERY JOIST IN FLOOR j/2' BOLTS
ruO -
AND ROOF TO SIEEL BEARING mounted directly to the bottom chords of ioists, although
PurE wtrH ANcHoRS rveeodao suspended systems are recommended because of dimen,
INTO WALL
sional variations in actual joist depths.

FLOOR CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usually covered by 21l,

to 3 in. of concrete on steel decking. Concrete thicknesa
may be increased to accommodate electrical conduit or
2.b' electrical/communications raceways. Precast concrele,
MIN, gypsum planks, or plywood can also be used for the floor
sysrem.
: HORIZONTAL BRIDGING
ANGLES WELDED
VIBRATION: Objectionabte vrbrations can occur rn open
TO CHORDS
web joist and 2112in. concrete slab designs for open floor
areas at spans between 20 and 40 ft, especiallv at 28 tt.
When a floor area cannot have partitions, objeclionable
vibrations can be prevented or reduced by increasing slab
SECTION THROUGH JOIST BEARING thickness or modifying lhe ioist span. Attention should also
be given to suppon for framing beams, which can magnify
a vibration problem when unsupported.
CONTINUOUS DECK 2" MIN,
BEARING ANGLE CONCRETE
ANCHOR BOLTED OVER STEEL OPENINGS lN FLOOR OR ROOF SYSTEMS: Smail open-
TO MASONRY FL@R DECK ings betwe€n ioists are framed with angles or channel sup-

t[lil Til
ported on the adjoining two joists. Larger openings
necessitating interruption ot ioists are framed with steel
angle o. channel headers spanning the two adlornrngjoists.
I he Interrupted lo'sts bear on the headers.

lil ROOF DRAINAGE: On level or near tevel roofs, especially

those with parapet walls, roof drainage should be carefullV
considered. Roof rnsulatroncan be sloped, and toists can be

f lil
sloped or obtained with top chords that slope in one or both
directions. Overflow scuppe.s should be provided in para
pet walls. lf roof slope is less than r/4 in. per ft, the roof svs,
tem should be jnvestigated to ensure stability under
ponding conditions.
t[
JOIST PROFILES

SECTION THROUGH JOISTS

SELECTED LOAD TABLES: K SERTES-TOTAL

SAFE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (LB/FT) NUMBER OF ROWS OF BRIDGING
SPAN (FT)

' Last digit(s)of joist designation shown in

accompanying load table.
, Check maximum joist span for required midspan
tAll bolted diagonal bridging
ioists 40 ft or longer require a row of bolted bridging in place before hoisting lines are
slackened. N OTE
, Where the designed joist span is equal to or greater
than this span, the row of bridging near-
Distances are clear span dimensions {ft).
est th€ midspan of the joist shall be installed as bolted diagonal bridging. Hoisting iables
shall not be released until this bolted daagonalbridging is completely inatalted.

Kenneth D. Franch, P.E., AIA; Aguirre, lnc.; Dallas, Texas

METALJOISTS
274 Long-SponSteelJoists
/ PROVIDE DIAGONAI BRACING AT trNDS
6' MrN BEARING / WfiH BONOM CHORD BIARINC
/--

5'(a1h'

DLH 1A
ND 19)

SOUARE END FOR SONOM

CHORD BEARING

INTERIOR VERTICAL MEMBER

(CRIMreD STEEL ANGLE)

STEEL BEARING PGTE WITH

NOTE EMBEODED ANCHORS AT
TOP OF MASONRY WALL;
Web member type depends on span and load characteristiG ANCHOR JOISTS WTH ruO
'/.. FILLET WELDS 2, LONG
SECTION THROUGH JOIST BEARING
CONTINUOUS DECK BARING BOTTOM CHORD BEARING AT
ANGLE ANGOR BOLTED TO SQUARE END
MASONRY, ryPICALLY PARALLE-
TO JOISTS

- WELD
OR BOLT

HORIZOMI BRIreING DIAGON& E]RIOGING BOLED

AT SIST CLOSE TO WALL TG*ER AT MIDSPAN AND
OR PAIRED JOISTS TO CLIP ANGLES AT JOIST CHORDS

SECTION THROUGH JOISTS

FIRE RESISTANCE RATING

TIME TIME IffiRIOR WRICAL MEMBER
(HR) (HR) ROOF/CEILING ASSEMBLIES (CRIMED SEEL ANGLE)
FLOOR/CEILI NG ASSEMBLIES
2'l2 In. rerntorc€dffiet€, |6ted "/sIn. Euilt{p r@ting on lrsted 1 In. wood wth cement btndernoer-
gypsumplasteron metal lath attachedto boardover 1rl2in. metal deck with listed% in. gypsum plast€r BOTTOM CHORD EXTENSION DETAIL
boftom chord of ioist ceilingon metal lath attach€dto furring channolshung lrom ioist
2 In. rerntor€d concrete.lrsted"/sIn. Bualt-uprootingon lrsted1 In. wood ttben]oardover 1'/aIn. PRELIMINARY JOIST SELECTION
cement olasterover retal lath attach€d deck with listed % in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath
to bottm chord of joist attachedto furing channelssupportedfrom joist The accompanyingtables should not be used lor final ioist
design but are intended to speed selection of stel joists
2'l2 In. rerntdc€d mrete, lrsteo"/. In. 2 Built{p r@ting on listed l'16an.wood wrth cement btndorfioer- for preliminarydesignand planning.
gypsumplasteron retal lath attachedto boardover 1'l2 in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath attached
bottom chordof ,oist to furring channelssupportedfrom joist Determiningthe tinal design must be a separate,thorough
2'l2 In. rernlorcs oncrele. lrsteo "/s In. process. involving a complete investigation of pertinenl
type X wallboard attached to furring chan- metal deck with listed % in. gypsum plaster ceiling on metal lath conditions;this page is not to be used for that purpose
nels ti€d to bottom chord of joist attached to turring channels supported lrom joist Consulta structuralengineer.
@ncrete.lrstedi/! In.
2rl2in. reanforced Built-uproofingon listed 1 in. expandedp€rliteboardover 1'/2In.
rcod fiber gypsum plasterover metal metal deck with listed7s in. gypsum-vermiculiteplasteron metal An exampleof how to use the informationpresentedhere
lath on channelsseored to joist lath attachedto runnerchannelssuooortedfrom ioist follows: Assume a particularclearspan. By assuminga joist
spacingand estimating the total load, a ioist can immedi
NOTE ately be selectedfrom th€ table.Then proceedwith prelim-
These are abbreviatedassemblydescriptions.Table7{ ol UndeMriters Laboratoriesand FactoryMutual Drovideaddi- inarydesign studies.
the Uoiform Euilding Code gives complete descriptions. tional system, material,and approvalguidelines-
NOTES
SELECTED LOAD TABLES: LH AND DLH l.Total saf€ load = live load + dead load. D€ad load
sERIES-TOTAL SAFE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (LBIFT) includesthe wsight of the joist. For dead loads and rec-
omrended live loads, see pages on weights o{ materi
(FT)
CLEAR SPAN als. Lmal codes will govem.
JOIST DESIGNATION 2. Spanshould not exceed 24 tires the depth ol a nominal
ioist for r@fs, 20 tihes the depth ot a nominaljoist for
floors.
3. For more information, refer to standard specifications
and load tablesadoptedby the SteelJoist Institute.

LH AND DLH BRIDGING

BRIDGING SPACING (FT)

N OTE
Welded horizontalbridging is used for typical ioist spans
Checkioist bridgingrequirementswhen joist spans require
NOTE midspan bolted diagonalbridging.For spans of more than
Number preceding letter is ioist depth (32LH10 is 32 in. deep) 60 ft, all bridgingshouldbe bolted diagonalbridging.

Charles M. Ault; Setter, Lsach & Lindstrom,Architects& Engineers;Minneapolis,Minnesota

r=
r.R\
el/ METALJOISTS
 Metql Floorqnd Roof Decking 275
METAL DECKING Floor deck loadrngs are vrftuallv unlmited In scope, rangrng 3 A vanety of depths and rib patterns is availabte.
lrom lrgnt resrdentral and insl[ulronal loads to heaw-dutv
Some of the many types of metal decktng avarlableare 4 Acoustical treatment is possible
industrial floors utilizing composite deck with slabs up to 24
1 . Roof deck in. thick. Designers can setect the deck type.. depth, and 5 Metal roof decks can serve as the base for insulation and
2. Floor deck (noncomposite) gauge most suitable for the application. rcofing.

3. Composite floor deck interacting with concrete
4. Permanent forms for self-supporting concrete slabs
5. Cellular deck (composite or noncomposite)
6. Acoustical rmf deck
7. Acouslical cellular deck (composite or noncomposite)
8. Electric raceway ellular deck
9. Prevented rof deck (used with lightweight insulating
concrete fill)
Roof-mounted mechanical equipment should not be placed
directly on a metal roof deck Equipment on built-up or pre
tabricated curbs should be supported directly on marn and
supplementary structural members and the deck must be
supported along all free edges. Heavy items such as cool-
tng towers that must be elevated should be supported by
posts extending through pitch pockets directly onto struc-
tural members below the deck. Openings through the deck
may be handled as discussed above.
6. Fire ratings can be obtained with standard assemblies.
7. Metal roof decks can provide a lateral dlaphragm
8. Metal roof decks can be erected quickly and economi
carly
9. Metal roof decks make it easy to create roof slopes for
drarnage.

INSTALLATION AND OESIGN

All metal fl@r and .oof decks must be secured to all sup-
pons, generally by means of puddle welds made lhrough
FIRE RESISTANCE RATTNGS
Fire resistance ratings {or roof deck assemblies are pub- 'o'1. T
the deck to supporting steel. Steel sheet lighter than 22
lished by UndeMriters Laboratories and Factory Mutual.
Ratings ot 1 to 2 hr are achieved with sprav{n insulation a
."1
gauge (0.0295 in. thick) should be secured by use of weld 1-hr rating with a suspended acoustical ceiling and a 2-hr
--l
ing washers. Shear studs welded through the floor deck ratrng with a metal lath and-piaster ceiling.
also serye to secure the deck to supporting steel. CANT STRIP END CLOSURE
Floor deck assembly fire resistive ratings are available both
Side laps between adjacent sheets of deck must be with and without spray-appliedfireproofing and with regular
secured by bunonfunching standing seams, welding, or weight or lightweight concrete fill. Ratings from 1 to 3 hr
screws, an accordance with the manufacturer's recommen- are possible using only concrete till; consult UndeMriters
oalrons. Laboratories Fire Resistance Index for assembly ratings.

Decks used as lateral diaphragms must be welded to steel Consult the manufacturer's literature and technical repre-
suppons around their entire perimeter to ensure develop- sentatives for additional information. Consult the Steei
ment ot diaphragm action. More stringent requirements Deck lnstitute Design Manual for Floot Decks and Roof
may govern the size and/or spacing of attachments to sup- Decks and the Tentative Recommendations for the Design
ports and side lap fasteners or welds. of Steel Deck Diaphragms by the Steel Deck Institute,
FILLER PLATE RIDGE/VALLEY PUTE
Roof deck selection must consider construction and main- AOVANTAGES OF METAL Rc}OF DECKS
tenance loads, as well as the capacity to suppon unilormly ROOF DECK ACCESSORIES
1. A high strength-to-weight ratio reduces r@f dead load.
disrributed live l@ds. Consult Steel Deck lnstitute recom,
mendations and Factory Mutual requjrements. 2. Metal roof decks can be erected in most weather condi-
tions. REINFORCING

ROOF DECK TYPES

TYPE REMARKS

, 1 1) t
'"fi&
Narrow
(l in. wide) 6t
*_-* .t+ insulation; max.
N OTES
surface area on
, , , " t . r t - t r [ - - -l fJ: u top for adhering 1. Small openings (up to 6 x 6 in. or 6 in. in diameter) usu-
"'FU insulation ally may be cut in a root or lloor deck without reinforcino
the deck.
6 13to' 44" 2. Openings up to l0 x 1O in. or 10 in. in diameter reoui.e

,*+n- to
11{"
rernlorcing of the deck eithe. by weldrng a reintorcrng
plate to the deck all around the openings or providino
,r,"f-L-!ntr channel-shaped headers and/or supplementarv reinforc-,
ing parallel to the deck span. Fleinforcing plates should
be 14{auge sheets with a minimum oroiection of 6 in.
beyond all sides of the opening, and they shoutd be
(2 r/, in. wide) 6" z1tz"
welded to each cell of the deck.
l+-+
,r,"]-t/-r I r-i
d 3. Larger openings should be framed with supplementary
't,--l- t--/ LJ \--- steel members so that all tree edges of the deck are suF
ooneo.

OPENINGS IN DECK

'2'b' ror useas

electricalrace
tto way or as acous,
J-+
tacalceiling;
",,'Fffi bottom plate is
perforated for
sound
| 2sla' I
,fr'
.1.--_
aDsorplron

3, I lrJ "-},r
i_&_;uL_+
+3 + to
30 {"
NOTE
Preformed recessed sump pans are available from deck
manufacturers for use at roof drains.

RECESSED SUMP PAN

Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers: potomac, Maryland

Walter D. Shapiro, P.E.; Tor, Shapiro & Associates: New york, New yoik

METALDECKING
276 Melol FloorDecking
DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL PRESET
COMPOSITE FLOOR INSERTS
MAX.
;PAN \^r'IDTH LENGTH
PROFI LE REMARKS FT.IN.) (lN.) (FT-lN.)

oecK r 2'l'' LOnVeXemooss- 9{ 36'

ments bond with lo
concrete fill: 12'4"
reverse deck for
concave
embossments ACCESS
HOLES
tonvex
embossments to or SEPARATE
13'{" JO TROUGH FOR
P O W E RL I N E S

oecK 7',4"
TRENCH DUCT
embossmenls to or CELLULAR
t4'4" 36" METAL DECK
F

o NOTE
Electric raceways may be built into floor slabs by using cel
lular deck or special units that are blended with plain deck
Twcway distribution is achieved by using trench ducts that
sit astride the c€llular units at right angles.
NONCOMPOSITE FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL
Using trench ducts with composite lloor deck may reduce
MAX. or eliminate entirely the effectiveness ol composile action
SPAN \^/IDTH LENGTH
TYPE PROFILE R EMA,R KS FT-tN.) fl N.) (FT-rN.) at the trench duct- This is also true for composite action
b€twen steel floor beams and concrete fill. Trench duct
Narrow nb locations must be taken into account in deciding whether
to 35" commsite action is possible.
5'€' 36"
ELECTRICALTRENCH DUCT
POUR STOP

3"
f7 f A-"/i
Narrow nb
to
r0'-o"
6Z
JJ
ffi
$u/
t='-r^]...A,Jf f; Narrow tb 3l 424' U
Intermedrate
to
deck
li'^l""lxil;"'
?'
Narrow nb 4{-
deck to 36"
11'-O"

oecK INTEGRAL FOUR STOPS

to 36" HANGER TAB AND CLOSURES

14',4" N OTE
A convenient, economical means of supporting lightweighi
acoustical ceilings is attaching a suspension system to
hanger tabs at side laps. piercing tabs driven through the
deck, or pre{unched tabs in the roof deck. Do not use this
ta$and-metal deck arrangement to support plasler ceilings,
piping. ductwork, electrical equipment, or other heavy
COMPOSITE AND NONCOMPOSITE loads. Such elements must b€ susoended directlv from
CELLULAR FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL structural members or supplementary sublraming.

FLOOR DECK ACCESSORIES

S.SECTIONAL
TYPE
x sq METAL FLOOR DECKING
deck {for stel (35 sq in./sheet)
Two items to keep in mind when designing with metal
Jramesrequiring
decking:
studs)
1- Vvhen lightweight concrete is used in the construction,
use galwnizeddeck material.
JXUrn.CeilUtar I /.4 sq In./cell
(not suitable for sq in./sheet) 2. In a fireproofassembv. retal componentsshouldbe un
structuralstudsl onmeq.

ADVANTAGES OF METAL FLOOR

sq In DECKS
io 30' (24 sq in./sheet) 1. Metalfloordecksprovidea workingplatform.eliminating
8',-o" 36" temporarywood plankingin high-riseuse.
2. Compositedecks providepositivereinforcementfor con
rre crete slabs.
3. Both noncomoositeand comoositedecks serve as forms
tq concrete,eliminatingthe need for lorming and strip
pang.
4. Consultthe UndeMriters Laboratoriesdirectorvfor spe'
cific fire ratingrequirements-
5. Acousticaltreatment is possible.
6. Electricracewaysmay be built into the floor slab.
7. Meral floor decking provides economical floor assem-
blies.

Donald Neubauer,P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;Potomac,Maryland

Walter D. Shapiro,P.E.:Tor, Shapiro& Associales;New York, New York

METALDECKING
 Cold-FormedSteelFromingMqteriols 277
ALLOWABLE SPANS FOR SINGLE-SPAN FLOOR JOISTS
I O PSF DEAD LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LoAD 1O PSF DEAD LOAD + 40 PSF LIVE LOAD
NOMINAL
)
./4
JOTST StZE SPACtNG O.C. (|N. SPACTNG O.C. (

"iL4"
(WtTH MIL
TH ICKNESS) l2 t6
x6x
2tt8rn.
10 tt 7 rn
ll it6rn.
9tt I In
l0ft0in
ult/rn
l1 ft6in
9tt/rn
lull5rn
In.
7l
3ft 2 tl4 tn. urtYrn, 12 ft 4 In. 1 1f t 2 i n tn
nbrn. Stlzrn 1l tt6rn 3lt2rn 12tt0rn It ti rn
6tt1 in. l4 ll 7 in. l2 tt I rn. 4n110 3lt3rn l ln

x8x 5ft8in. 1 3t t 3 i n . 8tllUrn 4lturn. ott/rn lrn 4;-

xdx nltn 15tt6in ttlrn b tt ti rn. 14 tt 1 In- tn
xBx54 18ft4in 1 6f t 8 i n . Tt / In_ ti ft I rn. blt2rn. tn
xBx68 19tt8in 1 7t t 1 I i n . 15lt / rn_ t/ttlttn titt3rn l2tn
xdx ltI tuln. 1 9t t 1 0 i n . tt 4 rn. t9n luIn ENUIN
'16
2tJ tt ti rn 18 tt 8 In 15tt3in. 18 tt 8 in. tt B in
22 tl 1 tn. 20tt I In 17tl6rn 20 tt 1 In. 18 tt 3 in
23nErn. 2l lt tt In 18 tt l0 In. 21tt 6 rn. 1 9t t 7 i n . 17
zti tt 4 rn 23n l'l rn 2A tl In. 23 tt 1l In 2l lt9rn
:13 tt b In. ZUtt3rn 14 tl tn 20tt ll rn. l6 lt l0 rn ll tt3rn
x12x 25n9rr lJlt4rn t9 il tn 23 lt4 In 2 1t t 3 r n tn-
xllx /l nE tn. l5nl rn 2l tl tn 25ll lIn 22 ll ltJ tn Irn
tn tbrn 1l rn. tn tn.

-Zo.zt
+
.'.,.1 |
"l
f4
"12<
atl-4' 'f I
+Y-
+ ({
B B

ALLOWABLE SPANS FOR MULTIPLE-SPAN FLOOR JOISTS

I O PSF DEAD LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LOAD I O PSF DEAD LOAD + 40 PSF LIVE LOAO
NOMINAL FURRI NG
JOrST StZE SPACING O.C. ilN.) SPACTNG O.C. (rN.) CHANNEL
(wtTH MtL
TH ICKNESS)

2x6x43

2x10x43
2 x 10 x 54

2 x 1 2x 6 8

NOTES
l. The tables above provide maximum joist spans, in feet
and inches. For multiple spans, span is either to the right
or lett of the interior suooort.
2. lnterior b€aring supports for multiple span joists should
consist of structural {bearing)walls or beams.
3. Bearing stiffeners should be installed at all suppo.t points
and concentrated loads. End bearing stiffene.s are not
required for floor joists 54 mil or thicker, spanning 14 ft o.
less, {or one-story houses (walls and roof only} in areas
with maximum ground snow load of 30 psf or less-
4. Joists supporting a roof and single wall only may cantile-
ver up to a maximum of 24 in. measured from the center-
line of the bearing point, provided that bearing stiffeners
are installed at the end of the cantilever and the bearing RUNNER
point and no punchouts are allowed in the cantilevered CHANNEL
section. Hole reinforcements may be used to cover up
notes.
5. Deflection criteriar U4B0 for live loads: U24O for total
roaos

MO EOUAL SPANS

NOTE
Members available an dimensions of 33 through 97 mil

LIGHT.GAUGE FRAMING MEMBERS

American lron and Steel Institute; Washington, D.C

COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
278 Cold-FormedSteelFromingMoteilols
COLD-FORMED STEEL-MINIMUM MATERIAL THICKNESS

' 1 mil = 1/1000in.

cEtLtNG JOISTS ALLOWABLE SPANS-SINGLE SPANS, WITHOUT ATTIC STORAGE

UNBRACED MID.SPAN BRACING THIRD.POINT BRACING
SPACING (IN.) SPACING (IN.) SPACING (IN.)
NOMI NAL
JOTST StZE l2 t6 t6 12 l6 24
I tt l0 In. 9tt2rn UNJIN lln4rn 10ft4in 9ft0in. ll ft4rn 10n4rn. In.
x4N lUn6rn 9TI | | rn 8 lt l0,n 12tt4an 11h2rn 9tt9rn 12ft4tn ll nzrn
'10 1 2t t 0 r n . tznurn tn
x4r tt n / rn ft 8 in. Ynorn 13ft2in. l0 n ti In. 13ltztn
'14 zn tutn 2
X4X tzntsrn l1ft7in. l0 tt 4 rn. tt 1 rn. 12n 10 In. li fizrn. l4n I rn
x4x 1 4f t 1 1 i n , tJ[/ln. 12 tt I In. 15 nb In 14 tt i rn. l2fi4rn. t5nbrn ft 1 in.
1 1f t 2 i n l0ftbrn. 9n5rn. btt9rn. 14fi5rr lunurn. 16ft2an tt8
l2 tt'l rn n2rn uil l In. bnlurn t5n / rn 13ft10in 1 1t r 7 a n 5 nll rn
'18tt 1 tn. lrn
x.o x 13 tt 0 rn. ztt0rn. Un9rn /nllrn t.bn / In t4nvtn_ 0
t4ttutn ttll In. n/rn 9nzrn t/nurn 5 t t l0 in 20tt2n 18ft4rn.
xtix Iti n J tn. 4n1l !n. 3ft2in ztnbrn. 1 9f t 1 0 i n . l7 tt 8 in. 22n4n. 20 tt 3 rn. In.
'14tt
xux t2 tt / tn nurn. 0ftOin. 7ft8in. 16tt5in 9 in. 21 tt b rn. l9nbrn. ln-
xur tJnbrn nbrn. 1ft3in. l8ft10an lTttOin l 5 n l0 rn 23 tt 0In. 2 1f t z n . ln
',1't
XUI t4Tt4rn 13 ft 4 in. 1 ft in ZU TI U IN. 18tt7in l6ft9rn. 24lt4tn 2:1ft I n. ln.
'llftErn.
x6x t5n5rn l4ft3in. 2it9in. 21 tt 3 in. l9ft8rn. 25 tt I rn. 2JttlI In tn_
x6x 17ft8in 16 tt 2 in. 4tt5rn. 23ftErn. 2l tt lU In 9n6rn. ztsn4rn zbnJrn.
x tu x 14ft5rn. 13n4rn 2nl rn. zu tt 2 rn. lutt9tn bntl rn 24ft8in 22ft11 in
x l0x l5 tt 4 rn. l4ftzrn- fi9tn zt n4rn. tv n tu In_ 7 n l0 in 26 tt 0 in. 24112 in.
x l0 x 16n5rn. l5nzrn 3ft7in 22ft8in. 2l ftOin 18ft ll in 27 tt 6 rn. 2b tt 6 ln.
x lUx 18n/rn. I/nl In Snzrn z5n trn. 2 3t l 2 i n 20ft9in. 30 tt 2 rn. 2/ltll rn.
x l2 x 15tt2rr 14nl rn znurn zl n4rn. l 9 f t 1 0i n . 17ft11in 26tt I in 24 tt 3 rn. I tn.
x12x iti tt I In. lSnurn 3n5rn zzn I tn. 2 0 f t 1 1i n . 1 8 f t 1 1i n 27 t16 tn. zcn / In. tn.
xf2x t/n Jtn 1 5f t 1 1 i n . 4ft4in. 23ft11in zz\ztn 19ft11in 29tt0rn 21 nO tn. 4rn
't'l
x llx tYn5tn 1 7f t 1 0 i n . 5 ft in 26 tt 4 in. 24ft4t^. 2ltt10tn. 3l tt 8In. 29n4rn. tn.
* Bearingstifteners shall be installedat all support points
and oncentrated loads.

cElLtNG JOTSTS ALLO\^/ABLE SPANS-SINGLE SPANS, WITH ATTIG STORAGE (2O PSF)
MID.SPAN BRACING
SPACING (IN.)
NOMINAL
JOTST StZE

* Bearing
stiffeners shall be installed at all suppon points
and concentrated loads.

NOTES
'1.
The tables above provide the maximum ceiling joist span
in teet and inches.
2. Detlection criteria: L./240 for total loads.
3. Ceiling dead load = 5 psf (0.24 kPa)
4. I in. = 25.4 mm, 1 ft = 304.8 mm, 1 psf = 48 Pa.

Areracan lron and Steel lnstitute; Washington,D.C.

r=
e/ COLD_FORMED
METALFRAMING
 Cold-FormedSteelFroming-Open
TOP TRACK
,Z-
DOORJAME -. TRACK
HEADER TRACK -. MNAL
BEAM
STUD
- METAL
STUD FASTENERS CRIPPLE
AS REOUIRED STUD
CRlPPLE AT EACH
STUD JAMB STUD AOSURE
TRACK
CLOSURE TRACK EXTENDED
EXTENDED AAOVE ABOVE OPENING
AND BELOW AS REOUIRED
OPENING. AS STIFFENER AS FOR STRENGTH
REOUIRED FOR REOUIRID
STRENGTH
MULTIPLE
STUDS.
MULTIPLE STUDS, BACK-TO'BACK,
BACK-TO-BACK. AS REOUIRED

- SHEATHING
:r
BOfrOM
TRACK
SILL TRACK

CRIPPLE
STUD
AS REOUIRED
BONOM THROUGH
TRACK BOTOM
TRACK AT
EACH JAMB
STUD

WINDOW OPENING DOORJAMB BASE AT FLOOR FRAMING DOOR OPENING

CLIP ANGLE
OR SECNON
OF]RCK. SPTI!"J
DOWN AND
FASENERS FASTEN TO
AS REOUIRED JAMB\ Z CUT TRACK
AND BEND
\\'r / TO ALLOW
ENENSION
HEADER
BEAM It \ li l il / OF FGNGES
FOR
CONNECTION

\
MULNPLE
MEMBERS rtW
SUPPORT
MEMBER
AS REOUIRED
AT JAME - SECTION
"'4 ll
COE FUNGES
MENSION
TO ALLOW
OF THE WEB FOR
OF STUD
TRACK J
J "-
MULTIPLE
MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED \

FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
ffEND
CLOSURE
SECTION
TRACK AS
REOUIRED
FOR HEAD
CONNECTION
AND JAMB
STRENGTH

CLIP ANGLE
NO LESS
THAN 'zz'
LESS THAN
NO T E
Detailmay be applicableto largeropeningsin interiorparti-
tions.Fornonaxialloads.
HEAOER BEAMS FOR WIOE OPENINGS HEAD AT OPENING LESS THAN 4 FEET SILL CONNECTIONS AT JAMB
(LOAD-BEARING WALL)
FASENERS
TOP RACK TOP TRACK AS REOUIRED
SCREWS OR DISNIBUTION
MULTIPLE
AS REOUIRED MEMAER
SECNON MEMBERS
OF MACK AS REOUIRED
AT JAMB --

SECTION
SECTION OF STUD
OF STUD
ENEND
CRIPfuE EIEND CLOSURE SECTION
STUD CLOSURE TRACK AS OF SruD
RACK AS REOUIRED
REOUIRED FOR SILL
CONNECTION FASTENERS
FOR HEAD
AND JAMB AS REOUIRED
CONNECTTON
ANO JAMB STRENGTH
STRENGTH
ESEND
MULTIPLE CLOSURE
METAL
MEMBERS AS TRACK AS
STUD REOUIRED
REOUIRED AT
JAMB FOR HEAD
HAD AND JAME
TRACK - STRENGTH
MULTIruE
MEMBERS AS
REOUIRED AT
HEAD REQUIRED AT
EACH SIDE OF JAMB
N OTE N OTE
For axial loads. For nonaxial loads.

OPENING GREATER THAN OR EQUAL JAMB ANO SILL AT OPENING LESS OPENINGS GREATER THAN OR EQUAL
TO 4 FEET(LOAD-BEARING WALL) THAN 4 FEET TO 4 FEET(LOAD.BEARING WALL)

Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington,

D.C.

METALFRAMING
COLD-FORMED
280 Cold-FormedSleelFromingqnd BrqcingDetqils
GENERAL .- STEEL STUDS - rWELD AT LIMITING HEIGHT TABLES FOR
CLIP ANGLE
(OPTIONAL) INTERIOR PARTITIONS AND
Lightweight steel traming is coldJormed, which means the CHASE WALL PARTITIONS
components are manufactured by brake-forming and
2' X 2' X 16 PARTI-
punching galvanized coil and sheet stock. Steel framing GAUGE CLIP TION
members consist ol two basic types of components that ANGLE %'
TWO
are C-shaped in section: one type has '/cin. flanges foided LESS THAN
WIDTH LAYERS
STUD WIDTH
inward and the other has no flanges. Studs, ioists, and
rafters are made with flanges to stitfen them so they will
more readily stand vertically, Components without fiaoges,
called tracks. have unpunched solid webs. For added
strenglh, tracks are sized slightly larger than the flanged
members so the tracks wili fit snugly inside them as sill or 4 FRAMING
SCR&S
top plates or as pan of posts or head€rs. REOUIRED
\NELD AS SHOM LIMITING HEIGHT
Steel framing is strong and versatile. The strength (and ATTACHMENT IA MIL STEEL STUD ASSEMBLIES
load{arrying capacity) of a membet can be increased sim- (FOR 3ela'OR SCREW
SMALLER STTJDS: ATTACHMENT
ply by increasing the thickness, or gauge, ol the metal; the (FOR
16-GAIJGE OR 3q6' TO
dimensions of the member, or the spacing. do not neces- HEAVIER) A'STUDS)
sarily have to be increased. There is little limitation on the
length ot steel framing members; joists or studs may be N OTE
fabricated in lengths up to 40 ft. lf handled with care, steel Channels to be spaced as required by design.
framing is straight and consistent; also, it is not affected by
morsture content. LATERAL BRACING ATTACHMENT
SGEW AS
Disadvantages of steel lraming include lack of insulating REOUIRED
qualities, difficulty in cutting compared to wood, and dan- AT ACH
STUD
gerously sharp edges. Consult the American lron and Steel
lnstitute (AlSl) for further information.

BRACING
Buildings must be properiy braced to resist racking under
wind and seismic loads. Diagonal strap bracing is sloped to
resist racking lorces in tension and tastened by screws or
welds to studs and plates. Prop€dy spaced lateral steel
bracing resists stud rotation and minor ais bending under FUT SRAPS.
wind, seismic. and axial loads; it is especially critical during NOTGED
CHANNEL.
construction. before sheathing or finishes are installed. X.E}RIDGING, OR 33 MIL STEEL STUO ASSEMBLIES
ROMIflARY
BRIreING
(EACH SIDE):
SCREWS UP SPLICE
AS REOUIRED STRAPS 4'
(EACH SIDE) J MtN- (102 MM)

NOTE
Number of rows of bridging as required by design.
FUT
STRAPS WALL BRIDGING
UERAL STABIUry
STRAP OR NOTCHED
ANGLE AS REQUIRED
STEEL BY DESIGN (EACH SIDE)
ANCHOR
CHANNEL
MULTIPLE MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED
CONCRETE AT ENDS
SUB
LIMITING HEIGHT
ANCHOR I A MIL CHASE WALL PARTITIONS

N OTE
The top detail is for one-to-two story buildings and the bot-
BOfrOM RACK,
tom d€tail tor buildings greater than two stories. Steel chan- GAUGE AS
nel, plate, and anchor size d€pend on applied uplift and REOUIRED TO
horizonta! shear torces. TPANSFER
LO€S
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING
ANCHORAGE DETAILS SGEWS AS REOUIRED
NOTE
SOLID BL(:gIre NCrcR BRIreING Strap forces may requireadditionalstilfeningof the bottom
mx-BRrretre: TO SOUD BLOCXING track or structuralangle.
FIT BEMEN 5'O'Mg
FIRST VO (FOR 1%' DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING
AND UST MO
JOISTS OR
MEMBERS) ANCHORAGE
RAffiR SPAGS
MU
(REPEAT AS SCREW TO UTERAL STAAILfr
REOUIRED) \ ' EACH STUD SMAP OR NOTCHED
ANGLE AS REOIRED
BY OESIGN (AG SIDE)
BOfrOM TRACK MULNfuE
AS REOUIRED MEMBERS AS
TO TRANSER REOUIRED
ANAG FUT t 33 mil chase wall partitions.
SMAP. AT ENDS
NOTCHED
CHANNEL. SHATHtre\
X-BRIDGING, N OTE
OR
PRORIETARY Limiting height lo( 112o( sls in- thick panels and 5 psf uni
BRIreING TO ADDINONAL form load perpendicular to partition or furrjng. Use onelayer
\\ ACH €IST STIFFENER
ADJACENT
heights for unbalanced assemblies. Consult local code
authority for limiting criteria (d--deflection, f-bending
TRANSFER \ FASENERS stress).
BRIDGING \
FORCES |NTO AS REOUIRED
I
UTERAL I
STABILry ./
SYSTEM -/ X.BRIOGING STRUfrURAL
ANGLE BELOW
N OTE N OTE
lf sheathing is not installed on members, bridging is Strap forces may require additionalstiffening of top and
requiredon both flanges. bottom track or structuralangle.
JOIST OR RAFTER BRIDGING DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING AT
INTERMEDIATE FLOOR

Americanlron and SteelInstitute;Washington,

D.C.

r=
L'i\
\l/ COLD-FORMED
METAL
FRAMING
 , , Cold_FormedSl.elFr@ 2gl
JOIST OR
CLIP ANGLE
HEADER

- CLIP ANGLE,
r/.' LESS THAN
JOIST DEPTB OR
JOIST HANGER

\ Jotsr aND
TRACK HEADER
wPrcaL ./ AS REQUIRED STEEL BEAM -
6tsT oR _-/ .- BY DESIGN (OR BUILT.UP FASTENER
RAflER J JO|ST AS REOUIRED
COLD.FORMED
MEMAER OR STUD

TYPICAL OPENING IN JOISTS,/RAFTERS JOIST.TO.JOIST HEADER

NOTES
WEB STIFFENER l.Continuous bridging is required between each joist
AS REOUIRED
cfHrs srDE oR FrT above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may
BEruEEN JOIST be used in lieu of bridging.
FCNGES)
2 When a bearing wall is above, studs must align wrth
Joists below.
FLOOR JOISTS SUPPORTED BY BEAM
OR BEARING WALL (OVERLAPPED)
- 615T

\.
STEEL BEAM \
(OR BUILT-UP \ -
COLD-FORMED FASTENER
\ AS REOUIRED
MEMBER. OR
STUD BEARING WALL) -i

NOTES
l.Continuous bridgingis required between each joist
DOUE}LE TFIACK above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may
DETAIL be usedin lieuof bridging.
2. When a bearingwall is above,the studs must alignwith
the joistsbelow.
RIM JOIST DETAILS 3. Web stiffeners are not requiredwhen continuous solid
JOIST AND TRACK HEADER
blockingis used. AS REOUIRED BY DESIGN
JOISTS OVER BEAM OR BEARING
WALL (CONTTNUOUS SPAN) J()IST HEADER TO BUILT.UP JOISTS
SruD--\ STUD
\ MO SCREWS
MO SREWS AT EACH STUD
AT EACH STUD -\ ./'-*ot*
JOISTS

JOIST SCREW
CONCREE TRACK --\ AT EACH
FASTENERS FUNGE
AS REOUIRED SHEATHTNG
aii<;ue as ii SHEATH'NG
REAUIRED
CLIP ANGLE. NO LESS THAN JOIST ] /,
Df4H MINUS '/"' (ANACN CI IP L^ r crrur lr
aND TRACK To coNcRETE wrrH / SHEATHING 1i
E'PANSION OR ANCHOR BOLTS)

FLOOR JOISTS FLOOR JOIST

PAR^LLEL SUPPORT \:*. BOLT
TO \ /ALL
N OTE - waLL sruD NOTE
Provide solid blocking and bridging as required Provide soljd blocking and bridging as required

FLOOR JOISTS AT CONTINUOUS V\/ALL FLOOR JOISTS PARALLEL TO FLOOR JOISTS PARALLEL TO
EXTERIOR WALL FOUNDATION

rc SCREWS AT STUD ({IGN

ALIGN SruOS EACH STUD TO JOIST wtfr FLooR
WTH .'OISTS BELOW - BELOW (FAR SIDE) JO|ST BELOW)

SHEATHING .\ ANACH TRACK IO JOIST

WITH SCREWS AT EACH TRACK
FDNGE (NOT REOUIRED IF
WE8 STIFFENER WEB STIFFENER IS USED) -
AS REOUIRED
cfHIS SIOE G
FT BEMEEN JOIST TRACK
JOIST FUNGE) .-

WEB STIFFENER
AS REOUIRED
C|HIS SIDE OR
FIT BEruEEN
JOIST FLANGE)

SCREW TRACK
TO TRACK
ADJACENT STUD
TO SUPPORTS
JOIST (ALIGN WITH \ rotsr ]
WALL STUD BELOU4
SHEATHING =rao-*,aa /

JOISTS SUPPORTED BY BEAM OR FLOOR FRAMING AT EXTERIOR WALL FLOOR JOISTS BEARING ON
BEARING WALL FOUNDATION

Americanlronand SteelInstitute;Washington,
D.C

COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
282 Cold-FormedSleelFromingDetoils
-.-- W@D BL@K WMD BASE
,/ SLCUREO TO S]UD REINFORCEMENT PUTE NAILED
TO I ILL sluo
DIMENSONAL
LUMBER AS
volD
,,|iPl REOUIRED FOR
PENTTRATIONS
IECS[=.,L
TO RUNNER
TO WOOD
RUNNEF-
.
REQUIRED
SECURED TO
llql ..D

tw
STUDS WITH SECURED WITH
'\oceNtNe AOHTSIW
SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
CEMERED
IN WEB

GYPSUM
BOARD -
NAIL TO
W@D BL@K PENETRATION
AS REOUIRED WOOD RUNNER
NO REINFORCEMENT NOTE
HEAVY FIXTURE ATTACHMENT REOUIRED FOR
PENETRATIONS < This detail is optional depending on contractor preference
PUNCHOU DEffi,
ryCEff AS NOTED
NAII-ABLE BASE PLATE
JOISTS OR RAFTERS
N OTES TOP
TRACK
1 . Do not notch or cut flanges.
2. Capacity verification by design is required for any open-
ings located at concentrated loads and bearing €nds.
3. For unpunched members, consult the manufacturer.

JOIST, STUD, OR RAFTER WEB

PENETRATIONS WALL INTERSECTION
SGSS CLIP WITH FRAMING
AS REOUIREO SGEWS AT EACH
(acH srDE) TUCK AS SHOWN

STUD RUNNER

TOP AND BOTTOM TRACK SPLICE

TOP PLATE INTERSECTION

- StuD
A'v"
ilt-n sruD
20 GA- frr()< STUP ll lll 1,4 -
ll I ll l.,g RUNNER/GaCK

2)r
WIH 2 SCREWS AT
EACH SruD SOLID
BLOCKING
<'v :- u3[.o"]?^""
MECHANTCAL FUNGE
20 GA. frrCK SruD FASTENERS
COPE fuNGES AS
SHOM AND SECURE
WITH 2 SCREWS AT
ACH SruD
NOTES
WELDS. AS
'1.
Where blocking material thickness allows, notch and REOUIRED
N OTE bend track 90 degreesfor connection.
Dimensional lumber may also be used for backing, 2- Where provisionsare made for transfer of flange forces N OTE
to solid blockjng,blockingneed not be in the lull depth of
BACKING FOR CABINETS the member. Load-bearing studs must be s€ated tight to track web.

STUD (ALIGN /-].Re SOLID BLOCKING STUD-TO.TRACK CON NECTION

WIH FL@R
615T BELOW) GA SNFFENER wooD
AS REOUIRED JOIST STUDS (BELOW PUNKING
TRACK AND ABOW) ALGN
- CLIP ANGLE SOLID WIH ruOOR JOIST
2 ROWS
BLOCKING
OF SOLID
BLOCKING 2 SCR€WS
SHAGING rRACK
//- BE]reEN
MULNRE JOIST
MEMBERS AS AP
ANGLE CLIP ANGLE
AT EACH AT EACH END
END OF FOR BLGKING
BL@KING
SHEATHING

€IST
(ALIGN 2 SHEAfrING
SruD
(AUGN
wmD
rcIST, P.T.
SruD
E}tLOw) COMNUOUS JOrST)
JOISTS MULTIPLE
PARALLEL .,OIST

STUD t^"_ TO SEP

rcWN
BALCONY
IN
MEMBERS
AS
REOUIRED

1- (OR PROVDE
HEADER)

SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
JOIST
HANGER
OR CLIP
ANGLES

NOTES
1. Provide continuous bridging between each joist at the N OTES
lower wall. NOTES 'l
. Balconiesr€quir€specialdetailingand protectionagainst
2. Solid blocking in every other space may be used in lieu of 1. Balconiesrequirespecialdetailingand protectionagainsl moistureand thermal bridging.
bridging. moistureand thermalbridging. 2. Where axialloadS€aringmembers do not alignvertically,
3. Where axial load-bearing members do not align venically, 2. Where axialload-bearingmembersdo not alignvertically, provide top track distribution members at top of wall
provide top track distribution members at wall below. providetop track distributionrembers at wall below. oelow-
FLOOR CANTILEVER BALCONY \,VITH STEP DOWN \MOOD DECK BALCONY

Amencan lron and Steel Institutej Washington, D.C.

r=
ti\
e1/ METALFRAMING
COLD-FORMED
 Cold-FormedSteelFromingDetqils 283
JOIST AND TRACK SHEATHING
AS RIDGEBOARD

----[--;-- T6FE5.'"8
--- SCREWS AS
REOUIRED

RAffER

ROOF GAE}LE END

CLIP ANGLE, 1Z'

LESS HAN RAilER
DEPTH --
\/ - SHEATHING

. RA-ERS
OR TOP
CHORD
-- 2 TRACKS WITH
ONE STUD
., SCREWS
AS REOUIRED
WALL INTERSECTION FRAMING RIDGEBOARD

RA-ER (PROVIOE
CONTTNUOUS BRIDGING
.- SCREWS AS OVER WALL OR SOLID
BLOCKING AT EVERY
STUD, WP. - /,/
RE.
REOUTRED
OTHER SPACE)

CANTILEVERED ROOF GAE}LE END

CLIP NGLE
N OTE
Provide bridging at ceiling joists and r@l rafters and contin-
uous bridging between rafters at wall.

ROOF END DETAILS

ANGLE AS REOUIRED
FOR EAVE AOARD
WALL SruO

DISMIBUTION MEMBER
WHERE JOISTS DO NOT
ALIGN WTH SruDS BELOW

CORNER FRAMING ROOF EAVE AT CATHEDRAL CEILING

MASONRY OR CONCREE WAI TOP CHORD

SCREWS,
GYPSUM WALLAOARD @NTINUOUS BRIreING AS REOUIRED
AS REOUIRED
. Z FURRING
COLLAR TIE DETAIL
cLrP aNGLE
.=-
INSUUTION

BONOM CHORD

WALL TRACK

CLIP ANGLE

WALL STUD

RIBWON MEMBER
WHERE JOISTS rc NOT
4IGN WITH STUDS BELOW

FURRING CHANNELS ROOF TRUSS EAVE DETAIL TOP OF NON-LOAD BEARING WALL
PARALLEL TO JOISTS

€IST OR BOfrOM MUBLE JOIST SECTIONS ABOVE

CONCRETE OR MASONRY WALL CHORD CONNECED AS REOUIRED 8Y DESIGN .SruDS
Z
TO RAMER RA|TR WHEN STUDS DO NOT
OR
;J'-'-. . -- ALIGN WIH JOISTS JOIST
- \-- HAT cHANNEL FURRTNG TOP CHORD
BELOW: AT EnERIOR
WALLS. CONTINUOUS
COMNUOUS BRIDGING
JOIST TRACK MAY BE
AS REOUIRED
SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE
JOIST SECTION -
ALIGN JOIST AND
RATER OWR
WALL STUD SCREWS AS
BELOW REOUIRED

WALL TRACK STUDS

.
BELOW
CLIP ANGLE

CONTINUOUS
ANGLES, FASTEN ALTERNATE
MH SCREWS AT DETAIL FOR
EACH MEMBER FILLER STUD
SOFFIT FRAMING
AS REOUIRED
DISTR!BUTION (oflroNAL) TR'EUTION MEMBER
MEMBER WHERE AS REOUIRED 8Y DESIGN
JOISTS DO NOT i\-warr sruo WHERE JOISTS AND/OR
ALIGN WTH STUOS DO NOT ALIGN
STUDS BELOW SHEATHING WTH STUDS BELOW

FURRING CHANNELS ROOF EAVE OETAIL TOP TRACK DISTRIBUTION MEMBER

Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington,

D.C-

COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
284 MetolAngles,Tees,Zees,qnd Chonnels
Miscellqneous

-l|n
NOTE should be checked for availabilitvol sizesother than
those in the* tables. Where nsessrv, and where 6TEEL ANGLEE
extra cost is warranted, other sectionsmav be pro- EQUAL LEGS
duced by welding,cutting, or other methods. STEEL ANGLES IL_
STEEL AN6LE6 _EQUAL LEGS_BAR SIZE flN.)
UNEQUAL LEOA
StzE x t slzEx t stzE x t
STEEL ANGLES t/a x 1t/a x./rc 2x2x3lrc
STEEL CHANNELS_BAR S|ZE (IN.) _UNEQUAL LEGS_BAR SIZE (IN.) xs/e x le

2 x2 x./t
2xelrc x3/rc 2t/2 x 1t/2 x3,$ 1/z x 11/zx3/ra 2x2x3le
3la x3/a x1/e 2x1'ax3ro
lllz xrlz x1/a lx1xr/s t2 x 11/2 x3/6 z'12x z'12x rl 16
2x1xl/e 2xlrrxra.3ro 1xlx3/ro 3/ax13/exlle 21/z x21lz x1/a
2x1"2xl/e 2'h x 2 x3ta 3/a x 13/a x3/rc
11/z x3/t x1/a txlx'/4 21/z x21lz x5/ta
11/2x1t/ax3h6 2 x 1ltz x3trc
11/z x'|.1/z x3/rc 11/ax11/e xl/e 21/z x21/z x3/a
l1rxlrlaxl/s 2x1'/2xl/a
13/t x1/z x3/rc 11/t xl1la x1/a 2x2x1/a 21/z xZt/z x1/z
g/ro l3,rxllrx3'rs 21tzx2x3e
1 r/e x x 3/ro NOTE:
NU l-or structural anglesizes(3 x 3 x 3/ro in-
I t: For in. and
ar
NOTE: For structural anqlesizes{3 x 2 x 3/'o'in. and larger)seeDimensionsof Angle Shapesin this chapter
NOTE: For siructural channel sizes ( d = 3 i n . ano
larger)seeDimensionsof AngleShapesin this chapter.
larger) see Dimensions of Channer Shapes in t h i s Tnn t--'lt
chapter. aLUMTN'M .HANNEL -l ll

TIES
H
_+_'
---)
souaRE coRNERs -+-a
6TEEL
olI -JF'
/-
ALUMTNUMCHANNELS +I.
-.1.- u _SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
STEEL TEES_BAR SIZE (tN.) dxbxt dxbxt dxbxt
3lg x3ls xllaa llc x3/t xr/e x3/lxl
dxaxbxt
'lt x 11/< xlla llzx1r/zxl/a
1/z xllz xtlzz rlz xllz x1/a rlz x2tlz xr/e
2r/t x21/t xl/a 1 3 l t x 1 1/ a T z f t x 3 f r 5
1lz x5/a x t/a x1/z x1/e
2rlz x21h xrlt STRUCTURAL
11/<x11/t x1/e 21lz x21/z xs/ ra 3x2rr/ro x21rlrcxt/a 41/a x33/rc x 33/ro x 3/e
5/e xsle x 1/e 3x 1 x r/a
5/ex1x1/e tlz xlxrla x2 x 1la
lt/a x 11/ax3/rs 21/z x21/z x3/e 3x2r1/rc x2rt/ra x3/d 5x31la x31/e x5/ta
rlz x1llz x1/a 3x3xt/e
11lex11/ax1/a 3x2111* x21r/rs x1/z 5x31/a x31/a x1/z
STRUCTURAL 4 x 3 1 / r c x 3 1 1 r cx l l t Srlre x 35/ro x35/rc x3/a
4x1rlz xlle

3t2'l.ffi 4rlre x3r/e x31/e x5/ro 6x31/z x3rh x3/a

13/t x3lc xtla 4 1 l zx 2 x r / a
3x3x5/ro l xrlz xlle 13lax1x1/e 5x2x3/ts
| 4x3x3/e I Sx3'/axrlz
1 x3/a x 1ls 2xr/z x1/e
ALUMINUM ANGLE ALUMINUM ANctLE lxlxr/8 2xl xtle
6TRUCTURAL AOUARE CORNERA
2x2 xt/e
ALUMINUM ANGLES_SQUARE 11lax5/e xlla 2r/c x'la xrla
ALUMINUM ANGLES_STRUCTURAL CORNERS_EQUAL LEGS (IN.)
_EQUAL LEGS (tN.)
stzE x I stzE x I stzE x I sizes and Aluminum Assaiation Standard sizes.se
s r z Ex t s r z Ex t stzE x t Dimensionsof ChannelShaDesin this chaoter.
1/2x1/2xt/j6
3/rx3/ox1/a,1/rc

1 x l x1/e.rlre,
2 x 2 xlra,'ta
2x2x1/a
J'l2xJ't2x,t4
31/z x31/z x3le
1/2x1/2xt/B t/z 12x /A
2t/2 x 2ti2 x3h6
3x3x',b
ALUMINUM TEE6
+
-+-----.1r-
'l | r -JI-
5/ex5,'sxl/s
SQUARE CORNERB
lxlx3/ro 2x2x5/ro 31lz x3'/z x 1/z 3/a
x3/a x
I
a6.
t,s '/2 x 2 JXJX"r5,-b, 2 I tl
lxlxr/r 2x2x3/a 4x4xtlt txtx,3 3/e
x3;a, 3rr:x31rzxr.r ALUMINUM TEES_
lth x11/a xlle 21/z x21lz xl/e 4x4x5/rc I x I x-16 2x2xtte 3r,rx31.!x3,h
SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
lllt x 11/ax3ls 21/z x21/z x3l s 4x4x3la |X |X . 2x2x3.'rs 3t /2 x 31,2x t/2 bxdxt
11ltx1lltx1/a 21/z x2r/z xlla 4x 4x rlz lr,ex1lex3ro 2x2xtie,t rc,xia 4x4xlta.3ta,1'z

7t/z x 11/z xt/a Ztlz x21lz x5/ra 4 x 4x3/t 11i. x 11/4x1/s 2ttzx2ltzxtb 6x6x3/s,12
ltlz x lrlz x3lto 2r/z x21/z x3la 5X5x'/B UNEQUAL LEGS.(IN.} I x3la x1/e
3/a x3te x3b2 2x3ta xlia lxlxr/e
11lz x11/z x1/a 3x3x3/ro 5x5xr/z
13lt x 13h x1/e 3x3xr/r 6x6x3/E 2x1x'e
13/t x 13/t x 3/ rc 3x3x5/re 6x6xr/z 3r,2x3x'ze ALUMINUM TEES
2\1t/2x1,6 SQUARE CORNERS
lt/tx13/txt/t 3x3x3/s 8x8xr/z
2x2x1/e 3x3xr/z
STRUCTURAL (IN.)
UNEQUAL LEGS (IN.)
l1/z x'lt/q xt/t 2 1 l zx 2 x 5 / r s
5X I X t Strax2jtaxtie 2x2x1la l3x3x3/e I
11/zx11/a x3/te
l3rx1r'zxre
lllz x11/a x1/a 3 x2 x3/te STAINLTSS STEEL
ANGLES
l3/t x11/a x1/e

5 x3t/z x3/a
ALUMINUM ZEES
-+-t+
I
-----1i STAINLESS STEEL ANGLES (tN.)
3 x21/z x 1/t 5x31/z xt/z seuaRE coRNERs
3x21lz x3/t :L_L.
ALUMTNUMZEES- 2t/z x21/z x 1/<
2x11/z x3/rc 31/z x2tlz x t/a
lo I
6x31lz x1/z 3x3x1/r
J',t2XZt2X.ta 6x4x3/e dxaxbxt dxaxbxt 3x3x5/ro
2tlz x11/z xlla 6x4xr/z t/z x1/z x1/z x3/zz I x'11/gx 11/ex l/e
21lz x2 x3/ ta 3/a x3/a xz/t x1/e I x5/e x1/e x1/e
8xOx3,'r 7/a x3/a x3la x1/s

HMC Group;Ontario,California

METALFABRICATIONS
 MetolTubingond Pipes 285
RECTANGULAR TUBING - STEEL RECTANGULAR ALUMINUM ROUND PIPE . STEEL
T = WALL THICKNESS TUBING (IN.) INSIDE DIAMETER
(B\^/ GAUGE OR IN.) (BW GAUGE)
srzE (lN.)
NOMINAL
INSIDE
D IA.

SQUARE ALUMINUM TUBING (IN.)

Rectangularand squaretubingwith sharpcornersis usually

usedfor miscellaneous
architectural
metalwork.

ROUND TUBING - COPPER N OTE

Round pipe is made primarily in three weights: standard,
extra strong (or extra heavy), and double extra strong (or
double extra heavy). Outside diameters of the three
weights of pip€ in each size are always the same: extra wall
thickness is always on the inside and therefore reduces the
inside diameter of the heavier pipe. All sizes are specified
by what is known as the "nominal inside diameter."

Round pipe is also available in aluminum and stainless

steel. lndividual manufacturers'cataloqs should be con-
sulted for sizes.

NOTES
Round tubing, usually manufactured for mechanical pur

","=_.,...oo@
poses, is used for architectural metalwork to supplemenl
round pipe. Round tubing is measured by the outside diam-
eter and the wall thickness by gauge, fractions, or decimals

"""oooo
of an inch. Round tubing is used where a high grade finish
is required and exact diameters are necessary.

Round tubing is available in steel, aluminum, copper, stain-

less steel, and other metals. lndividual manufacturers' cata'
logs should be consulted for availability of materials and TUBING. COPPER
srzes.
ROUND TUBING AND PIPE

SQUARE TUBING. STEEL

WALL THICKNESS (B\|r'GAUGE OR IN.)

DDnn STEEL ALUMINUM

RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE TUBING

HMC Group; Ontario, Californra

METALFABRICATIONS
 286 PrefobricqtedFireproofedSteelColumns
GENERAL CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBING
Lallv columns are orefabricated structural units that consist U.L. RATED/ FIRE-
ALLOWABLE SAFE LOADS IN KIPS PROOFED COLUMN
of a load-bearing steel column, filled with concrete. This
creates a column with increased loadbearing capacity in a EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH SQUARE SHELL
space no larger than a standard column. Firepbof lally col-
OUTER RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION stzEs ilN.)
otM ENStOt THICK-
.umns have a thin steelFirell and a layer oI insilating mate- OF TUBING N ESS a 10 | 12 l4 l6 t8 20 2 HR. 3 HR. 4 HR
rial between the shell. and the structural steel..Fire ratings
oz 53 40 oxo
range trom two to lour hours depending on thqthickness ot
the insulating material. The protective steel shell allows 6E 42 bxb
fireproof lally columns to be left exposed in either interior or x ov 4Q bxb
exterio. applications. 2a 119 102 85

x5 40 185 172 1 5 8 t41 124 1 0 3 a2 7x j 8x8 9x9

44 '194
229 173 r 5 0
tla
xo 55 241 224 215 200 183 t05 lol 8x8 9xg 1 0x 1 0
60 299 283 267 244 226 204 177 l 5 l
rcu t s 128 ttl
7x7 12 297 245 273 259 243 221 208 1 8 9 t 0 6 146 9x9 10x101lx11
18 369 354 337 320 301 279 255 230 2M
zcl
x8 90 357 346 334 321 306 291 272 2U 236 215 l 0 x 1 0 1 1 x 1 1 1 2 \ 1 2
98 MO 427 412 395 371 355 334 3 1 1 286 259
J@

1 0 xl 0 tJz 482 471 460 M8 435 4 1 9 404 388 369 350 1 2 x 12 1 3x 1 3 1 4 x 1 4

142 592 579 550 533 5 1 5 495 474 424

N OTE
Load table based on Fy = 46 ksi

TYPICAL LALLY COLUMN SHAPES

CONCRETE FILLED STEEL PIPE

ALLOWABLE SAFE LOADS IN KIPS U.L.-RATED FIREPROOFED COLUMNS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH
DIAMETER RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION SQUARE SHELL SIZES (IN.) ROUND SHELL SIZES (IN.)
OF PI PE
(lN.) THICKNESS PER FT to l2 l4 t6 22 24 26 2 HR. 3 HR. 4 HR. 2 HR. 3 HR. 4HR

.300 17 58 4{' 39 6x6 7x7 8xB 6% 6%

.600 23 94 79 60
bxb YXY o '/. d ./s
.318 22 75 56 46

21 93 76
86 '122 52 8x8 9x9 6 'le 8 sle 8%
.674 36 r55 139 102
.zaa JO oo $
.375 39 1 3 9 1 3 0 120 1 1 0 98 84 8x8 9x9 10x10 8Y" 8 5/a 10 3lo
.750 52 230 215 1 9 8 174 1 5 6 132
,z6u tzJ I t4 ol 68
6% .432 56 1 9 7 'r88 1 7 8 t @ r 4 0 125 'r09 9xg 10x10 11x11 8% 10 3l^ 1 03 1 "
.864 327 293 272 249 225 r 9 8 1 6 9
zac ztv IYU
.500 91 314 295 283 270 257 242 226 209 1 9 1 171 11x1l 12x12 13x13 1031e 12 3l^ t2 3l^
.875 111 475 460 444 425 404 359 334 307 274 244
1 4x 1 4 lbxl 14
.500 423 415 406 394 383 370 356 342 326 309 291
t5x t5 to x to o
507 496 444 470 457 442 '426 409
178 534
NOTE
Load table based on F, = 46 ksi

wooD ONE WAY

SANDARD NAILER THRU PUTE
CONCRtrE
5@ PSI CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL
STEEL
TUBE
STEEL PIPE
COLUMN STIFFENER FIREPROOF |'- PARTITION
ULLY
STRUqURAL (OPTIONAL) COLUMN INSUUTING
STEELTUBE MAT€RIAL
MASONRY
5m PSI ANCHOR
INSUUTING CONCRETE WELDED TO DOOR FRAME
MATERIAL (OPTIONAL) SCREWED TO
SHELL
STEEL
SHEI

STANOARD
STEEL STEEL BASE

FIREPROOF COLUMNS TYPICAL COLUMN BASE ANO CAP ATTACHMENTS TO STEEL SHELL BEAM CONNECTIONS

TYPICAL LALLY COLUMN ASSEMBLIES

Eric Gastier;Alexandria,Virginia

METALFABRICATIONS
 SteelStoirs 287
GUIDELINES d. Bails should be arranged to discourage climbing
e. Concentrated load nonconcur,ently applied at the top
1. Width of stair: rail shall be 200 lb per ft in vertical downward and hori-
a. Dwelling stairs: minimum 36 in. treads. zontal direction. The test loads are applicable for rail-
jngs with supports not more than 8 tt apart.
b. Public exit stairs: minimum 44 in. treads.
c. Rescue assistance a.ea (ADA):48 in- between hand- 6. Handrails:
rarls. a. Dwellings: on one side only, required.
2. Treads: b. Other (ADA): required on both sides.
a. Dwellings:9 in. minimum (nosing to nosing). c. Height:34 to 38 in.
b. Olher (ADAI: l1 in minimum (nosing to nosing). d. Grip surface: 1'/ato 11lri^.
c. Uniform width wirhin one Ilight. e. Clearance at wall: 1rl, in.
3. Risers: f. Projecting or recessed.
1ST
a. Dwellings: 81/zin. maximum. g. Extension at top of run: 12 in.
b. Other (ADA): minimum 4 in., maximum 7 in h. Extension at bottom of run: 1 2 in. plus width of tread.
c. Uniform height within one flight. i. When a guardrail more than 38 in. high is used, a sep-
arate handrail should be installed (ASTM). STAIR SECTION
4. Nosing: maximum 1rl2 in. with 60" under nosing: maxi-
mum r/, in. radius al edge. j. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of
5. Stair rails: nanos.
a. Height in dwellings:36 In. 7. Regulators and standards; building codes, ADA, ASTM,
ANSI. NFPA. and OSHA.
b Herghr In evit stairs: 42 in
c. Rails should be arranged so that a sphere 4 in. in diam-
eter cannot be passed through.

12'
ENENSION -. 4" SPHERE
ANY POINT
MUST NOT
,".4qi'i:'"^"
5.
;
PT-AN DIMENSIONS REQUIRED
5' ASSISTANCE (ADA)
FOR RESCUE
;
TO 1'/1' ;
5'

FIELD 5'
MLD

CONCRETE
FILLED PAN

PIAN SHO\^/ING
HANORAIL E)<TENSIONS

STEEL STAIR RAILS

ME
T_

NOSING OF
r-ru
CHECKER PLATE
HANGER

RS33E=-wffi
WELDED To
OOO -___^

r.rrr- F=fl
CLOSELY SPACED NOSING, BAR STRTNGER_=l--i{
BARS. ANGLE ENOS END PUTES
tr:lN il tH
NTffi f-.m_n f-xF=-H
L/ltl ff
NOSING
AND
AND
OF ANGLE
ABRASIW
BAR ENOS
STRIP
FLOOR
NOSING,
END
PDTE
BAR
PLAiES
:$,,j-aw-
TUBE STEEL
suPPoRr
FffTT| |f"- --l :i:.=*
STRINGER \

HEAW FROM AND 10'MIN- CHANNEL \RW

Hffi
BACK BEARING BARS SMINGER
AND BAR END fuTES PUTE WPE

TREADS

STRINGER

CffiRIER
PI ATE ---
-=.-.-
\
\ \

BEARING
--w - \

='ffi
t**'*o,
/ CHANNEL PLATE -J'

'- 2". cRoss

\
\ FURRING
OWRGP

\--,v"'(steeu)
2ra'(aLU-
t
.t
- '^ FURR,NG
t- ltflFs
.H
\ 'n"' o,o. to..=
MINUM) ..-l:
1'7.' x 1v^" x ik"
STEEL
SUPrcRTS
ANGLE Fll ll
I lu-,llr+E
IN STRINGER o*.,. =[]-Elfl
NOTE Fr33*'o*r1--!El---s
This stair is not suitable for persons with disabilities.

INDUSTRIAL AND SERVICE STAIRS PAN.TYPE STAIR CONSTRUCTION

CharlesA. Szoradi, D.C.

AIA;Washington.

METALFABRICATIONS
288 FixedMetol lqdders
GENERAL NOTES HANDRAIL ENENSION
(IF WALL AT TOP,
1. Materials {or ladders and supports include galvanized
steel and aluminum. Galvanized steel ladders are fas-
tened to the wall with galvanized steel lasleners; alumi 1%' DIAMETER
num ladders are Iastened with stainless steel fasteners. HANDRAIL \

2. All Iixed wall ladders must conform to OSHAy'ANSI A14.3

standards. Also consult l@al codes tor design require"
ments.
il-+ l''-'
I I lMrN.
:l I lao'

lll'1'*
lJll

ooz 12' Mq.

il-"1'-+--
.-->.
91h'

--></ s'-,"
STEEL ANGLE
SUPPORT
METAL CHANNEL BRACKETS
SMINGER AT SIDES
FL@R FLOOR
CAGE H@PS, MOUNNNG GRATING
3" X %' BARS

NOTE N OTE
50'-o'
2' X %' MtN. The maximum rise between treads dependson exact lad- Cagesand rest platforms are requiredfor climbing heights
BAR FG CAGE
VERTICALS
der heightandangle. of more than 50 ft.
SHIP'S LADDER REST PLATFORM

fuRED CAGE IA'DAMffiR

E}ONOM GIVAN|zED
THROUGH BOLTS
(RECOMMENDED).
MIN.

X %' METAL
MOUMNG
BRACKT,
FASENED TO
7 -' MtN. STFINGER
a'o'MA
1' X 21h'
STRINGER
MET{ UOOER FASTEN€RS (FOR
ALUMINUM. USE
RIWTS; FOR
STEEL. WELDS)

N OTE
Cagesshouldbe used on laddersat hazardousleations or
on short laddersat high loctions.
FIXED VERTICAL LADDER
(5O FEET OR LESS)
*"HrEg:Jb","
""ffi'p
:,:I::""""" EruRL AS

RUNG

(N//(N{

€Lts"+!l*-;;"
ROUND
SERRATED CHANNEL TREAD
RUNG
SIDE SUPrcRT ANGLE

60'o.c.,
STEEL ANGLE
SHIP'S LADDER TREAD
Mff&
MOUMING TREADS AND RUNGS SIDE RAIL MOUNTING BRACKET
BUCKfl DETAILS

.-n
RUNG
1' '/"--------rRl

METAL
CHANNEL
i| llflN.N.l
<{P [_=
il r ll I

1 +-- IAI'
Ft.AED
CAGE AT
BONOM

FIXED VERTICAL LADDER SAFETY CAGE FLOOR-MOUNTING BRACKET DETAIL

(UP TO 24 FEET'

Richard J. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville,Maryland

r=
L\
e/ METALFABRICATIONS
 FireEscopesond EscopeLodders 289
18 MrN
i\

DOOR
ACCESS _

MOUNTING
BRACKETS

HANDLE FOR
UDDER
ROOF UDDER RETRACTION
LOCATED TO AT EACH
MEET CONDITIONS ACCESS POINT
OF BUILDING

. CHECK
\ LocaL
\ CIDES

ANGLE OF STAIR
NOT MORE THAN 60.

|ru
3 -O MAX

TYP- FLOOR

l.
LEVEL

CLOSED POSITION OPEN POSITION

]-K RETRACTABLE ESCAPE LADDER

FIRE ESCAPE NOTES
N OTE
COUNT€R 1 In general, exterior {ire escapes are not permttted as any
BAUNCE STAIR 7 to 12 tr from landingto part of the required means of egress for new buildings,
gradeat front ot building(12 but may be continued as a component in the means of

)\,tr-\<
or other public ways without any obstruction
It minimum at alleysor thor-
oughfares less than 30 ft
wide).
egress in existing buildings. New fire escapes for exist-
ing buildings are permitted only where exterior statrs
cannot be ulilized due to lot lines that limit stair size or
due to sidewalks, alleys, or str€ets at grade level. Access
FIRE ESCAPE by windows is generally not permitted.
2. For other soecilic requirements, refer to applicable
2" xz" x3tra" national and local building codes.

O.C 3. For standards for firo escapes as well as for stairs and
aT4',O 'l
means of egress, consult ANSI 17.1, OSHA, and NFPA
1010 (Life Safety Code).
4. Since fire escapes are mounted outside of the building
envelope, consideration must be given to exterior light-
ing provided on the building itself or general street light-
ing that would illuminate it.
5. Standard fire escapes are typically designed to support a
FLOOR live load of 100 lb/sq ft: stair treads shall be desagned to
GRATING
suoport a concenlrated live load of 250 lb at any point.

ST€EL
ESCAPE LADDER NOTES
FUT BAR PLAN - FIRE ESCAPE 1. Located adiacent to windows or balconies, the retract-
abie aluminum escaoe ladder is used solely for
'/, cHEcKERED
STEEL emergency exit, rescue, or supplemental escape route.
CHANNEL
Also provides access to mechanical equipment or other
STEEL secured spaces. Not to be used as any component tn the
BOLT (MIN. I means ot egress.
PER BRACKET) 2. Consult manufacturer for mounting details. Refe. to
national and local building codes lor specific require-
PLATE ments concerning access opening types, sill heights,
clearances, and maximum installation heights allowed. In
some instances, a balcony maY be used at anv level to
ANGLE access the ladder
STEEL CHANNEL STAIR BRICK
STRINGERS (FASTENED WITH
r/2" BoLTS oR coNTrNuous wELD)

ELEVATION - FIRE ESCAPE TYPICAL STAIR TREADS

RachardJ. Vitullo. AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland

Jomy Safety Ladder Company, Inc.; Boulder. Colorado

METALFABRICATIONS
290 Grotings

0f0f000000
0000000f00
STANOARD DOUBLE-SLOT GRATING

W I T H S P A C E R B A R S W E L D E O4 - O . c : . WITH SPACER SARS WELDEO 2.,O.C.

ltlllll||t
NOTE
Constructedof flat bearingbarso{ steel or aluminuml-bars, welding. They have open ends or ends banded with flat
with spacebars at right angles.Spacebars may be square, bars about the sam€ size as welded bearinq bars. Standard
rectangular,or of anothershap€.Spacerbars are connected bar spacings ar€ 1546and 13/16in.
to bearingbars by pressingthem into preparedslots or by
RECTANGULAR BAR GRATING (WELDED OR PRESSURE LOCKED)
STANDARD SINGLE-SLOT GRATING

-
-
-
-
-
WITH SPACER BARS RIVETED APPROX. T'O.C. w r T H S P A C E R B A R S R T V E T E O3 ' / : - O R 4 " TRIPLE-SLOT GRATING
USEO FOR AVERAGE INSiTALUTION USEDFORHAVY TRAFFICAND WHEREWHEELED SLOTS PARALLEL TO FRAME
EOUIPMENT IS USED
NOTE
Flat bearing bars are made of steel or aluminum, and con- 25l,6in. Many bar gratingscannot be used in areasof public
tinuous bent spacer or reticulate bars are riveted to the pedestriantraffic (op€ningsare too big for crutches,canqs,
bearing bars. Usually they have open ends or ends that are pogo sticks,women's shoes, etc.). Close mesh grating('/a
banded with flat bars of the same size as bearing bars, in.) is availablein steel and aluminumlor use in pedestrian
welded across the ends. Normal spacing of bars: %, 1tls, or traffic areas.

RETICULATED GRATING (RIVETED)

' l" , 3" , l" ,
ffi 6'' PANEL
nIrTrl nIr-Ir.]

I mr-----_l \\S\\S
----lmmr----------.---mmrt--
-
__J
rilr ilrr
LL.l Lll r
-
llll lllll
I Lll uJ tJ
N
WH EELC HAI R/BICYCLE GR.A,TING
PUN SECTION

ilil[ililil[ililil
NOTE
Grating is extruded from aluminum alloy in one piece with ized. Top ot surface may be solid or punched. Standard
integral l-beam ribs and can have a natural tinish or be anod- oanelwidth is 6 in.

ilil[ililil[[il[il
ALUMINUM PLANK GRATING

PEDESTRIAN GRATING
N OTE

FLANGE BLOCK Grates made ol gray cast iron. ductile €st iron, or 6st alu-
(ALUMINUM I-BAR) minum

N-\ _n STANDARD GRATE DESIGNS

l--',----_^.* w L TYPELFRA*a ---"

USUALLY AfrACHED BY WELDING, WHERE SUPPORT AND GRAT€ ARE CONSTRUCTED AS A UNIT
FIXED OR LOOSE GRATINGS-TYPICAL DETAILS

,,
SIZES OF ANGLES SUPPORTING GRATING DEPEND ON OEPTH OF GRATING BARS

H I NGED G RATI NGS_TYPICAL DETAILS TRENCH GRATINGS-FRAME DETAIL

CharlesF- D. Egben,AIA; Washington,D.C.
VicenteCordero,AIA; Arlington,Virgrn€

METALFABRICATIONS
 OrnomentollronworkDeloils 291
GENERAL produce custom work today; a smaller proportion of their

Wrought iron is a commercial form of iron with a relativ€ly

sofl and malleable fibrous structure. The term literally
work is restoration.
2. Working with iron is a cratt not readily mastered by gen
SFmy'*.*\1x
eralists; low bidders may not be qualifjed to deliver a
means "tashioned" or "tormed" iron and is widely associ-
ated with ironwork details. ASTM A 186 defines wrought
iron as iron with a carbon content between 0.03 and
0.0570, a material prevalent up to the 19th century. lron
with such a low carbon content is scarce today, so most
high-quality product. Check references for similar types
of jobs performed or jobs at similar costs. Consult rhe
National Ornamental and Miscellaneous Metal Associa-
tion (NOMMA) and the Artists-Blacksmiths Association
wELD--
STEEL BAR
N /
\U

of North America lor more information on references and /

{abricators use steels containing combinations of iron with
a higher percentage of carbon tor ornamental details. Low
carbon steel or mild steel is the most desirable of these.
NOTES
l. Steel and iron are the metals most freouentlv used for
ornamental structures. Other ooDular metals are alumi-
num (favored for its light weight and rust resistance), pol-
ished bronze, brass, and copper. Blacksmiths primarily
sql lfro ,/
lists of blacksmith shops in the United States.
3. NOMMA publishes voluntary guidelines lor joint finishes
in ornamental work. They are Finish #1 (no evidence of a
welded,oint); Finish #2 (completely sanded joint. some
undercutting and pinholes); Finish #3 (parlially dressed
weld with splatter removed); and Finish #4 (good quality,
uniform undressed weld with minimal solatted.

TYPICAL SIZES AND WE]GHTS (LB PER FT)

FOR SOLID IRON AND CARBON STEEL BARS
DIAMETER OR
THICKNESS (IN EXPANSION

ROUNDS
(DIAMETER IN.) METAL GRILL\/VORK INSTALLATION_
DETAILS FOR MASONRY OPENINGS

$::::$
Wrb
mm00$$Dn
BAR ENDS

Ytr$
$=*n***='*'qg-HH=.ft*-W
INTERSECTING
rcX'W
MEMBERS

-WELD

65*"Y,-*F-{*"6> K=M*'4
CORNER CONDITIONS

m*."#*
. WELD - WELD RIVETS
(OR BOLTS)

EDGE CONDITIONS MISCELLANEOUS CONNECTIONS

Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,

METAL
ORNAMENTAL
292 PerforotedMetqls
GENERAL 6. Nonstandard end patterns may require special dies. C H E C K L I S T O F P E R F O R A T I N GC O S T
Unoerforated borders mav cause distonions of the fin- INFLUENCES
Pe.forated metals were initiallv created to fulfill industrial ished sheet. Roller leveling may be used to correct some l.Material type: The least expensave materialmay nol
needs such as minimizing the weight of a particularcompo- of these distortions but may not always work. To calcu- save mon€y; a higher strength alloy may allow thick-
nent or controlling the passage ot fluids or gasses. As an late the (round) holes per square inch: ness to be reduced.
architectural component, perforated metals can be used as
control devices or simply as decoration. They can serve as Y.-9p9!-{9q 2. Materialthickness:Thinnermaterialscan b€ p€rforated
sound suppression acoustical devices in ceilings, walls, and 78.54xDxD easierandfaster.
grilles; when incorporated into light lixtures. grilles, or ceil- 3. Hole shaoe and oattern:Roundholes are the most eco
ing and wall components, they can filter light and obscure nomical;the 60x" staggoredround hole pattern is the
views. Since perlorated metals retain a great deai of their strongest,most versatile,and most common.
METAL SHEET (SECIry
strength and al$ ventilate well, they are otten employed in G
G THICKNESS.
METAL THICKNESS,
METAL. 4. flole size:Do not go belowa l-to-l ratioof holeto size
furniture and other designs. Because they can bend and LENGTH,
LENGTH, AND WIDfr)
AND WIDfr) to sheet thickness;stay with a 2-to-1 ratio or larger if
interrupt wavelengths of many types, perforated metals are possible.
I LENGTH OF SHEET
used to contain microwave radiation and the EMI/RFl radia-
5. Bar size:Do not use barswith less than a l-tel ratio
tion emitted by electrical devices.
with sheetthickness.
NOTES 6. Center distance:This controls the teed rate and thus
SIDE the conductionrate. It possible,choose a patternwith
l. Metal is typically perlorated with hole-punching MffiGIN longercenter distance-
machines, which work best on sheets .008 in. to rL in.
rhick. Specialized equipment is available for thicker
7. Open areas: Extreme open area proportions tend to
metal. F '.aLdtoooooooo. 1
increasedistonion;if possible,stay under 70 percent.
u oooooooooooooa B. Margans:Keepside marginsto a minimumto reduce
2. The intended use of the perforated metal sheet deter-
mines the size, shape, and pattern of the holes punched. TT aooooooooooooo ' distortion.Use standardunfinishedend marginsif pos
ooooooooood\o. sible.
The strength and stiffness required vary according to o,, .oooooooooopool
use. Since oerforated materials can be used in different ;b ooooooooq".s4 9. Blankareas:Considerthe die patternwhen determining
applications involving a wide range of geometries, mate- l blankareas;consultthe metalsupplier.
rials. and loading conditions. design data are given in very .H \t / l /1- I l0.Standardization: Specifystandardhole patterns,mate-
general form. WIDTH OF
-ORANON
PERFORANONS sl \r:==:- l rial dimensions,and toleranceswhen possible.Before
3. The enormous number of perforating patterns possible DrREcrroN / specityinga "special," ask the perforatorwhat can be
with round holes, squares, slots, and other special perfc TfON (SEClry donewith existingtooling.
ERFORATI
ERFORI -,t
rations make it impractical to list every pattern combina- SE AND SSHAPE - 11.Accept normal commercial burrs unless otheMise
tion. The numbered perforations listed by the lndustrial ARRANGEMEMANGEMET [ (sEctry STaGGERED. sp€cified.
Perforators Association (lPA) are considered standard. s.lrocffi,dcffi. OF
ofi (OftER PANERNS) -
4. For design and tol€rances of perforated metals, consult
the lPA. DARK HOLES REMESEM
TOOL ruNCH ARRANG€MEM
FOR ERFORATING
MAC
MACHINE

THE SHEET
ffi-
5. Round holes trom.020 in. to more than 6 in. in diameter
make up the majority of all perforated metal sheets pro-
N OTE
"-*-*{ '
duced. This is because round holes can be produced
with greater efficiency and less expense and are gener- Spacing€n be specifiedas a center-trenter dimension.a *l
2-l
ally stronger than other hole shapes. p€rc€ntag6ol op€n ar€a,or holesper squareinch.
TYPICAL TERMS FOR SPECIFYING NorE I
PERFORATED METAL This standardIPA option is stronger than straight row pat-
ROUND HOLES tems but not as strong as a 60x'staggered arrangement.lt
S*/S, STRENGTH is also not as versatile in providingcompact hole spacing
and high open areasas the 60xo arGngement.
LENGTH
IPA NUMBERS OI R ECTIO N 45" STAGGERED RoUND HoLE
PATTERN

f !Rt'*t' --<t-+Pl1*'- cE,*Rs

-t-F*---J
f;l l$;dl
SIDE
frJ$:3:q4".**.
MARGINS
OPEN PUNCH
u CENTERS
++
l-t6;cpl-*^-. ----
1....oj1-''''"--
loooooS
CLOSED PUNCH
N OTE

A straight line pattern of holes is weaker than a staggered

arrangerent and can stretch th€ material more. Dark holes
in the drawings above indicto the punch patterns.
STRAIGHT LINE ROUND HOLE
PATTERN

D' X S.69
(d6'46'6)
'\ooaof @EN
)a-P-sf AREA
l-_-x.
STAGGERED ,c,

tooool , D' X S.69

b-€^r-e)+ OPEN
AREA
STRAIGHT
D

-157.08 D' OPEN

S*= yield strengrhof perforatedmaterial Lengthdirection= parallelto straightrow of holes

S = yield strengthol unperforatedmaterial(strengrhlor Width directim = directionof stagger
45' STAGGIRED PATTERN (SPECIAL)
60" standardstaggeredpattern)
ROUND HOLE OPEN AREAS

IndustrialPerforatorsAssociation;Milwaukee,Wisconsin
McKey PerforatingCompany;New Berlin,Wisconsin

ORNAMENTAL
METAL
 Perforqted ond Sheet Metqls 293
cFNrr ps *
au^ra*= rz-Y::$)
//
-'' a
til
-'-':z\
I il F:----l 'l
tLil
\ nUAU-UAU 2
II -I r H 'I HE)<AGONAL
.-lf_-lr-1T.lr riir |
F_1nf_1nJ---1j
| HOLES
p@@l Tlilil'-_
p.-ro/)o/)or-\q
P Jovovo vq
)r7tVu=ilY
SQUARE SQUARE _\Lzlrarrz\r/-\
P o o o o -o o o o o o o q
PERFORATIONS
STAGGERED
PERFORATIONS
STRAIGHT LINES
p-o
P'- o , / o
o^o^q
, / o l r q
TztYlrYrxvzxT
\rLz\\i/\!/ r///.
@

SQUARES OCTAGONAL
CANE GRECIAN
NO rO5. O45 NO 200
otA..37% 1t5^
- 64v. NOTE
OPEN AREA OPEN AREA
A broadassonmentof nonstandard hole shaoesand oat-
consultmetal perforator.AIso available
terns is available;
are indentedholes,collaredholes.and louveredholes.
MISCELLANEOUS NONSTANDARD
PERFORATION PATTERNS
NOTE
Thesethree types of slots are IPA standardtypes. Non
standardsquare€ndslotsare alsoavailable. Consultmanu
facturersfor other open areacalculationsfor slots.
: SLoT / SLOT / SLOT
SQUARE HOLE OPEN AREAS /.
wtDrH
/
WDrfr
,/
WIDTH

' SIDL ' SIDL ' SIDF

*r ,r*?oo +*-+*.to* ,* l*to*

No. log,5/e" lllr,'
DtA.,36% No 2ot , '/4
OPEN AREA OPENING

S'X 1M - % OPEN
c' AREA SLOTS SLOTS SLOTS
SIDE END STRAIGHT
STAGGER STAGGER LINES
N OTE SLOTS
Square holes, principallyused for grilles and machine
guards,offer optimal visibilityand throughput.Typically
punchedin a straightline, in either straightor staggered
patterns,squareholesmake{or weakerperforatedsheets No. r 20, ,a" No. 2og, r/s" x I
thanroundholepatternsandare generallymoreexpensive. orA..58% OPENING,43%
Sharpcornersmake squarehole toolingwear out faster OPEN AREA OPEN AREA
thanroundholet@ling.
SQUARE HOLES M ISCELLAN EOUS PERFORATION
PATTERNS SLOTS

GA.UGES AND WEIGHTS OF SHEET METALS*

GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS-USS GAUGE
USS GAUGE REV. USS GAUGE

*Gauges and weights have been computed subject to standard commercial tolerances.

Industrial Perforators Associataon;Milwaukee, Wisconsin

McKey Perforating Company; New Berlin, Wisconsin

METAL
ORNAMENTAL
294 Coils,qnd Plotes
SteelSheets,
GUIDE FOR SELECTING CARBON STEEL FOR PERFORATING APPLICATIONS
APPROXIMATE
R ELATIVE COST
( r o-GA. H.R.
RECOMMENDED SIZE TYPICAL M ECHANICAL PROPERTIES STEEL = IOO)

cotLs %
ELONG
CAR BO N YIELD, HARD.
PE DESCRIPTION TH TH CONTENT >sl PSI ) rr.r. N ESS ;HEETS cotLs
HOT-ROLLEO STEELS
A IOwrOSlSneetsleet wrtn mooerale /to uP to up to llo up ro u.l u max- 45,UUU JU,UUU 28 to 38 55 to /0
'16ga. to pickled 99
{SAEor ASI 1008;drawingand lorming qualitiesfor use 60 in. 1 M i n . 1 6 g a . 60 in. IO
ASTM A 569) when finish is unimportant.Forbest perfo 60.000 40.000 and oiled-
ratingresultsspecifypickledand oiled for 104
removalof oxides
I hts oualrtvrs tntendedlor use when torm- /ro up ro up ro 7to up to O . 1 0m a x za to 3u 5b to /u
(SAEorAlSl1008: ing requirementsare too severefor com- 1 6g a . 60 in. 144 in. 1 6 g a . 60 in. to to
ASTMA 621) mercialquality.Picklingand oilingto 60,000 40.000
removeoxides is recommended.In-stock
availabilityis not as greatas commercial
oua!rw-
Good formabilitv because of low carbon 7to up ro up Io ll to up to o.l2 max zz mtn 80 to 90 32
'14
3lloy(USSCotrTen content in combination with relatively high 1 6g a . 60 in. 144 in ga. 60 in. mtn min'
)r equivalenl; Yield and Tensile properties permit these
ASTMA 375} steels to be used in lighter gauges to
reducc weight in applications in which
strength in important. Readily available.
'il8
Hrgh manganese content In combrnatron tto up Io up ro N.A. N.A. 35 tO .5U b5,UW l0to20 21Oto 225
(C.3$.50;Mn 1.5G with intermediate carbon greatly enhances '16
ga. 60 in. 14/in 0 lo {Bhn.)
2.00; P .050 max.; S resistance to abrasion; can imorove oart IO 70.000
.055max.;Si .1t life 2 to 10 times. Moderate formabilitv. 120,OO
.35) 0
COLO.ROLLED STEELS
Coldrolled steels have rmprovedsurface 7to up to up to 1',Ito up ro 0 . 1 0m a x 30 to 40 45 to 6U
(SAEor AlSl 1008: finishesand tighter sizetolerancesthan 28 ga. 60 in 18ft 28 ga. 60 in. to IO ( 1 6g a . )
ASTMA366} hor rolledsteels. They are awilable in two 50.000 35.000
classes:Class 1 is intendedfor exoosed
applications;Class2 is tor unexposeduse.
Threefinishescan be specified:Matte is
the standardfinish. lt is uniformlydull and
suitablefor painting.Commercialbright
tinish is a r€lativelybright.intermediate
finish. Lusterfinish is sm@th and brighi
and most suitablefor plating.Becauseper-
foratingalterssurfaceappearance, surface
preparationafter perforatingmay b€
requiredbefore applicationof the final fin-
ish.
Hecommendedtor us€ when lormrng 110 up to up to Il to up to u . ] um a x 3E to 40 40 to 50 tzc
(ASTM A requirementsare t@ severetor @mmer- 28 ga 60 in. 1 8 f t 29ga 60 in. to to (16 ga.)
cial quality.Can be supplied(Class1) free 50,000 30,000
of fluting or stretcherstrainingwhen
intendedfor use in a reasonablvshon
time. Availableanmill ouantities.
l-or use when the materaalmust be free ot 'll
7lo up to up to to up to U.IUMAX zu,wv 38 to 40 40 to 50 tz/
sp€cialmilled surfacedisturbanceswithout roller level- 28 ga 60 in. 1 8 f t 28 ga 60 in. to to ( 1 6g a . )
(ASTMA 620) ing immediatelybeforeuse andessentially 50.000 30.000
freefrom significant changesin mechani-
cal propertiesover an extendedperiodof
time.AvailableIn millorderouantities.
CORROSION-R ESISTANT STEELS

(ASTM 525) steel watha zinc coatingappliedin a con-

tinuous hotdip process.Availablein cofr
mercial,drawing,and other qualities.

galmized bonderizedphosphatefor immediate

paintingwilhout flakingor pe€ling.

(clating (bsignation without spangleswith a roughtexturewell

A 60) suited to painting.Canwithstandtempera-
tures to 750" without tlaking.Less ductile
than regulargalvanizedcGting.
A thin zinc coatinq is applied to 'l4ti
(ASIM A 591) steel by electroplatingso as not to appre (20sa.)
ciatively affect the weight-thickness rela-
tionship. Smmth, without spangles, it is
recommended as an undercoat for painted
finishes. Available in commercial and

steel Coated on up up ro lo up ro
{ASTM 463) minum combinesthe propeniesof both 26 ga 60 in. 1 8f t 26 ga. 60 in. to IO (20 qa.)
metals.Type 1 is providedin two weights. 60,000 45,000
regularand light, and is availablein com-
mercialanddrawingqualrties. lf the heavi-
est Type 2 alumjnizedcoatingis desired,
consultwith a suoglieror the steel manu-
facturer.

IndustrialPerforators Association: Milwaukee. Wisconsin

rh\
\J/ ORNAMENTAL
METAL
 Hondroilsond Rqils 29s
NOTES METAL TOP RAIL

1. Follow all local code requirements for ramp design, raii STANOARD
STEEL
diameter, and rail clearances; also see ASTM, ANSI. P1?E
ADA. and OSHA reouirements. METAL SUBRAIL RATLING
2. Verify allowable design stresses of rails, posts, and pan- METAL
els. BALUSTER STEEL POST

3. Verify the structural value of fasteners and anchorage to

METAL POST STEEL AND
building structure for both vertical and lateral forces.
PUSTIC
4. ASTM E-985 requirements: GLASS PANEL COMPOSITE
INSET INTO TUBINGS
GUAFDRAILS , Protect occupants at or near the outer POSTS
edge of a ramp. landing, platform. balcony, or accessible PANEL
MAAL COMPRESSION
roo{. Railing systems usually are not provided where the LOWER RAIL CUMP
vertical distance between adjacent levels is 24 in. or less. (2 PER SIDE
Railing members should be arranged to discourage
climbing. Provide 4 in. high toeboards where tools or METAL COVER
CODE PUTE WITH
other objects could be dislodged. Concentrated load non- SET SCREWS
concurrently applied at the top rail shall be 200 lb t in the METAL COVER
PUTE WITH
horizontal and vertical direction. The test loads are aooli-
SET SCREW
cabte for railings wrlh supports not more than 8 fi apart.
METAL SLEEVE
HANDBAiLS - Corridors, ramps, and walkways having a
CAST IN PUCE
slope at least 1 in 20 shall have handrails. When a guard-
rail o{ more than 38 in. height is used, a separate handrail
shall be installed. Nothing should interrupt the continu-
ous sliding of hands. The ends of the handrail shall be
returned to walls or arranged to avoid projecting rail
EM BEDOEO POST
ends.

METAL POST AND RAIL PIPE RAILING

METAL
POST

METAL
COVER EXPANSION
PLATE BOLTS
LIGHTED RAIL
SURFACE MOUNTED
GUSS PANEL

POST AND METAL

STEEL ANGLES
'WOOD RAIL GUSS

ffs;
FLOOR FINISH
FLEXIALE FASTENER FINISH
INSERT

wooD
BLOCKING
STEEL / BRONZE coNNECTtNG STEEL
WOOD NAILING 'lz"
MtN "*ar,a
BLOCK
STEEL
MOUNTING PLATE
BRACKET GYPSUM BOARD CAST IN
CAST IN PSCg
PUCE STEEL
ANCHOR SIOE MOUNTED

FLUSH MOUNTEO GLASS RAIL SYSTEM POST MOUNTING TOP RAILS

GLASS PANEL BOLT 33b"/+

CONNECTION
)'' I 2 1 t 2 '- 3

METAL COVER

MOUNTING
ARACKET
CAST IN PUCE
r/2 ' MtN. srEEL
PUTE -

EXPANSION
BOLTS
NYLON WITH STEEL COR E ALUMINUM STAINLESS STEEL

SIDE MOUNTED GLASS PANEL WALL BRACKETS

3l/2- MAX. 4- SPHERE CANNOT PASS
GUSS PANEL ENCROACHMENT
LIGHT
INTO REQ'D
FIXTURE
STAIR OR
OPT RAMP WIDTH

=
:
METAL COVER
g
GYP. BOARD
HANDRAIL
42'AT
MOUNTING
GUARDRAILS
BRACKtr 34" TO 36" AT
HANDRAILS FOR
CAST IN P4CE STAIRS ANO CANNOT
STEEL ANCHOR RAMPS PASS
THROUGH GUARDRAIL AT
FINISH FLOOR LEVEL LEVEL SURFACE
RECESSED HANORAIL WALL-MOUNTED HANORAIL RAILING AT STAIR OR RAM P

SURFACE MOUNTED GLASS PANEL ACCESSIBLE HANDRAILS/GUARDRAILS DIMENSIONS

BichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.

Marvland

ORNAMENTAL
METAL
 296 ExponsionJoint Covers:Interior
N OTES SPRING LOADED
1. A large selection of prefabricated assemblies to covef CLIP ASSEMBLY

anteriorexpansion joints is available from various manu-

lacturers to satisfy most joint and finish conditions.
2. Fie-nled barriertype inserts are avajlable and applicable
to mosl assemblies.
3. Expansion joint covers that will respond lo diflerential
rcvement. both laterally and horizontally, should be pre
vided at joints in structures located where seismic action
{earth tremors and quakes) may be expected or where
differential seftlement is anticioated.

EXTRUDEO
METAL COVER

AT WALL OR CEILING AT SUSPENOED CEILING

USABLE WITH VARIOUS

FLOOR COVERINGS

EUSTOMERIC JOINT COVER

(REMOVABLE)
SUSPENOED ACOUSTICAL CEILING

FACE OF WALL
EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
VINYL
FINISH FLOOR

ANCHOR BOLT

ANCHOR BOLT
VINYL GUNER
SEISMIC FLOOR JOINT COVER AT FLOOR AT F L O O R A N O W A L L
FOR JOINTS UP TO 24 IN.

SEISMIC FLOOR JOINT COVER

FOR JOINTS
AT WALL (CORNER)
UP TO 8 IN.

PREFABRICATED INTERIOR EXPANSION JOINT COVERS

Paul Bonsalland Roben D. Abernathy:J. N. peaseAss@iates:Charlotte,North Carotina

EXPANSION
CONTROL
 CHAPTER SIX

AND PLASTICS

lntroduction 29A Wood Decking 352

Design Load Tables 3OO Sheathing 355

Wood Treatment 314 Wood Trusses 361

Wood and Plastic Glued-Laminated Construction 373

Fastenings 317
Finish Carpentry 37a
Rough Carpentry 323
Architectural Woodrnrork 380
Structural Panels 339

Heavy Timber Construction 341

298 Designingwith Wood
FIREBETARDANCE: Naturalfire retardantqualitiesand ac
\^/OOD AS A CONSTRUCTION ceptability of treatment vary with species. Flame Sprea|
MATERIAL Classificationis the gen€rally accepted measurementlo
Approximatelynine of every ten buildingsconstructed in tire rating of materials.Fire{etardanttreatmentsand build
the United States each year are tramed with wood, includ- up of members can be used to improve the fire rating of
ing most single-familyand multifamily res1dencesand a wood materaals
large percentageo{ commercial,institutioml,and public
buildings.Wood is {avoredas both a structuralmaterialand PRESERVATIVE TREATMENTS: Certainspeciesused fo
a finish materialfor its economy,architecturalflexibility,and architecturalw@dwork can be treated with preservativE
visualqualities.Many contractorsknow how to buildwith it. compounds to extend their life when exposedto the ele
Smallwork crews can handlemost wood membetswithout menIs.
special lifting equipment; cutting and fastening can be
accomplishedon site with hand or ponable power tools;
and the skills needed tor w@d construction are easilv LUMBER PRODUCTION
learned.Y€t wood is one of the most difficult materialslor Commercially mark€tedlumberincludestreesol dozenso'
the designerto master,becauseit is virtuallythe only build- speciesroughlydividedinto sollwoods, which are the ever
ing materialthat is vegetableratherthan mineral.With this green species, and hardwoods, those species that drop
vegetableorigin comes a host of idiosyncrasiesrelatingto their leaves in the fall. Nearly all lraming lumber comes
directional properties, strength, stiffness, grain patterns, from the @mparatively plentiful softwoods. Hardwoods,
shrinkage,distortion,decay. insect damage,and tire resis- with thsir greaterrangeof colorsand grainfigures,are used
Gnce. primarilyfor interiorfinishes,Ilmring, cabinets,and furni
ture.
Today most wood comes from youngerforests. wilh trees
typicallysmallerthan those haryesteda few decadesago. Seen unde| a lowfower magnifier,wood is made up pri
Large solid timbers are increasinglyhard to obtain,and the marilyof hollowtubularcellsof cellulosethat run parallelto
generalqualityof lumber is declining.As a result architects the long axisof the tree trunk.Whenthe tree is harvested
and buildersmust dependmore and more on manufactured both the hollows and the walls of these tubes are full oJ
wood productssuch as laminatedwood. laminatedveneer watery sap, The tree is sawed into rough lumber while in
lumber, parallelstrand lumber, and manufacturedwood l- this saturatedor'green'condition. Finishlumberis sea
joists and trusses. These products tend to be straighter,
soned (dried oI much of its moisture),either by stacking I
stronger. stiffer. less prone to distortion, and more ece in the ooen air for a period of months or, more commonly,
nomical of trees than conventionalsolid lumber, but they by heatingit in a kiln Jora periodof days. Duringseasoning,
are not alwys suitablefor displayin a building. moisture evaporatesfirst from the hollows of the tubes.
and then trom the cellulosewalls of the tubes, causingthe
TYPES OF u/OOO CONSTRUCTION lumber to shrink. By tho rime the lumber leavesthe kiln, lt
Buildingcldes €tegorize wood constructioninto two dis- is considerablysmaller. Further shrinkageusually occurs
tinct types--6eavy-timb€rand light w@df rame. after the lumber has been incorporatedinto a building,as
the moisture content in the wood comes graduallyto equi
Heavy-timberconstruction.consistingof exposedcolumns, librium with the moisture content of the surroundingair
girders, beams, and decking large enough to be slow to Wood absorbs moisture during damp weather and gives rt
catch {ire and burn, is permitted tor use in relativelylarge ofl during dry weather in a never€nding cycle of swelling
buildingsacrossa bred spectrum of uses. Becauseof its and shrinking,a fact that must be taken into accountwhen
large member dim€nsions and spans, heaw-timber con- detailingw@d componentsof buildingi.
structim is best suited to buildingswith regular,repetitivg
bays. Heavy-timberbuildingsare engineeredin accordance Most lumb€r is surfacedafter seasoningto reduceit to its
with th€ NationalDasign Specificationtor Wood Construc- final dimensions and give it smooth faces. Edges are
tion. publishedby the AmericanWood Council. roundedto make the lumber gasierand saferto handle.

Lighl woo+fram€ constructionis made up of nominal2 in- HEAVY TIMBER VERNCAL GRAIN
(38 mm) framing members spaced closely together and
normallyconcealedby interiorfinish materialssuch as plas- PUIN-SAWN
ter. qwsum board, or w@d paneling.Light w@d-frame BOARO
construction,with its small members and close member
spacings,adapts readilyto even the most intricatespaces
and architecturalforms. However, becausesuch construc-
tion is less resistantto fire than heaw-timbersnstruction,
buildingcodes severelylimit the heighls and areasof light
woo+fram buildings.The maximum height generallyper
mitted in residentiallight wood-framebuildingsis three sto-
ries, althoughfour stories8re possibleif an approvedsprin- LIGHT \,vOOD.FRAME CONSTRUCTION
kler system is installed.Most light wood-Irameengineering
can be dore lollowing values from tablesin the CABO One may be finished with transparentor opaque coatings or
and Two Family Dwelling Code. which has been widely serye as a base for appliedplasticlaminates.
adoptedby states and municipalities.
SELECTION OF INTERIOR FINISH WOOO TYPICAL SAWING OF A LARGE LOG
M A T E R IA L S
WOOD AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL Followingare the major factorsthat influ€ncelumberselec- NOMINAL (ROUGH)
tion for finish wood applicationsas specifiedby the Atchi-
On the basis ol performancep€r unit weight. typical con-
tecturalW@dmrk lnstitute:
struction lumbg is at least as strong and stiff as structural
st@|. B@use of its microstructureo{ longitudinalcells, Different sp€cies exhibit
AESTHETICCHARACTERISTICS:
wood has dafferentstructuralpropertiesin its lwo principal
a variety of colors.grains (openor close grain).and ligures
directions. Parallelto the grain, wood is strong and stiff;
perpendicularto the grain, it is weak and deformable.Fas- {grainpattems)that are further distinguishedby the swing
teners that act in a dir€ctionF€rall€lto the graincan trans- method (plainsawn, quarter sawn, rift sam) and finishing
mit mnsiderabty more lorce than those that act characteristics(receptivityto finish processes,such as fill-
perpendicularto ths grain. Th€ strength of wood varies ers. starns,etc-).
with the durationof the load: For short-termloadssuch as
AVAILABILITY:The availabilityof padcular species varies
those trom snow. wind, and impact, atlowablestress val-
ues are 15 to 1ooy. higher than those allowed for normal- by seasonand popularity.
term loads. Under very long term loading,however. wood
has a tendencyto creep, and reducedstress values must SIZE LIMITATIONS:Some species produce longer and/or
wider rembers.
be used.
STRENGTH, HARDNESS. AND DENSITY: The abilityof se-
lected lumber to sustain stress; resist indentation,abuse,
WOOD AS A FINISH MATERIAL and wear; and carry its anticipatedload contributesto its
Wood is used as a finish materialin buildingsof every kind. suitabilityfor partjcularuses.
Limited quantitiesof wood finish may be used even in the
most fire{esistant types of construction.With proper pre DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:Swellingand shrinkingdue to
tection from water and sunlight,wood can serye as a dura- relative humidity and moisture content changes varies
ble exteriormalerialfor cladding.trim. and even roling. For accordingto the speciesand producttype.
interior finishes, despite recenl concerns regarding the
depletion of rare or old€roMh species, w@ds ot many ADAPTABILITY FOR EXTERIOR USE:Cenainspeciesare
types remain commonly availablein solid or veneer form, more durable when used in exterior applications.Heart-
exhibitinggreat varietyin hardness,grainfigure,color, suit- wood of all speciesis more resistantto damag€by the ele-
ability for different finishes, and cost. Finish woods are ments than sapwood. The lollowing species are rot
readily availablein many preformed shapes and are also resistant and acceotable tor exterior use: Eastern and
easilyshapedand cut in the field. Wood and w@d products Western red cedar;redwood: mahogany,and teak. LUMBER THICKNESS

EdwardAllen, AIA; South Natick, Massachusetts

Joseph lano, Architect;Mercer lsland.Washington
Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia

INTRODUCTION

LUMBER GRADING
Wood is a natural product and thus varies greatly in appear,
ance and structural properties. Consequently, elaborate
systems ot grading have been established to indicate the
quality of each piece of lumber. Within each species of
wood there are two grading systems, one based on struc-
tural strength and stiffness, the other on aopearance.
Appearance is graded visually. Structural grading is based
either on visual inspection, the sizes and positions of knots
and other defects, or structural properties as measured by
machines that flex each piece of lumber.
Strength and stiffness values for wood are tabulated else,
where in this chapter of AGS. They vary considerably lrom
one spectes and grade to another. When engineering a
wood structu(e, it is necessary to know what species and
grade wall be specified. lt in doubt, base structural calcula-
tions on the weakest species and grade locally available.
JOINING WOOD
Nailing is the most common method o, ioining light struc-
tural irembers. Nails are inexpensive to buy and install and
may be driven by hand or with a pneumatic gun. When
applied in proper size, number, and spacing, they form a
strong, resilient joint. Sheet metal straps, anchors, and
brackets can be nailed to connections where greater resis-
tance to tension or shear is necessary_ Detailed nailinq
requirements for light wood-frame construclron ar;
included in bualding codes. HeaW-timber construction typts
cally relies on bolts and lag screws, together with fabri-
cated metal connecting devices.
ln finish wood construction. nearlv headless finish nails are
used for improved appearance. Screws, concealed or
embedded fasteners, splines, and fitted and glued joints
provrde greater mechanical stiffness and optimal appear-
'Broad interior finish pieces
ance. The Architectural Woodwork Institute has established
standards for tinish ioinery based on appearance and cost.
MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN \^/OOD
Theshrinkage of woodas it driesis not uniform.Wood
shrinksverylittlealongthelengthol thegrain,somewhat
in
the radial direction of a cylindrical log, and more in the tan-
gential direction of the log, as shown in the accompanying
graph. One consequence ol the difference between the
radial and tangential shrinkage is that radial splits called
checks form during seasoning, especially in lumber ol large
Designingwith Wood 299
dimension. ln addition, pieces of tumber distort noticeabty
In accordance with their original posjtions in the tree trunk
For pieces of lumber that must stay flat, such as flooring,
outdoor decking, baseboards, casings, and paneling, verti,
cal{rain Iumber. which is sawed so the annual growth rings
are more or less perpendicular to the troad face of the
board, is often specified One particular sawing pattern that
produces vertical-grainlumber is called ouarter,sawina. For 2
ordinary tramrng, seasoning disto.ltons are of lrttle c;nse- q
quence, so praln-sawn boards are used. o
z
A number of accepted wood detailing practices have been
:
o
developed in response to the great moisture movement
z
that occurs in wood and the distortions that result from the UU
differing rates of shrinkage along the three axes ol the
grain. In applying wood siding, it is recessary to use nailing
9H
YO
patterns that do not restrain the cross-Orain seasonal 1t
co
shrinking and swelting of the wood Horizonial bevel srdrna
is nailed so that each board is fastened by one row of naiti ile
only, creating a sliding joint at each overlapping edge to
allow for movement. Tongue-andgroove siding boardl are
naaled at the tongue edge only, the other edge being
restrained by the tongue of the adjacent board sliding freely
in its groove. Venical board and-batten sidjng is nailed onlv
at the centers of the boards and battens, allowino lor free
expansron and contractton of the wood.
MOISTURE SHRINKAGE OF A TYPICAL
soFTwooD
Because wood shrinkage is so much greater in the tangen,
tial direction than in the radial, plain-sawn boards tend to
cup noticeably in a direction opposite to the curyature of
tho annual rings. Plain sawn decking and flooring should be
'bark
laid with the side' of each board facinq down to
reduce the raising of edges. On outdoor decks, tirs practrce
willalso minimize puddling of water on the boards. Venical-
grain flooring and deck boards sre preferable to plain-sawn
boards, not only because they minimize cupping but
because their tighter grain pattern wears better underfoot.
are frequently given a relieved
back, a hidden groove or grooves that reduce the effective 25% RELATIVE
thickness of the piece and thus the tendency ot the oiece HUMIDITY
to cup. Many stock millwork patterns include relieved
backs. Boards may be relieved on site by cutting multiple
gr@ves with a tabl€ saw. Cupping €n also be minimized
by back priming, painting the back surface of each piece a
day or more belore installation. After the oiece has been
installed and the exposed side has been painted or var-
nished, the back priming causes the back side to absorb
EXPANSION DUE TO MOISTURE IN THE
AIR
and giv€ off moisture at about the same rate as the
exposed side, mrntm,zing drstortrons. WIDTH

DECAY AND INSECTS

Wood provides food and habitat to various insects and
decay{ausing fungi. For the most part, decay and insect
attack can be avoided by detailing a building in a way that
keeps wood dry at all times. Wood components should be
\-.. kept at least 6 in. ('150mm) away from the soil. Details thai
trap and hold moisture, such as connections in exterior THICKNESS
decks and railings, should be avoided unless preseNative- (RAOIAL)
SLIDING / treated wood or decay,resistant species such as redwood.
lotNT/ ceoar. or cypress are used. OUARTER,SAWN
NOTE LUMAER
HORIZONTAL WOOO SHAKE
SIDING SIDI NG
FIRE Length: .1 to.2yo shrinkage; thickness:2 to syo shrinkagej
width: 5 to1 07o shrinkage.
NAILING ANGLED INTO Wood burns easily, giving otf highly toxic combustion prod
TONGUE END OF BOARO ucts, so it is important to design wooden buildjngs for fire SHRINKAGE DUE TO DRYING FOR
satety. The first step is to follow the height and area restric- QUARTER-SA\,YN LUMBER
tions of the building codes, along with code provisions for
easy egress from wooden buildings. Smoke and heat BARK SIOE DOWN IS
alarms are essentials in w@den CORRECT ORIENTATION
residential buildinos.
Heaw-timber buildrngs have a nalural resistance to ire
because their massive timbers are slow to ignite and burn
in comparison to the smaller framing members in light
w@d-frame construction. Light wood-frame buildings have
internal hollow passages that encourage the spreadof fire;
these must be closed olf at each floor by wood blocking or
the floor platform framing. Light wood-frame buildings are SHRINKAGE DISTORTION OF PLAIN-
generally finished with interior surfaces of gypsum plaster SAWN DECKING
VERTICAL WOOD SIDING
or gypsum wallboard. which are highly resistant to tire ANGENTIAL DIRECTION

RADIAL PUIN.SAWN AOARD

DIRECTION
t| _ \ -- -----\-
I CHECKS
-REL|EVEO

fr
MOLDTNG BACK

SLIDING
JAMB
+ - RELIEVED BACK
JOINT N OTE
8y reducing the ef{ective thickness of the woodwork
BOARO AND BATTEN SIOING
relieved backs reduce the tendency of the w@d to cup.
SLIDING JOINTS IN \^r'OOD SIDING RELIEVED BACKS IN \^/OODWORK SHRINKAGE DTSTORTIONS BY
POSITION IN LOG

Edward Allen, AIA: South Natick, Massachusetts

Joseph lano, Architect; Mercer lsland, Washington

INTRODUCTION
- FloorJoists:30 qnd 40 lb LiveLoqd
300

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: Live toad of 30 psl plus dead load ol 10
psl determins the required liber stressvilue,
DEFLECTION: For 30 psl live load. Lirnited to span
in inchesdivided by 360.

FLOOR JOISTS_3o LB LIvE LOAD

ALL ROOMSUSED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS AND ATTIC FLOORS
J O r S T( r N . l MOOULUS OF ELASTICITY. E. IN PSI
'1.7 1.9
SIZE SPACING 0.5 u.o o-7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 t.5 1.6 1.8
8-0 8-6 8 - 11 9-4 v-v lGt 10-5 1G9 11 . 0 t.J 11.7 1't.10 12-O 2-3 tz-o
510 570 640 700 750 810 oou 910 960 010 1060 11 0 0 11 5 0 200 1240
t-J 7-9 6-2 u-b 8-t0 9.2 9-6 9.9 10.0 0.3 10.6 10-9 1 0 - 11 11 - 4
2x6
I s60
6-4
630
6.9
7m 170
7-5
830
7-9
890
8-0
950
8-3
1m0
8-6
1060
R-q
110
8 . 11
I 160
9-2
1220
9-4
1270
9-7
320
9-9
1360
9 - 11
24 640 720 800 880 950 1020 1080 11 5 0 12 1 0 1270 1330 1390 1450 15 1 0 I 560
10-7 11-3 11 . 1 0 12-4 12-10 13 - 4 13-9 14.2 14-6 4 , 11 | 9-J 15-7 5.10 1G6
12 700 750 860 910 960 0r0 1060 1r00 150 r 200 1240
510 b/u 640 810
J-t lu-z tu-y 11 . 1 3 1r - 8 12-1 Iz-o 2-10 3-6 13-10 14-2 4-5 4,8 l5-0
2x8 16 000 1060 110 11 6 0 1220 270 320 1360
560 630 700 770 830 890 950

8.5 8 - 11 9-4 9-10 10-2 ro-7 1 0 - 11 -3 11 - 6 1-10 12-'l 12.4 2.10 r 3-1
; 640 720 800 880 950 1020 1080 RN 1210 270 1330 1390 450 510 1560
tJ.o 14.4 15 - 1 15-9 I D-C 17.O l7-6 18-0 18-6 19-0 r9-5 19,10 20,3 20-a 21-O
510 570 640 700 75Q 810 860 910 960 101
0 1060 1100 I t5u 1200 1240
l2-3 13 . 0 13.8 14-4 1 4 - 11 15-5 15.11 16-5 t6-10 17-3 17-8 18-0 18-5 18-9 19,1
2x 10
I 560
10-8
630
11 . 4
700
11-ll
170
12-6
830
13-0
890
13-6
950
1 3 . 1I
1000
14-4
t060
t4.8
1110
15-l
11 6 0
15-5
1220
15-9
1270
16-l
1320
16-5
1360
to-o
24 640 720 8m 880 950 1020 1080 11 5 0 |210 1270 1330 1390 1450 tStu 1560
r6.5 I l-a 18 - 4 19.2 1 9 - 11 20-8 21-4 21-11 22-6 23-1 23.7 24.8 za- | 25-7
l? 5r0 570 640 700 750 810 860 910 960 1010 1060 11 0 0 11 5 0 1200 1240
14-11 15 - 1 0 16-8 17-5 18-1 18-9 19.4 9-11 20.6 21-O 21-6 21.11 22-5 22.10 23-3
2x12 16 560 OJU 700 770 830 890 950 ocl0 r060 1t10 11 6 0 1220 1270 1320 1360
'l3.0 1 3 . 1 0 14-7 15-2 15-10 165 1 6 . 1I 7-5 t7-11 18-4 18-9 l9-2 19-7 1 9 - 11 20.3
; 640 720 800 880 o6n 't020
1080 150 t210 1270 1330 t390 1450 1510 1560
ex$eme stress rn p! is shown below each soan.

DESIGNCRITERIA
S T R E N G T H :L i v e l o a d o f 4 0 p s f p l u s d e a d l m d o f 1 0
psf determins the required fiber stressvalue.
DEFLECTION; For 40 psf live l@d. Limited to span
in inchesdivided by 360.

FLOOR JOISTS_40 LB LIVE LOAD

ALL ROOMSEXCEPT THOSE USED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS ANO ATTIC FLOORS
JOIST (IN.I MoDULUS oF El.Asrrctry. E. rN 1,000,000Psl
SIZE SPACING 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 t.0 t.o 1.7 1.8 I
10.6 '10-9 10-1
7-3 7-9 8-2 8-6 8.10 9-2 9-6 9-9 1G0 10.3 11-2 11 - 4
12 520 590 660 720 780 830 890 940 990 r 040 1090 11 4 0 11 9 0 1230 1280
-:- 10-2
6-7 7-O 7-5 7-9 8.0 8-4 8-7 8-10 9-1 9-4 Y.O 9-9 9 - 11 1G4
2xE
I 580
5-9
650
6-2
720
6.6
790
6-9
860
7.0
920
t-s
980
7-6
1040
7-9
1090
7-'l1
11 5 0
6-Z
1200
8-4
1250
8-6
1310
8-8
1360
8.10
14 1 0
9-0
24 660 750 830 900 980 1050 1120 11 9 0 1250 1310 1380 11140 1500 | 35U 16 1 0
't5-0
9-7 10-2 10-9 11-3 11 - 8 12-1 12-6 12.10 13-2 13.6 3-10 14.2
'|
14,5 14-8
12 660 720 940 990 1040 090 140 11 9 0 1230 1280
520 59U 780 830 890
8-9 9-J 9-v tu-a 10-7 1r - 0 11 - 4 11 . 8 12-O 2-3 12-10 13 - 1 13,4 13-7
2xB 16
580 650 720 790 850 920 980 1040 1090 150 200 1250 13 1 0 1360 1410
7-7 8-l 8'6 8 . 11 9-3 9-7 9-l I 10.2 10-6 0.9 1.0 11 . 3 1t - 5 r1.8 11tl
; 660 750 830 900 980 r 050 r 120 11 9 0 1250 310 380 1440 1500 I ERN 16 1 0
I z-J r 3.0 13-8 14.4 1 4 - 11 15-5 15-11 16-5 16 - 1 0 7-3 7-8 18-0 l8-5 18,9 |9-1
520 590 oou 720 780 830 890 940 990 040 090 11 4 0 r 190 1230 | 280
11-1 11 - 1 0 12-5 13.0 13-6 14 - 0 14-6 1 4 - 11 15-3 5-8 6.0 I o-J l6-9 17-O 17-4
2x 10 16 56U 650 720 790 850 920 980 1040 1090 150 200 1250 1310 1360 1410
Y.Y 10 - 4 10.10 I t-4 11 . 1 0 12-3 t2-a 13.0 13-4 ?,R 4-O I c-4 14-7 l4-lI 15-2
24 660 750 830 900 980 | 050 1120 11 9 0 1250 310 380 1440 1500 1550 1610
1 4 - 11 15-10 16-8 I r-a 18.1 18-9 19-4 1 9 -1 20-6 21-O z t-o 21-11 zz-a 22.10 23-3
120 780 830 890 940 990 1040 1090 11 4 0 11 9 0 1230 r 280
: azv 590 660
13.6 14.4 15.2 1 5 - 1 0 to-9 11-0 17-7 18-1 l8-7 9-1 9-b 1 9 - ' 1t 20-4 20-9 21.1
2x 12 16 580 650 790 oou 920 980 1040 1090 150 200 1250 1310 1360 141(
11 . 1 0 12-7 13-3 1 3 - 1 0 14-4 14-11 15-4 15-10 1A-? 6-8 7-O 17.9 18.1 18.5
24 660 750 830 900 980 I 050 1120 | 190 I 250 310 380 1440 1500 1550 1610
The reouiredextremefiber str6s in bendinq. is shown below sch span.

Am€ri€n Forost and Pap€rAssociation;Washington,D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 FloorJoists:50 lb live Lood 301
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION or suppons plus one hall lhe required lenqth
of bearinq l r o n , a v a t l a b l el r o m t h e A m e r j c a n F o r e s t & p a D e r A s s o
For floor construction where live loading is heavier aI each end, tt is the practice in designing joists
spaceJ Cratron.
than customarily found in residentialoccupancies, lot
over.24 in. apart to consider the- spjn'as the
cleai
tabulardata are orovided. orslance oetween supDorts.
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
The tabulated spans are basd on bending strength ELASTICITY
usingthe live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus NET SIZES OF LUMBER The modulus of elasticiry values listed in the span
a dead load of l0 psl. In calculatingthe required Joists.
are customarily
sptrified in termsof nominal tables for joists are those required for the tabulated
modulus of elasticity for the tabulatedspan, the live srzes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan spans if deflection under the live load is limited to
lcd only was used, since this is in acordance wirh and requiredmodulusof elasticity are ba*d on rciual t/360. Where other deflrction limits are eceptable,
establishedpracticefor dsign of fl@r joisrs. srzes. the tabul"r E valuesmay be adjusted by multiplying
SPAN them by the following factors:
DESIGN STRESSES
While the effstive span length for an isolatedbeam For limit ol Q/300:0.833
Unit.designvaluesfor desiSnof wood joistsare givenin
is customarilylaken as the distancefrom face to face the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Co-nsrruc- For limit of Q/240:0.667
FLOOR For limitof e/i80: 0.50O
JOISTS_50 LB LIVE LOAD
J O r S T{ t N . l
EXTREME FISER STRESSIN BENOI
SIZE. SPACING 900 1000 r100 l 200 '1300
1400 r500 1600 1800
8,8 9-2
't.246 9-7 10,0 10-5 r0 - 1 0
1.063 1.437
I t.J | 1.7 12.3 12.1
1.637 1.846 2.063 2.289 2.521 3.007
2xG t-o 7-11 8-4 8.8 91
16
o.924 9,5 9-9 10-0 l0-7
r.083 1.249 1.423 1.605 1.794 1.989 2.191 2.614
o-l oD 6-9
24 7-4 7-7 7-11 8.2 8-7
o.744 0.871 1.005 1.144 1. 2 9 1 1.443
9,1
r.600 1.762
r 't-5
a. tvJ
t2 12.1 12.7 3.3 13-9 143 14,9
1.063 1.437 .63r 1.846 2.063
to-z 7-1
2.249 z.3z I 3.007
ZxB 16 9-11 r0-5 11 . 0 l't,6 11,11 12.10
0.924 1.083 1.249
I z-a 13.3 14.O 4.1
1.423 I .OUf, 1.794 r.989 2 . 19 1 2.614
24 8.1 8.6 8 - 11 9-4 9-8 10.1
o.744 0.871
l0-5 10.9 I l-5 12-O
1.005 1.144 1.291 1.443 1.600 1.762 2 . 10 3
to-z 16.10
1.063 'r.637 t-b 1A-2 r8,10 19.5 20-7 l-o
: 1.246
'|
1.437 .846 2.063 2.289 3.007
2x l0 l6 12.7 3-4 14.0 14.7 5-3 1 5 -1 0
0.924 t6-4 I 6-10 17.11 18-l
1.083 1.249 1.423 .605 1.794 r.989 2.191 2.614
l0-3 10,10 ' rl - 1 0
24 2-4 r2.10 13.3 l3-9 14.7
o.744 0.871 1.005 t . 14 4 291 1.443
5-4
r.600 1.762 2.'t03
12 t7-9 18.9 r9-7 20.6 1-4 22-2
1.063 1.246
22.11 23-A za- | 26-6
|.437 1.637 .846 2.063 z.z6Y z.az I
15,5 to-J |7-r0
z x tz
I o.924 r.083 1.249 1.423
18-6
1.605
|
|
19.2
1.794
1 9 -0
1.989
1 20.6
2.191
21-9 23.O
24 12.6 13.2 13-10 l4-5 r5 - 0 '18-10
o.744 0.871 'r.005 ta-r to-2 r 6,7 17.8
1.144 1.291 1.443 |.600 2.103
12 20-11 | 22-1 zJ.z 24,2 25-2 26.1
1.063 1.246 21.0 27,11 29-7 1.2
| 1.437 1.637 r.846 2.063 2.249 2.521 3.007
18.2 19-2 20-1 20-11 21.9
2x14 16
o.924 r.083 't.249 227 I 23.s 24-2 25-7 27-O
1.423 1.605 1.794 | 1.989 2.191 2.614
; 14,9
o.744
r 9-o
0 . 8 7r
6-3
.005
17.O 17,8 18,4 19.0 l9-7 20.10
1.144 1.291 1.443 r.600 |.762
11-2 1t - 1 0 2-5 '|
2..11 1 40 14.11
1.373 1.608 2.113
r5-t0 r 6.9
2.383 2.663 2.9s3 3_254 3.882
a-o r0-3
3x6 r0-9 r1.3 lr8 12.2 12.7
3 I 10? 1.397 1.612 13,9 l4-6
r.836 2.O71 2.314 3.374
1.11 8,4 8-9 9-2
24 0.960 1.124
9-6 9-t0 10.2 r0-6 11-2 l-9
1.297 1.478 r.666 1.862 2.065 2.714
14-9 15-7 r6.4 11.1
r.373 17,9 r8-5 | 9,9 20-1l 2.1
r.608 2.113 2.383 z.ooJ 2.953 3.254
3x8 16
12.10 r3-6 14.2 14 , 1 0 |5 5 16.0
r.193 16.7 17.1 r8 . 1 19.1
r.397 1.612 r.836 2.O71 2.314 2.567 2.827 ? at1
l0-5 11 . 0 l t.6 12-0
0.960
I z-b I3-0 13-5 13.r0 14,8
1.124 t.zgj 1.418 r.ooo r.862 c-o
2.65 2.275 2 . 7t 4
18-10 19-10 20.10 ?1-9
1.373 23.6 24.4 za.l
r.608 t.o55 2.113 2.383 z,ooJ 2.953
28-'l
3.254 3.882
3x l0 l6
16 . 4 r7.3 18.1 r8.r0 19.7 20-5 21-1
1.193 1.397 1.612 t.836 2.O71 2.314
zJ-l 24.5
2.567 2.827 3.374
1?-? I 4.0
24 t 4-8 15-4 r6 , 0 16,7 17-2
0.960 1.124 17,8 r 8-9 19.1
1.297 1.418 L666 1.862 2.065 z.zt5 2.714
24.2 25-4 26-5 27.6 28-7
r.373 r.608 29-7 30-7 32-5 34.2
r.855 2.113 2.383 2.663 2.953 3.254 3.482 4.547
J X tZ l6
1 9 . 11 20-11 21.11 22-11 23.11 24-10 25-8
1.193 1.397 26.6 28 1 29-7
t.ot2 r.836 2.O71 2_314 2.561 2.821 3.314
16.2 17,0 r7-10 18-8 19-5
24
0.960
20-2 20,10 216 22-10 24.1
1.124 1.291 1.478 |,ooo 1.862 2.065 2.275 2 . 7t 4
tz 21.O 28-5 29-10 32-5 33-8 34,10 36.0 38-2 40
t.3tJ 1.608 r.855 2.113 2.383 Z.YCJ 3.882
tJ-5 24-A 25-11 2
3xl4 16
1 .t 9 3 1.397 ' 17. -813 6 28.2 30-3 31,3 33-r 34-t1
t.6t2 2.O71 2.314 2.561 2.821 3.374 3.9s2
24 20.0 21.O 22.O 2 2 . '1t 23-9
0.960 1.124 25-5 2 6 . 11 28-4
1.291 1.478 | .ooo 1.862 2.065 2.714 3.r79
NOTE: The reouired e l a s t i c i t yE, ,
o{ elar ,0o0,000psiisshownbe|oweachspan,ifdef|ection,nffi

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington.
D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
302 FloorJoisls:60 lb LiveLood

GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
For tlmr construction where live loading is heavier
than customarilv found in residentialoccupancies,
tabula, data are provided. : ELASTICITY
The tabulated spans are based on bending strength
using the live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus
a dead lcd of 10 psf. In calculatingthe required
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span. the live
load only was used, since this is in rccordance with
establishedpractice for daign of floor ioists.
SPAN
while the effetive span length for an isolated beam
is customarily taken as the distarce from tace to face
ol supportsplus one-halfrhe requiredlenglhof bearing tidn, availablelrom the AmericanForest& PaperAsso-
at each end, it is the practicein designingjoistsspaced cralon.
not over 24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
distance betreen supports. ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
NET SIZES OF LUMBER The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span
tables lor joists are those required for the tabulated
Joists are customarily spcified in terms ot nominal
eans if deflrction under the live load is limited to
sizes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan
[/360. Where other d€flstion limits are acceptable,
and required modulus of elasticity are ba$d on 4lual
the tabular E valuesmay be adiustedby multiplyinq
sizes.
them by the following factors:
OESIGN STRESSES For limit of !/300: 0.833
Unit dsign valu6 for dcign of wood ioistsare givenin For f imit of e/24O:0.667
the National Design Spcification for Wood Construc- For limit of e/180: 0.500

FLOOR JOISTS_60 LB LIVE LOAD

JOrST {rN.} EXTREME FIAER STRE55 IN BENDING, Fb {PSII

SIZE. SPACING
12
12 3.353
10,5
lxo to 2.915
8-5
2.345
15-10
12 3.353

2x8 16 2.9t5

2.345

12
| /-o
2i 10 to 2.9r5
't4.3
24 2.345
24-6
3.353
21-3
2x12 2.915
17-5
24 2.345
2A-11
12 3.353
25-1
2x14 2.915
20.4
24 2.345
15 , 6
12 4.329
tJ-9
3x6 3.762

24
20-5
4.329
11 - 1 0 17-8
3x8 1.136 3.762
14-4
24 3.026
26.1
12 4-329
22-7
3x10 to J. IOZ

l8-4
J.UZO
31-7
12 4.329

3x12 to
3.762
24 3.036
37-4
12 4.329
2 8 - 1r 32-4
3x 14 2.691 3.762

3.026
NOTE; The requiredmodulusof elasticity.E, in shown beloweachspan.if deflction under the live lcd is limited to Q/360.

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C

DESIGNLOADTABLES
 FloorJoists:70 lb LiveLoqd 303
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION of supports.plusone-halfthe requiredlengthol bearing tion, avajlablefrom the AmericanForest& paperAsso_
For floor construction where live loading is heavier at each end, it is the practicein designin!joistsspacej cratton.
than. customarily found in rsidential occupancies, not over.24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
tabulardata are Drovided. distancebetweensupports.
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
The tabulated spans are ba€d on bending strength ELASTICITY
usingthe live lGd indicatedin eachtable heiding pius NET SIZES OF LUMBER
The modulus ot elasticity values listed in the span
a dead load of 10 psf. In calculating the required Joists are customarily spcified in terms of nominal
tables for joists are thos required for the tabulated
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span,the live sizes.but calculationsto determinethe allowablesoan
and requiredmodulus of elasticityare basd on actual spans if deflstion under the live load is limited to
load only was usd. since this is in trcordance with l/360. Where other deflmtion limits are rcceptabte,
establishedpractice for d6ign of floor ioists. stzes.
the tabular E values may be adjustedby muttiplying
them by the followinq factors:
SPAN
DESIGN STRESSES For limit of !/300: 0.833
While the effctive span length for an isolatedbeam Unit.designvaluesfo. designof w@d ioistsare givenin
ascustomarily taken as the distance from face to face For limit of Q/240:0.667
the Narional DesignSpeitication for Wood Cdnstruc.
For timit of Q/180:0.500
FL9OR JOISTS 70 LB LIVE LOAD
J O r S T{ t N . l EXTREME FTBER STRESS IN BENDING, Fb (PSt
SIZE. SPACING 900 1m0 1100 l2m 1300 1400 | 500
't3-4 1600 | 800 2000
12.8 I 4-0 14.7 15.2 r 5-9 '17-11
12 16-4 16-10 18.10
0.963 1.133 I.JW r.488 1.674 1.875 2.081 2.292
'| 3.201
2x10 1.1 11-1 t2-l 12.7 13.2 r 3.8
to 4-7 15 - 6 l6-4
0.840 0.984 1.r35 1.294 1.459 1.631 1.808 .992 2.376 z,t6J
8,11 9.r0 't
; 0.676 0.792 0.914
10-3
1.040
10-8 1.1 I t-b l,t1 r3-3
1.174 1.312 1.454 ,ouz 1.912

?x12
v r3.4
16-3
1.133
14.1
17-0
1.306
14.9
|7.9
r.488
15.5
td.o
1.678
16 - 0
19-2
r.875
16-7
19.10
2.081
7-3
20-6
2.733
22.11
3.201
7.10
I 0.840
10-10
0.984
11 - 5
t. lJ5

12.0
1.294 r.459 t.oJ I .808 .992
18.10
z,Jto
1 9 , 11
2.783
24 12-6 r3.0 tJ.o 4-0 4-5 15.4
0.676 o.792 0.914 1.040 1.174 1.312 .454 .602 1.912
18.2 19-1 20.0 20.11 21-9 22-?
12 0.963 't.678 zJ.5 24-2 25-1 27.O
1 .r 3 3 1.306 1.488 1.875 2.M1 2.292 3.201
15-9 | /-5 18,2 8 - 11 r9-7
2x14 tb
0.840
20-3 20.11 22-3 23-5
0.984 r.135 1.294 .459 1.631 1.808 1.992 z.Jto z,t6J
12.9 I J.D 14-2 4-9 5-4
' r 5 -1t
24 16-6 17-0 18-1 19-1
u.o/o o.792 0.914 .040 .174 1.312 r.454 1.602 1.512
12.10 J-O 14.2 14-9 1 5 -4 ' 1 5 .r1
12 r 6-6 17-1 t8-1 r9 . 1
1.248 .462 t.o6b 1.921 2 . 16 6 2.421 2.684 2.958
3x8 to
t1,1 t-8 12-3 12.10 13,4 13-10 14.4 14,10 15,8
1.084 270 1.465 16.7
1.669 1.883 2.r03 2.333 2.570 3.067 J.f,Vl

; 9-0 9-6 100 10.5 1010 11 - 3 | 1,8 12.O

0.873 12-9
1.O22 1.179 1.344 1.514 r.693 1.877 2.068
I J-5

2.467 2.900
16.4 I t.J l8-1 l8-10 I 9.7 20.4
12
1.244
21.1 21-9 z3- | 24-4
1.462 t.odo t.921 2 . 16 6 2.421 2.684 2.958 3.529 4 . 13 3
3x 10 16
14-2 t4-l I 15-8 16-4 7.O 17-a 1C_? 'r8,11
1.084 1.270 1.465
20-1
1.669 .883 2.103 2.470 3.067
Z.JJJ 3.592
; I t-o 12-2 12-9 3-3 r3 , 1 0 l4-4 14.10 15.4
0.873 1.O22 r.r79 I o-J 11-2
.344 |.514 r.693 1.877 2.068 2.461 2.900
tz
t 9 - 11 20-11 21-11 23,10 24.9 25.8 26-6 28-1
1.248 1.462 29-1
1.686 921 z. too 2.421 2.684 2.958 3.529 4 . 13 3
3x 12 tb
I T.J r8.2 r9.t 9-l1 20-9 22-3 23.0 24.4 25.8
r.084 1.270 r.465 .669 1.883 2 .1 0 3 2.333 2.570 3.592
14-0 14-9 | 5.O o-z 16.r0 17.6 18-1
24 0.873
18-7 19,9 20-10
1.022 1.179 .344 1. 5 1 4 1.877 2.068 2.461 2.900
12 23.4 24-7 25.10 27-O 28-1 29-2 30-2 31-2 33-1 'l
1.244 't.462 34,1
r.@o 1.921 z. tbb 2.421 2.684 2.958 ? q?a

3x 14 16 20-3 21-4 22-s z5-a 24-5 25-4 26,2 27-O 28-8

1.084 1.270 1.465 30-3
1.669 1.883 2.r03 2.333 2.570 3.067 3.592
17-4 18-7 19.0
'rt9. -591 4
I o.o
24 't.179 20-6 21.3 22-O 23-4 24-1
0.873 1-O22 1.344 r.693 1.877 2.068 2.467 2.9m
12 5-2 16 , 0 16.10 17-1 18-3 r8,11 20-3
.490 1.745 z . ul 5
22-7
2.295 2.588 2.891 3.207 ? q?l 4.217 4.939
4x8 16 3-2 1 3 . 1I 14.1 15.3 r5-11 17-1 17-7
.300 1.533 1.757
to- o 18-7 r9 . 7
2.N2 2.257 2.522 2.799 3.082 J.O/O 4.306
24 l0-9 r1-4 ll-11 12-5 12-11 1 3 . r1 14.4
I J.5 15.2 16.0
1.054 1.234 1.425 |,oz5 r.831 2.046 z.z06 2.500 2.922
Q.E 2Va z t-a 22-5 22-4 24.2 25-O za tu 27.5 28-9
.490 1.145 2.O15 2.295 2.588 2.891 3.207 3.533 4.217 4.939
'10 6,10 17-9 t8-7 19-5 20-3
4x tb
.300
21-O 2t-s 23,10 25.1
1.533 1.757 2.OO2 2.257 2.522 2.799 3.082 3.676 4.306
3.8 14.5 15-2 15-10 r6 " 6 17.1 r7 . 8
.054 1,234 1.425
18-3 19,3 205
1.831 2.046 2.268 2.500 2.922 3.492
v 1.490
20.6
24-10
r.745
21.7
2.O15
22-7 23-7
28-4
2.588
24-7
29-5
2.891
25,6
30-5
3.207
J t-5
3.533
33-4
4.217
J5-l

4x12 16 26,5 27.4 28-5 30-6

1.300 I.'JJ 1.751 2.OO2 2.522 2.799 3.082 3.676
16-8 17.7 td-5 19.3 20-1
24 1.054
zv-tv z t-o 22.2 23-6
1.?34 1.425 |,oza 1.83'l 2.046 z. to6 2.500 2.922 3.492
psi is shownbelow eachspan, deflection under I

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington,D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
- 304 FloorJoisfs:80 lb Liveloqd

GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION o l s u p p o r t sp l u so n e ' h a l lt h e r e q u i r e dl e n g t ho f b e a r i n g f r o m t h e A m e r i c a nF o r e s t& P a p e rA s s o

t i o n ,a v a i l a b l e
whereriveroadins
Fornoorconstruction is heavier ';.':Jl;?;'::::[::n:i'J#:fi'.'jffi:?
:::Xi:?t
than customarily found in residential dcupancies, jirtun"u b",*""n ,uppo^r. l"J].r=r"r*r oF MoDULUS oF
tabulardata are provided. ELASTICITY
The tabulated spans are bared on bending strength NET SIZES OF LUMBER The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span
usingthe live load indicated i" Joisrs are customarity speified in rerms o{ nominal tables.for joists are those required for the tabulated
"::f-l:-b].1":d_i-!
a dead load of 10 psl. In calculatin_g l]::
,:3:i,t:!
iii.r, ort catcutataons
to determinerh;;1;";i;;;;; sp€ns i{ detlrction under the live load is limited to
9"_ the live
modulus of elasticity {or the tabulated span, anl iequireOmodulus oJ etarticity ar"Giij';;;.-i;i Q/36^0,..Whreother de{lation limits are acceptable,
load only was used, since this is in ecordance with ;i;;r. the tabular E values may be adjustedby multiplying
establishedpracticefor designof floor ioists. them by the following factors:
SPAN DESIGN STRESSES F o r l i m i t o f e / 3 0 0 :0 . 8 3 3
While the effective span length for an isolated beam Unit designvaluesfor designof wood joists are givenin For limit of !/240: 0.667
is customarilytaken as the distancefrom face to face the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Construc- For limit ot Q/180:0.500
FLOOR JOISTS_80LB LIVE LOAO
JO|ST ilN.l EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING, Fb (PSII
SIZE, SPACING 900 1000 11 0 0 1200 300 r 400 1500 1600 r800 2000
ll11 12,7 13-2 13-9 4-4 4 - 11 t5-5 15.1| 16 - 1 0 17.9
0.926
'1.084 1.250 1.423 .604 .795 r.988 2.191 2.617 J.UOZ

10-4 1 0 - 11 11 , 5 11-11 2-5 2-11 13.4 3-9 14.7 15-5

2x 10 tb
0.941 1.086 t.zJo .395 1.730 .903 2.273 z.ooz
0.803
3-5 8.10 )-3 9-8 10 - 1 u-o 10-10 t.2 11 - 1 0 12-6
24 ).646 0.758 ).873 0.995 1.124 .254 1.390 533 1.829 2.143

12 14,6 15.4 to- | 17-5 8-1 r8.9 19.4 20-6 21-7

0.926 1.084 r.250 1.423 1.604 .795 r.988 2.191 2.611 3.062
'13-3
12,1 3-11 I 4-6 t5-I 5-8 I o.J r 6-9 17-9 r8-9
2x12 to
0.803 o.941 .089 |,230 .5b I 1.730 1.903 2.273 2.662
10,3 10.9 11 - 3 11 - 9 12-3 2-9 13-2 13-7 14.5 r 5-5
; 0.646 0.758 0.873 0.995 1.124 .254 1.390 1.533 1.829 2.'t43
12
17-1 r8-0 18.10 tq-q 2G6 21.4 zz- | 22-9 24.2 25.5
0.926 1.084 1.250 1.423 1.604 t./95 1.988 2.191 2.617 3.062
2x14 16 14 . 1 0 la- I l6-4 17-1 17 , 1 0 td-o r9-9 20.1
0.803 0.941 L086 1-236 t.50 | 1.730 1.903 2.273 2-OO2

12-O 12-8 13,4 13-11 14,5 5-0 r5 - 6 l6-0 I 7.0 18,0

0.646 0.758 0.873 0.995 1.124 -254 1.390 1.533 1.429
Iz-v z-6 l3-4 1 3 - 11 14-6 15-1 15-7 16-l l8-0
1.195 ?oa 1.614 r.838 2.073 2.317 2.50Y 2.831 3.377 3.956

3x8
10.6 1-0 11.7 12.1 12-7 13 - 1 13-6 1 3 - 11 14-9 15-7
: 1.038 ,zta 1.402 1.597 1.802 2.013 2.233 2.459 2.935 J.4Jd

8-6 9-0 9-5 9.10 10-3 10.7 11 - 0 12-O 12-A

24 0.835 0.978 1. 1 2 8 1.449 1.620 1.791 1.979 z.Jo I z,too
't2 I R.E 16.3 7.O t7-9 18-6 19-2 r9 . 1 0 20-6 21-A 22-11
1.195 r.399 .614 r.838 2.317 2.569 2.831 3.377 3.956
3-4 r 4-1 4,9 t5-5 16 , 0 to./ 17-3 17.9 18-10 l 9 - 11
3x 10 to
.038 l.z t5 .402 t.597 1.802 2.013 2.233 2.459 2.935 3.438
10-10 11 - 5 2-O Iz-o 13 - 0 tJ-o
't.620 14-0 14-5 15 - 4 to-z
24 0.835 0.978 .'t28 1.286 1.446 1.197 1.979 z.Jo I z. Ioo

12 8-9 9-9 20-8 22-6 23-4 26-5 27.11

.195 .399 1.614 838 2.O73 2.317 z-!ov 2.831 3.377 3.956

3x 12 to
b.J 7-11 8-9 9-6 20,3 20-11 22-11 24.2
.038 .z ta .402 .597 .802 2.013 2.233 2.459 3.438
; 13-2 13.1 4-7 5-10 r6-5 17 - 0 18-1 19-7
0.835 0.978 .128 .449 r.620 1.797 1.979 2.361

12 23-3 24-4 25-5 26-6 27-6 2A-6 29-5 31-2 32-10

1.195 1.399 1.614 1.838 2.073 2.317 2.569 2.831 3.377
3x 14 to
9-2 20.2 21-2 23-0
't.802 23-10 24-8 28-6
n?a 1.215 1.402 1.597 2.013 2.233 2.459 2.935 3.438
'| -2
5-6 16 . 4 17-11 18-8 9.5 20-1 20-9 22-O 23-2
; 0.835 0.978 128 1.286 1.449 .620 1.797 1.979 z.Jo I 2.766
'r r9,0

4x8
vto
4.4
-426
2-5
t3-l
1.670
3-1
5-10
.928
3-9
6.6

14.4
17-2
2.475
1 4 . 11
17,10
2.766
15 . 6
18.5
3.068
16-1
J.J/Y
ZU.J
4.O34
17.7
4.725
r8.6
.451 .681 1.915 2 . 15 9 2.413 2.677 2.948 3.516 4 . 11 9
24
10-2 0-8 |r-8 12.2 12.6 13-l 13-6 14-4
r.009 .r 8 0 .lbJ 1.554 1.957 2.170 2.391 2.795 3.340
12 8-3 9,3 20-2 21.1 21.11 22.9 23-7 24-4 25-'lO 27.3
.426 .670 1.928 2 . 19 6 2.415 2.766 3.068 3.379 4.O34 4.725
5 -1 0 6.8 7,6 r8.4 19-1 19-1
0 20-6 ?1-2 22-5
4x10 16 L 9 15
.243 .457 681 z. ta9 2.413 2.948 4 . 11 9
3-7 15 , 6 16,1 16.8 17-2 14.2 19-3
.009 .180 1.554 |,taz 1.957 2.170 2.795 3.340
12 zz-J 23-5 24.6 25.7 26-8 27-A 26.6 29-7 3r . 5 J3-t
1.426 r.670 1.928 2.196 2.475 2.766 3.068 3.379 4.034 4.725
20-4 22-3 tJ-z 24.11 25-9 27-3 2A-9
4x12
I 1.243
| 5-9
1.457 1. 6 8 1
17.4
r . 91 5
18-1
r .1 5 9
18 - 1 0
2.413
19.7
2.677
20-3
2.944
?0-11
4 . 1l 9
23.5
24 r.009 1.r80 r.363 1.554 1.752 1.957 2.170 2.391 2.795 3.340
requ I reo elasl 1,000,000psi
ity, E, in 1.000.0O0osi is shown below each def lrction under the live load is limited to Q/360.

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 Wood Columns 305
U N t T A X T A L S T R E S S E S : S t M p L E S O L T O C O L U M N S _ e / d F R o M1 1 r o 3 0
e/d
E F. l1+ 12 I J 14 t5 16 17 td 10 20 21 23 24 25 26 zd 30
1500 475 1464 451 1434 1 4 1 3 1388 357 320 1277 t226 1 1 6 7 1098 r020 938 864 799 741 689 612 600
1.800.000 1400 380 1 3 71 360 I 346 1329 r309 284 254 1218 1 1 7 7 1129 1073 1 0 1 09 3 7 864 799 741 689 642 600
1300 244 1271 zo6 1257 1243 1227 207 183 11 5 5 112'l 1083 r 039 988 930 864 799 741 689 642 600
1200 187 11 8 2 175 r 166 I t30 1142 127 108 1086 r060 1029 994 954 909 857 799 741 689 642 600
I 50U 1472 1460 445 14:/6 1403 374 298 1249 fi92 1126 1050 vbc d65 816 754 700 6! bub 567
1,700,000 1400 1377 1368 J55 1340 1321 294 269 zJo 11 9 6 |150 1096 1034 963 885 816 754 700 6! 606 567
1300 1282 1274 264 1252 1237 214 169 11 3 7 | 100 1057 1007 950 885 816 754 700 65 606 ab/
1200 | 186 | 180 172 1162 11 5 0 l?t I t6 097 1072 t043 1009 925 873 oto 754 700 65 606 567
| 500 1468 1 4 5 5 1438 1417 1390 1358 1 31 9 1 2 7 2 1217 11 5 3 1078 992 907 833 168 710 658 6 571
t400 1374
't279 IJOJ 1350 1332 1311 1284 I z5J 1215 11 7 0 1 1 1 8 1057 987 907 R?? 768 710 658 6 571 533
t300 1271 1260 1246 1228 1207 '1074 905
1182 t t52 1116 tuza 969 tod 710 658 o 5 7 1 533
1,600,000 r200 1184 1 1 7 7 1168 11 5 7 1l4/. 1127 11 0 7 1083 1 0 5 5 1022 984 940 889 831 /06 710 658 o 5 7 1 5J5
| 100 1087 1082 1076 1067 1057 lo44 1029 10 1 0 988 963 934 900 861 816 /oo 710 658 o 533
t000 991 oa7 982 975 vo/ Y3d 946 933 916 897 6 t a 849 820 787 749 o36 6 571 533
900 893 890 887 662 876 869 dol 839 6Za 809 790 /oY 744 717 odo 651 6 Jt I Eal

1400 13 7 1 I JCO 1343 1323 I zJ6 1 2 6 8 1232 11 8 9 r138 IU/Y I UI U 9JU u5l 781 ooo olt 574 53s 500
1300 1276 1267 1254 1238 1219 11 9 5 1166 11 3 1 I 0 9 1 1043 987 9ZJ o3l 781 720 ooo 617 574 535 500
1200 11 8 1 1 1 7 4 1164 11 5 1 11 3 6 1 1 1 7 1094 1067 r 035 998 954 904 846 781 720 obb ot/ 574 500
'1,500.000 1100 1086 1080 1072 1063 1051 t w o 1019 998 JIJ 944 911 872 828 777 720 ooo 617 574 (?R
500
r000 989 oar 979 972 952 939 on6 883 858 829 757 714
YOJ 923 795 oob 617 574 500
900 892 889 885 880 873 855 844 830 815 796 775 751 723 692 656 574 5J5 500
800 795 789 /oo 781 775 761 751 740 727 7'12 695 676 654 o2Y 601 500
700 696 b95 693 690 687 684 679 ob/ 660 651 641 630 ot/ 602 585 546 az3 497
600 598 597 595 594 aJz 590 561 583 579 575 569 JOJ 556 548 E2a 528 5 1 6 Fnl 488 47?
lzw I t/Y tltv 1 14 4 1127 1r 0 5 1 U/ 9 I u46 1 0 11 vbd v td ubu M 729 otz 621 576 536 499 461
1100 1084 t o 7 7 1068 1057 1043 l o 2 7 1007 oa? 9t4 921 883 838 787 729 672 621 3/O 5Jb 499 467
1,400,0@ 1000
900
988
.891
983 976 968 957 945 930 912 891 doo 837 803 765 721 672 621 576 499 467
887 883 876 869 860 849 836 820 802 781 757 729 697 ool 620 3/O 536 499 467
800 794 791 748 783 778 172 764 755 744 731 716 699 680 657 632 604 571 cJo 499 467
?m 696 694 692 689 685 681 676 670 662 654 u4 633 619 6(X 587 568 47 523 496 467
1100 t081 t073 1063 r050 1034 1 0 1 5 992 964 o?r 893 848 796 737 677 624 577 q ? E 497 4U 433
1000 986 980 972 OA? 951 936 919 898 873 844 811 727 677 624 577 497 4U 433
1,300,000 900 890 885 880 873 864 853 841 825 807 .786 to2 734 10'l 604 623 517 497 464 433
800 793 790 786 781 775 758 748 735 720 703 683 660 635 605 572 535 497 464 433
700 695 693 690 687 683 678 665 656 647 635 622 607 589 569 g 7 522 495 4U 433
lrm 1078 1068 057 to42 r023 1000 o7? 140 902 857 804 744 6 8 1 625 576 533 494 45( 428 400
1ofi) 983 976 967 956 942 925 905 380 851 817 778 732 680 625 674 494 45( 428 400
900 888 883 876 868 8s8 845 830 I tJ 791 767 738 /u5 667 624 576 533 494 45{ 428 400
r,200,000 8m 791 788 783 778 770 762 751 739 724 706 686 45(
663 636 606 E?I 494 428 400
700 694 692 689 685 680 674 667 )by 649 637 624 608 590 570 547 521 492 45( 428 400
600 596 595 EOa 591 Eqe 584 579 t74 568 s60 552 542 531 5 1 8 504 487 469 44t 425 400
500 498 497 496 495 493 491 488 185 €1 477 472 467 460 453 444 435 424 399 384
€0 399 398 ?oq 397 396 395 394 tJz 390 388 386 383 380 376 371 367 361 3€ 341
900 885 879 872 862 850 atE 817 771 741 707 668 622 573 528 488 453 421 392 ?q7
800 790 /do 780 773 765 754 742 727 709 689 oo5 637 605 6Aq 528 488 453 421 392 ?47

1,100,0@ 700 693 690 682 o/o 669 ool 651 OZf, 609 591 569 545 518 487 453 421 JJ2 397
600 596 594 592 589 585 581 575 569 553 54J 531 5 1 8 AA? €5 466 444 419 392 397
500 498 496 495 493 491 489 486 442 478 473 467 460 444 434 422 410 ?oq 380 362
400 399 398 398 397 396 394 ?o? 391 389 386 380 3 7 6 371 366 360 354 346 338 329
700 692 688 684 678 671 ooJ 653 641 o tu 479 12 357
600 595 593 qon 586 582 577 570 563 554 543 q?1
517 501 482 461 438
'll
1,000,000 500 497 496 494 492 490 487 483 478 473 467 460 452 442 432 420 406 31 354
400 398 398 JVb 395 393 391 389 386 JOJ 380 371 365 Ja2 t4 325
300 299 299 299 298 298 297 296 294 293 291 290 288 265 243 280

COLUMNS_Vd FROM 30 TO 50

NOTES
1. Obtain daign valuc for E and Fc from the National DesignSprcification {or Wood Construction.
2. Modify Fc for different load duration, if applicable.
3. CalculateQ/dwhere [ = unsupported length of column (in.) and d = applieble leastactual dimension of column crosssction.
4. Determinevalueof Fg' from table.
5. Total designload on column = cross-srctionalarea (sq in.) x Fc' value.

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation:Washington,D.C.

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
306 Floorond RoofBeoms:20lb LiveLoqd

FLOOR AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN T A B L E s2 0 p o u r u o s

REQUIREO VALUES FOR FIBER STRESS IN BENDING (') AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E) FOR THE SIZES SHOWN TO SUPPORT SAFELY A LIVE LOAD OF
20 POUNDS PER SOUARE FOOT WITH A DEFLECTION LIMITATIoN OF 1/roo 1 = SPAN lN INCHES-
'E 'T
MtNTMUM "f" & tN Pst FoR MINIMUM &'E'IN PSI FOR
BEAMS SPACEOI SPAN OF NOMINAL
BEAMS SPACEO:
NOMINAL
BEAM SIZE OF AEAM 6',-0" .0' 8',-0" BE AM SIZE OF AEAM .0 .0' 8',,0"
E I I E E f E

2-3x6 r070 9?5000 1250 1138000 r430 130m00 2-2x 0 1825 1676000 Z I J U 1956000 2435
1 - 3x 8 I zJ1 850000 1440 992000 t 645 1133000 1-4x 0 1565 l'r437000 1 8 2 5 16770002085 1915000
2 - 2x B 1030 712000 1200 831000 1370 949000 3-2x 0 1215 117000 1420 1303000 t o z a r 489000
10' 1 - 4x 8 880 606000 1030 707000 11 7 5 808000 z.J x 0 1095 r 005000 1280 1173000 1460 1340000
3'2x8 685 475000 800 554000 915 633000 1 - 6x 0 945 844000 11 0 0 985000 1260 I 125000
2 - 3x B o t9 425000 720 496000 820 566000 l7' 4 - 2x 0 910 837000 1065 977000 t z t a 1 1 1 6 0 0 0
2 - 2x 1 0 630 3410m 735 398000 840 455000 1 - 8x 690 619000 805 722000 9 1 0 825000
1 - 3x a 1480 1303000 19 7 5 14890@
1 1 1 7 0 0 0 1725 '1086000
z-5xo 1295 r 296000 | 5 1 0 15',I20001730 17270@ 2-2 x 2 1235 931000 1440 1 i l s 1241000
'l-4
t-J x 6 r 490 1 1 3 1 0 0 01 14 0 1320000 1 9 9 0 15080m x2 r060 799000 1230 932000 1 4 1 0 1065000
2 - 2x 8 1245 942000 1 4 5 0 1099000 I oou 1256000 3-2 x 2 820 621000 960 725000 1095 828000
t1' l-4x8 I 065 809000 1245 944000 1420 1078000 2 140 5590@ 6 0 t 652000 990 745000
3-2x8 830 629000 970 734000 1r 0 5 838000 l'4 x 0 17 5 5 1705000 zv45 19900002340
2 - 3x B 745 566000 870 660000 995 754000 3-Z X 0 1365 1326000 1590 1 5 4 7 m 0 1 8 15 1767000
2 - 2x l Q 765 4540m 890 530000 1 0 2 0 605000 z-3 x 0 1270 1194000 1480 13930001695 1592000
t-o x 0 1060 1001000 I z J J 1168000 1 4 1 5 r 334000
2-3x6 I 545 1682000 1800 1963000 2060 22420W q-z x 0 1020 995000 11 9 5 1 1 6 r 0 0 01365 1326000
t-5 x 6 1715 1469000 2070 1 7 1 4 0 0 0 2370 1958000 t-6x 0 780 735000 9 1 0 858000 1040 98m00
2 - 2x 8 1480 r 225000 1725 1429000 1 9 7 0 1633000 18' t-J x a 1660 1327000 1 0 ? 6 1549000 2210 1769000
l - 4x I t050000 1480 1225W0 1 6 9 0 1400000 ?-2 x 1380 1106000 t o t 5 I 291000 1 8 4 5 1474000
3-2x8 985 816000 1 1 5 0 952000 1 3 1 5 1088000 1 - 4x I t63 947000 I J U I 1105000 1580 1262000
2-3x8 890 735000 1035 858000 11 8 5 980000 3-2 x 920 737000 1 0 7 5 860000 1230 982000
1 - 6x 8 755 604000 880 705m0 1005 805000 2-3 x 2 830 664000 970 775000 11 0 5 885000
2 - 2x 1 0 910 590000 1060 688m0 1210 786000 1 - 6x 720 565000 840 659000 960 753000
3-2 x 1520 1560000 1775 18200002025 2079000
1 - 3x 8 2085 r 867000 2430 2179000 2780 2489000 z-J x 1365 1404000 1595 1638000 1825 1 8 7 1 0 0 0
2-2xB 1 14 0 1556000 2025 1816000 2 J t 5 2074000 'l-6
x 0 11 7 0 1179000 1 3 6 5 13760001560 1572000
1 . 4x 8 1490 r 334000 | / J f 1557000 1 9 8 5 1778000 4-2 x 0 11 4 0 1 1 7 m 0 0 1330 13650001520 15600m
J-lx6 11 6 0 1037000 1350 1210000 1545 1382000 1002000 11 4 0 1169000 1
13', 2-3x8 1045 934000 1215 1090000 r ?on 1245000
2-4 x 0 975 't300 1336000
19' 1 - 8x 0 860 864000 i005 1008000 145 1152000
1 - 6x 8 885 767000 1040 895m0 11 8 5 1022000
'1000000 t.J x 1850 1561000 2 1 5 5 18220002465 2081000
?-2x 1O 1070 750000 1245 875000 1420 2-2 x 2 1540 130r000 1800 15180002055 1734000
1 - 3x 1 0 1280 899000 1 4 9 5 1049000 17 1 0 11980m 1 - 4x z 1320 1| 15000 1540 1301000r'|760 r486000
1 - 4x 1 0 915 642000 1 0 7 0 749000 1220 856000 J-2 X r025 867000 1200 1012000 370 1156000
925 780000 1080 910000 1230 1040000
1 5 1 2 m 0 '1790
2-5 X
3-2x8 1340 1296000 1570 172700o t-b x 805 664000 9rto 775@0 1 0 7 0 885000
2-3x8 1210 | 166000 1410 13610001 6 1 0 1554000
l-6xB r025 957000 120f) 1 1 1 7 0 0 01370 1276000 3-2 x 0 1685 1820000 t965 2124@O 2245 2426000
1 - 3x 1 0 1485 r 124000 1730 1 3 1 2 m 0 1980 1498000 2.5 X 0 tctc 16370@ t770 1 9 1 0 m 0 2020 2182000
? - 2x 1 0 1235 936000 1445 1092m0 1650 1248000 1'6x 0 i 300 r 374000 | 6 1 E 1603000 1 7 3 5 1831000
14' 1 - 4x 1 0 1060 802000 1240 936m0 1 4 1 5 1069000 4-2 x 0 1260 13650ff) 1475 1593000 t 6 5 18t 9000
3 - 2x 1 0 825 624000 YOJ 728000 11 0 0 832000 2-4 x 0
'1-8
r 080 1170000 t z o S r365000 1445 1560000
2 - 3x 1 0 740 561000 865 655000 oon 748000 20' x 0 1007000 I r 2 0 1175000 1 280 1342000
1 - 6x 1 0 640 471000 745 550000 850 628000 2-2 x 2 r'1465
705 1517000 t990 1770000 2 2 7 5 2022000
4-2x 1O 620 468000 720 546000 825 624000 1 - 4x 2 1300000 t 7 1 0 1517000 1950 1733000
z-zx tz 520000 975 607000 11 1 5 693000 3-2 x 2 11 4 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 r 3 3 0 1180000 1520 1348000
l.J x 2 1025 9 10000 | 1 9 5 1062000 I J O 5 1213000
1 - 6x t 970 775000 | 1 3 0 9M000 I z J a 10030@
3 - 2x B 1540 1594000 1800 1860@0 zu55 2125000 4-2 x 2 855 759000 995 886000 I t J 5 1012000
2-SX6 1390 1435000 1620 1675000 1850 1913000
1 - 6x 8 1t80 1179000 1376m0 r 570 1572000 2 - 3x 10 r 670 1895000 1950 2211m0 2225 2526000
1 - 3x 10 1705 1 3 8 1 0 0 01990 1612000 2210 1841000 1 - 6x 10 r 430 1591000 1 6 7 0 1857000 1 9 0 5 212100o
2-2x 10 1420 11 5 1 0 0 0 1660 1343m0 1 8 9 5 1534000 4-2 x 10 1390 1580000 1 6 2 5 1844000 1 8 5 5 2106000
l-4 x l0 1220 986000 1420 115r000 I oz5 r 314000 2 . 4x 10 11 9 5 r 354000 1390 1580000 I 590 1805000
to
3-2x 10 950 767000 11 0 5 895000 I l o J 1022000 1 - 8x 10 1050 1166000 1225 1361000 1400 15540@
2 - 3x 10 850 69r000 995 806m0 1 1 3 5 921000 21' 2 - 2x 12 1880 1756000 2 1 9 5 2049000 2510 2341000
1 - 6x 10 735 580000 855 677000 980 773000 1 - 4x 12 1 6 r5 r 505000 1880 1756000z tav 2006000
4-2x 10 7r0 576000 830 672000 945 768000 I zJa r 1 7 1 0 0 0 1465 1366000 1 6 7 0 '|561000
2-2x 12 960 640000 1120 7470oO 12AO 853000 z-3x tz 11 3 0 1054000 1 3 2 0 1230000 '1295 1505 1405000
'| t-oxtz 970 896000 1 1 3 0 1046000 11940@
1 - 4x 12 825 99000 960 641000 100 732000
4-2 x 12 940 878000 1100 1025000 1255 1170000
z-3x8 1580 r 7 4 1 0 0 0 1840 2032m0 2105 2321000 2 - 4x 1 2 805 752000 9lm 877000' 1 0 7 5 r002000
2 - 2x 1 0 tolt 1397000 r890 1630000 2r55 1862000 4-2 x 0 1525 I 816000 1780 2119000 2035 242100o
1 - 4x 1 0 1385 r 197000 t o t S 1397000 1845 15960@ 2-4 x 0 1310 1556000 1530 1816000 1745 2074000
3 - 2x 1 0 1075 9 3 1 0 m 1260
'1 1086000 1435 124r000 1 - 8x 0 r 160 1341000 1355 1565@0 1545 r7870@
2 - 3x 1 0 970 839000 130 979000 1290 1118000 1 ' 4x 1770 1730@0 2065 2019@0 2360 2306000
t - ox tu 704000 975 821000 11 3 0 938000 1346000 1605 15 7 1 0 0 0 I a ? r 1794000
835 2 '1t327450
to J.Z X
4 - 2x 10 810 699000 945 8r6m0 1080 932000 22' 2-3 x 2 1 2r ' r 0 0 0 1445 1 4 1 3 @ 0 1655 1614000
5160@ / t 5 602000 815 688000 't-6
1 - 8x 10 o tc x 2 1080 1031000 1260 12030001440 1374000
1 - 3x 12 t3l0 932000 r 530 1087000 1750 1242000 4-2 x 2 1030 1010000 1205 1179000 13 7 5 1346000
1090 776000 1275 905000 1455 1034000 2-4 x 885 865000 1 0 3 5 1009000 1 1 8 0 1153000
1 - 4x 1 2 935 666000 1090 777m0 1250 888000 5-2 x 825 807000 942000 1 1 0 5 1076000
J-ZX tZ 730 518000 850 604000 970 690000 J.J X 2 825 799000 965 932000 1 1 0 5 1065000

American Forest and Paper Association; Washington, D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 Floorond RoofBeqms:30 lb LiveLood 307
AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN T A B L E s3 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E Q U I R E oV A L U E S F o R F I B E R s r R E s s l N B E N D T N G( f ) A N o M o D U L U S o F E L A s r r c r r y ( E ) F o R T H E s r z E s s H o w N T o s u p p o R r s A F E L y A L t v E L o A D o F
3 0 P O U N D SP E R S O U A R EF O O T W I T H A D E F L E C T I O NL T M T T A T I O N O F I / : O O1 = S P A N I N I N C H E S .
urruruuia "1" & "E" tN pst FoR M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N p s t F o R
BEAMS SPACED: BEAMS SPACED:
-0 .o"
SPAN OF NOMINAL SPAN OF NOMI NA L
6',-0" 8',-0
BEAM SIZE OF BEAM I E BE AM SIZE OF BEAM t
2-3x6 1 4 3 0 1462000 1670 1706000 1905 1948000 3 - 2x 1 0 1620 676000 1890 1956000 z lou 2234000
1 - 3x 8 1645 1275000 r 9 2 0 1488000 2 1 9 5 1699000 2 - 3x 1 0 '1460
507000 I 705 r 759000 1945 2009000
1-4x8 ltta 909000 r 370 1061000 | 505 1212000 1 - 6x 1 0 1255 265000 1465 1476000 I 675 1686000
10' 3-2x8 915 712000 1 0 7 0 831000 122Q 949000 2 - 4x 1 O 1040 077000 r 2 1 5 1257000 t 385 r 435000
2 - 3x 8 420 637000 955 743000 1095 849000 4-2x 10 tzla 256000 1420 1466m0 1620 1674000
2 - 4x 8 590 455000 690 531000 785 606000 1 - 8x 1 0 920 927000 't075 't082000 1225 1236000
2-2 x 1O 840 51r000 980 596000 1 120 681000 17',
2 - 2x 1 2 r 645 396000 1920 1629000 2 1 9 5 1 8 6 1 0 0 0
1 - 4x 1 2 1 4 ' t 0 r97000 1 6 4 5 1397@0 1880 1596000
3-2x 12 1095 93r000 r 280 1086000 1460 1241000
't420 1696000
1 - 3x 8 I Oqn 2320 r979000 2655 2261000
1-4x8 1212000 r660 1 4 1 4 @ 0 r 895 1615000 2-3x 1? 985 839000 11 5 0 979000 t J t 5 1',il8000
J-ZX6 11 0 5 942000 1 2 9 0 1099000 1475 1255000 4-2x 12 820 699000 8r6000 1095 932000
l1' 2-3xB 995 849000 I 1 6 0 991000 I J Z J r I 32000 2 - 4x 1 2 705 599000 820 699000 940 799000
24 x8 7 1 0 606000 830 707000 945 808000 2-3 x 10 I 790000 1980 2089000 2260 2386000
1020 680000 ' 1 1 9 0 793000 1360 906000
toY5
2 - 2x 1 0 1 - 6x 1 0 1 4 1 5 1501000 1650 1 7 5 2 m 0 1885 2000000
t - Jx t u 1220 817000 1425 953000 1625 1089000 24x10 11 7 0 1279@0 1365 1492000 1560 r 705000
4-2x 1O 1360 1492000 1590 1 7 4 1 0 0 0 ' t 8 r5 1989000
1'4x8 1690 1575000 1970 1838000 1 - 8x 1 0 1040 1102000 t 2 1 5 'r286000 1 3 8 5 1469000
2255 2099000 2 - 2x 1 2 1 8 4 0 1659000 2150 1936000 2455 2211000
3 - 2x B 1 3 1 5 1224WO r 5 3 5 1428000 t r33 1631000 r8'
2-3x8 I 1 8 5 1102000 1385 1286m0 1580 1469000'
1 - 4x 1 2 1580 1 4 2 r 0 0 0 1 8 4 5 1658000 2105 1894000
2 - 4x 8 845 787000 985 9 1 8 m 0 11 2 5 1049000
3-2 x 12 1230 1106000 I 435 l29tooo 1640 1474000
1z', 'l-6 2 - 3x 1 2 11 0 5 995000 | 290 l 1 6 t @ 0 1475 1326000
x8 1005 905000 ttta r056000 1340 r 206000
2 - 2x 1 0 1210 885000 1 4 1 0 r0$m0 1 6 1 5 | 180000
4-2x 12 920 829000 1 0 7 5 967000 1225 r 105000
3-2x 10 810 590000 688000
2-4 x 12 790 711000 920 830000 1 0 5 5 948000
945 r 080 786000 5-2 x 12 664000 860 775000 980
2-3x 10 125 530000 845 618000 965 706000 885000
l-6 x 10 I 570 1767000 1830 20620n0 2095 2355000
2-4 x 1O I 300 1504000 t c t S 1755m0 I 735 2005000
l-4x8 1985 2@@00 2315 2334000 2645 26660@ 4-2 x 10 | 5ZU 1755000 1775 2048000 2025 2339000
3-2x8 1545 1556000 r805 1 8 1 6 m 0 2060 2074000
'|1760
1 4 5 1295000 I J J 5
1 . 8x 1 0 1 5 11 0 0 0 1525 r 726000
,2'3x8 1390 1400000 1620 r634m0 1855 1866000 .14x12 1672000 2055 1951000 Z J l J 2229000
24xB qm 1001000 1 1 5 5 1168000
't375 1320 1334000 to' 3-2 x 12 1 3 7 0 r 301000 r600 1 5 1 8 0 0 0 1825 r 734000
r3' 1-6xB 1 180 11 5 1 0 0 0 1343000 tara l 534000 2-3 x 12 I 230 1170000 1 4 3 5 1365000 1640 1560000
2-2x 1O 1425 1125000 1 6 6 5 1 3 1 3 m 0 1900 r 500000 4-2x 12 1 0 2 5 975000 11 9 5 113t,000 I J b 5 1300000
3 - 2x l 0 950 750000 l 1 t 0 875000 I zol 100@00 24x12 880 836000 r 0 2 5 976000 1 1 1 5 1114000
2 - 3x 1 0 855 675000 1000 788000 11 4 0 900000 5-2 x 12 820 780000 Y 5 5 910000 1095 1040000
1 - 4x 1 0 1220 1 | 54000 1425 1347m0 1625 1538000 1 - 6x 1 2 1070 995000 1250 1 1 6 1 0 0 01425 1326000
3 - 3x 1 2 820 771000 955 900@0 1095 1028000
3-2x8 '1790
r 944000 2090 2268@0 2385 2591000 l'8 x 10 r 280 r 5 11 0 0 0 1495 r763000 1705 20'r4000
2-3x8 1610 1750000 1880 2042mO 2145 2333000 3-2 x 12 l 520 1516000 1775 1769000 2025 2021000
24 xB r 150 1250000 1340 1459000 1535 1666000 2-3 x 12 I JO5 1365000 1 5 9 5 1593000 r 820 r 819000
1.6x8 1370 1436000 r6m 1676000 t 6 2 5 1914000 4.2 x 12 1 0 2 5 1137000 I 195 1327000 '|365 r 516000
14' 2-2x 1O 1650 1404000 1925 1638000 2200 1871000 24x12 9 7 5 975000 1 1 4 0 '1138@0 1300 1300000
3-2x 10 1 100 935000 1285 1091000 1465 12460@ 5-2 x 12 9 1 0 910000 1060 1062000 1215 1213000
2 - 3x 1 0 990 841000 11 5 5 981000 1 3 2 0 11 2 1 0 0 0
20'
'1415 1 - 6x 1 2 I zva 1162000 1 5 1 0 1356000 1725 1549000
1 - 4x 1 0 1204000 1650 r405000 1885 1605000 3.3x 12 910 900000 1060 1050000 1 2 1 5 1200000
1 - 6x 1 0 915 I 179000 1070 1376000 1220 1572000 1 - 8x 1 2 870 852000 r 0 1 5 994m0 I t o u 1136000
2-4x 10 705 601000 825 701000 940 80r000 1 - 1 0x 1 2 690 672000 805 784000 920 896000
4-3 x 12 680 682000 t35 796000 905 909000
24 x8 1320 1537000 1540 1794000 1760 2049000 2-3 x 14 985 836000 1 1 5 0 976000 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 4 0 0 0
1 - 6x 8 1570 1767000 1830 2062000 2095 2355000
2-2x 10 1895 i 726000 2210 2014000 't680
zaza 2301000
3-2 x 12 1 6 7 0 1756000 1950 2049000 2225 234r000
3-2x 10 1260 11 5 1 0 m 1470 1343000 1534000
2-3 x 12 1505 1580000 17 5 5 1844000 2005 2 106000
2-3x 10 11 3 5 1036000 4-2x 12 1317000 | 9 0 J 1537000 16 7 5 r 755000
1 1?6 1209000 t 5 t 5 1381000
14x10 r620 1479000 1890 1726@0 2 1 6 0 1971000
2 - 4x 1 2 1075 1 129000 I z a a 1 3 1 7 0 0 0 1435 r 505000
t5
1 - 6 x1 0 980 870000 11 4 5 1015000 1305 1160000 5-2 x 12 1005 '1054000 1 1 1 5 1230000 1340 r405000
24x10 810 740000 945 863000 1080 986000 21 l-6 x 12 1295 1344000 1 5 1 0 1568000 t l z a 1791000
4-Zx 10 945 86,4000 t 105 1008m0 1260 1152000 3 - 3x 1 2 r005 r0410oo I 1 7 5 1215000 1340 1388000
l-8 x l0 720 637000 1-8x12 960 986000 1120 1 1 5 1 @ 0 1280 1314000
840 743m0 G N 849000 'l-10
2-2x-12 r280 960000 1495 fi20m0 1705 1280000 x 12 760 779000 885 9@@0 1 0 15 1038000
14x12 1095 8220@ 1280 959000 1460 1096000 4-3 x 12 750 790000 875 922000 1000 1053000
2-3 x 14 1085 967000 r 2 6 5 | 128000 1445 r 2890@
l-6 x 14 950 832000 u 1 0 971000 1265 | 109000
2-2x 10 2155 2096000 2 5 1 5 2446000 2875 2794000 4-2 x'12 1515000 1605 1768000 1835 2019000
3-2x 10 r435 1396000 r 6 7 5 1629000 1 9 1 5 1861000 24x12 1 1 8 0 1297000 1380 1513000 1575 1729000
2-3 x 10 r 290 1257000 1505 1467000 1720 1675000 5-2 x 12 1 1 0 0 r 2 11 0 0 0 r 285 1 4 1 3 m 0 1465 16r4000
l{x10 t845 1796000 2 15 5 2096000 2460 2394000 1 - 6x 1 2 1440 15460@ 1680 1804000 1 9 2 0 2061000
t-6 x 10 ll15 1055000 r300
't080 1231
000 12185 14060@ 3 - 3x 1 2
't
100 1197000 1285 1397m0
24x10 925 899000 r049000 1235 1r 98000 1596000
16', 22' 1 - 8x 1 2 1 0 5 5 1134000 1 2 3 0 1323000 1 4 0 5 1 5 1 1 0 0 0
4-2x 10 1075 r047000 I zaa 1222m,0 1 4 3 5 1395000 l - 1 0x 1 2 830 895000 970 1044000 1 1 0 5 r r93000
1 - 8x 1 0 815 774000 950 903000 '1085
1032000 4-3 x 12 az5 909000 965 106r000 1 1 0 0 r 212000
2-2 x'12 1455 r 164000 1700 1358m0 1 9 4 0 1552000 2-3 x 14 11 9 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 01390 1298000 r 585 1482000
1 - 4x 1 2 999000 1460
3-2 x 12
1250 1166000 I oo5 1332000 1 - 6x 1 4 1045 956000 1220 1',t't6000 13 9 5 't274000
970 776000 I 130 905000 1295 r 034000 3-3x 14 795 736000 930 859000 '|060
875 699000 r020 816000 981000
I to5 932000 2-4 x 14 820 751000 Y3t I 114000 '1095 l00r000

Amerien Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
308 Floor ond Roof Beoms: 40 lb Live loqd

FLOOR A N D R O O F B E A M S - o E s r c N T A B L E S4 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E a U t R E D v A L U E s F o R F T B E RS T R E S St N B E N D T N G{ f ) A N D M o D U L U s O F E L A s T I c t T Y { E ) F o R T H E S I z E Ss H O w N T O S U P P o R TS A F E L Y A L l v E L O A D O F
4 0 P O U N D SP E RS Q U A R EF O O T W I T H I N A D S F L E C T I O NL I M T T A T I O NO F I / 3 O O
1 = S P A NI N I N C H E S .
M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N P s t F o R MINtMUM "1" & "E" tN Pst FoR
BEAMS SPACEO: BEAMS SPACED:
810" 610" 7'-O" 8'-0"
SPAN OF NOMINAL SPAN OF NOMINAL
BEAM SIZE OF BEAM t E E BE AM SIZS OF BEAM E f t
I.J X 6 zu55 1700000 24W '1984000 '.740 2266000 IJX n 1825 2010000 2 3 r 0 2345000 2430 2679000
2 -2x8
'1-4 17 1 0 1417000 1995 1654000 '.280 18890@ 2-4 x 1300 1436000 1520 1676000 | / J 5 199 11 4 0 m
xI 1470 12 11 0 0 0 1715 1 4 r 3 0 0 0 960 1614000 3-3x 1215 13 4 1 0 0 0 1420 1565000 1620 1787000
10' t-b x 6 8 7 5 697000 1 0 2 0 813000 t o 3 929000 l - 8x 1150 1236000 1340 1442000 1535 1647000
2 - 2x 1 0 1050 681000 1225 795000 400 908000 3-2 x 2 1370 1241000 1 ' l600 1448000 t 6 z a 1654000
1 - 3x l 0 1260 819000 1470 956000 680 r 092000 4-2 x 2 r 025 931000 1 9 5 1086000 I J O C 1 2 4 ' 1 0 0 0
1 - 4x 1 0 900 585000 1050 683000 200 780000 5-2 x 820 745000 9 5 5 869000 I U Y 5 993000
z.J x 1230 1 1 1 9 0 0 01 4 3 5 1306000 1640 1492000
l 886000 2415 3-3 x 820 737000 955 860000 1095 982000
z-zx6 2070 22010f0 2760 2514000 2-4 x 880 799000 1025 932000 11 7 5 10650m
1 . 4x 8 1 6 1 6 0 0 0 2070 1886000 z J o c 2154000 't,6
2
x 1070 951000 1250 1110000 1425 1268000
1 - 6 . xI 1 0 5 5 929000 1230 1084000 1405 1238000 2
1 - 8x 185 697000 9 1 5 8 13000 1 0 4 5 929000
11', 906000 1490 1057000 1700 1208000 '1705
1 ' 3x 1 0 taza 1090000 1780 1272000 2030 1453000 0 1460 1705000 1990000 1945 2273000
1 - 4x l 0 r090 779000 1270 909000 14 5 5 1038000 3-3x 0 13 6 5 1 5 9 1 0 0 0 1595 r857000 r 820 2121000
't 1470000 1 5 1 5 1 7 1 5 0 0 0 17 3 0 1959000
3 - 2x 1 0 d5u 605000 990 706000 806000 8x 1300
3-2 x 1540 1475000 1800 1721000 2050 1966000
1-6xB 1255 1206000 465 1407000 1670 r 607000 4-2 x |1 50 1105000 1340 r 289000 1530 1473000
1903000 2 1 9 0 5-2 x 920 885000 1 0 7 5 1033000 I z z c 1180000
3-2x8 1645 1631000 920 2174000 18'
1380 1326000 1 6 r 0 1547000 1840 r 767000
2 - 2x l Q 1510 1180000 760 1377000 2010 1573000 2-3 x 2
1 - 3x 1 0 1820 1415000 't25
1651000 2425 18860m 3-3x 920 875000 1 0 7 5 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1225 1166000
2-4 x 2 990 949000 I t f , a r 107000 1320 1265000
12' 1 . 4x 1 0 1300 1010000 5 1 5 r 179000 | / J 5 13460m
3 - 2x 1 0 1010 786000 180 9 17000 1345 1048000 1 - 6x r200 1129000 1400 r317000 1600 1505000
ZUX IU 905 706000 055 824000 1205 941000 1 - 8x 880 829000 1025 967000 | | / 5 1r05000
1 - 6x 1 0 785 594000 915 693000 1045 792000 3-4 x 660 632000 7 7 0 737000 880 8420m
24x10 650 505000 760 589000 d o 3 6730m 3-3 x 0 t azu 1872000 1 7 7 5 2l 84000 zuza 249s0@
1710 1735000 1 9 9 5 2025000 22AO 2313000
1 - 6x I 1475 't720 1791000 1965 2046000 4-2 x 1280 1300000 1 4 9 5 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 1705 1733000
1535000
2 - 3x B 1735 18660@ 2025 2178000 2 3 15 24870@ 5-2 x 1025 1040000 1 1 9 5 1 2 1 4 0 0 0 1365 1386000
2 - 4x B 1235 1335000 1440 1558000 1645 1779000 z-5x 2 1540 1560000 1795 1820000 2050 2079000
3 - 2x 1 0 11 8 5 100@00 1380 1167000 1580 1333000 t9' 3-3x 1025 1029000 1 1 9 5 1201000 r 365 13720@
t3' 2 - 2x 1 0 1780 1500000 2075 1750000 23tO 2000000 2-4 x 1100 1 1 1 5 0 0 01280 1301000 1 4 6 5 1486000
1 . 3x 1 0 2130 1799000 2485 2099000 28/.O 23980C[) 1 - 6x 1335 1326000 1560 r't547000 1780 1767000
2 - 3x 1 0 '1070 900000 1250 1050000 1425 1200000 l-8 x 980 973000 1 1 4 5 135@0 1305 1297000
1 - 4x 1 0 taza 1537000 1780 1794000 Z U J J 2049000 3-4x 744000 860 868000 980 9920m
2-4 x 1Q 760 642000 Rqo 749000 1 0 1 5 8s60@ 4-3 x 2 770 780000 900 910000 t u 2 a 10400m
2-d x 670 1329000 780 1551000 895 17 7 1 0 m
't675 3-2x 1900 2021000 2220 2358000 t530 2694000
2 - 4x 8 I 435 1666000 r944000 t 9 t5 22210oO
3-2 x 10 12aE 1246000 t o u a 1454000 | 830 1661000 4-2x 1280 1516000 1 4 9 5 1 7 6 9 m 0 705 2021000
2 - 3x 1 0 11 2 1 0 0 0 1440 I 308000 | 645 1494000 a-2 x 1r35 1214000 1325 1 4 1 7 0 0 0 5 1 5 1618000
't770 3-3 x 11 3 5 1200000 1325 1400m0 5 1 5 1600000
1 - 4x 1 0 160s000 2065 r873000 I J O U 2139000
2-4 x'lO 880 801000 1 0 2 5 935000 | | / D 1068000 2-4 x 1220 1300000 1425 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 625 1733000
14', 1 - 6x 2 r620 1550000 1890 18G000 r160 2066000
3 - 3x l 0 825 749000 960 874000 | 1 0 0 9980@ 20'
1 - 6x 1 0 11 4 5 1 5 7 1 0 0 0 I J J 5 1833000 t525 2094000 t-6 x a 1085 1136000 I z d a 1326000 445 1514000
1 ' 8x l 0 780 691000 9 r 0 806000 t 0 4 0 921000 3-4 x 2 810 866000 9 4 5 1 0 11 0 0 0 080 1154000
4-2x 10 1030 936000 1200 1092000 | 375 1248000 4-3 x 2 850 9'10000 990 1062000 t J t 1213000
2 - 2x 1 2 1395 1040000 1630 1214000 1860 1386000 2-6 x 740 775000 8 6 5 904000 1033000
l - 1 0x 2 860 896000 1005 1046000 145 1194000
'r791000 2 1 0 0 zJx r 230 1 1 1 4 0 0 01435 1300000 640 1485000
3 - 2x 1 0 1575 1535000 1840 2046000
2 - 3x l 0 1420 1381000 tb55 1612000 | 890 1841000 4-2 x 2 1570 1756000 1 8 3 0 2049000 Ino( 2341000
24x10 '1010 986000 tttJ 1 r 5 1 0 0 0 | 345 1314000 5-2 x 2 1405000 1 4 6 5 1640000 6 7 5 1873000
J.J X IU 945 921000 11 0 0 1075000 | 260 1228000 3-3x 1389000 t q o 5 1621000 675 18s1000
t.bx tu 1225 1160000 1430 1354000 I OJf, 1546000 2-4 x 2 1345 15050@ 1570 1756000 795 2006000
1-8x 10 900 850000 1050 992000 t200 1133000 l-8 x 2 1200 1315000 1400 1535000 600 1753000
1s', 4-2 x 10 11 8 0 1151000 lJl5 1343000 I 575 r 534000 3-4 x 895 1004000 1 0 4 5 1172000 1 9 5 13380@
21 r 054000 1090 1230000 245 1405000
1600 1280000 I d03 1494000 t 1 3 0 1706000 4-3 x 2 vJ5
'I
J-Z X tZ 1065 8s4000 1240 997000 1420 11380@ 2-6 x 820 896000 955 1046000 095 194000
1-3x 12 1920 1536000 2240 1792000 1560 2047000 1 - 1 0x 9s0 1039000 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 m 0 265 1385000
4-Z x 12 800 640000 747000 t u o 5 853000 2-3 x 4 1355 1290000 1580 1505000 805 1719000
2-3x 12 960 767000 1120 895000 I 280 1022000 1 - 6x 4 11 9 0 1109000 1390 1294000 585 1478000
2-4 x 4 930 871000 1 0 8 5 1016000 240 11610@
s-z x tu 1795 1 8 6 1 0 0 02095 21720oO r395 2481000 4-2 x 1720 2020000 2005 2357000 t2952693000
2 - 3x 10 16 1 0 1676000 1880 1956000 l t 4 5 2234000 5-2 x 13 7 5 1 6 1 5 0 0 0 1605 1885000 830 2r 53000
2 - 4x 10 1199000 r 350 1399000 | 540 1598000 3-3 x tJ/5 1596000 1605 r862000 830 212700o
3.3 x l0 r075 1 117000
'1406000 1303000 | 435 1489000 34x 1154000 t t N 1347000 3151538000
t - ox tu 16 2 5 1 6 4 1 0 0 0 | 860 1874000 4-3x 2 1 0 3 0 r 2 r 1 0 0 0 1200 1413000 3751614000
16' 1 - 8x 10 1 0 2 0 1031000 11 9 0 r 203000 | 360 r 374000 22', 2-6 x 2 900 r 031000 1 0 5 0 1203000 2001374000
4 - 2x 10 1345 r 396000 1570 1629000 | 790 r 8 6 1 0 0 0 r-'r0x 1 0 3 5 1194000 1205 1393000 JdU 1592000
2 - 2x 12 1820 1551000 2120 1 8 1 0 0 0 0 t425 2067000 2-3
'l'6
x4 I 485 1484000 1730 1732000 980 1978000
3 - 2x 12 1210 1035000 14 1 0 1208000 t 6 l 0 r 380000 x I 305 r 275000 1525 1488000 740 1
'|700000
4 - 2x 12 9 1 0 776oOOr060 905000 t215 1034000 24x 4 r 025 t 001000 11 9 5 r 168000 334000
a - zx tz 7 3 0 621000 850 725000 975 828000 3-3 x 4 995 9 8 1 0 0 0 11 6 0 1145000 325 1308000
)-3 x 12 1 ) A O I nFAmn | 460 12 4 l O m 3.4 x Aen AATnnn 778mO qnq

Ameri€n Forest and Paper Association: Washangton, D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 CeilingJoistond RotterSizes 309
CEILING JOISTS- | o L a l s e F T L t v EL o A o ( G y p s u M w A L L a o A R o c E t L t N G )
No attic storageand roof slopenot steeperthan 3 lN .12. CEILING JOISTS-ao r e l s e F r L r v EL o A o ( c y p s u M w A L L B o A R o c E T L T N G )
Limited attic storagewheredwelopment of future rooms is not possible.
MAXIMUM ALLOWAALE TE'O'"
MAXIMUM ALLOWAALE LENGTHS L BETWEEN SUPPORTS
JOIST JOIST
stzE SPAN L LTMITED BY OEFLECTION AND Fb IS JOIST JOIST
SPACING SPAN L LIMITED BY DEFLECTION
EXTREME.FIBER STRESS slzE SPACING AND F^ IS
{NOMINAL) (NOMINALJ €XTREME FIBER STRESS
( I N .J INOMINALI (NOMTNAL)
{tN.) r.000.0@ 1,200,000 r.400.0m 1,6m,@0 't,600.@o
' tl - r 0 {il.|.1 {tN.) r,000,000 1,200.m0 1,400,000
10,7 I t- J 12-5
F 830 930 't030 L 8-5 8 - rr 9 -1 0
r 130 F r040
'16 11 1 0 | 300 1420
2x4 L l0-3 r 0-9
F 9r0 2x4 L 7-8 8-1 8-7 8-l I
r030 r 140 1240 F 11 4 0 I 290 r430 I 570
24 u-5 8-t 1 9 - 10
r040 24 6-8 7-6 7-10
Ir70 r 300 1420 r3 1 0 1480 1640 I 790
12 L r6-8 17-8 r8-8 I 9,6
830 L 14 - 1 l4-9 15-6
930 | 030 | 130 F 1040 11 7 0 t300 1420
l6 t5-2 to- | l6-l I 16 12-O 12,9 t4-1
910 1030 1r 4 0 1240 11 4 0 r 290
't4-9 1430 I 570
24 L IJ-J 14-1 24
1040 I t70 1300 ' t 30160
1 12 ll-9
1420 480 1640 | 790
L 21-11 23-4 24-7 t2
830 8,6
930 r 030 | 130 F 1040 170 1300 1420
2xB 16 L 1 9 - tI 21-2 22-4 23-4 to L r 5',t40
-10 l 6 -1 0 r 7-9
9r0 1C30 I 140 1240 1
'19-6
r 290 r430 I 570
1 7- 5 r E-ti 24 L
't3-
l0
F t040 I 170 r300 i 4-8 r5-6 16-2
1420 1310 r 480 1640 I 790
t2 28-0 29-9 31-4 t2
830
22-3 23-8 24-tO 26-0
to 25-5
930 1030 I 130 i" r040 I 170 r300 1420
2x l0 27-1 28-6 29-9 l6 20-2
F 9t0 I 030 I
',t40
1240
2x1O L

| 140
2l-6
r 290
22-7
t430 | 570
24 23-a 24-10 26-0 24 'r9-9
L t 7- 8 r8-9
I 040 1t 7 0 13@ 1420 F" 1310 r480
NOTE: L in let and inch6; E and Fb in poundspe;rq,* 1640 l 790
l."L;rlhrrr," &-ill rrv I c: L In rer ano Incnes; t and Fb In pounds per square inch as shown above.
D E S I G NC R I T E R T A
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
1. Maximum alfowabte defltrtion = 1124OoI span
l. Maximum allmable dellrction = l /24e ol soan
length.
length.
2. Live load of l0 tblsq ft ptus dead load of 5 lb/so tt
2. Live lcd of 20 lblsq ft plus dead load of 10 tb/sq fr
determinerequiredfiber stres value.
ddtermine required fiber stres value.
SPAN OF
RAFTER . NOTE
COLLAR BEAM
For raJterc,dsign valus in Fo may be greaterthan lhe d6ign valuesfor normal
l
Y
WITHIN
UPPER I/
THE
uon or roaotby the tollowinq amounts:
dura

I l5% for 2 months'duration, as (or snow.

25% lor 7 days'duration, as lor constructionloadino.
SPAN G
RAFTER
SPAN OF
RAFTER

(iAMBREL
GABLE ROOF GABLE ROOF
(6LOPE OVER 5 IN 12' LEAN-TO OR
IALOPE UNOER ! IN 12I EHEO ROOF
SECTION
MOOULUS
L U M B ER
stzEs
(NOMTNAL) { rN . ' )
2x3 L56
2x4
2xG
NOTE
2x l0
(Applicableto this pageand the followingpageson joisl 3t.64
and raftersizes.)
JXb r2.60 SECTION
SPANSLIMITEDBY DEFLECTTON: MOOULUS
The weight ot ptas_ 21.90
ter itself was igno.edin the assumedloadslor the de_ s'?
flection computations, because the initial deflection E = m o d u l u so t e l a s t i c i t y
from the deadloadoccursbeforeplastersets.The influ_ F = extremeliber stressin bending J X tl {tN.'}
az. tJ
ence of live loads, rather than dead loads, when the = span lengthbetweensupports
3x 14
ratio ol live to dead loads is relativelyhigh, is the prin-
cipal factor to be considered.Also withloisted floors, LIV€ LOAD ASSUMPTTONS: Uniformtv distribured. 4x4 /.t5
l-r-r
r-
tlooringand bridgingserveto distributemovingor con, tll
PARTITTONS: Spans shown are comouted for the t/.o5
centratedloadsto adjoiningmembers.The omlssionof
the plasterweight in loadassumptionappliesto deflec_
gavenlive load plus the dead load and do not provide 9X6 30.66
"lll I
tor additional loadssuch as partitions.Whereconcen, J-I
tion computationsonly; the full dead and live load is trated loads are imposed the spansshould be rrcom- t" 1o b ANo d ARE
consideredwhen computinglor strength. puted to providefor them. ACTUAL
73.83 DIM EN SIONS

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washangton.
D.C.

DESIGNLOADTABLES
310 Rottersond RoofJoists

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
determinesrequiredfiber stres. projrction, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalproitrtion.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
in inchesdividedby 240.

FLAT OR SLOPEO RAFTERS_2O LB LIVE LOAD

F L A T R O O F O R C A T H E D R A L C E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G
EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENOING. Fb {PSI)

RAFTER
5IZE. SPACING
{rN.) 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 I 800 1900
12 8-6 9-4 10-0 10-9 11 - 5 12-O 13-2 13-8 14-2 4-8 5-2 15-8 to- |
0.26 0.35 o.44 0.54 0.64 u ./ 5 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.24 .37 .51 1.66 1.81 1.96
2xG 16 7-4 8-1 8-8 9-4 Y -r u I u-c 1 0 - 11 I t-5 11 - 1 0 2-9 3-2 13-7 1 3 - 11 14-4
0.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 u.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 1.07 .19 .31 1.44 1.56 1.70
b-u 6-1 7-7 8-1 d-b 8-11 9-4 9-8 10-0 10 - 5 n-q 11-1 I l-5 11 . 8
0.53 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 t?o
0.19 0.25 0.31 0.38 0.45 0.61
12 1 1- 2 I z-J 13-3 14-2 r 5-0 1 5 -l 0 to-/ 17-4 18-0
'l.lI
r8-9 9-5 20-o 20-8 21-3
't.81 2 1 -1 0
0.26 0.35 0.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 t.24 .37 1.51 1.66 1.96
2x8
=to 9-8 10-7 11 - 6 | 2-J 13-0 13-8 14-4 |5-U 15-1 I o-J 6-9 7-4 t7-10 r 8-5 t 8 - 11
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 u.o5 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.07 .J I t.44 1.56 r.70
; 8-8 9-4 10-0 10-7 11 - 9 I l-3 12-9 13-3 13-8 l4-7 I 5-0 1s-5
0.19 o.25 0.31 0.38 0.45 0.53 0.61 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 1.39
12 14-3 15-8 1 6 - 11 t6- | 19-2 20-2 23-0 tJ-tl 24-9 25-6 26-4 27-1 27.10
o.26 0.35 o.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.24 1.37 l.5l 1.66 r.81 1.96
2x10 G 12-4 13-6 I 4-8 15-8 r6-7 17-6 t8-4 19-2 1 9 - 11 20-8 21-5 22-10 23-5 24.1
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 u ./ 5 0.85 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.31 1.44 | _f,o 1.70
u 10-1 1t-1 i ?_q rJ-o r 4-3 15-0 15-8 to-J 16-l 1 17-6 8-1 t6-t 19-2 r9-8
0.r9 0.25 0.3r 0.38 0.45 0.53 0.6r 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 t.39
1 7- 4 19-0 20-6 21-1 1 23-3 24-7 25-9 zo-t I 28-0 29-1
't.24
30-r t-l 32-O J2-t I 33-r0
o.26 u.J5 o.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.37 5l 1.66 1.81 1.96
-76
2xQ 15-O 16-6 17 - 9 19-0 20-2 21-3 22-4 zJ-5 24-3 25-2 26-O 16-11 27-9
't.44 28.6 29-4
o.23 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.56 r.70
_; 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.85 -Jl

I z-3 13-515-6 16-6

14-6 17-4 1A-2 19-0 19-10 z t-J 2'l-11 2?-A ZJ.J 23-11
0.19 o.250.38 0.31
0.45 0.53 0.61 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 1.07 1.17 1.28 1.39
NOTE: The requiredmodulusot elasticity,E. in 1,000,000psi is shownbelow eachspan.

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 pst dead load plus 30 pst live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
dete.mines required fiber st.es. projtrtion, and loads are considered as applied on the
horizontal proiection.
OEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
in inch6 dividedby 240.

FLAT OR SLOPED RAFTERS_3O LB LIVE LOAO

F L A T R O O FO R C A T H E D R A LC E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G
EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENDING. Fb {PSII
RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
(tN.l 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200 | 300 | 400 | 500 1600 17@ 1800 r900
tz 7-6 oa 8-10 10-o 10-7 11 - 1 1't-7 I z-o
'l.28
I 3-0 13-5 r3- 10 t4-2 14-7
o.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.01 1.14 I.41 1.56 1.71 r.86 2.O2
'-16 10-0
'I
t1-11 t2-4 12-8,
x6 b-b 7-1 7-8 6-Z 6-d J-Z 9-7 tu-5 lu- lu l-3 I l-t

o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.35 t.48 t.6l t.l a

J-q o-J 6-8 7-1 7-6 7-10 v2 6-O 8-10 g-2 9-6 9-9 IU-U
0.r9 o.25 o.32 U.JY 0.46 0.54 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 L10 1.21 1.31 1.43
1l-8
't2-6 IJ-J l3-l I | 4-U 15-3 t3-t I l6-6 17-1 I 7-8 t6-z l9-3
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.01 t.14 1.28 r.41 1.56 1.71 1.86 2.O2
2X6 16 8-7 9-4 10-l 1 0 - 10 1r-6 12-1 12-A 13-3 13-9 14-4 1 4 -1 0 15-3 15-9 16-3 to-o
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 L35 1.48 1.61 1.75
; 7-O 1-8 8-10 9-4 9-10 10 - 4 1 0 -1 0 I t-J I t-o |2-10 I J.J 13-7
0.19 o.25 0.32 0.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.90 L00 1.10 t . J I 1.43
't4-'t1 r 6 - 11 17-10 19-6 20-4 21-1 2 1 -1 0 22-6 23-3 23-11 24-6
12 13-9 15-11 18-8
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.89 t.0l 1.14 1.28 1.41 | .50 1.71 1.86 2.O2
2x10 =to 10-r1 12-11
'13-9
r4-8 15 - 5 to-z 16-11 1 7- 1 | 6-J 18-1r l9-6 2Q-1 20-8
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.35 1.48 1.61 1.75
- 8 - 1r 9-9 r0-6 I t- J 11-11 13-9 14-4 1 4 - 11 I 5-5 l 5 - r1 16-5 1 6 - r1 1 1- 4
0.19 0.25 0.32 0.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 r .r 0 1.21 1.31 1.43
't2 15 - 4 16-9 18-1 1 9 -4 21-8 ZJ-J 24-A 26-6 2 1- 5 28-3 29-1 29-10
't.41
0.27 U-JO 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.01 1.14 |,26 1.56 1.71 1.86 2.O2
G I J-J 14-6 15,8 17-9 18-9 19-8 20-6 21-5 22-2 23-O zJ-9 24-5 za-z 25-10
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.17 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.48 1.61 t.tJ

- 10-10 13-8
1l - 1 0 12-10 15 - 4 16-1 't4-6 16-9 17-5 18-r 18-9 19-4 20-0 20-6 12-1
0.19 0.250.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 1.10 t.zl 1.31 1.43

NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000.000psi is shom below eachspan.

AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington,
D.C.

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 Roftersqnd RoofJoists 3l I
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH; 10 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTEBS: Spansare measuredalonq the horizontal
determinc requiredfi&r stress. ). projrction, and loadsare consideredai appliedon the
hotizontalproirction'
DEFLECTION: For 20 psf live load. Limited to spSn
in inchesdividedbv 240.

FLAT OR LOW SLOPE RAFTERS-2o LB LrvE LoAD

N O C E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S

EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENOING, Fb (PSI)

RAFTER
5IZE, SPACING
(rN.) 500 600 700 800 900 1000 r 100 1200 1300 1400 r 500 1600 | 700 1800 1900
12 9-2 10-0 1 0 - 1 0 1 1-7 12-4 13-0 tJ-l 4-9 15-4 t 5 - 1I 6-5 to-t I 17 - 5 17-10
0.33 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.80 0.94 r.09 .24 .40 1.56 r.73 .91 2.09 2.28 2.47
2x6 to 7-11 8-8 9-5 10-0 10-8 1l - 3 11 - 9 2-10 I J-J 3-9 4-8 tf,-l 15-6
0.29 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.70 0.82 0.94 .21 t.Jc _5U .65 .81 1.97
A 6-6 7-1 7-8 8-2 8-8 9-2 9-7 10-0 10-5 10-10 1-11
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 r .r 0 22 48 LO I

12 t2-1 13-3 14-4 1 7- 1 't9-6

| 5-J to-J 17-11 I 8-9 ZU-J 20-11 22-3 23-7
0.33 o.44 0.55 0.67 0.80 0.94 r.09 1.24 t.40 1.56 2.O9 2.28 2.47
/x6 16 10-6 11 - 6 't4-10
14-0 | 3-O 6-3 16-10
't.21
17-6 18-2 I B-9 I 9-4 9-r0 20-5
0.29 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.70 0.82 0.94 .o7 1.35 1.50 1.65 t.81 .97 2.14
u 8-7 9-4 10-1 1 0 - 10 11 - 6 12-8 13-3 13-9 14-4 l4-10 | 5-J |5-v 6-3 16-8
o.24 0_31 039 0.48 o.57 o.67 o.77 0.88 o.99 1.10 1.22 1.35 1.48 1.75
tz 15-5 16-1I 18-3 19-6 20-8 21-10 22-10 23-11 24-10 2 5 - 10 26-A 27-1 2A-5 29-3 30-l
0.33 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.80 0.94 1.09 1.24 1.40 1.56 1.73 1.9'l 2.O9 2.24
2x10 16 l3-4 14-8 1 5 - 1 0 1 6 - 11 l7-11 18-1 19-10 20-8 21-6 23-2 23-11 24-7 25-4 26-0
0.29 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.70 o.82 0.94 1.07 1.21 1.35 1.50 1.65 1.81 2.14
u t 0 - 11 ll-il 12-11 1 ?-q 14-8 15 - 5 to-z 1 6 - 11 17-7 l8-3
't8-1
1 IY-O 20-1 20-8 z t-J
o.24 0.31 n?o 0.48 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.48 r.6l
t_J5 1.75
12 18-9 20-6 ZJ-J 25-2 26-6 27-10 29-1 30-3 3 1- 4 32-6 33-6 34-7 J5-/
0.33 o.44 0.55 0.67 0.80 0.94 1.09 1.24 1.40 t.Do 1.73 1.91 2.09 2.28 2.47
2x12 =t o to-J I 7-9 r 9-3 21-9 23-O 24-1 25-2 28-2 29-1 29-11 30-10 31-8
0.29 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.70 o.82 0.94 1.07 1.21 t.Jt 1.50 t.o5 1.81 1.97 2.14
i 13-3 14-6
'15-8
I o-9 17-9 18-9 19-8 20-€ 2't-5 22-2
't.10 23-0 23-S 24-5 25-2 25-10
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.22 1.48 1.61 1.75
N O T E :T h e r e q u i r e d m o d u l u s oefl a s t i c i t y , E , i n1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p si si s h o w n b e l o w e a c h s p a n .

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: l0 psf dead load ptus 30 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
determinB required fiber stress. proiection, and loads are considered ai applied on the
horizontalprojection
DEFLECTION: For 30 ost live load. Limited to soan
in inchm divided by 240.

FLAT OR LOW SLOPE RAFTERS-3o LB LtvE LoAD

N O C E I L I N G L O A O _ S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S

EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENDING, Fb (PSII

SIZE, SPACING
(lN.) 500 600 700 800 900 I 000 | 100 | 200 1300 r 400 l 500 r 600 I 700 1800 r900
12 7 - 11 8-8 v-5 10-0 10€ 11 - 3 '12-4
11 - 9 J.J 3-9 4-2 14-8 15 - 1 I c-o
o.32 0.43 0.54 0.66 0.78 0.92 1.06 1.21 .36 .52 .86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
zxo l6 6-l l 7-6 6-Z 8-8 9-3 9-9 10-2 r0-8 1-1 1-6 t-t I 2-4 I z-d
'|3-l tJ-f,
o.28 0.37 o.47 u . at 0.68 0.80 o.92 1.05 .r8 .32 46 -ol 1.76 1.92 2.O8
24 5-7 6-2 6-8 7-1 7-11 8-4 8-8 9-l 9-5 9-9 10-0 10-4 10-8 10-11
0.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.s5 0.65 u ./ 5 0.85 0.96 l.o8 1 .t 9 1.3',| 1.44 1.57 1.70
12 10-6 1 l-6 I z-a I ?_? t4-0 1 4 - 10 15-6 6-10 18-2 18-9 1 9 -4 19-r0
o.32
o-J 20-5
0.43 0.54 0.66 0.78 0.92 1.06 .21 .JO t.Jz r.69 1.86 2.M 2.22 2.41
2x8 16 9-t 9 - 11 l0-9 11 - 6 12-10 4-0 4-7 15-2 15-8 | 6-3 6-9 l7-2 r 7-8
0.28 0.37 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80 .05 .18 1.32 t.co l . 6r .76 1.92 2.O8
il 7-5 8-1 8-9 9-4 9-1',|
't0-6
I ',t-0 I t-o 11-t1 t2-5 12-10 I J-J 3-8 14-0 14-5
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.08 1 r. 9 1.31 44 1.70
tz 13-4 't4-8 'r8-11
1 5 -1 0 1 6 - l1 17-11 r9-10 20-8 21-6 23-2 23-11 25-4 26-O
o.32 0.43 o.54 0.66 0.78 o.92 r.06 1.21 1.36 1.52 1.69 r.86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
2x 10 16 11-7 tz-o 13-8 14-8 15-6 16 - 4 17-'t1 r 8-8 9-4 20-0 20-8 21-4 21-11 zz-o
0.37 't.46
_; 0.28 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80
't3-4
0.92 r.05 1.18 .32 r.61 r.92 2.08
10 - 4 1 1-2 12-a 14-0 14-8 5 - 10 16-4 1 6 - 11 r 7-5 11-11 18 - 5
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 0.75 o.85 .08 1. 1 9 't.3r 1.44 1.57 |.70
12 16-3 17-9 20-6 21-9 24-1 25-2 26-2 27-2 28-2 29-1 2 9 - 11 30-10 3t - 8
0.32 0.43 0.54 u.oo 0.78 o.92 1.06 1.21 t.Jo t.az 1.69 1.86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
2x12 16 14-1 r 5-5 1 8 -1 0 19-11 20-10 22-8 23-6
Io-b ?1 _A
't.05 24-4 za-tl 26-8 27-5
0.28 0.37 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80 0.92 1.18 1.32 1.46 1.76 1.92 2.08
a
t.ol
11 - 6 t4-6 I c-5 to-J 17-0 1 7- 9 18-6 19 - 3 l 9 - r1 20-6 21-9 22-5
0.23 n?o
0.46 o?a
0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.08 |. 1 9 1.31 1.44 t.aI 1.70
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,@0,000 psi is shownbelow eachspan.

Ameri€n Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.

DESIGNLOADTABLES
312 Rottersond RoofJoisls

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
'15 RAFTERS: Spans are measuredalong the horizontal
S T R E N G T H : p s f d e a dl o a d p l u s2 0 p s f l i v el o a dd e '
terminesrequiredfiber stress. projection,and loadsare consideredas applied on the
horizontalproiection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s l l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
in inchesdivided by 180.

M E O I U M O R H I G H S L O P E R A F T E R S - 2 o L B L r v EL o A D
H E A V YR o o F c o V E R I N G _ N o EV E R3 I N 1 2
c E I L t N GL O A D - S L o P o
EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENOING, Fb (PS!)

RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
1300 1400 | 500 1600 1700
'r800 1900
(tN.l 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200
12 5-lI o-J b- tu t -J 1-a d-u 8-4 8-8 9-0 9-4 9-8 9-l 1 10-3
o.20 o.26 0.33 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 1. 1 4 1.24 1.36 1.47
2x4 16 4-8 3-l 5-6 5-t I 6-3 6-7 6-11 7-6 7 - 10 6-l 8-4 8-7 8-r0 o-1
0 . 17 0.23 0.28 0.35 0.4r 0.49 0.56 o.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.27
u 3-r0 4-6 4-',I0 5-'l 5-5 5-8 c-t I 6-2 6-5 6-7 6- 10 7-0 7,3 7-5
0.t4 0.18 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.59 0.66 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 8-6 9-4 r0-0 10-9 11 - 5 12-O tJ-z 13-8 r4-8 15-2
'1.14
| 5-8 to-l 16-7
0.20 U.IJ 0_40 0.48 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 t_24 1.36 1.41
zxo G 7-4 o- | 8-8 9-4 9-10 10-5 1 0 - 11 11 - 5 11 - 1 0 12-4 12-9 13-2 13-7 13-11 14- 4
0 . 17 0.28 n aR 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 o.12 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.1
7 1.27
- 6-0 1-1 7-7 8-1 8-6 8 - 11 9-4 9-8 10-0 r0-5 10-9 I l-1 1l-8
0.14 0.r8 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 0.66 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 11-12 I J.J 14-2 15-0 15-10 t0-t 17-4 18-0 18-9 t9-5 20-0 20-8 21-3 2 1 -1 0
0.20 n?6 0.33 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65 o.74 0.83 0.93 r.03 1.14 1.24 1.36 1.47
' t 7- 4
2xB 16 9-8 10-7 I t-o I z-5 13-0 13-8 14-4 15-0 15-7 16 - 3 16-9 t7-10 I 8-5 18-11
0.23 o.28 u.J5 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 r.08 1.17 1.27
A 7- 1 1 6-6 9-4 10-0 10-7 11 - 9 12-3 12-9 I J-J 13-8 14-2 14-7 15-0 15-5
0.14 0.18 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 0.66 o.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 14-3 15-8 1 6 - 11 18-1 19-2 20-2 22-1 23-0 23-11 24-9 25-6 26-4 27-10
o.20 0.26 n22 0.40 0.48 0.56 u-o5 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 l. t4 1.24 1.36 1.47
2x 10 -t o 12-4 tJ-o
'r4-8 15-8 I 6-7 I 7-6
'18-4
19-2 1 9 - 11 20-8 z t-a tJ-a 24-1
0 . 17 0.23 0.28 0.35 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 o.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.27
24 1 0 -1 I l-t 1 1 - 11 12-9 13-6 14-3 15-O 15-8 to-J 16-11 | /-o 18-l 18-7 19-2 r9-8
o.14 0.18 o.23 o.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 u.oo 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,@0psi is shown below eachspan

D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 30 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare memured along the horizontal
determines required fiber stress. proitrtion, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
'180.
in inch6 divided by

MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS_3O LB LIVE LOAD

H E A V Y R O O FC O V E R T N G N O C E T L I N GL O A D _ S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2
EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING
RA FTE R
SIZE, SPACING
{tN.}
1900

1.51
2x4

24

2xG

10 - 4
1.07
19-3
1.51
't6-8
2x8
1.31

24 13-7
1.07
24-6
1.51

2x1O r6 21-3
t . J I

11-4
1.07

NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shown below eachspan.

Ameri€n Forestand PaperAssociation;

Washington,
D.C

DESIGNLOAD TABLES
 Rqtlersqnd RoofJoists 313
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
detetmines required fiber stress. .. projrction, and loads are considered as applied on the
horizontalprojection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a r i
in inchesdividedbv 180.

MEDIUM OR HlcH SLOPE RAFTERS-zo LB LrvE LoAD

LIGHT RooF covERING_NocEILING LoAD_sLoPE oVER 3 IN 12

EXTREME FIBER sTRESs IN BENOING. Fb (PSI)

RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
ilN.) 500 600 7o0 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200 1300 I 400 I 500 1600 1700 1800 1900
12 6-2 6-9 7-9 8-8 9-r 10-3 't
9-1I 10-8 1-0 11-4 I 1-8 12-O
0.29 0.38 0.49 0.59 0.83 0.96 t.w 1.23 1.31 t.az r.68 144 2.00 2.17
2x4 16 5-4 5-'t0 6-4 6-9 7-6 8-7 8-11 9-6 9-10 10-1 10-5
0.2s 0.33 0.42 0.51 0.61 o.12 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.19 1.45 1.59 1.73 r.88
^ 4-4 4-9 5-2 5-6 5 - 10 6-2 6-5 o-Y 7-Q 7-6 i-9 8-0 d-J 8-6
o.21 0.27 0.34 0.42 0.50 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.87 0.97 1.08 r. 1 9 1.30 1.41 1.53
12 9-8 10-7 I t-5 12-3 13-0 13-8 14-4 15-0 l5-7 o-z 16-9 17-3 t7-10 l8-4 18-r0
0.29 0.38 0.49 0.59 0.71 0.83 0.96 1.09 1.23 .37 1.68 t.84 2.00 2.17
2x6 16 8-4 9-2 9 - 11 I 0-7 11 - 3 11 - 1 0 I z-a 13-0 I J-O 4-0 14-6 15-0 15-5 1 5 - t1 16-4
0.33 o.42 0.51 0.61 0.72 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.45 1.59 1.73 1.88
a 6-10
o.21
8-1 8-8 9-2 9-A 10-2 10-7 1t - o 11 - 5 11 - 1 0 12-3 12-7
't.30 13-0 1 3 -4
0.34 o.42 0.50 0.59 0.68 o.77 0.87 0.97 1.08 1.19 t.41 1E?

12 12-9 l3-1 1 t3- | 16 - 1 17-1 18-0 1 8 - ll r9-9 20-6 21-4 22-1 22-9 23-6 24-2 24-10
--::- 0.29
'11-0
0.38 0.49 0.59 o.71 0.83 0.96 r.09 1.23 t-JI 1.52 t.od 1.84 2.00 2.17
zx6 12-1 13-l l 3 - 11 14-10 7-9 't9-9
Ib 15-7 16-4 17-1 8-5 r9-l 20-4 20-11 21-6
0.25 0.33 o.42 0.51 0.61 0.72 0.83 0.94 .06 .19 t -Jz 1.45 1.59 1.73 1.88
24 9-0 9-10 10-8 I t-5 12-1 12-9 r3-4 r3-'t1 tqt 15 - 1 ta-r t6-1 l6-7 17-1 17-7
o.21 o.27 0.34 o.42 0.50 0.59 0.68 o.77 0.87 0.97 1.08 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.53
to-J 17-10 20-7 21-10 23-0 24-1 25-2 26-2 27-2 2A-2 29-1 30-0 30-10 31-8
o.29 0.38 0.49 0.59 0.7'l 0.83 0.96 1.09 1.23 1.37 1.52 1.68 1.84 2.00 2.17
2x10 16 14-1 15-5 to-d 17-10 1 8 - 11 1 9 - 11 20-10 21-10 22-8 23-7 24-5 25-2 zJ-t I 26.8 27-5
o.25 0.33 o.4? 0.51 0.61 o.72 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.19 1.32 1.45 1.59 1.73 1.88
a 12-7
I l-6
o.27
0.21
14-6
o.42
13-7
15-5
n?,
I o-J 17-1 17-10 18-6 19-3 1 9 - 11 20-7 21-2 2 l - 10 zz-a
0.50 0.59 0.68 o.77 o.87 0.97 1.08 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.53
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,0@,000psi is shownbelow eachspan.

O E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 30 psf live |oad de- RAFTERS: Spansare mecured along the horizontal
termins required fiber stre$. proirction, and loads are considered 6 applied on the
horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
in inchesdividedby 180.

MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS-3o LB LtvE LoAo

L I G H T R O O F C O V E R I N G * N OC E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2

EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENOING. Fb (PSI)

stzE, sPActNc
( tN . l 500 6@ 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 r300 I 400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
12 5-3 5-9 6-3 6-8 7-5 8-2 8-6 8-9 9-',| Y-5 9-8 t0-0 10-3
o.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 1.15 1.28 1.42 r.57 1.72 1.87 2.03
2x4 16 4-7 5-0 5-5 5-9 6-l 6-5 6-9 7-4 7-7 7-l t 8-2 8-5 8-8 8- 10
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.36 1.49 1.62 1.76
3-9 4-'l 4-5 4-8 5-0 E_? f,-o 5-9 6-0 6-3 6-5 b-d 6-10 7-3
0.19 0.25 o.32 0.39 0.47 0.55 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.9r 1.01 l.l I 1.21 1.32 r.43
12 8-3 9-l 9-9 10-5 11-1 11 - 8 I z-J 12-9 l3-4 3-r0 14-4 4-9 r 5-8 1 6 -I
0.27 U.Jb 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.02 1.15 .28 1.42 .72 1.87 2.03
zxo to 7-2 7 -10 q-E
9-1 9-7 10-7 t1-1 I t-o I z-a 2-9 3-2 13-7 l3-11
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.23 .JO .49 r.62
Ti 5-10 6-5 6 - 11 7-5 7 -1 0 8-3 8-8 9-l 9-5 9-9 1 0 -1
't.01 l0-5 IU-V I l-1 I 1-5
0.19 o.25 o.32 0.39 o.47 0.55 U.OJ o.72 0.81 0.91 1 . 1I 1.21 r.32 r.43
'12 1 0 - 11 12-10 13-9 14-7 I 5-5 r 6-2 t 6 - 10 t 7- 7 82 8-r0 r9-6 20-1 20-8 z t-5
o.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 t.t3 .28 .42 r.57 1.72 1.87 2.03
2x8 to 9-5 10-4 1 1-2 1t-t'l 12-8 13 - 4 14-0 14-7 t5-z 5-9 6-4 6-10 1 7- 4 r-11 18-4
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 o.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 .lI .23 .36 t.49 62 1.76
i 7-8 8-5 9-9 't0-4
l0-11 1l-5 11-11 I z-a 12,10 3-4 3-9 r 5-0
0.19 0.32 0.39 o.47 0.55 0.63 o.72 0.8r 0.91 .01 .11 t.2l 1.43
12 1 3 - 11 15-2 I o-J 17-1 18-7 19-8 20-7 21-6 24-1 24-10 25-7 26-4 2 7- 1
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 1. 1 5 1.24 1.42 1.72 1.87 2.O3
2xIO - 124 I J-Z I 4-3 t5-z to-2 17-O 1 7 - '0t 18-7 Y-5 20-1 20-10 2't.49
t-6 22-2 zJ-a
0.26 0.34 0.43 n 6? 0.63 o.74 0.85 0.97 .09 |.22 1.35 | .oJ 1.78 1.93
24 9-10 l0-9 1t - 7 13-2 1 3 - 1I 14-7 tJ-2 15-10 I 6-5 r 7-0 18-1 r 8-7 19-2
n lo 0.25 o.32 0.47 't.11
0.55 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.9r 1.01 1.?1 r.32 1.43
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shownbetow eachspan.

AmericanForestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.

DESIGNLOADTABLES
 314 Wood Preservqlives
RELATIVE TREATABILITY OF SELECTED DOMESTIC SPECTES WOOD TO BE
PROTECTED
H EA RT\^/OO D H EA RTWOOO H EARTWOOD HEARTWOOO
LEAST DI FFIC U LT MODERATELY DIFFICULT DIFFICULT VERY DIFFICULT
TO PENETRATE TO PEN ETRATE TO PENETRATE TO PENETRATE METAL
prne. prnyon TERMITE
arocYpress, SHIELD AT
prne, redwood Douglas fir (coast). Eastern mannspruce,grandlir, glastir (RockyMountain), 45'ANGLE
white pine, jack pine, loblolly lodgepolepine,nobletir, Northernwhite cedar,tama, FROM WALL
prne, longleaf pine, ponderosa sitkaspruce,Western rack.Western red cedar
pine, red pine, shortleaf pine, larch,white fir, White .FOUNDATION
/ WALLTO BE
sugar pine, Western hemlock spruce 1A' HIGH
ABOVE SOIL
TO UNTREATEf,
RELATIVE HEARTWOOD DECAY RESISTANCE OF NATURALLY RESISTANT LUMBER
ABOVT c)R USF
UNTREATED \/vOODS* ONLY TREATE -
WOOD WTH N
RESISTANT OR VERY RESISTAN MODERATELY RESISTANT SLIGHTLY OR NONRESISTANT 18" OF SOIL
cypress {old growlh), Cedar, whrte
oak, redwood fir,Westernlarch,Easternwhite pine Easternwhite, spruces,true firs CRIMPED CORNER
MASONRY
FOUNDATION

* Source: U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory Wood Handbook

GENERAL
Wood may be destroyedby decaylungi; by insectslike car
penter ants and termitesj and by marineborersin saltwater
exposures.Fourconditionsmust exist before these organ-
isms can destroy wood: (1) a lree oxygen supply; (2) a
moasturelevel in the wood above the fiber saturationooint
QOV.I:l3l a temperature in the rangeof 50 to gOoF;{41the
presenceof a f@d source,in this case,lhe wood.
In most indoor environments,where moisture levels are
geneclly low, w@d will last for a very long time. In certain
indoor environments,however, and in manv exterior envi-
ronments,wood cannot be kept dry or out of the proximiv
of moisture. Most building codes recognizethis by requir-
ing the use of pressure-treatedwood or naturallyresistant
wood species where building componentscome into con-
tact wrth concrete,masonry,or exposedsoil. This require-
ment also covers floor joists and crawl space suppon
remb€rs within 12 to 18 in. of exposedsoil.
DECAY-RESISTANT WOOD
When specifyinga wood that will resistdecav.the choiceis
betwe€n naturallydecay-resistantwood or wood treated
with preservatives.The first requiresuse ot the heanwood
of naturally decay-resistantwoods such as Western red
cedar,bald cypress,redwood,and othersthat containnatu-
ral poisons called extractives,which are not oalatableto
decay{ausingorganisms.However,lot all gradesor spe-
cies ol these woods are suitabletor some structuralsitua-
tions. Treatingwood with preseruativesis a process that
impregnates wood with chemicals thtough a pressure-
treatment process.Use of nonpressuretreatmentssuch as
spraying,dipping,and brushingis mostly limitedto field
treatment of wood during constructionor remedial treat-
ment of existingwood in place.
PRESSURE-TREATED \/vOOD
There are two processes commonly used .for pressure
treatingwood. the full cell and modifiedfull ceilDr@esses.
In both, the wood is placed in a large,cylindricaltank and
the preseryativeforced under pressureinto its cells.
In the moclifiedfull-cellprocess the preservativecoats the
walls of the wood cells and is absorbedwhen the Drocess
is finished the wood cell cavities are empty of preserva-
tives- Most over-the{ounter pressure-treatedwood is
treatedwith this process.In the fullrell pr@ess,a vacuum
is introduced at lhe begrnningto force the air out of the
w@d cell cavities,which then remainfilled with Dreserva-
tive after treatment. The full{ell process is used in most
creosote and pentachlorophenoltreatingtor wood used in
severeenvironments, includingapplicationssuch as ulility
poles,.railroadties, saltwaterpiles, and timber bridges.
Regardlessof which pr@ess is used, the wood is geneially
dried to a 2O7omoisture content prior to treatmentto pro-
mote maxrmumpenetrationof the preseruative.
PENETRATION
AND RETENTION
OF PRESERVATIVES
Penetrationand retentionare the two measuresthat define
the effectiveness of preservation methods. penetration
dependson the speciesol wood and the sizeof the lumber
member being treated. Some speciesthat resist preserva-
trve penetratron,such as Douglasfir, are incisedwith small
slatsto make treatment more effective. Others, such as
Southernyellow pine, are easily treated without incisions.
While the sapwood of some specjes is readilypenetrated,
the heartwood of most resists penetration(althoughthe
heartwoodof all speciesnaturallyresists decay).While the
penetrationof preseruativesis hard to determine without
damagangthe wood, retention of the preservativecan be
measur€ddirectlyby weighingthe wood, stated in terms of
pounds (of the chemical retained) per cubic toot (pcf).
Retenlion standardsare set by the American Wood Pre-
seryers' Assmiation and enforcedthrough chemicalanaly-
sis of treated wood by an independentthird-partyagency
approved by the Am€rican Lumber StandardCommittee
{ALSC).A quality mark outlining peninent informationcan
be found on complyingw@d st@k.
PRESERVATIVE TYPES
Three classesof preseryativesare in use today: creosote,
oilborne (organic),and waterborne{inorganic).
CREOSOTEis a cGl-tar product that is dissolvedin a dis-
tilled solutionor petroleumoil. lt is an €ffective preseruative
in applicationswith extreme exposureto decay or insect
attack (marineborers in saltwater environments,such as
marinepiles or bridgetimbers).W@d treated with the fulf
cell processis more €ffective in these applications,but the
creosotemay bleed into the surroundings,causingcontam-
ination.Most utility poles,freshwaterpiles,and fenceposts
are treated with the empty{ell process, which yields a
clean,nonbleedingsurface.Creosot+treatedproductscan-
not be painted, but epoxy shellac and coaltar pitch are
acceptablesealants.This type of preservativecan last from
thiny to sixty years. Cleanair standardsprohibit the use of
creosotein many areas.
ORGANICOIL-BORNEPRESERVATIVES are carried in
organicsolvents such as liquefiedisbutane and are used
to treat most softwoods and hardwoods.These oreserva-
(penta),coppernaphthen
tives includepentachlorophenol
ate. tributyltinoxide(TBTO).and copper8-quinolinotate.
Pentaextends the seryice life of wood by twenty to forty
years and is used to treat utility poles, fenceposts, and
highwaytimbers. Tinted light to dark brown, penta-treated
wood acceptsadhesivesand finishesreasonablvwell once
the oil mediumhas evaporated. Polyurethane, shellac,var-
nish, and latex enamelare effective as sealants.Pentacan
migrateto the surfaceof w@d. leach into the surroundinq
soil, and contaminate groundwater. Only slowly does it
breakdoM into biodegradablecompounds..
Plywoodand other wood treatedwith copper€{uinolinilale
can be used in applicationswhere food is harvested,trans-
ported, or stored. The chemicalis dissolvedin liquid Detro-
leum gas or light hydrocarbonsolvents so the surface is
clean and free of solvent odor. Consultwith the treatment
companyregardingapplicableFDAand USDAacceptances.
INORGANICWATERBORNEPRESERVATTVES are the
most popularand commonly availabletypes used for treat-
ing wood. They include chromatedcopper arsenate(CCA),
ammoniacalcopper arsenale (ACA),and ammoniacalcop-
pe. zioc arsenate(ACZA).These preseryativesare related
chemically and havea lot in common.Chromiumholdsthe
other components in the wood and prevents leaching;
ammon,ahelps carry copper, zinc, and arsenicdeeper into
the wood: arsenic guards against attack by termites and
{ungi. Southernyellow pine is usually treated with CCA,
and Douglasfir and other western w@ds with ACA and
ACZA.The variousformulations of CCAvarv in the amount
of chromium,copper,and arsenicthey contain.The oride
form of CCA,type C, is widely preferredfor most construc,
tion. During the treatment prcess, CCA is water soluble.
but aardrying for a few days renders it insoluble.This is
TERMITE PROTECTION DETAILS
becausethe chromium reacts chemicallywith lhe wood
permanentlybondingitseltand the copperand arsenictc
the cell walls, preventingleachingduringits seruiceftfe
CcA-treat€dwood can last up to forty years.
Anolher waterbornepreservativ€is borax,which has prom-
ise due to its effectivenessagainstfungi and insectsand its
low-toxicityto psople and animals.However.it leachesout
when the wood gets wet-
FINISHING OF PRESERVATIVE-
TREATED \/vOOD
Waterborne preseryativesare recommendedwhen clean,
odorless.and paintablewood productsare required.Wood
treated with such preseryativesmay be used indoors rf
sawdustand constructiondebrisare cleanedup. Painting
wood treated with creosoteor oil-borneoentachloroohenol
is not recommended,as it is difficultto use, requiring
extensive care and an aluminum-basedoaint. Paintable
waterbornepentachlorophenol treatmentsareavailable.Fo
certain inlerior applicationsin commercial. industriai, or
farm buildings, creosote- or penta-treatedw@d may be
used if exposed surfacesare sealedwith two coats of ure
thaneor epoxypaintor shellac.Guidelines for precautions
In these cases are outlined in an EPA-aoproved consumer
informationsheet lor each preseruativetreatment-
FASTENERS
CCA,ACA, and ACC are corrosiveto uncoatedmetals, For
abovegroundconstruction,hot-dippedor hot-tumbled gal.
vanrzedsteel and stainlesssteel fastenersare recom
mended.Joist hangersandtraminganchorsshouldalsobe
corrosionresistant.For below-gradeconstruction,such as
treatedwood loundationsystems,types 304 and 316 stain
less steel Type H silicon bronze, ETP copper, and monel
fasteners are required. Adhesives work well with CCA-
treated wood. Phenolresorcinol,resorcinol,and melemine-
formaldehyde structural adhesives are used in glulam
beams made lrom treated w@d members. On iob sites.
use adhesivesrecommendedfor use with treated'wood.
PRECAUTIONS FOR USE AND
HANDLING
The chemicalformulationsused for preseryativetreatment
of wood are registeredwith the EPA,which has approved
guidelinesfor the use of pressure,treatedwood to ensure
safe handlingand avoidenvtronmental or other healthha/
ards.Someguidelines for use andhandlingfollow:
1. Disposeot treatedwood by ordinarytrashcollectionor
burial.Treatedwood shouldnever be burned in open
firesor in stoves,fireplaces,
or residential
boilers.
2. Avoidfrequentinhalation of sawdustfrom treatedwood
Wheneverpossible,sawing and machiningof treated
wood should be done outdoors.
3. Avoidfrequentor prolongedskin contactwith penta-or
creosote-treatedwood.
4. After handling treated wood products, wash exposed
areasthoroughlybeforeeatingor drinking.

RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile.

Maryland
AmericanPlywoodAssoc;atron; lacoma,Washinqton

WOOD TREATMENT
 Wood Preservotives 3t5

SOUTHERN PINE PRESERVATIVE RETENTIONS AND APPLICABLE AWPA. STANDARDSI

RETENTION ASSAY OF TREATED WOOD-LB/CU FT
WATERBORNE PRESERVATIVEST CRESOTE AND OILBORNE PRESERVATTVES
P E NTA-
wooD CHLORO.
USES PHENOL
(PENTA)

TIMBERS,
AND
PLYWOOD

construcuon:
guide,sign,
and sight

* NR = not re@mmended
I Areri€n W@d Preseryers'Association
IAWPA) Stan-
dards detail plant operating procedures for pressure
treatrent of wood. These standardsinclude minimum
vacuum. pressure, and penetrataonrequirements and
maxrmumsteamingparameters.AWPA alsodetailsmini-
mum retenttonrequtrements,sampling zones for assay
and maximum redryingtemperatureallowancesfor each
preseryative.commodity,and wood species.For a copy
of the AWPA standardsbooklet, write to the American
Wood Preseryers'Associatim, P.O. Box 286, Wood- 3 Coppernaphthenateis also approvedby AWPA as
an oil-
st@k, MD 2l 163{286. For other wood sgecies.contact borne preservativelor specilic wood speciesand applica
the relevantorganization. tronsexcludingsaltwateruse_
, ACA, ACZA, and CCA are tho most commonlv available a Assay retentions are based on two assav
zones--{ to
wa,terborne preseryatives. Ammoniacal copper quat 0.5 in. and 0 to 2 0 in.
(ACO)is also approvedby AWPA as a waterborne pre- 5 Not recommendedwhere cleanlinessand freedom from
servativefor Southernpine,Westernhemlck, Hem-frr,
and Douglastir as lumber, timbers. plyw@d, and fence- odor are necessary.
DOStS.

USE PRECAUTTONS FOR PRESSURE-TREATED WOODI

INORGAN IC
c\ / zc ORGANIC PRESERVATIVES PRESERVATIVES

n99A'..
^_'il993GRoUND APP LI CATIO N S
ARSENICALS
I n-r
- - lN\ilirzir.lT
r A!rh,
'KDAT-\ rnrenorcomponents
I %49 are tn groundcontactand subject to decy or insectattack
D_,-__*_-=*eoAre (alsosee #5 below)
"q0.--.
-=-1
H -
*AECTREAT1NGCO" E

the treatedwood
ANnOi[,t,
u-sA
ln wh€h O.eseryalives mav a compo-
nent of food or animalfeed, such as structuresor container
A: Trademarkof inspectionagencycertrtiedby the Amer- for storingsilageor food
ican Lumber StandardCommittee (ALSC):contactthe
trng boards or countertops prepann9
SouthernPine Council(SPC)or ALSCfor a list of cenj,
tied inspectionagencies. s, patros,
free from residues
B:Applicable American Wmd Preseryers' Associatjon
(AWPA)standard beehrves that may come into contacl
C: Yearof treatment tn whrch treated wood €n come into direct or
D: Presemtive used for treatment indirectcontactwith drinkingwater for publicor animalcon-
sumption
E: Retentionlevel
F: Dry or KDAT{kilndriedafrer treatment),if apolicable 1 Basedon EPA-approved consurer informationsheets
G:Properexposureconditions , Must be paintedwith two c@ts ot recommendedsealer
H:Treatingcompanyand l@ation 3 Okayfor incidentalcontactsuch as bridgesor docks
TYPICAL QUALITY MARK FOR TREATED
LUMBER

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marytand

Southern Pine Council; Kenner. Loursrana
American Plywood Assciation; Tacoma, Washinoton

WOOD TREATMENT
316 TreotedWood
Fire-Retordont
UL CLASSIFICATION OR CONTROL NUMBER --
GENERAL
TREATER'S NAME (REOUIRED) -..
Building constructron materials are testod for four criteria
related to performance during a fire: frre resistance, flame PROPRIETARY
spread, {uel contributed, and smoke developed. Fire resis- BRAND NAME
(ALL FRT IS INDICATES FLAMF
tance is the material's ability to resist burning whrle retain-
ing its structural integrity- Flame spread measures the rate
PROPRIETARY) -- -- -.\ SPREAD TEST
ACCORDING TO
at which flames travel along the surface of a material. Fuel AMERICAN W@D ASTM E.&
contributed is a measure of how much combustible matter (STANDARD
ASS@ANON DURATION OF
a material furnishes to a fire. Smoke developed is a mea- STANDARD FG TEST rS 1O MrN.)
sure of the surface burning characteristics of a material. MOISTURE CONTENT (M C );
C'2O FOR LUMBER IS
19% M.c. C-27 FOR ,/
How lire spreads through w@d structures depends on the PLWMD IS 15% M.C. - REOUIRED TEST
size and arrangement of wood members and the details RESULTS IF NOT
that restrict or encourage air movement around them. NATIONAL EVALUATION
Larger cross sections take longer to burn. As wood burns, it REPORT CUSSIFICATION
NUMBER (NOT REOUIRED) _
develoos an outer laver of charcoal, which Insulates the ..-
INDICATES TBAT TEST
wood beneath and slows butning. This "char" Iayer pro- RESULTS ARE 25 OR LESS
ceeds through the burning wood at an average rate of 1rl,
in. per hour. Various design strategaes can be used to resist
fire damage to a wood structure and its spread to adjacent .KILN \ (SOME
DRIED AMER TREATMENT" DATE OF TREATMENT
areas. but the most imponant is to protect the wood mem- (SOMETIMES PRODUCT IS AIR DRIED) CODES REOUIRE THIS)
bersby means of coverings, coatings, or tre?tments- NOTE

FI RE.RETARDANT TREATMENT Wood shakesand shinglesare furtherclassifiedas classB

Modern lirer€tardant treatmenl (FRT) of wood conststs of
Dressure treatment with aqueous solulions of various
organic and inorganic chemicals, followed by kiln drying to
'l
reduce moisture content to 9yo or less for lumber under 2
in. thick and 1 57o or less for plywood. All proprietary FRTS
must conform to UL classilications. FRT wood is commonly
used in plywood sheathing, roof trusses, rafters, floor
joists, studs, staging, and shingles and shakes. Fire- retar-
dant chemical combinations include zinc chloride, ammo-
nium sulfates, borax or boric acid, and lesser amounts of
sodium dichromate. Ammonaum phosphates are no longer
used because they cause rapid disintegralion of wood.
Fire retardants work when lire-retardant chemicals react
with the tars and gases normally produced by burning
wood. The resultant carbon char acts as thermal insulation
(greater than on untreated wood), slowing the rate ot burn-
ing. Gases releas€d from the FRT wood are diluted with
carbon dioxide and water vapor, lessening the chance of
flashover, in which wood gases are ignited by high temper-
atures and then explode.
FRT STANDARDS ANO
CLASSIFICATIONS
Interior lire retardants meet Class I ratings, which are
required by code tor venical exit ways and special areas.
Class ll ratings ar€ required for horizontal exit ways, but this
rating is rarely reached with untreated w@d. FRT lumber
and plywood ar€ recognized substitutes lor noncombusti-
ble materials tor insurance purposes. Many codes accept
FRT wood products lor a variety of applications.
or C. Ratherthan stamp each piece.each bundle is tagged
with an identilicationmark.
TYPICAL FIRE-RETARDANT TREATED
ting use of untreatedwood in about l0% of the combined
wall and ceiling surlace area. Sizes and species currently
being lreat€d (flamespreadindex less than 25) includered
oak and Western red cedar up to 4/4 and y€llow poplarup
to 8/4. Colorand finishesare affected by FRTS.
F I N I S H I N GA N D F I N I S H E S
FRTlumberand plywoodcan be lightlysandedfor cosmetic
cleaningaftsr treatment. Paintingand stainingare possible
but not always sumessful, particularlytransparentfinishes.
Test finishesfor compatibilitybefore application.
Treated lumber may be end cut, but ripping and extensive
surfacingwill normallyvoid the UL label.To the extent pos-
sible, materialsshould be precut beforo treatment, olher-
wise a wood tr€atershould be consulted.Treatedplywood
can b€ cut in either directionwithout loss of tire orotection.
Intumescentcoatingsare sometimes used to reduceflam-
mability of wood surfacesin both opaqueand transparent
finishes. Under high heat, these coatingsexpand or foam,
creating an insulating etfect that reduces flame spread.
FLAME SPREAD INDEX
\ivOOD IDENTIFICATION MARK
Check local codes belore specifying these coatings
becausethey tend to be less durable,softer,and more
hygroscopicthan standardIinishes.
NOTES
1. These standardsapply to FRTwood: ASTM E-84,ASTM
D.2898, ASTM D-3201, ASTM E-108, AWPA C-20,
AWPA C-27, and ULI Building Materials Directory {cur
rent edition).For more information,contact the American
Wood Preservers'Ass@iation(AWPA).AmericanWood
Preservers' lnstitute, USDA Forest Service. Southern
Forest ProductsAssociation,Western W@d Preseryers
lnstitute,and AmericanForestand PaperAssociation.
2. FRTwood has increasedweight and decreasedstrength;
consult a structural engine€r and the wood treater for
actualdesign valuestor structuralapplications.
3. FRTwood faslenersmust be hotdipped, zinc{oated gal-
vanized stainlesssteel, silicon bronze, or copper; other
materialsdeteriorateupon contactwith FRTchemicals.
4. The smokeieveloped indexfor the productslistedin the
flame spread index remained below 450, the limiting
valueused in most buildingcodes.
FLAME SPREAD INDEX OF
FACTORY-FIN ISH ED PRODUCTS

Both the flame spread index and smoke-developed index

give numerical scales for a material's fire classification. The
flame spread index is the primary test for lire performance.
according to ASTM E€4, which mandates a flame spread
rating of 25 or less. In the Model Buiiding Codes. flame
spread ratings are classilied as 0-25 (Class I or A), 26-75
(Class ll or B). and 76-200 (Class lll or C).

A smokedeveloped index of 450 or less is permitted for

FRT wood. The UL FR-S listing applies only to treated prod-
ucts with a UL-723 {ASTM E€41 flame and smoke classifi-
cation not exceeding 25 in a 3Gmin. test. The classitication
applies to the species tested and does not p€rtain to the
structures in which the materials are installed.

Fire retardants come in interior and exterior types. Interior

fire retardants are used on wood trusses and studs: exterior
retardants protect exterior lumber, siding, r@f shakes and
shingles. and scaffold planking. The latter type oflers dura-
ble, nonleachable. long-term fire protection in outdoor or
moist (relative humidity oI 959o or greater) conditions.

Some codes count Class C or Class B FRT shingles and

shakes as noncombustible materials. Fo. w@d exposed to
the weather, specity exteriortype retardants that retain
their protective properlies under the standard rain test.

lnterior Type A wood is appropriate for interior and weather-

protected applications with less than 95% relative humidity.
ln rare instances, when relative humidity is less than 75%,
Type I can be specified. Interior Type A is used when a
wood with low hygroscopicity {the rate at Mich the chemi-
cal draws moisture from the air) is required.

FRT INTERIOR WOOD\n/ORK

' Unlessindicated,
thicknessof materialis 1 in. nominal. tion; NBs-National Bureau o{ Standards; UL-Unde.
Instead of solid lumber, it is often desrrable to build mem-
b€rs ot treated cores clad with untreated veneersl/2s in. , Sources:APA-American Plywood Association;CRA- wr,ters Laboratories.
thick or less. Most codes discount this narrow finishing in CaliforniaRedwoodAssociation;Cwc-Canadian Wood 3 Average of I 8 tests was 154 with three values over 200.
determining the flame spread index of the wood, permit- Council; FPL-USDA Forest Products Laboratory; o Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association tesl
HPMA-Hardwood Plwood Manufacturers Associa- records

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland

WOOD TREATMENT
 Wood Adhesives 317
.'B.S' SINGLE RIBBON
/ APPLIED ON TNTERMEDTATE
/ FRAMING MEMBERS

?J6" OIAMETER
RIBBON WIDTH,
RECOMMENDED.

ADHESIVE GUN

-ADHESIW
COVERAGE
DETERMINED
BY NOTCH SZE
NOTCHED TROWEL CTO SPREAD NOT E
ADHESIVE OVER I.ARGE AREAS)
Adhesive is applied to one surface only.

ADHESIVE APPLICATIONS RECOMMENDED ADHESIVE BEAD PATTERNs

ADHESIVES SUMMARY
CLASS TYPICAL USES
lnteflor use and
with melamineor other resins underdamp conditions;moderateto low rosistanceto temperatures interiorparticleboard;tlush doors;furnitu.ecore
above120"F;white or tan color stock
nrgn suengln unoer Dotnwet and dry con( aonesrve
ture and damp conditions:dark red in color and llakeboard
resrn Hrgh Strength under both wet and dry co veryresrstantto mors. adhesive s 3no assem-
phenol-resorcinol
resins ture and damp conditions: dark red color bly joints to withstand severe seryice conditrons
acerate hrghstrengthIn dry conditions;low r€sistanceto moisture
emulsrons elevatedtemperatures;ioints tend to yield under continuedstressj white lamrnates.archatectural
woodworking
or Yellowcolor
to polwrnyl acetateresrnemul.
acetateresin emulsions tural woodworking

an elastomer base In organrc Sol- Initral ioint strength develops immediately upon pressing, increases slowly
over a period of weeks; dry strength generally lower than thos€ ot conven-
rativelaminatesto substrates.Usefulfor low-
tionalw@dworking glues;water resistahe and resistanceto severecon- strengthmetal and some plastic bonding.
ditionsvariable:color varies
(elastomeric (jap trllrng: develops strength slowly over several weeks: water rests'tance Lumberand plywood to joists and studs;gypsum
constructionadhesives) elastomerbase,usuallyin organicsolvents and resistance lor severe conditions vary: color varies boa.d;stvrene and urethanefoams
syft
thetic resins {hot melts} adhesrves: mrnimal o€netration; moislure resistant; white to tan color
polymers,usuallyIn two pans, Used In combrnatron wrth other resrns lor bondrng
manencein wood joints not adequatelyestablished; metals, plastics, and materials other than wood:
fabrication of cold-molded wood panels
lamrnalng
(casein and hide)

'Most typesusedin the U.S.are alkaline{atalyzed.

The Data: Adapted from Table 1OGG-12,kchitetural W@d-
gereralstatements
referto thistype. wo* OualityStandards(6th ed.. version 1.1. 1994)

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION ADH ESIVES

Adhesives haw been used for bonding wood for centuries,
but until the 1930s they ${ere limited to only a few naturally
derived substancos-those based on animal or vegetable
proteins, gums, or resins. Stepp€d{p materials research
effons during World W8r ll spurred the development of
synthetic adhesives for bonding metals, concrete, glass,
rubber, plastics. and wood.
intended application.this base is made of natural rubber
(isoprene)or synthetic rubbers srch as neopren€, buM,
polyurethane, polysulfide, nitrile. styrene-butadiene,or
buladiensacrylonitrile.Additivesincludetackifiers,flow and
extrusionmodi{iers.curingagents.antioxidants,and fillers.
Together.the base and th€ additivesare dispersed(or dis-
solved)in a liquid,typicallyan organicsolventor water.
Construction adhesives are defined as elastomer-based
extrudable mastics. which reans thal the main adhBsive
component is elastic and will continue to maintain some of
ils flexibility indefinitely. Mastics are a type of adhesive
with high viscosity, or resistance to flow. A construction
adhesive is a substance capable of holding materials
together by surface attachment.

Many of these synthetic adhesives are used to manufac-
ture products such as ph/w@d, oriente+strand board
(OSB), and laminated timbers. They can also be used during
construction to attach plywood subfloors to floor loists,
adhere ceramac tiles to fl@rs or walls. attach drywall. and
the like. In addition to their structural use, adhesives also
can be used to eliminate squeaks in floors and tor some
mechanical fastening.
Adhesives are composed of a base component, dispersion
medium, and various additives that impart specific propel
ties. The elasloreric base of a construction-tvoe adhesive
accounts for 30 to 507o of its weight. Depending on its
Cu(ently, most adhesivesuse organicsolv€nts,but water-
basedadhesivesare gainingin popularitybecausethey do
not emit harmful vapors,are easy to clean up, and can be
discardedas regulartrash.Duringthe specificationprocess,
disposalof the containersfrom organicsolvents must be
considered. Many jurisdictionsare enactingcleanair stat-
utesin whichorganicsolventsaretargetedas airpollutants.
ln addition,organic solvents can have adverse aflects on
the workers who apply them as well 6 tuture building
occuoants.One drawbackto most water$ased adhesives
is that they tend only to resist water, while the solvent-
basedadhesivesare waterproof.
Adhesives used for building have been formulated to toler-
ate many of the often adverse conditions that exist at mosl
Job sites, such as extreme temperatures and temperature
tluctuations. They are excellent for filling gaps. and thus
work on both smooth and rough surfaces. Because they
form bond lines up to'/. in. thick, they can bridge gaps
between illfitting pieces. The degree of adhesion depends
on the surtace conditions of the materials; ice, dirt, grease,
or other contaminants will all have a negative ellect.
Many of the characteristics of modern adhesives are
described an the table. Note that most adhere to wood, but
performance depends on careful consideration of physical
and chemical compalibility of glue and wood, processing
requirements. mechanical properties, and durability under
des,gn conditions.

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA;Oak LeatStudio:Crownsville.

Marvland

WOOD AND PLASTIC

FASTENINGS
 318 Nqils
GENERAL NOTES ROUGH CONSTRUCTION
1. Nails are made of many materials for diverse uses When NAME SHAPE MATERIAL FINISH
selecting nails, follow the recommendation of the manu-
facturer of the material to be fastened, as well as build- COMMON Steel or
Smooth
Ing codes when applicable. alumrnum
2. Select nails so as to avoid galvanrc action between the Steel,hardened
nail and the nailed material.
3. Select nail head size according to the strength and area
ANNULAR
or@ steel, copper,
brass,bronze,
siliconbronze, Bright,
of the material to be held. hardened
nickelsilver,
4. In wood framing the correct size and number of nails
must be used at any given point to withstand stress. Pre
HELICAL ot@ aluminum,monel,
or stainlesssteel
cedures for €lculating nailed conoections can be lound
in National Design Specifications for Wood Construction
(Washington: National Forest Products Association C O M M O NC U TS T R I K E n
u -- Steel or iron Bright or zinc{oated
{American Forest and Paper Associationl).
5. Base nail selection on the type(s) of wood or other mate- Steel Bright or zinc{oated
rials to be assembled, joined, or connected.
DOUBLE-HEADED
6. Nails with serrated or helically threaded shanks have
increased holding power. Such nails are ditficult, if not Aluminum Bright
jmpossible, to remove without destroying the surround-
Ing matenat.
SOUARE
7- Where nails are exposed to moisture or weather, for I n D
0 fronif_TTTTm.0]TToonaTIir Smooth.bright,
example, in exterior stucco lath, use nonferrous (alumi, Steel
num or zinc{oated} nails. zrnc{oateo
R O U N DW I R E
L Choose nails for automatic nailing equipment specificallv
tor the equipment used. See ANSI "Safety Require-
ments lor Power Actuated Faslening Systems" and
OSHA regulations.
ANNULAR
C Aluminum Bright or hard

ROOFING
NAM SHAPE MATERIAL FINISH

SIDING
& SHINGLE
or|- copper,or
aluminum Smooth.
bright, zjnc- or

c rF:.
(BARBED) Steel or cementroated
ROOFING
aluminum

ROOFING

NONLEAKING
o ltr* Steel

ROOFING
o$-
SHINGLN
E AIL Steel or cut iron
I ft-r- Plain or zincroated

CUTSLATING Copper.munu
(NONFERROUS)
o fl: metal, or zrnc
GUTTERSPIKE
(ROUND) o[ o Steel Bright or zanc{oated

GUTTERSPIKE /^\ ]l
(ANNULAR) Copper Bright
v/ \l

FINISH WORK
NAM E MATERIAL FINISH

WALLBOARD

F I N EN A I L
o Steel or
alumanum
blued, or cement
coated

O|l--. Bright
Steel

COMMON NAIL SIZES

LATH
Or--. Elued or
cement{oated

LATH Smooth, bright, blued,

@ Steel or
alumlnum
or cement{oated

CASINGOR BRAD Bright or

o cement{oated

INISHING Steel Smooth

MISCELLANEOUS
NAM E SHAPE M A T E R IA L FINISH

CEMENT thnn
-
(f Smooth, bright, or
t \_-/ oil-quenched

CEMENT
(FLUTED
HELICAL) Hardened

OFFSET
(LATH)
I Steel

HOOKED
{LATH) 0 Bright,btued,or
zinc{oated

TAPLE
G
Charles F. D. Egbert, AIA; Architect; Washington, D.C

WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
 StructurqlWood Fqsteners 319
WOOD STUD .
METAL HOLD-
DOWN STPAP
L-a'- 1A" - 24'

2X PRESSURE
TREATED WOOD
SILL PLATE -\,

NOTE: For tying unnotched 2x rafters to top wall plates; for

dation wall
uDlitt and lateral load resislance.
NOTE: Provides tension for wood-to-wood or wood-to- METAL HOLD.DOWN/UPLIFT STRAP
TWO.SIDED RAFTEFT TIE masonryconnectionsfor wood trusses and joists.
TRUSS ANCHORS UG OR ]HROUGH '--;;';;^;-'
BOLTq
NOTCHED
d.;:;: BASE-\
BOLT *- "t i^ *\ \/
CONNEfrION
(onoNAL rcST

(aPPROX.)

TOP
PUTES

NOTE:Ties one or two top platesto notchedrafterstor ten- AND

il\g
,o=,)fen;;s-v*/
E}ASE COLUMN E}ASE
sion cord snnections. POSTCAP/BASE:For variedpost cap or base connectaons.
ONE-SIDED RAFTER TIES COLUMN BASE:Attachesw@d post to concrete embed-
NOTCHED NOTE:Providestloor-tefl@r tension connection;for nailed ment to resist high uplift lGds.
RA-ER or bolted connections.
COLUMN CAPS AND BASES
FLOOR TIE ANCHOR
W@D STUD OR POST
UG BOLT
OR
TOP THROUGH
|uTES BOLT

WASHER SILL
(offroNAL) fuE

HRADED ROO
IN-LINE SruD THROUGH FLG
SRUflRE OR TOP FI,ANGE FACE-MOUNT
NOTE: Ties notched rafter to stud on same plane as rafter ANCHOR BOLT METAI
for tension load connection. INTO FOUNMTION HOLD.DO\m NOTE: Joist connector (in wide variety of sizes).
OR UFLIff
RAFTER-TO-STUD TIE JOIST HANGERS
NorE:rransfers tcds o"**"
tension o"illl?T,roo
poststo foundation.
METAL HOLD-DOWN/IJPLIFT ANCHOR
-WOOD STUD
ALTERNATE
INSTALUTION @NCREE
OF ANCHOR OR CMU
FOUNDATION
METI SII IuE
ANCHOR- -

stud to bottompratefor tensionroad TREA

(APPROX.) FRAMING ANCHOFT BACK.UP CLIP
:ffg{? FRAMING ANCHOR: For varied wood-tewood two wav
- connections; optional bendable extensions allow threeway
1'/1' 6"
- 16' NOTE:Anchors sill olate to concrete or CMU foundation connections.
Y* ]<<7' wall and/orstuds. BACK-UP CLIP: To provide back{p support for gypsum

Hr \-*-|,*-
,,
SILL PLATE ANCHORS/SIDE board in lieu of wood framing; can save wood material.

f'l| |.fl INSTALI.-ATION

2X PRESSURE-
11h' - 21h'

{
1/2'-21h.
| 11/4'

'#'-*r( '";_1',l1[[
METAL
REAED {-F*
f:ll'-.-*,.S
- ' i 6-: .|'
o"...,." SII PGTE
ALTERNATE
INSTAI.LANON
NCHOR
wooD
PUTE
sr[ Itrd
OF ANCHOR -
ff .l1 il .i
f.:tlb
n\Y
\\
*e
l . . li 1 ; l ' , . ', , . ' Z.CLIP METAL
ANGLE
ROOF
CLIP
TRTJSS

-_tJ I
^__
STRAP -1- ^lil1."..,..
^__.
L-STRAP \N
coNcRETE
OR CMU
FOUNDATION
:'
Z-CLIP Secures 2x blockrng between joists and/or trusses.
METAL ANGLE: Provides varied wood-tqw@d or wood-tq
STRAP: For tying varied tension load connections, e.9., concrete anchorage.
NOTE:Anchors sill Olateto concrete CMU foundation
joists at ridge, wall-tcfloor connections, etc. wail. ROOF TRUSS CLIP: Provid€s alignment control belween
T- AND L-STRAPS: For varied vertical to horizontal SILL PT-.ATE ANCHORS/CENTERLINE roof truss and nonbearing walls; slot permits loadinduced
INSTALT.ATION truss movemenr-

TIES ANCHORS VARIOUS CLIPS AND ANCHORS

NOTES
1. For utmosl rigidity, strength, and service, each type of
lastener requires ioint designs adapted to wood strength
along and across the grain and to dimensional changes
3. Most fasteners used lo ioin wood framing or to attach
that mav @cur with variations in moisture content.
2. For lorces such as wind uplift and lateral loads (wind and
eanhquake), the toundation, flootrtqfloor, and roof con-
nections are the main areas of concern, although, in vary-
ing degrees, all connections taken together will resist
these forcas. ln some joints, the fastener or connector is
the only resistor to the applied load.
retal connectors to traming are made of steel, with a
hotdipped galvanized coating the most typical linish
used. Stainless steel, or finishes such as a corrosion-
resistant primer or a copolymer coating. can also be
used. In the oresence of moisture, metals used for nails
and other fasteners may corrode when in contact with
material treated with cenain preseruatives. Fasteners
made of hotdipped galvanized steel. copper, silicon
bronze, and 304 and 316 stainless steel have performed
well in wood treated with ammonaacal cooper arsenate
(ACA) and chromated copp€r arsenate (CCA), the most
common preseryatives lor wood. Of course, provision
should always be made to avoid galvanic action between
dissimilar metals.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland

FASTENINGS
WOOD AND PLASTIC
320 Shieldsond Anchors

MACHINE BOLT ANCHORS AND SHIELDS (IN.)

t" - s rrzre-

TO INSERT
---f i scREw-
f
tl AD
ltl

m-l-I
kh-r
g1
H-l_, I
NHI
dJ'l
N=l
ntt | | o.o
t4i,- 1/d
l-Nt I I DIA. OF BOLT
gr7 xl -l#
ffi
SELF-DRILLING
SION ANCHOR
EXPAN-
lr-rL- (SNAP.OFF TYPE)
rrr'- NOTE
SINGLE S IN G L E M U LTI PLE MULTIPLE l. Refer to manufactu.ers for size varia
EXPANDING EXPANDING
so ANCHOR
(cAULKtNGI
ANCHOR
(NoNcAULKING
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
DOUBLE
ACTING
tions within the limits shown, and tor
different types of bolts.
IPLAIN STYLE) (THREADEO STYLEI SHIELD
F
J 2. The anchor i5 made of caE hardened
a
steel and drawn carburazing steel_

HOLLOW WALL ANCHORS

E=T_T
tll
Bfl I
1 \/ z
11ES\
\EEI/
II
2t/a llEHl,l
/FHI
l"-/
I|
31/z
z
F1 I
4 1 /a
'Use of three o
units in th* diameiersis rmommended.
c
NOTE o
o
l. Extensronsrse lor dep sning. z
3. Many are threaded for use wtth the head of the rcrew
2. Expansion$ietds and anchorsstrown are repre- outsade, sme with the head inside and $me types re
stative of many typ6, eme ot which mav b€ quire setting tools to install.
usd in singleo. mulriple units. 4. In light construction plastic expansion shields are
used freauentlv.

SHIELDS FOR LAG BOLTS AND WOOD SCREWS

0N.) ONE PIECE ANCHORS (IN.)

tj-f
i'!-+ l-E FJl
"ltlI
)lE I

f,Fl 'l tEtI

UEI

uMg ,tt +I
N
-
3 o
u
z
tr'
a
J
J il E|
o
!
N.
o
]
u
t
o
B
Z-\
tl
H

LEAD SHIELO
E
o
z
2
t E
F|
-w-.
U c FOR LAG
t o J
LAG BOLT EXPANSION u
(J o BOLT OR
N o
o SHIELO wooD scREw
o
o o
o
o
u
o
E
J r"?,5 ie
OR
STUO
ANCFIOR ikt"?"t"
J 3 o o MIN, MIN. MIN.
SHORT LONG
U HOLE HOLE HOLE
U
r38 3/a-11/z z q DEPTH DEPTH DEPTH HEAD
o L o L o L D STYLE
d 164 3/a -11
/z
l0 .190 Acorn
| - 1 1 /z 13/a 31/a 1 3/ e lx/a -31 /a 13/a t/z-11/s nut
t2 .z to |-l1lz
Hex
l4 ,z5u I 1t/z 1-11/z JZL 1r/a nut
16 ,zo6 lt/z 211a-5 21/.6 1 s/a 1 ) l s- 3
18 .294 3/e
11/z .50( 23/a -7 21le 23/a -51 /a 21!1 -4 1 1/ e
-t16
20 .320 1 1 /a 13/a 13/a
.624 31/z -8t /: 33/a-7 23/e 21/a-6
24 Jtz 5/a
1 3 /a 21/z 13/a lt /a -1O 3 1 /a 41/a -81/t 2t/e 2t/z-8 21/a -51 /z
.500 a .875 b-tu 33/a
.ozt z 3t /z I r.00 o 4 1 /z
750 3t/z 25 9- 5t/z
Sleve anchorsavailablein acorn nut, hex nut, flat head,round head, phillips
round head,and tie wire headstvles.

WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
 Screwsond Bolts 32r
M A C H I N EE S
SCCRREEW
W ANO 5 TOVE (lNS.l SCREW ANO BOLT LENGTHS {INS.I
3 CAP SCREWS BOLTS

U U.
6 :,;
o U =, BUTTON FLAT HEXAGON FILLISTER MACHINE CARRIAGE

u = HEAO H EAD H EAO H EAO BO LT SOLT LAG BOLT

:jIJ V, Vz-2'/. fz-3'/z %-3 Vz-8 %-8 | -o
Y1 a1 ROUNO FLAT FILLISTER OVAL OVEN
Vz-23/, Vz-3Vz 'A-33/, Yz-8 v,-8 l-10
oo >o HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD HE A O
'/er/a % %-3 ,/t-4 1/,-3Yz 3h-12
Var/e
t/r 3h-3 3h-4 3/,-3Y,
3 YrYa Ya)/e
Va-1Yz 40 N.C. /e-lfz Vz 3/,-4 xh-4,h 3h-4 3A-24 |-20 | -12
Ye-1Yz 36 C. Ve-1Vt Va-3/,
'/16
l-4 1-4y, | -30 l-20
7A 1-4 t-5 1Ve-4Vz |-30 1-20 | 72- tO

6 '/6-
Z '/a-1 v, 1'/z-4'/z |-30 r -20 11/z-16
,/e
'/32 6 t/,a-3 3/'a-2 2-6 13/,-5 1Vz-30 2- to

-/16
10 '/r6-O
%o-3 2-5 1Yz-30
12 v,-3 y4-3 Lengthintervals= % in. increments up to 1 in., % in. L e n g t h i n t e r v a l s = % i n . LengthinteF
'/1
incrementstrom 1t/t io. to 4 in., \/, in. incrementslrom 4t/z in
Incremenls increments up to 6 in., % vals = % in.
6- O 416-J Ye-6 to 6 in. in. increments from 6% in Inctemenlsup
%-6 3/a-3 y4-6 to l2 in., I in. increments t o 8 i n . , 1 i n .
'l
'/2-) over 2 in. incrementsov

v, v7
Lengthintervals= %Gin. increments up to % in.. % in. increments
from % io. to 1% in., % in. incrementshon l'/z in. to 3 in.. % in.
incrementsfrom 3% in. to 6 in.
NOTE:N.C. = Cou.sethread ROUNO FLAT FILLISTER TRUSS HEX \^/ASHER

HEAO T

(^\ n\ I+= fi=

I
,/-\
(r(|)\ ,N\ +ets ++

@rc))r
/\-\
\ \w \v/ l+- l+i:i
V YU \/ \-/
.lR.ln
l€19

r\
couNrERsu
SUNK
,:?:f".,

lr\ ln\
ffiA -t\<z\ l{()tt{()l
__Jt+]ir,tIKllI

w\l7 @)) @ @ +\7 r\\7

_l-+ +_-9_+
CASTELLATE D
,vY
\,/
-m TOOTH

/\
LOCK
( INTERNAL )
( EXTERNAL }

The bolt's clamping force

ilE88bl FJ5.Ri'-

t-
#ts
+ E) -,t-
I
=>
=:
+--+
l-
+-+r:
| -=

Selt-lockingnuts havea pin

rd) causes protrusrons on the
washer to llalten partially,
l=rl
l-1a
it u. +
=
-a
v
that acts as a rachet, slid-

,ln n ,I
closing the gap belween the
ing down the thread as the washe. and the bolt head.
bolt is tightened,to prevenl
l@sening lfom shock and
vibration.
V7 Measurement of the gap indi-
cates whether the bolt has
been tightened adequately. |t ll R []
WASHERS |t
|t
tl
t l llltl

ffil
l\\
+Y/ Ir_iJJ / l

a
Highiension.stainlesssteel
Fiberglass nuts and bolts
are noncorrosive and non-
conductive. Bolts ate
helicalinsertsare held in
place by spring-likepres-
EgiisB 33,!f' E8SB"
available in 3/sin.. '/2 in., s/s
sure, and they are used to
in., 3/. in., and 1 in. slan-
salvagedamagedth.eads.
They also eliminatethread +5
+----9Jq1-
+-+e_
F % , + _#: _ + %-
dard diameters.
failuredue to stresscondi- ltt-:ttt-

FIBERGLASS NUTS AND BOLTS trons. I tt +

I r 'l= | ;'l =
HELICAL INSERTS tl +-f, | | fri I t1-t-l
ll t4 ltattu
,lt iIl l n ,l I n,l I R
I tl tt |tr ll
NOTES
l. Eent bolts are specialty items made titl | |t tl
Interle.encebody bollsaredriv-
en into reamedor drilledholes
to order.
2 . D = b o l t d i a m e t e r ;C = i n s i d e o p e n . tttl
if- )
Il
a \--l
ll]=Nl
lo createa joint in lull bearing. ing width; T = thread length; L =
aEND sPEcraL
inside length of bolt; A = inside
deprh. :':::1?: 8PHe".

Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C

WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
 322 Rivefs,Screws,ond MiscelloneousFosteners

WITH STUB ENOS

r^)
'(/
/A
\u/
FIR
tu I
/A
\"/
tl V\/
H e aa TOGGLE ( IN INCHES)

5/t
1," t,
TURNEIUCKLES ( tN INeHES) DECIMAL EOUIV r38 164 r90 .250 13 .500
t/,
r.438 1.875 1.875 2.750 2.875 4.625
DI AMETER t/z ,/e
B .500 500 688 ,6/5 l.txx) 1.250
OECI. EQUIV .250 ttl 375 .500 625 .750 't.00
875 2-4 2 t/t
WING 2-6 2'/z - -6 J_D
4 4 '/z 6" 6" o
1 . 2 5 0 2.000 2.000 2.250 2.150 2.150
9" 9"
B .500 500 .688 415 .875
12" 12" 12" 12 E 2-4 2'/z
,/t 3-6
1,
t/, '/" ,2 1 1/tz 1 '/t 1 2t/tz 1 1/e
2.000 2.000 2.250 2.750 2.750
B 500 .625 .688
OIAreT€RS ffR f' ryALA4E, NOT 4WAYS
RIVITEO TUMBLE 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6
STOCKEO

1
f?, .41.{h rrn-, -dh:,t F1fi> 6fr1 6D
-+H fillt?
ilfi
-lFW tllFLillliUj qlil'ttdY
Ttr'EAC)EO
6 PULL MANOREL ORIVE FIN CHTMICALLY EXPANOTO
TS FoR UgE IN A JoINT

m
THAT Is ACCEGSIBLE FRoM oNLY oNE SIoE

/-1r\
H? @ IP tr \N\\\'N",
LJ TJ \7 [J r_, ffu*
| |
ov{HeAo

PAry
\l_-
ETANOARO RIVETS AVAILABLE wrrH soLTo,TUBULAR aNo GpLrr sHNKs oF 6TEEL, BRAss, copr'ER, sLorrEo
ALWINUM,MONEL METAL AND sTAINLESS STEELi IN OIAMETER€ OF I/e.. To 7/16'' ANo LENGTHS
OF 3/16" TO 4lN.

Etssss\rus-e vU
/^\
r-\smsw
"x
ffiT METALGIMLET POTNT
Self-drilling,astenefs: used to attach metal to metal,
Sheet metal gimlet point: hardened, self-tapping.
wood, and concrete.Consult manufaclurerfor sizesand
Used in 28 gauge to 6 g€uge sheet metal; alumi-
drillingcapabiiities.
num, plaslic, slate, etc. Usual head tvoes.

o
rTr
o rA\
\/
6HET METAL BLUNT POINT
Sheet metal bluot point: hardened, selttapping.
Used in 28 to 1 8 gauge sheet metal. Made in sizes
v tl
LJ
w F.1
4 ro 14 ln usual head tvoes. FREARSON

a =

= =
9.-

a THruM CUTTING. CUTTING 6LOT

Thread cuttiog, cutting slot: hardened. Used in
BeuaRe HE . .,LorrEo EBI*=t m e t a l s u p t o r . i n . t h i c k i n s i z e s4 i n . t o 5 r o i n . i n
Set Screws: headless with socket or slotled toD; made in usual head tvoes.
s i z e s4 h . t o r 2 i o . , a n d I n l e n g l h s 1 / I n . t o 5 i n . S q u a r e
headsizesr. In. tO 1 in., and lengthsrr h. to 5 rn.

SHEET METALA DRIVE

SET SCREWS THREADING SCRE\^/S TYPES

TimolhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C

WOOD AND PLASTIC

FASTENINGS
 Western
or PlqtformFroming 323

RAFTER HIP RAFTER

HEAOER

HIP JACK RAFTER

ROOF+
SHEATHING TAIL RAFTER

OOUBLE TRIMMER RAFTER

VALLEY NAILER
OORMER RIOGE
HEAOER

DORMER RAFTER

FASCIA

OOUALE CAP PLATE

HEAOER TWO 2X4'S

wooo oR
STTEL STUO
BRACING
SHORT HEAOER

PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING

2)<4 JOIST
SOLE
PLATE

HEAOER

OOUBLE PLATE
JOIST TWO 2 X 4'S
LEDGER
CARRIAGE

OOUBLE DOUBLE HEAOER

HEADER
YWOOD
SUBFLOORING
2X4
SILL JOIST
PLATE
FIRESTOP
SILL
STEEL BEAM
HEAOER
t/2" STEEL OR
t- rcOO BRACING
ANCHOR BOLT
a'-o" MAx- o.c. oR
MIN. TWO PTR SILL

FOUNDATION
CONC RETE OR MASONRY

YWOOD SHEATHING AT
CORNER BRACES FRAME,
OTHER SHEATHING MAY
AE NON-STRUCTURAL

PLATFORM FRAMING

NOTES
WESTERN OR PLATFORM FRAMING BRACING EXTERIOR WALLS
STUO WALL Eefore any of the superstructure is erected, the first lloor Because floor lraming and wall frames do not interlock.
SOLE PLATE subflooring is put down making a platform on which the adequale sheathing must acl as bracing and provide the
walls and panhions can be assembled and tilted into place. necessary late.al resistance. Where required lor additional
The process is r€peated lor each story of the building. This stiffness or bracing, 1 x 4's may be let into outer face of
HEAOER traming system is used trequently . studs at 45o angle secu.ed at top, bottom, and lo studs.
JOIST
FIRESTOPPING BRIOGING FOR FLOOR JOISTS
TOP PLATE

SOLE PLATE All concealed spaces in framing, with the exception of May be omitted when tlooring is oailed adequately to joisl;
areas around llues and chimneys, are to be lined with 2 however, where nominal depth-to-thickness tatio ol ioists
SUBFLOORING in, blocking arranged to prevenl drafts between spaces. exceeds 6, bridging would be installed at 8 lt.0 in. ioter
HEAOER vals. Building codes may allow omission of btidging under
EXTERIOR WALL FRAMING certain conditions,
FLOOR JOIST
One story buildings: 2 x 4's, 16 in. or 24 in. o.c.;
SILL PLATE
2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c. Steel bridging is available.Some typesdo not.equire nails.
r,!" o aNcHoR BoLT Two and three stories: 2 x 4's, l6 in. o.c.;
FOUNOATION WALL 2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c.

Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 324 TreotedWood Foundotions
FBSHING SHEATHING PLWOOD FLOOR JOIST

SEAGNT
2X FIELD APPLIED TOP PLATE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED TOP PLATE
- PRESSURE-REATED
PLWOOD COVER PDE

POLYETHYLENE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED WAER DreRTER
STUD WALL
FINISH GRADE
,-.---- POLYffHYLENE SLOPE !4' PER
VArcR BARRIER F@T MIN. 6'
AAN INSUGNON
WITH VArcR BARRIER SOD AND
TOPSOIL AT GRADE

GYPSUM WALLBOARD =_- -

LOW.POROSIry PLWOOD
BACKFILL MATERIAL POLYETHYLENE
MID.WALL PRESSURE.TREATED (12' MIN. DEPTH)
BL@KING AT SHEATHING JOINTS
TREATED
STUD WALL
/- TREATED
PRESSURT.TREAEO .--
RYWO|C)D
BOfrOM tuTE JOIM FILLED TREATED
.---._
WITH SEAUNT FOOTING PGTE
',. TRATED PLWOOD STRIP GRAVEL OR
CRUSHID
- RESSURE-TREATED STONE FOOTING
COMPRESSIBLE FILLER SHATHING PL.fr@A
-BELOW
HIGH-rcROSIW FROST LINE
PRESSURE.REATED BACKFILL MAERIAL
FOOTING PUTE
CRAWL SPACE WALL
CONCRETE TREATED WALL STUD

rcLY- TREATED PLWOOD

ETHYLENE

- MrN. 4' SO|L

- rcLYETHYLENE MOISTURE E}ARRIER COWR TO
PREVENT
EROSION OR
MECHANICAL
GRANUUR DRAINAGE UYER, 5' MIN. DEPTH DISTURBANCE
(ACTS AS GRANUUR FOOTING UNDER FOC)NNG PUTE)
GRAVEL F@TING
OR
CRUSHED - ,.,-.---BELOW
FROST LINE
1. Geotextilematerialmay be used under aod arounddrain- STONE
filldepth.ln general,42in. back{illrequircs2x4at12in.
age layersand backfillit soil conditionswarrant. '16
o.c.,il in. requires2 x 6 at in.o.c.,and84 in.,equires MINIMUM SOIL COVER ON SHALLOW
2. Stud size and spacingvary with materialgrade and back- 2 x 6 at 12 in. o.c. FOOTINGS

TYPICAL BASEMENT l,vALL

2X W@D BUILT.UP BLGTNG AT 24' OR 4A. (SEE

PERIMETER BEAM TEN FOR NAILING
GLUED AND BOLTED SCHEDULE) '
FASEN STUDS TO
TOP IuTE BEAM

FLMR TREATED TOP

FRAMING PUTE

(2) 1b' DtA.

CARRIAGE KNEE WALL
AOLTS AT
6' O.C.
TREATED BONOM

TOP PUTE

FASEN
For less than 48 in. backfill,use standardlraming methods
STUDS TO TOP 'lod BASEMENT
PUTE BEAM WTH JOIST and fasten staiMell headerto too olate with three toe- WALL WITH EXTERIOR
HANGER naals. KNEE WALI-

BUILT.UP PERIMETER BEAM AT STAIRS STAIR OPENING AT PERIMETER WALL

INTRODUCTION N OTES 4. Avoid skin contact and prolonged or frequent inhalation

The constructionof treated w@d foundationsis similar to
the constructionof standardwood light-framewalls except
for two tactors:(1)the wood used is pressuretrebted with
wood preseruatives,and {2) the extra loading and stress
requirementscaused by below{rade conditions must be
accommodatedin the designand detailingof the tasteners,
connections,blocking.wall corners,and the like.
As with standardmasonryor concreteloundationsystems,
2.Trcated wood foundations are not appropriate for all
treated wood foundationsrequire a good drainagesystem
anorder to ruintain dry basementsand crawl spaces.How-
ever. the drainagesystem typicaliyused with treated wood
foundationsis different trom that used with masonry or
concrete systems. The components of a drainag€system
suitablefor use with a treatedwood loundationare
1. A highly porous backfill material. which directs water
down to a granulardrainagelayer.
3. Lumber and plywood used in treated wood toundations
2. A porousgranulardrainagelayer under the entire founda,
tion and flmr system to collect and dischargewater.
3. Positivedischargeof water by means of a sump system
designedfor th€ soil type. This drainagesystem, devel
oped tor tr€ated w@d foundations,takes the place of
the typicalporousbacktillover a perimeterdraintile.
1 . Characteristics of a treated wood foundation svstem:
a. All framing is standard 2x construction.
b. Can be erected in any weather and when sit€ access
for concrete or masonry is a Droblem.
c. Deep wall cavities allow use ot high R-value insulation
without loss of interior space.
d. Wiring and finishing are easily achieved.
sites. Selection of the proper foundation system for a
project depends on site conditions, including soil types.
drainage conditions. ground water, and other facto.s.
Wet sites In low areas, especially areas with coarse-
grained soil, should be avoided i{ a full basement is
desired, although a crawl space-type foundation can be
used in these cases. Consult a soils engineer to deter-
mine the viability of any loundation system.
must be grade-stamped for foundation use and are typi-
cally pressure tr€ated with chromated copper arsenate.
Treated wood oroducts used in {oundation @nst.uction
are required to contatn more preseryative than treated
w@d used in applications such as fencing and decking.
Codes generally call for hot-dipped galvaniz€d fasteners
above grade and stainless steel lasteners below grad€.
of sawdust when handling or rcrking with any pressure
treated wood product.
5. Consult applicable building codes and the American For,
est & Paper Association's "Permanent Wood Foundation
Syste|]FDesign, Fabrication, Installation Manual" for
requarements and design guidelines. In the early stages
of a project. consult with the building code ofticials for
the area or jurisdiction to assess their lamiliarity with and
willingness to approve this type of system.
6. The vertical and horizontal edge-to€dge ioints ot all ply-
wood panels used in these systems should be sealed
with a suitable sealant. Consult the American Plywood
Association Source List "Caulks and Adhesives for Petr
manent W@d Foundation System, Form H405" for a list
oi high-perf ormance caulking compounds.
7. Correct materials and details of construction are very
amportant tor treated wood foundations. lf the contractor
to be used for the installation is unfamiliar with this foun-
dation system, the design should include the use of pre-
fabricated foundation panels. Most problems with
treated wood foundations can be traced to imorooer
installation bv inex@rienced workers-
8. Since this tyF€ ot toundation system depends especially
on the first floor deck to absorb and distribute any backfill
loads, backfilling cannot occur until the first floor deck is
complete.

RichardJ, Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte.

Maryland
AmericanForest& PaperAssociation; Washington,DC

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 TreotedWoodFoundolions 325
PRESSURE.TREATED RESSURE TREATED W6D , PRISSURE-TREATED FLMR SHEATHING PLWOOD
FOUNDATION WALL FOUNDATION SIDE WALL 11 /.' GAP BTMEEN PLW@D AND STUDS)
STUD -'.--- PRESSURE TREATED W@D
PRESSURE-TRATED SPACED FOUNDATION END WALL
PRESSURE.TREATED FLOOR JOISTS UNDER
FOUNDATION WALL BEARING PRESSURE.TREATED
SBEATHING
BEARING WALL CONTINUOUS HEADER
PRESSURE TREATED WITH JOISTS BUfrING
BONOM PLATE STUDS ALIGN WITH HEAOER AND END NAILED
FL@R rcISTS
PRESSURE BEARING
MEATED PRESSURE
FOOTING TRAED FOR BACKFILL
wooD HEIGHTS 5' O'
SLEEERS OR LESS, NAIL
JOISTS TO
WALL STUD STUDS: 5 €"
OR MORE.
SEALANT THE JOIST IS
CAULKED €INT DOUBLED AND
NAILED TO
=- SHEATHING STUDS
\'a'GAe BEruEEN
NOTES ENDS OF SLEEPERS
OR FOONNG PUTES
1. At an outsidecorner,soilpressures
tendto forcethe wall AND WALL PUTE
sectionstogether,makingreinforcementunnecessary. JOISTS BUfrED END TO END
WITH SOLID BL€KING TIGHTLY
2. Threestudsshouldbe usedat the cornerto supponinte- AND FLOOR JOISTS
FINED TO PREVEM JOIST TWISTING
rior finishes. GRANUUR
DRANAGE UYER d PRtrSSURL REATED FOOTING PG]E
OUTSIDE CORNER DETAILS
PRESSURE.TREATED FLOOR JOISTS

NOTES
l.Joists to be butted end to end over pressure-treated 2. Floor stiffness will be increased by blocking between
wmo sl€pers. every ioast above each sleeper.

WOOD SLEEPER FLOOR SYSTEM

PRESSURE-REATED
4WOOD FLMR SHAfrING

PRESSURE.RAED BL@KING
BL€K|M-
PRESSURE.MAED
BLMKING IN LINE
WTH STUDS
MESSURE.TREAED
FOUNDANON
WALL SruOS

BOfiOM |uTE- PRESSURE

RAED
PRESSURE-RATED MUALED
FOONNG .,OISTS
! 3' NATLS
aT i2'O.c. aT 6' O.C fu@R JOISTS
DOUBLE BEARING BARING WTL STUDS
DETAIL 1 WTLTOP |uTE

tuwooD BEARING WU BOfrOM PUTE PRESSURE.TRAED FOOTING fuE

SHATHING
UPS SruD
AND IS SUSPENDED r/vOOD FLOOR
NAILED TO
SruD FACE
FLMR JOIST PLruOOD SUBFL@R NAILED GEATED
(oR BLOCKTNG SECURELY TO BLOCKING
AT END WALL (AND JOISTS) WITH FOUR 2"
IN LINE WM NAfLS MlN. ----+__/.
SruDS) ASSEMBLY
PRESSURE NALS
GALVANZED TREATED
RIM
JOIST Mil{ FRAMING
PUTE JOINS FLOOR
FIELD- JOIST TO TOP P4TE
APPLIED FOR DEEF
TOP
3I'' NAILS PUE
aT 6' O.C.
RESSURE-
TOP UE
NAILS JOIN
T@ fuE
TO TOP'
PUTE

SAUNT AT
2X STUD -
COMINUOUS
SFqNT AT
MIOPOIM OF
8' ANCHOR NAIL BONDS, frP
GALVANED PRIOR
DRIWN
MESSURE. TO ASTING BARRIER
FLOOR >
TREATED SLAB
BOfrOM
tuE-
CONCRE TE
SGB

SEAUNT AT
FOOTING PUTE BOARO JOINT,
BEFORE ASSEMBLY
DETAIL 3

NOTES N OTES F@TING PUTE-

'1.
1. At inside corners,soil pressurestend to lorce the wall Fasteners and connector plates transfer soil pressure
panels apan. making additionalstructuralreinlorc€ment thrust from wall sheathing and studs to fl@r system;
OUTSIDE CORNER PROTECTION
nece5sary. type and amount of {asteners and connectors depend on
DETAIL
2. Detail no. 1 orovides the reouired additionalreinforce- height of backfill,
ment with a treated plywood splice plate and additional 2. Wind uplift anchor straps and anchor naals spaced as NOTE
nailingbelow grade. required bv code.
All wood members within l8 in. of the ground should be
INSIDE CORNER DETAILS WALL ANCHORAGE DETAIL bottom treated.

Richard J. Vitullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

American Forest & Paper Association; Washington, D.C.

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 326 TreotedWood Foundotions
/ BEAM POCK€T GYPSUM BOARD WOOD STUDS. AS
(ON ONE SIDE. MIN.)
TREATED FIELD.APPLIED
CRIPPLE TOP PUTE \ a lo"wrr
STUDS
WOOD 2X HEADER
-. - TREATED
. TOP PI AAF
BUILT-UP F
wooD -
BAM > INTERIOR
SHEAR

SYSTEM
2X STUD
BEARING PLWOOD
SHEATHING,
BUILT-UP BOTH SIOES
wmD
COLUMN -/ BL@KING MIO-WALL
/ (omroNAL)
BL@KING A]
PLYWOOD
JOINT
wooD
@LUMN rcLY. 2X WC)OD
FOOTING ffiYLENE SruDS
VArcR
END WALL BARRIER STEEL
wooD ANCHOR
COLUMN BOLT. AS
NECESSARY
TREATED
WOOD FOOTING PUTE rcUBLE
2X BONOM
MAIN BEAMS AND COLUMNS BOTTOM CONCRETE
PGTES SLAB\\
TREAED
AP rcLY- SPACER
REATED MYLENE
PUTE FOOTING
TOP VArcR
PUTE BARRIER
FRAMING
CLIPS
BOTH
GRANUUR
DRAINAGE GRAWL
$;z'-ggt*==
\ cnaruuran
FOR2X6' UYER FILL -
LIMEL SIDES DRAINAGE UYER
USE SIX LIl.ftL NOTE
3' NALS BEARING WALL AT CONCRETE SLAB
MEMBTRS
ACH END: Interior shear wall malerial does not need to be treated
FOR2X8' TED with wood preservatives.
LINTEL RIMMER
USE EIGff
3' NALS INTERIOR SHEAR WALL DETATL
ACH END
TRAED
3' NAILS
SII PUTE W@D FLOOR
JOIST
aT 12. O.C. RilED
BONOM IuTE WOOD E]LMKNG
FULL. aT 24' O.C. Md.
METAL JOIST sPLtcE (MrN.
LENGTH HANGERS OR 1'X a'X 32',)
RATED FRNING
SruDS GIPRE CLIPS
THREE 3%'
STUDS NAILS. MIN. PER
BLOCK IMO
NOTES TOP |uTE
1. For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and it width of opening WOOD TOP
is 4 ft 0 in. ro 5 ft 6 in., use double siil Dlatesand double BEARING ruo PUTES
tull-lengthwall studs. SHEAR WALL
|uE
2- For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and if width ot opening GYPSUM
BARING WAI
is 6 ft 0 in. to I ft 0 in., use triple sill platesand triple fula TOP fuE BOARD FINISH
length wll studs- (omroNAL)
BEARING
3. For backfillheightsof 48 in- or less, nailingand fastening WALL SruDS PAR,ALLEL FLruOOD SHEAftING
can conformto the appropriatebuildingcode. JOIST OETAIL BOG SIDES

4. For backfill heights greater than 4 ft 6 in. or openings INTERIOR BEARING WALL_FLOOR 1 6d TOE NAILS
JOIST SUPPORT ryPICAL
wider than 9 ft 0 in., contactengineerfor design.
w@D
WINDOW FRAMING DETAIL BLOCKING
BEruEEN
BEARING WIL EACH FL@R
REATED SHAfrING PLWMD CAP PUTE JOIST
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP PUTE
2X TRATEO TOP PUTE STEEL
2X SruO FRAMING
CONSMUCNON ANCHOR. ONE

BONOM PUTE
SHEAR WALL
F@NNG PUTE
BONOM fuTE BARING W&L
' TOP |uTE
-LtNe oF GRAWL
-'a BACkFII PERPENDICULAR JOTST I)ETAIL
Y'
SUPPOffi FRAME MAOE SPLICE
f OF 2X MEMBERS \mH (2X4X24.MtN.) SHEAR WALL ANCHORAGE
J-, BOnOM PUTE BEARTNG
ON MNOEO FOONNG BARING SHEAR \/VALLS AS RACKING
, fuTE; FRAME SHAHED
rN PLW@D (^tOT SHOWN) (::s RESISTANCE
fuTE Foundation
wallsmaybe subjectto rackingloads,which
STEPPED FOOTING DETATL occur parallel to a wall and can cause shearing forces along
/BaRNG the plane of the wall. Racking loads are caused by soil pres:
TREAED SHUTHING PLW@D sure and other lateral forces such as earthquake and wind.
MID-HEIGHT ALOCKING fuTE Walls. connections. and tasteners must be desioned to
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP fuTE resist these torces. Generally, soil pressure comes i-ntoplay
2X TRAED TOP fuTE -2X4JOIST for backfill greater than 24 in. in height: check anticipated
2X STUD SUPrcRT wind and earthquake forces to determine how best to
@NSTRUCTION SECURELY
NAILED TO accommodate them.
2X CRIPPLE ACH SIDE OF
STUDS (2 MtN.) BEARING WALL
BONOM PUTE Check long shear walls or those with a length-tewidth ratjo
greater than 2:1 for diaphragm detlection, particularly if the
FOOTING PUTE
structure is built on a slope. The unequal heights of the
SPANNING
BEAM backfill on a slope apply unequal loads to the end walls or
, --8HF€[ .JOIST
END.NAILING
walls parallel to the tloor joist system. These walls. having
received these loads by the diaphragm action of the floor
- BACKF|LL
JOIST system, then act as shear walls. Internal shear walls,
TOENAILING accommodated within interior partitions, also may be
. BEARING PAD
, (G CONCRETE) n€eded.
ffiNOED FOOTING fuTE CAP PUE
I he strength of a draphragm or shear wall depends on care
SPANNING BEAM DETAIL INTERIOR BEARING WALL-FLOOR ful nailing ol the plywrcd to the structural members. ply
JOIST SUPPORT (ALTERNATIVES) wood ioints should be staggered to increase stiffness.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

American Forest & Paper Ass@iation: Washrngton, D C.

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 FromingDetoilsfor Openings gZ7

TOP PLATE

USE SINGLE HEAOER

ALONG SIDE WOOO
JOIST FOR FULL
FRAMING =-

LAMINATED
wooo JolsT

( NOTE,
0 OOUBLE TRII
0 ADEQUATE BI
LARGER THA
OOU BLE
H EADER
2-2"X4"ON
@ TOP PLATE
EDGE EXCEPT -o
FOR OPENINGS
ovER 3'- O";
usE 2- 2" X 6"
r L AM I NATED
o
L

-:
o

BOLTS AT 2'-O" O.C

DOUBLE AT EACH END

STEEL FLITCH
PLATE
DOOR OPENING \^/INDO\^/ OPENING

NOTES
1. Steel lintels a.e selected lrom steel beam design ta-
bles on lhe basis of floor, wall, and roof openings.
2. Wood lintels over openings in bearing walls may be
engtneered as beams_
3. Composate beams, such as glued laminated beams,
also are approprrate in some applications. plywood
box beams are used lor garage doors. Steei llrrch
plates can add strength without adding extra width
to a composrte beam.
4. Check wirh local codes and staodards lor fire resis,
tance reeuirements.

LINTELS FOR \MIOE OPENTNGS

TRIMMER

rcUB€ HEADER
FLUSH WITH OOU BLE
SMALL OPENING INTERIOR FACE HEADER \
OF TOP PLATE
rcUBLE
(SECONO
HEAOER
HEAOER \
SHOWN CUT AWAY) \
DOUBLE TRIMMER \

l*'."FA1oH'H,". -/
oF TOP ecate, /?

JOIST HANGER
OOUBLE TRIMMER
JOIST ( SECOND
TRIMMER SHOWN DOUBLE HEAOER
CUT AWAY)

16 d aT 6" O-C TAIL gST

STAGGERED -

LARGE STAIR OPENING AT EXTERIOR \^/ALL

JosephA. Wilkes,FAIA Wilkesand Fautknerj

Washington.
D.C.

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 328 FromingDetqilsfor Stoirs

SUBFLOORI N G

BEAM (OOUALE TRIMMERI

OOUELE TRTMMER

FINISHED TREAO

HEAOER

DOUBLE
HEADER

JOIST

BEAM ( DOUELE
TRIMMER }

CANTILEVEREO LANDING

OOUALE
HEAOER

CONTINUOUS

KICK-
PLATE

DOUBLE
HEAOER

DOUBLE

JOIST
HANGER

CONTINUOUS LEOGER
FLOOR JOIST

STAIR OETAILS

PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING

CARRIAGE

LBasEvENr
WALL \
NOTES :
\ FLAT STEEL PLATE
FLUSH WTH JOIST
I, A CENTER CARRIAGE IS TECOMMENDEO ANO ANCHOREO TO
FoR RrcrDrry. rr rs Nor sHowN lru r-sE BLOCKING ELOW
ORAWING ABOVE FOR SAKE OF CLARTTY
2 THE FIRS|T FLOG STAIR SHC'WS A SHOP-
BqrLT gTatR. THE sEcoND aNo eadE--'
MENT sratRs KICK
aRE caRpENTEn-eurut.
PLATE

STA.IR FRAMING DETAIL

ANCHORS AT END OF SOLID RAIL

TimothyB McDonald;Washington.D.C.

rA
v/ ROUGHCARPENTRY
 FromingDefqilsfor Roofs 329

HEAOER

OMMON RAFTER
RIDGE BOARD
COLLAR BEAM

OOUELE
RAFTER

TIE BEAMS
(SERVE AS
DOUBLE CEILING JOISTS )
PLATE

GABLE ROOF GAMBREL ROOF HIP ROOF

RAFTER

OOUBLE

MANSARO ROOF SHED ROOF FLAT ROOF

VALLEY RAFTER

RIOGE BOARD
RAFTER
COMMON RAFTER

COLLAR

OOUALE

GABLE ROOF \^r'ITH OVERHANO HIP GABLE ROOF INTERSECTING ROOF

BOARD CEiLING
OOUBLE HEAOER
FIST
DOUBLE TRIMMER
RAFTER
RAFTER

RAFTER

OOUBLE SOLE PLATE

JACK HTAOEF
OOUELE PLATE

VALLEY
RAFTER SIOE STUD
HEADEF

DORMER SMALL SHEO DORMER E|AY \^/INDO\^/

Timothy B. McDonald:Washington,D.C

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 330 FromingDetoilsfor Rqttersond posts
HIP RAFTER T\
FIRST RAFTER FOUR
OF PAIR NAILEO EACH RAFTER RAF TER
WITH TWO NAIS AFFOROS
JACK (IO d FOR T' RIDGE MORE JOIST
RAFTER 16d FoR 2"R|OGE) RESIS_
TANCE
ATTIC
THREE 16 d
FLOOF
TOENAiLEO

TWO t6d
OR COLLAR
NAILEO
8d AT
EACH
stoE
JACK RAFTERS ROOF PEAI<
NOTE: d: PENNY AEVELEO RAFTERS BACK-
NOTCHED OVER PLATE

BEVELTO TWO t6d

TOENAILS
EACH
SIOE RAFTER

NOTCHED
RAFTER \

-
FLOOR

PARTITION PLATE

oNE 16 d
TWO r6d TOENAILID ON TWO 16 d
TOENAILEO EACH TOENAILEO
SIDE
NOTCHEO EACH SIOE EACH SIDE
TAL STRAP PROVIDES AND ONE BRACINO OF ROOF RAFTERE
16d 4"oc aNo
ADDITIONAL SECURITY OVER EACH JOTST
AT FRONT ARE AT RTANGLES TO ..,OISTS
FOUR E d AGAINST UPLIFT- REFER
TO LOC)AL CODES
RAFTERA AND CEILINO !,OISTS NOTCHEO OR BEVELEO RAFTERE
REeTIN€ ON WALL PLATEE
RESTING ON PLATE

FILLER BLOCK
TWO-gd

I TWO 16 d

THREE 16 d
rc FILLER
ALOCK T\ ,!) NAIL-S rN EACH JOIST ffiE
IX4 MIN. SUFFICIENT IF FULL STORY €OVE
oR rr- wtoE Rrsfr
16 GAUGE STEEL
STRAP r6d 12" o.c.
BRACE TO SPACER JOISTE BEARING ON RIBBON
AT
45. OR STUD
PREFAB SKYLIGHT
PLYWOOD
UNIT FITS TO CURB
PANELS WILL FLASHING REQUIRED
ALSO
SUFFICE

t6d
STAGGEREO PLYW@D
12 0.c. S@FL@R
r6d 12" o.c.
STAGGERED
SOLE

ro d ToE-
NAILEO

IOd TOENAILED

STUOA TO HAVE SAME NAtUrc

rc FILLER BLOq ASSTUD E
CURB
COFINER POC'T PARTITION TO WALL
TOP PLATE ANO BRACING FOR SKYLIGHT
CONNECTION

JosephA. Wilkes. FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washingron,D.C

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 FromingDefoilsfor Joistsond Sills 331
THREAD 2-8d IN EACH
ROD JOIST
WELDED
TO BEAM
PREDRILLED

SNE AS EXTERIOR SILL

TO EQIJALIZE SHRINKAG
LAPPEO OVER ON LOIdER FLANGE ON \A/OOO BLOCKING ON STEEL ANoLES
wooo stLL

\^/OOD JOI6T6 SUPPOR-TED ON 6TEEL G'IRC'ERS

TWO
to d

3-20 d
NEAR
EACH
JOIST/

JOIET NOTCHEO OVER JOIST IN JOIST OVERLAPPING JOIETE JOISTS NOTCHEO

LEOGTR STRIP HAN<'ER IRON NOTCHEO OVER oIROER OVER GIROER
NOTCHING OVER BEARING ALSO CALED STIRRUP AEARING ONLY ON LEOGER, BEARING ONLY ON
NOT RECOMMTNI)ED qBRIOLE IM LEDGER. NOT ON TOP
NOT ON TOP OF GIRDER
OF GIRDER

\^/OOD JOIETS SUPPORTED ON WOOO GIROERS

2 - 16d TOENA|I-S
ruO IOd EACH ENO EACH END
d dE SIOE. OTHERS
STAGGER 16"APART

IO d TGNAIL
TO rcST
EACH SIOE

T\^/O PIECE GIRDER THREE PIECE GIRDER STEeL ERIDGING t" x 3'CROSS AR|DG|NG SOLIO BRIOGINo
GIRDER JOINTS ONLY FOR FOUR PIECE GIRER . ADO SOME HAVE BUILT. IN LOWER ENOS NOT NAILEO 6EO UNDER PARTITIONS
AT SUPPORTS NAILS TEETH. NEEDS NO UNTIL SUBFLOORING FOR HEAVY LqOING
STAGGER JOINTS NArLs tS LAYEO
STAGGER rcARDS FOR
EASE OF NAILING

ANCrcR

3X6.4X6 S|LL
HALVEO AT CGNERS
5ffi4X6
NAILS
SILL
DOUBLE SILL
STAGGERED
24'' ON CENTER
ALONG
PLATFORM
TOENAIL
REOUIREO
SHEATHING
FRAMING
TO SILL NOT
IF OIAGONAL
USEO
TYPTS
ANCHOR
OF SILL
BOLTS

SHRI NKAGE
SELECT
APPROXIMATE
SILL D€TAIL
GROUT

t/a"

JOIST.GRDER
SAME
USED
- t/2"

OIROER

OETAIL
SHRINKAGE
T
),.
THAT
''A"
HAS

JosephA, Wilkes, FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washington.D.C

AS THE
ilb )N $&
OU - AL.
METAL
CLIP
FRAMING OEVICES
TY-OOWN ANCHOR TRIP.
ZINC
L-

COATED
GRIP
STEEL

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 332 FromingDetqilsfor Wollsond Ftoors

soue -..---i
PLATE -STUO
i
--- -J

i=T'
II -=f- --1

I BRIOGNG II zt+ 2r2i

I BLOCKING
I I aT t6'. oc. I

PARTITIC,NS PERPENOIC)ULAR TO JOI6T€ PARTITIONS PARALLEL TO JOISTS EALLOON ANO BRACEO

BEARING INTERTOR PARTITION€
_-PARTITIONS BEARTNG BETweEN JOTSTS
l<n . t

NO PARTITION ABOVE NI<) PARTITIG)N BELOI' NO PARTITION ABOVE NO PARTITION E'ELO\'

PARTITIONE PERPENOICULAR TO JG)I€,TS PARTITI<)NE PARALLEL Tc| JOI6TS
NONBEARINO INTERIOR PARTITIONg

\--
BLOCKING
5-2 r 4't

PLYWOOD SHEATHNG WALL FINISH

PLANS OF OUTEIOE CORNERS PLANS OF INTEREECTING PARTITIONE
2 x .+ WALL FRAMINo
DOUBLE J.OIST

t-,=,
,t'
Y*':>-,--:3iZ-,4
"'1

2 x Ct CORNER WALL rAaVnO

HEADER

20 d NAIL

TYPES OF CUTS
IN BLOCKING,
SEE NOTE

HEAOER

FOUNOATION
20 d NA|L

NOTE: lF SPACE
- ' ABOVE IS TO
' BE
HEATED. INSULATE
BETWEEN JOTSTS *aNY
aNo PRovrDE cuTs
ExTENstoN GREATER
i THAN 2'-O" MUST BE
! IN BLOCKING
, AS SHOWN ENGINEEREO

PERPENOICULAR TO JOI6T PARALLEL TO JOIsTE

CERAMIC TILE FLOOR FLOOR CANTILEVERE

John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA Washington D.C

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 FromingDeloils 333
NO2X4 2X TOP PUTES OWR4P AT
ruo2xeroP|,uTES--- L@KING WALLS
TOP PGTES CORNER
TOGETHER -
CRIPPLE
STUDS
CONTINUE
COMMON
WALL STUD
SPACING
2 X 6 CRIPPLE STUD -

2X W@D HEADERS
DOUBLE 2X
HEAOER WITH
'4. PLruOOD
SPACE FOR
INSULATION
BETre€N -

TRIMMER
2X3W@O . STUD
BLGKING
KING SruD

TRIMMER STUD NOTE

Providesmaximum nailingsur{aceon interiorand exterior
KING SruD wails.

2X6 BEARING WALL-HEADER DETAIL 2X4 BEARING \ivALL_HEADER DETAIL TOP PLATE FRAMING DETAIL

MO 2X TOP fuTES ruO 2X TOP |:uTES

RAFER
GIPPLE STUD
K'NG STUD NOTCHED
CRIPPLE SruD DOUBLE 2X RAKE
HEADER WTH
%. SPACE ON STUDS
INTERIOR (ALIGNED
STUDS
BELOW
WOOD
BLOCKING CEILING
FOR JOIST
-
AOOMONAL
NAILING
SURFACE END
(omoNAL)

2X HEADER T
Z HADER
|uTE FOR ,
IMERIOR
RrM/FrNrSH I
NAIUNG g RIMMER
2X BUILT-UP
MIMMER SruD
HEADEF
STUD KING SruD

2X BEARING WALL_HEADER DETAIL 2X BEARING vt/ALL_HEADER DETAIL RAKE WALL DETAIL_PLATFORM

FRAMING
ruO 2X TOP PUTES MO2X4TOPPUTES
UNreRRUffiD
THROUGH OPENING -
CRIPPLE
CONTINUE
@MMON
WALL STUD
2X CRIPPLE SPAONG
STUD NOTCHED
FOR BEADER %. MIN. CDX
PLWOOD
GLUED ANO
2X HEADER NAILED TO
ONE OR
BOTH SIDES
INSUUTON OF FMMING

INTERIOR SIDE FASTENERS.

-__> STAGGERED '/2.
oF HEADER

2X HEADER

NOTE
TRIMMER SruD Interior plywood fac€ must be sm@th for finishing with
KING SruD gypsum b€rd.

2X BEARING WALL_HEADER DETAIL 2X4 BEARING WALL-OPEN BOX RAKE WALL DETAIL-BALLOON
PLYVVOOD_HEADER DETAIL FRAMING
ruO 2X TOP PSES
MO2X4TOPluTES
CRIPPLE STUDS
CONTINUE ruo 2 x 10
coMMoN ./ HADERS WN
12. tuW@D
STUD
SPACING

MO FUT 2X 2X4
HEADERS f SABBED
PROVIDE I TO BOfrOM
NAILTNG
SURFACE TRIMMER STUD
trOR FRAME
ANO TRIM KING SruD

TRIMMER STUD NOTE

KING STUO This detail eliminates cripple studs above opening.

2X PARTITION WALL_HEADER DETAIL 2X BEARING WALL-HEADER DETAIL GREEK RETURN

Maryland
BichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 334 FromingDetoils

UPPER
FLMR
WALL STUDS
ALIGNED
ERTIALLY
WITH FL@R
JOISTS AND
LOWER
FL@R
STUDS
AELOW
MID-HEIGHT
BL@KING FOR
STIFFNESS 1 X BAND
JOIST

METAL
BACK.UP
CLIPS FOR 2X SINGLE RIDGE
GYPSUM TOP PUTE BAM/BOARD
BOARD
\- \-*am.*
COMMON o"o
"too
SILL RIDGE UPLIFT STRAP
STUDS IN BLOCKING
FOR ROOF SHEATHING
WNDOWS
CONTINUOUS //-
SOLE PGTE I NAILING

'.41
AELOW 2X4's;AT
2'{' O.C. \ !eEEEi,"."
_
ll L- OR2X6'5AT
-.]-l-'-\
.,/l\
| IF WND LOADS )
,.' \,-V
ryCESSI€
-'.< ] ^-"^
| ;;'"
SECoNDARY \ ] CEILING
INTERSECTING \ I JOIST
WALL \ I
F- STUDS
INTERSECTING WALI-S \^/ITH METAL ND
GYPSUM E]OARO CT-|PS JOISTS
EIGNED

SINGLE
TOP
fuTE

COMMON OPEN-BOX
SruDS IN HUDER:
1/2' AC
ruw@D UP SfuICE TOP
CONTINUOUS GLUED AND IuTE TO RESIST
NAILED ON TENSION AND
AELOW INERIOR COMPRESSION '-

OruNAL ROOF DIAPHRAGM PERIMETER

EXTERIOR
END
PLWOOD
SruD OF
SECONDARY
mB) METAL WOOD MEMBER
HOLD.DOWN FOR HOLD.DOWN
CONNECTOR cnryo 2x oR 4X.
WINrcW OPENING
SECONDARY ALIGNS WtrH 24' siruD
INERSEMNG SPACING
NAILING AS
MIMMER STUD REOUIRED TO
RESIST SHEAR
INTERSECTING \NALL.S \NITH OR INTERNAL
E}LOCKING
WITH WIDE OPENING
' TRIM JOIST (MAY BE
t z. 1X W@D MATERTAL RIM JOIST
7 W|TH tN-LtNE FRAMTNG;
MAY BE ELIMINAFD
IF BLOCKING IS USED)
THREADED
z FL@R JOIST ROD FROM TOP
TO BONOM
NAIL ANCHOR HOLD DOWNS
STRAPS
DIRECLY TO
EACH FLOOR
JOIST FLOOR.TO FLOOR
METAL TIE
RIM JOIST

SILL PUTE NAL JOISTS (OR BLOCKING)

MAY BE TO TOP PUTES TO AVOID
ELIMINATED IF UTERAL DISPLACEMENT
FOUNDATON
IS LEWL AND TIES EIETWEEN FLOORS
A€URATE
ANCHOR SRf NAILED
IO PRESSURE.NEATED NOTE
SILL PUTE
WALL CORNER WITH METAL
GYPSUM E}OARD REDUCED SILL PLATE AND RtM JOTST It is essential to provide a continuous path of resistance
CLIPS
DETAII-.S trom r@t to foundation in order to drssipate both lateral and
uplift forces. Conneclions along this load path will guaran-
NOTES tee unrnterrupted resistance. Seismic and wind torces are
transferred from the r@f diaphragm to shear walls and
1. Some framing details rely on technaques that reduce the
through the walls into the ground at the foundation. Shear
amount of lumber in wood construction. Amonq these
walls resist horizontal forces in the roof and floor dia-
are In-line framing detarls and corner details witi metal
phragms and so must be connected to them. lt is imoonant
f.aming clips for gypsum board. These tyoes of details
were developed to conserye wood resources. reduce to apply wall sheathing to the full walt herght nartrng rt to
the top plate, blocking, or rim loist and also to the mud sill
matenal cost and iob site waste, and enhance energy
etficiency by reducing thermal bridging across wall syi'- or bottom plate. Shear wall heighvwidth ratios are an
rmportant consideration; consult a structural eneineer for
tems and ancreasinginsulation cavities. When wmd lev-
their design. The details illustrated show several c-onnectron
els are to be reduced, a structural engineer should first
paths; for each specific design, a structural engineer famil-
be consulted.
iar with seismic and wind resistant construction should be
2. Gypsum board installed at inside corners with metal clios consulted. Many of the requirements for high wind situa-
or wood backers does not get fastened to either. The tions apply to seismic loading as well, except in shear wall
sheet resting against the backer or clips is installed first desrgn.
so the second sheet {which is nailed to the stud) will lock
the first sheet in place. The "floating joint,' that results is Ties between floors: Wood members (sluds) must be sized
CORNER BLOCKING DETAIL recommended to reduce cracks in the corner. tor the load{arrying capacity at the critical net section.
INSULATED WALL DETAILS REDUCED WOOD FRAMING DETAILS WIND AND SEISMIC CONNECTOR
FRAMING

RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 Eoves,Overhongs,ond Foundotions 335

,z AAFFLE
SHINGLES AND ROOFING AT RAKE
LINE OF FASCIA
' WITHOUT OVERHANG
BUILDING PAPER\
FUSHING / VENTED \
./ AIRSPACE
SHEATHING
ROOFING
SHEATHING AND RAtrERS BAFFLE
BLOCKING
DRILLED OR
RAtrER FUSHING
NOTCHEO AND
COVERED WITH
FUSHING

RETARDER

wooD INSUUTION
TRIM -
BLOCKING VENTED
AIRSPACE END RAfrER
CONTINUOUS (SUPPORTED BY
VENTED BEAMS, OUTRIGGERS
AIRSPACE VENT OR BRACKilS)
SHEATHING

NAILER, SIOING
NOTCHED stDtNG,-\i\
INSUUTION
OR
DRTLLED
BUILDING SHEATHING
PAPER I N T E R I O RF I N S H
BLOCKING

SHED ROOF / PEAK AND VENTEO EAVE RAKE OVERHANG

WALL INTERSECTION
RIOGE BOARD ' NOTCHED OR CEILING
DRILLED FOR CROSS
m".|.v-v-l VENTIUTION

BUILT'UP ROOFING
WITH GRAVEL TOPPING

WOOD SHAKES

VENTED ROOF EOGE EXPOSED RAFTERS VENTED SOFFIT

EAVE AND OVERHANG SECTIONS

MflAL SHIELO N OTE

(OPTIONAL)
Concrete unit masonry walls vary widely. Check local codes.
RIM JOIST

FRONT VIEW
OF BLOCKING FINISH FLOOR
SHOWING NOTCHED
(OR DRILLED) VENT
SUBFLOOR
SILL
BUILDING
BLOCKING
PAPER
OR RIM JOIS

JOIST PRESSURE
TREATED SILL

VENTED
SILL SEAL
AIRSPACE
ANCHOR BOLT SET
ANCHOR BOLT IN CONCRETE
FILLEO VOID

RIGID INSULATION
CONCRETE
TO FOOTING
MASONRY UNIT

- CONCRETE FURRING
SKIM COAT
TREATED)

RffARDER DAMPPROOFING

DAMPPROOFING RIGID
INSUUTION

BRICK VENEERryENTED CRAWL SPACE

STEPPED DETAIUCRAWL SPACE TYPICAL OETAIIJFINISHED BASEMENT OR UNFINISHED BASEMENT (UNHEATEO)

FOUNOATION WALL SECTIONS

Ted Cameron, AIA; The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 336 HistoricEqvesond Overhongs

An e_avets lhe iower edge ol a slopl

DRILLED VENT
HOLES IN EAVE
1:nh #|;-;a]ie"i.,,:'-";i?f$:
=*;?:
"::t fifl Its::ril#t,tl*t"fu
:#rilili::.i:Jfii::ii
protect the wall below from precipitation
Ov tf,io*lno
the water away from the wall (and I

WITH INSERT "if,",

SOLDEREO METAL OR
ROOF SLOPE > 3: I2. SHINGLES
MEMBRANE FUSHING TO
FORM VALLEY < 3: I2, ROLL OR MEMARAN
WATERPROOFING BUILDING PAPER ROOFING
ON SHEATHING

METAL FUSHING

wooo FASCtA

wooo LooKouT
CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT

WOOD TRIM

METAL DOWNSPOUT

EXPOSED RAFTER END REVERSE SLOPE OVENrrIrug

WOOD SHINGLES OR SHAKES WOOD SHAKES OR SHINGLES
ON BUILDING PAPER- oN BUILDING PAPER -
SHEATHING SHEATHING

RAFTER RAtrER
FUSHING
CEILING JOIST SOLDERED
COPPER.LINED
M ETAL
FLASHING
OOWNSPOUT

wooD
GUNER BOX

WOOD TRIM

WOOO FASCIA WOOD LOOKOUT

(SEE DETAIL
CONTiNUOUS AT RIGHT}
SCREEN VENT
CONTINUOUS
wooo TRIM SCREEN VENT

WOOD SIDING
WOOD SIDING
BUILDING PAPER
BUILOING PAPER ON SHEATHING
ON SHEATHING -

EAVE AT \/VOOD SIDING

EAVE WITH BUILT-IN GUTTER CORNICE SUPPORT DETAIL

RANER

WOOD SHAKES, SUTE

OR SHINGLES ON
BUILDING

SHEATHING

WOOD STRUT

SILL PUTE WITH

ANCHOR BOLTS Sff
IN CONCRffE-FILLED
VOID

WOOO BLOCKING
AT 16'
FUSHING
-
a LoNG WOOO
BLOCKING AT

WOOD SIOING ON

CONTINUOUS
SCREEN VENT

EAVE AT BRICK VENEER

PROJECTED EAVE \^r'ITH SHALLOW SLOPE MANSARD ROOF

Richa.d J. Vituilo. AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.

Marytand

ROUGHCARPENIRY
 HolfTimber 337
BUILDING PAPER ON

METAL SUTE ROOF

FUSHING

WEEP HOLES wooD

(2 PER INFILL TRIM
PANEL)
DOUBLE
END RANER
wooD
TIMBER wooD
TIMBER

SHELF ANGLE
BRICK

SEAUNT
GABLE EDGE DETAIL
CUSTOM WOOD
WINOOW FRAME

MflAL WINOOW
VERTICAL
TIMBER

wooD
BRACKET

wooo METAL
FASCIA CASEMENT
wNoow TIMBER DETAIL
GENERAL
ln the 16th and 17th centurieshalf timber structureswsre CUSTOM
wooo stLL
built with strong timbsr foundations,supports.and studs.
The spaes between the framework were filled in wilh
either stone. brick, plaster. or boarding laid horizontally. METAL MffAL
Today the primary struclure is wood stud or masonry FLASHING FUSHING
backup, and the half timber construction is attached as
veneer. Half timber is an inh€rentlyleakytype of wll @n- WEEP
struction in which the timbers are subject to premature wooD HOLE
oecav. TIMBER
BUILDING
NOTE PAPER ON
SHEATHING
Shown are some of many brick intill paneldesigntypes.
wooo
ELEVATION - BRICK AND TIMBER TIMBE
BUILOING PAPER
ON SHEATHING
ANGLE
BRICK

WINDOV\/SILL DETAIL CANTILEVE

FLOOR JOIST

STUCCO wooo
ARACKfl
UTH

wooD
TIMBER

AUILDING
PAPER ON
SHEATHING
ROUGH.FACED
FALSE TIMBER
FALSE TIMBER DETAIL TIMBER SHELF DETAIL
SUTE ROOF BUILDING
PAPER ON SHEATHING

STUCCO wooo
BRACKET
BRACKET
FASTENEO
BRICK TO WOOD
STUD - -/ srucco
N OTE
BRICK
To preserye historical character of hall-timber construction VENEER --- _ OOUBLE.ENO
a ridge vent is recommended for attic venting.
ELEVATION - STUCCO AND TIMBER OVERHANG DETAIL BARGEBOARD DETAIL

RichardJ. Vtullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 338 PollodionWindowond Doorwoy

FLASHING

WOOD TRIM
HALF CIRCLE FAN

BLOCKING

ENTABUTURE
HALF.CIRCLE FAN
OR WINDOW

BUILDING PAPER
ON SHEATHING \

FUSHING

ALTERNATE ELEVATION - HALF- F

CIRCLE WINDOW I
I
I
=
o
o
z
t

I!
ENTABLATURE SECTION

TRANSOM
WINDOW

v\/INDOW PLAN

ELEVATION - PALLAOIAN WTNDOW SIDELIGHT AND ENTRANCE DOOR

AND DOORWAY VERTICAL SECTION
PLAN

Richard J. Vituilo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand

ROUGHCARPENTRY
 SlructurolBuildingPonels 339
2X STUD RIGID FOAM FIELD'ORILLED
INSUUTION, 8'-O" MAX., RP HOLE IN
PUTE
-PLW@D OR -*:-- - STRUCTURAL
- ---- =-*ratuRAL BUTLDTNG
ORIEMED- EUILDING
PANEL
SMAND PANEL.
BOARD (OSB) swtTcH 4 0'xa-o"
WIRE
CHASE--- FACTORY
R@F RAFERS ffiOVIDED
(oR RmF ELECTRICAL
MUSSES) OU[ET CHASE
WIRE
CHASE.
BASEBOARO
WRE CHASE
2X SruDS APUIED OVER
WALL FINISH
NOTE
Consult local codes for all electrical installations

ROOF FRAMING WITH RAFTERS AND TYPICAL WIRE CHASE LOCATIONS IN

TRUSSES PANELS
STRUCruRAL RIreE BEAM SPECIAL NONSTRUCTUUL
BUILDING - INTERMEDIATE HEADER SEOION MAY BE
PANEL . BEAM MAY BE NEEDEO FOR CERTAIN 2X TOP
/ NEEDED UNSUPPORTED SPANS
(NOT FOR APPLIED
PANEL BELOW LOADS)
PLWMD OR REINFORCED
OSB SfuINES FOR RIreE SPLINE
BAM LOAD
2X
NAILERS.

MA

ZBONOM fuE

ROOF FRAMING vt/ITH RIDGE BEAM TYPICAL \,vINDO\iv DETAILS

PNEL-TO-PNEL SGEW 2X TOP |uTE

FASENERS N 24'O-C-

2X
wooD
SPLINE

STRUflRA BUILDING
N OTE PANEL-TO. PANEL
SfuINE NAL
.FASENERS
Studs and splines are screwed (and usually glued) to panels 2X BONOM |uE
aT 6' O.C.
from both sides. Consult mnufacturer's specifi€tions.
Joints are typically sealed with expanding foam.

TYPICAL INTERMEDIATE PANEL TYPICAL CORNER DETAIL TYPICAL REINFORCED DOOR OPENING
SPLINE DETAILS DETAIL

GENERAL
Structuralbuildingpanelsare factory€ssembledcomposite
panelsreadyfor installationas a completestructuraland/or
insulatingwall section.The materialof each componentof
the panel system is very importantwhen selectinga panel
manulacturer. Components include the skin, foam core,
adhesive,and optionalexterior or intoriortinish. The appli-
cation for which the panelis intendeddeterminesthe mta
rials used. Consultmanutacturerstor sosifi€tions.
Sizesvary from 4 by I ft pan€lsweighingabout 100 lb to I
by 28 ft panelsthat must be installedusinga crane.
PANEL TYPES
There are two main types of structural building paneF
stresgskin panelsand loam core pan€ls:
STRESS-SKIN PANELSare manufacturedby gluingand nail-
ing plywood skins to both sides of a wood frare, resulting
in a unit that performslike an l5eam. Stress-skinpanelsare
not necessarilyinsulated.
STRUCTURALFOAM CORE PANELSfall into two groups:
sndwich panelsand unfacedpanels.Sandwichpanelsare
rigid-foam panels faced with two structural{rade skins,
usually made of oriented-strandboard (OSB)or plyw@d.
Dependingon the applicationand the manufacturer,these
loam core panelsmay or may not includeframingmembers
within the core. Unfacedstructuralfoam core panels l@k
like panels oI stick-framingwith rigid toam between the
members insteadof tiberglassbatt insulation.Interiorand
exteriortinishesare appliedto these parels in the tield.
The skins of structuralbuildingpanels(like l6eam fhnges)
resist tension and compression,while the w@d frame or
core (like an l$eam web) resists shearand preventsbuck-
lingof the skins.
All structuralfoam core oanelsare insulatedwith a core of
expandedpolystyrene(EPS),extruded polystyrene,or ure-
thane f€m, Irom 31/,to 11]L in. thick. Urethanepanelsare
either glw]aminated like polystyreneor toamed in place
(either in the factory or in the field). Urethane has an R-
valueof 6 or 7 per inch versus R-5for extrudedpolystyrene
and R4 for EPSfoam. Urethaneis about twice as strong in
compressionas polystyren€and has a F€rm rating of less
than one, which technicallyqualifies it as a vapor barrier.
EPS has a pem rating ol from 1 to 3 and may require a
vaporbarier. EPS.howev6r,is inert, nontoxic(if ingested),
and resili€nt;it d@sn't teed micrmrganismsand is g€ner-
ally cheaperthan urethane.Consultmanufacturerson CFC
and formaldehydemntent in the foam core and skin mate
rial as it variesamong manulacturers.Regardingflammabil-
ity of both f@m core types, consult with the manufacturer
aboutthe individualproduct.
APPLICATIONS
In abovegrade applications,the most common materials
Ior exteriorfacingsare plywood OSB or finish materialslike
TJ11 plywood. tongue-and{roove pine, and other wood
siding material. For below{rade situations, pressure-
treated plywood skins and splines are used. Generally,
structuralbuildingpanelsshould not be used for plumbing
walls, as the spacesneeded{or plumbingruns would com-
promisethe insulationand structuralintegrityof the panel.
For roof aoolicationsit is best to use a vented structural
foam panel, either integralor fiel+installed. Many asphalt-
shingle manufacturerswill not warrant lheir product v\hen
it is installedon unventedpanelsbecauseof overheating,
which acceleratesdeterioration.
CHARACTERISTICS
Using structuralbuildingpanels generallyenhancesthe
speed of constructionbecausethe panelsreplacethree dif
ferent steps in standardconstruction:traming, sheathing.
and insulation.Panelsystems offer superiorenergy perfor-
mancecomparedto a stick-framehouse of similarcost and
standardof construction.This is largelybe€use the rigid
insulationhas higher R-values,there are {ewer seams to
seal. and conductiv€heal is not lost through air infiltration
around the framing. Structural building pamls also offer
g@d resistanceto laterallGds.
Panelscan be susceptibleto infostationby insectssuch as
carpenterants and temites, lvhich €at thrdugh wood and
tunnel through the foam core material.reducinginsulation
value and even compromisingstructural integrity. Use of
termite shields,foam mres treated with insect repellent,
and other strategiesshouldbe considered.
NOTES
1. Sincestructuralbuildingpanelsare a relativelynew build-
ing system. code officialsshould be consultedearly and
often to preventany misunderstandingsor delaysin the
code approvalprocess.Also. check with manufacturers
to determinewhether their product has receivedcomplts
anceaporoval with BOCA,lcBo, SBcCl,or HUD.
2. The seams are the part of a structuralbuildingpanel sys-
tem most orone to infiltrationand weakness and most
likely to show the results ot expansionand contraction.
Tight spline connectionswith sealant at all edges-top,
bottom, and sides{an greatly increase thermal effi-
ciencv.

RichardJ. Vituilo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland

PANELS
STRUCTURAL
 340 StructurqlBuildingponels

SCREW FASTENER SEE SCREW trASTENERS. SEE

FASTENERS. SEE MANUFACTURER S MANUFACTURER'S SPECIFICATIONS
MANUFACTURER'S SPECIFICATIONS ad NA|LS Al 6' O.C
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPACING EACH SIDE THROUGH
\
\ : ROOF
PANEL
EreE
tNTo
SPLINE _
I
STRUCTURAL
(OR TRUSS) BUILDlNG RIDGE VENT . \
PANEL
VENT SLOTS CUT
INTO ROOF
PANELS AND TOP
SHEATHING Fc)R
STRUCTIJRAL
SUILDING
PANEL (FOR
CEILINGS)

---_1 - & NAILS

wooD aT 6. O.C.
!- tNtEnron rtrursr FASCIA EACH SIDE
FACTORY OR BOARDS THROUGH
FIELD APPLIED PANEL INTO
FINISH I
soFFrr /
8d NAILS
THROUGH
AT 6' O.C
PANEL
MATERTaL--
INTO TOP PIATE

ROOF EAVE DETAIL WITH PANEL ROOF EAVE DETATL WITH

CEILING SLOPED PANEL AT RIDGE CONNECTION
CEILING
- SCREW FASTENTRS. SEE
STRUCTURAL BUTLDING PANEL
1& NAILS THROUGH MANUFACTURER'S
BONOM PUTE INTO 1fu NAILS THROUGH SPECIFICATIONS-_
PUTE AS REOUIRED
SILL
BONOM PUTE AND \
SUBFLOOR IMO TOP
FUE OF PANEL BELOW
\
8d NAILS AT 6' O.C.
EACH SIDE GROUGH
PANEL IMO PUTE

SUBFLOOR,
ENENDED TO
OUTSIDE OF
WALL PANEL
UPPER
FLOOR Ad NAILS AT
JOIST 6'O.C. ACH
SIDE GROUGH
PANEL IMO
PUTE, WP,
JOIST HANGER
WIH NAIUBLE
TOP FUNGE

CONTINUOUS PANEL DETAIL AT ROOF

SPACER BOARD .-
UPPER FLMR JOIST
WHERE REQUIRED
FOR STANDARD A'-O' STRUCruRAL
GYPS;UM BOARD BUILDING
APPLICATION PANEL
(FOR ROOF)

PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR

CONNECTION \MITH FLOOR JOIST CONNECTION \^/ITH FLOC)R Jc)IST
BETWEEN ADJACENT
=.-- STRUCTURAL BU|LD|NG PANEL
TINTERIOR WALL FIN|SH

SFUCTURAL AUILDING PANEL

4 INTERIOR WALL FINISH F\-

-!
r
| 8d NAILS
I aT 6" O.C
j- exrenroc srorNe ] EACH END
i TBRoUGH
PANEL
INTO TOP
FINISH
FLOOR
OVER
SUBFLOOR 4'.€'MA.. WP

GABLE END OVERHANG AT ROOF

INSUUTION
PANEL DETAIL
FLOOR RIM
€IST JOIST

RIM JOIST FL@R STRUCTURAL

JOIST EUILDING PANEL

1fu NAILS AS
REQUIRED BY CODE
Ad NAILS
aT 6'OC.
EACH SIDE
THROUGH
PANEL
INTO
BOTOM
PLATE TREATED
2X SILL PLATE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED TERM[E
SILL fuTI WIH SHIELD
ANCHOR BOLTS AT CONCRETE
a €' o.c. MAX.

Check perm rating of foam core insulationto determine

whetheradditionalvapor barrieris required.Consultlocal -.'-- 4" GRAVEL
codes.
P^ryEL AT StLL WITH FLOOR JOrST
BELOW CONNECTION P4ltEL AT StLL CONNECTTON W|TH PANEL AT SILL ON SLAB-ON-GRADE
FLOOR JOIST ADJACENT

Richard J. Vitutlo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville, Marvland

STRUCTURAL
PANELS
 Plonkond BeqmConsfruclion 34r
S I M P L E F R A M T N G :T h i s i i l u s t r a r o ns h o w st h e
"positive" or downward bending that occurs
in
conventionallramingwith simplespans.

CANTILEVERED FRAMTNG:This iilustration

shows_the combin€tionof ,,positive.'(downward)
and "negative" (upward) bending that mcuri
with beams spliced at quarterpoint producino
supported beam and cantilevered beam. The two
typ€s of bending counterbatance ercn ottrerl
which_ produces more uniform strsses and ure;
material.more efficiently. In-line joists simplify
Plywood subfloorino-

MOMENT SPLICE:CompressionstressrstakenIn bear-

Ing on the wood througha steelcompresionplate.Ten-
sron ts taken across.thesplice by meansof iteel straps
and sheerptates,Sideplatesand strapsare usd to hoid
sidesand tops of membersin position. Shearis taken
by shearplatesin end grain. Bolts and shearplatesare
usd asdesignand constructionconsiderations reauire.
SIMPLE aNo caI.IT]IEVERED-RA;]FE

GROOVEO PLANK
MOLOEO SPLINE

JOINT TYPES IN EXPOSED PLANK

CEILINGS

OEAIGN TAELE FOR NOMINAL 2 IN. PLANK

REQ-UIRED VALUES FOR FIBE€ gTRESS IN BENOING (t)
20. 30, oR 40 Le/se FT wrTHrN a oeauidiioii ANO
ro suPPoRT saFELY a LrvE Loao oF
LlJ,ior roN %?"Yrtt"."".oi556.=5!"'I:A:l
TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C TYPE O

H
n?a

ffi
z
Ft-
{l =
ffi
)#+
LIVE
U:
JJ THREE SPAN COMBINATION SINGLE
ffi
L
SPAN LOAO U t
(FT) (PSF ) E E
o IPSI) (PSI} {PSI) (PSI)
t
(PSI)
E
PS I) {PSII (PSI) (PSI) (PSI)
2/24o 360 576,000 JOU 239,000 288 30s,000 360 408,000 360
2/3oo 360 720,@O 360 299,000 M2,O@
t /360 360
288 381,000 360 509,000 360 5s3,000
864,0m 360 3s9.000 288 457,000 360 611,000 360 664.000
t/24o 480 864,000 480 359,000 384 457,000
6 t/300 480 1,080,000 480 611,000 480 664,0@
480 448,0m 384 571,000 480
t/36o rt80 1,296,000 480 764,000 480 829,0@
538.0@ 384 685,@0 480 917.0@ 480 995,000
l/z4o 6m 1,152,ffi 6m 478,0@ ,180 609.000 6m
40 f /3oo 6@ 1,440,m0 60Q 598,0m 480
815,000 6m 885,000
762,@0 600 1,019,0@ 600 r,106,000
.t / 360 6@ r,728,W 6m 717,O@ 480 914,m0 6m 1,223,On 6oo 1,327,000
//24o 490 915,000 490 380,O00 392 484.@O 490
t/too rt90 1,r43,000 490 475.0m 392 605,000
047.000 490 )oz,ooo
t/360 490 t,372,W 490 809,0@ 490 878,000
490 570.0m 392 726,m0 490 971.000 490 1,054,000
//24o 653 1,372,W 653 570,000 522 726,@0 653 971,000 653
30 l/ 3oo 653 1,71s.0@ 653 712,On 1,05i1,000
6s3 522 907,000 653 1,213,0@ 653 1,317,000
,f/ 360 2,058.0@ ON 854,000 1,088.000
a2z 653 1,456.000 653 1,581,0@
l/240 817 1,829,0@ 817 759,0m 't.405,000
4O | /3oo 417 1,187,0@
653 968,0o0 817 1,294,O@ 417
817 949,000 1,209,000
f/ 360 817 2,744,W
ocJ 817 1,618.0m 417 1,756,000
817 1,139.000 653 r,45r,000 817 1,941,000 817 2,107.0@
t/24O 640 1.365,000 640 567,000 clz 722,@0 640 966,0@
20 .l/3oo 640 1,707,O@ 640 708.0@ 640 1,049,000
512 903,000 640 t.208,000 6,40 r,311,000
l/36c' 040 2,048,m0 640 850,0@ 512 1.083,000 &0 1,rt49,000 640 r,573,0@
2/24o 853 2,O48,W 85:l 850,0@ 682 1,083,@0 853 1,449,0m
a 30 t/ 3oo 2,560,0m 853 1,063,000 8s3 1,573,0@
t/36o
062 1.345,000 o$ 1,811,000 qt?
1,966,000
853 3,O72,W 853 1,275,000 682 1.625.000 853 2,174,W 853 2,359,000
f/24o 1,m7 2,731,0@ '1,067 l, I 34,000 853 1,t44.000 1,67 1,932,0@ 1,067 2,097,W
4O ,/aoo 1,067 3,413,0@ t,m7 1,417,O@ t,805,000
t/360 1.m7 4,096.0@
69J I,067 ?,145,000 1.067 2,621,000
r,067 1,700,0@ 853 2,i66,000 1.067 2,898.0@ 1,067 3,146.m0

Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 342 Plonkqnd Beqm Froming

SPACE

E'EAM AND C;OLUMN CONNECTION SPACEO BEAM AT FC)UNDATION SPACEO BEAM BEARING ON
INTERIOR COLUMN

WITH CONCEALEO

BEAM HANGER CONNECTTON SPACED BEAM BEARING AT CORNER CONNECTION

EXTERIOR \^/ALL

4Xe'PLYWOOO
SHEATHING
METAL STRAP
(OPTIONAL FOR
CONCEALEO 2X4 16"O.C
CONNECTION)
INSULA

so,-ro *ie
RAFTERS
NOTCHED INTO
RIOGE BE

ROOF
OECKING

BUILT. UP
INSULATEO

PANEL
2XB
RAFTER

4X4 POST 2 X rO'S

RooF BEAM AT coLUMN aNontocE RAFTER ANO PLATE OETAIL SPACED ROOF BEAM AT EXTERIOR
COLUMN

Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 TimberFromeConstruclion 343

COLLAR TIE
PURLIN
/-/---RooF

OUEEN POST ALIGNS WTH

CONNECTING POST
PRINC1PAL GIRTr
RAITR
CONNECTS TO PUE COMMON
RA-ER

PLATE ---\
GIRT /

PRINCIPAL POST
PRINCIPAL A.ND COMMON
RAFTER \^/ITH PURLINS (ON PTATE)
OPEN MORTISE
AND TENON
JOINT
COLUR TIE
i.'...--COMMON
RAffER
BENT GIRT

COLLAR TIE
FLMR €IST

KNEE BRACE

rcSTS NEED
UNDER

ffiINCIPAL rcST
WALL ruRLIN
COMMON FTAFTER (ON PT-ATE)
SUMMER BEAM
RIreEPOLE
RINCIPAL RAffiR BENT
CONNECTS TO GIRT
PRINOPAL POST COMMON
PURLIN
TIME]ER SILL
...-2xesrLL
RATER
JOINS
PRINCIPAL POST DIRECTLY
-\
TIMBER FRAME DTaGoNAL srRUT TO TOP OF
FL@R ryPE
(PREFERRED FG 2 X 12 SjLL CfO SUPrcRT POST AS
UPPER FLOOR DESS) WALL SYSTEM)
BENT
615T POCKS
MASONRY FOUNDATTON WALL (MUST
BE DETAILED FOR HEAW POINT ilP. BENT
FOR FL(:m JOIST
LOADS FROM POSTS) LryP. WALL
BENT METAL STRAP TO SECURE KNEE
STANDARD 2X CONSMUCTION BRACE CONNECTING
FLOOR ryPE EREFER4}LE NME]ER SILL GIRT
FOR FIRST FLOOR DECK) --./ 1A- DAMEER ANCHOR PRINCIPAL rcST
BOLT AT 6'O'O.C. MA
CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL PRINCIPAL RAFTER AND PTJRLIN
TYPICAL TIMBER FRAME (SHOMr'ING TWO ROOF AND FLOOR TYPES) TIMBER FRAME ROOF TYPES

GENERAL ROOF SYSTEMS

Timber frame buildingsare characterizedby large.exposed
timber structuralmembers.The distinctionbetween timber
framing and other types ot heaw timber construction is
somewhat subjective.but in a true timber frame. the posts,
beams, and bracesare @nnectedto one anotherwith ele-
ganl, largely all-woodioints based on very old traditions.
Soundtimber frare constructionrequireshigh standardsof
design,engineering,and workmaNhip. lt can be compared
to the craftsmanshipof €binetmaking, ratherthan to con-
ventionalwood frame @nstruction.
One ot the reasons tirter frare @nstruction faded from
popularatyaround 1900.after enturies of dominance,was
the cost of its labor-intensive
buildingrethods. Duringthe
past twenty years, tecttniqueshave ben developedthat
oftset this drawback: the frame €n be Drefabri€ted in
shops with heavy tools, and structural,insulatedwall pan-
els can be used to build the walls. Connectiondetails in
true timber frame constructionare still r@ted in th€ ancient
wood-pegged,mortiseand-tenonjoint. More modernwood
connectorsof steel Gn be used. dependingon budgetand
aesthetacs,but many would say the resulting structure
would not be a true timberframe.
Typically,posts in timbeFframedbuildingsare spacedin a
grid, 8 to 16 ft apan. These relativelylarge posts suppon
beams, girts, connectors.plates, and principal rafters. In
turn, those members support rafters, purlins, summer
beams. and ioists, which are soaced at 2 to 6 tt centers.
The relativelylargetimbersmaketimber frame construction
inherentlylire resistant,qualifyingas ClasslV construction
under most buildingcodes.
The walls and r@l in a timber frame, freed of the task of
supportinggreat loads,can be made oI materialsthat need
to function only as a rain screen and cunain walls. These
materials are attachedto the outside of the lar@r. struc-
tural members,enclosingthe spacewhile exposingthe tim-
bers to the interior and protecting the frame from
deterioration.
Nonstructuralfoam-core panels with an exterior layer of
wood sheathing,a foam core, and an interiordrywallfinish
layer are extremely energy efficient and cost€ffective for
6e in wall and root constructionin a timber frame. Some-
times it is preferableto use slructural loam{ore panels,
with oriented-strandboard {OSB)or plywood sheathingon
bo(h sides. as they bette. resist warping and lateralforces
and provide a better nailing surface for attaching interior
lrim. €binets, anwork, etc. Thesestructuralpanelsare typ-
icallyinstalledoutsidea layerof gypsum boardthat is back-
screwed to the inner OSB skin.
ANATOMY OF A
TIMBER FRAME BUILDING
In the design process. the general layout of timbers is
delerminedfirst, basedon the rough programand layouto{
spaces. Once the wood species has been selected,each
timberis sizedindividually.
Next,the connection details,or
ioinery,andthe embellishments andfinishesaredesigned.
A typical timber frame can be divided into four maior sys-
tems: walls, fl@rs, roof, and bents. Walls, in the terminol-
ogy of timber framing.are planarcompositionsof timbers
parallelto the .idge. Bents run perpendicular to the walls
and are often the primary preassembledsections of the
building.Usually.bents includ€the principalstructuralposts
ot the frame and the major supportingra{ters.The space
between two bents is calleda bay and is generallybetween
10 and 16 ft wide. lf the roof structureis not includedin the
bent system, a large timber plate is set at the top of the
bent or wall for the roof framingto rest on.
More than any other factor. the arrangementof timbers in
the roof determineswhether the walls or the bents will be
the principalstructuralunit. Framesare often definedby the
type of r@f they suppon, since the roof is usuallythe most
difficultaspectof the frame to design,detail.and erect. The
choiceof roof system most appropriateto a particularbuild,
ing dependson the shapeand pitch of the roof, the loading.
w@d species,availabletimb€r length, floor plan, and per
sonalaestheticpref6r€nces.
NOTES
'1.
W@d shrinks@nsiderablyacrossthe grainbut very little
along the grain, and all dimensions based on sections
through plates and sills must accOuntfor this shrinkage.
Bents that connect principalrafters directly to the posts
and are not interruptedby plates will have negligibledjl-
ferentialmov€ment b€twe€n r@l and wall joints.
2, Timbersystems that rely on full.]engthplates,sills, ridge-
poles, or tie beams tend to require timbers of consider,
able length, which are scarce. Therefore, these lonq
lengthsmust be assembledfrom shortermemberstreJ
together with scarf ioints. Since most sawmills cannot
obtaintimbers longerthan 30 ft, it is imponant to consult
with a structuralengineerand localsawmill to determine
the most practicaldimensionstor the timbers before the
designis completed.
3. Dependingon budgetor aestheticpriorities,hybridsys-
tems can be devised, such as timber trame walls with
conventionalrool framingor convenlionalstud walls with
a timber frame roof. Consult a structuralenqineerabout
the design,detailing.and Integration of thes; systems

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland

Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PEj Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead. New Hampshire

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 344 TimberFromeConstruction
SUPPORTING BEAM -
'\LUIRAL AXIS SHII I5 BLLOW WOOD POST
UPPEP Trf AEAM CENTERLINE BECAUSE
\ ,
\\ ,/ OF WOOD REMOVAL 1.

N CENTERLTNE oF BEAM .
'
HIGH

LOW
SPLINE

SPL]NE

..-
KNEE BRACE

CONNECTING OR
BENT GIRT TO
POST FOUR,WAY SPLINE JOINT
HARDWOOD
SPLINE FLUSts
TO BONOM
OF BEAM

WOOD BEAM
{ FULLY HOUSED / TAPERED
ro*t'a--o.o- TUSK ENON - PEGS. WP
TENON JOINT
FULLY HoUSED soFFtr rENoN _/
- KNEE BRACE
TUSK AND SOFFIT TENON JOINTS

PRINCIPAL POST SINGLE SPLINE JOINT

TENON LOCKS N OTE
NOTE MORTISE AT
CORNERS OF SILL Using through-splines made of hardwood leaves all the
For basic structural rigidity within a timber frame, the knee pegs loaded parallel to the grain, with plenty'of available
brace is a critical component. lt is typi€lly used between DOWTAIL TENON =-
end{rain distance, and avoids loaded edges in the posts
the upper ends of vertical posts and horizontal beams, but Spline edges often are left prominent to achieve a decora,
may also be used at the base of a oost or to brace an
Inclined member, such as a rafter. Rigrdrty in a frame can be o tive effect.

achiev€d by using a few welltlaced long braces or several SPLINE JOINTS

shorter braces. Braces typically should not be shorter than
half the length of the beam-to$eam span of the post. DOVETAIL PRINCIPAL RAffiR WE
MORTISE IENON IMc) TIE BAM -
KNEE BRACE TIMBER SILL

DOVETAIL MORTISE AND TENON

MC)RTISE IN MVETAIL UP
rcST
,_ 1" SHOULDER TO
/ INCREASE BENING
AREA

k"".\"

a
DOVETAIL MORTISE
FURED OR JOWLED
rcST Tc> PROVIDE
GRATER BEARING
SURFACE FOR BAM
RAFTER JOINT NOT E
OPEN MORTISE.AND-TENON JOINTS A tying joint is a combinationof joints used to connectsev-
eral members.The intersectionof a principalpost, a plate,a
HOUSED DOVETAIL WEDGES NGHTEN JOINT tre beam,and a rafter is known as a tying joint.
TO REDUCE EFFECTS OF
SHRINKAGE, PREVENTTNG TYING JOINT
WITHORAWAL 1
N OTE
The basic mortise-and-tenon joint can be very effective in
resrsting both tension and compression forces. To increase
tensrle strength, increase the depth and thickness of the
tenon and use additional pegs il the width and length of the
tenon allow_

BASIC MORTISE-AND.TENON JOTNT

ELEVATION
NOTE
Scarfjoints are lapjoints used to splicetwo or more shorter
timbers into one long timber.Althoughthere are many vari-
ations,scarfjoints are used primarilyfor plates and sills that
demandlongcontinuoustimber.
LAP JOINTS SCARF JOINT

NOTE
A beveled shoulder or housed ioint is used to connect all
load-bearing beams, such as bent and connecting girts and
summer beams, to posts. Angled valations can be used
when principal rafters join to posts or for diagonal braces.
The depth of the shoulder depends on loaaing, torsion.
other joinery In the area, and wood species
SHOULDERED MORTISE-AND.TENON
JOINTS
WOOD JOINERY
Most timber lraming joints are variations on the mortise
and tenon. in which a tongue on one timber is received by a
slot in the other and locked with rounded pegs driven
through holes drilled through both parts of the ioint. The
simplest verston of this jotnt is useo in compression situa-
tions or for situations with minimal loadinq. Knee braces
and collar ties generally use an angled varrat-ion
Spline joints are similar to a mortrse and tenon, exceot that
a third member, called a spltne or "tree tenon" (usually
hardwood), is introduced to connect b€tween monised tifr
bers and to serye as the tie. Spline joints are an effective
way to achieve minimum end and edge distances without
being dependent on the size and capacity of the receiving
oost or beam.
Lap joints, such as simple overlaps or dovetails, constitute
the other broad category of joints used in timber frames.
Scarfs, used to splice timbers along their length, are va.ia
tions of the lao ioint.
Joints are chosen on the basis of the tasks they are to ful-
fill, including locking the frame together, bearing weight,
and translerring forces and building loads from one timber
to another.
Compound joinery, such as where two timber valley rafters
meet at a purlin, is one ol the difficult aspects of timber
framing. The complex geometry and the precision required
demand master-level craft smanshio.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber, Ph.D., pE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire

HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
 TimberFromeConstruction 345
- PLW@D SHEATHING BRACE OFFSET ON POST TIMBER
2X4W@DSLEEPERS BY AMOUNT EOUAL TO POST
AT 24" O.C. FASTENED THICKNESS OF TIMBER GIRT SPLINE

TO DECK FRAMEO WALL TIMBER POST

PLUS INTERIOR
TAPED SEAM
FINISH
RIGID INSUUTION
FIBERGLASS
VAPOR BARRER INSULATION
O/ArcR BARRIER
OMINED
FOR CGRIW) PLW@D
.,
2 X 4 STUDS SHEATHING 2X4
16' TO 24', O.C - 1'4' RtGrD SPLINE
PLWOOO (HiDOEN)
tuwooD FOAM
SUBFLMR\
2 X 4 PERIMETER SUBFLOOR - BOX BEAM
2XESILL
ANCHOR PANEL SPLINE
L FoUNDATIoN WALL (HIDDEN)
TONGUE.AND-GR@VE ANCHOR
aT 8 -O' L FOUNDATIoN WALL
BOLT AT
wooD DECK (aLso a'o' o.c. MAX.
o.c. Mg 2XASILL
cErLlNG FTNTSH) 2 X 12 SILL
This system reducesthe exposureof the timber frame by N OTE
RMF FJRLINS AT paniallyconcealingthe frame in the wall system. It allows
4LO. O.C. Structural ioam core panels (with w@d sheathing on both
air infiltration
due to shrinkageand movementand requires sides ol the foam core) may b€ needed at areas that may
an exteriorrigid toam insulationlayerto minimizethe poten- have excess stress or loading with interior tinish attached
tialfor air movementandcondensation. to the frame before the panels are attached.
\^/OOD SLEEPERS AND TONGUE-AND. INFILL WOOO STUD SYSTEM FOAM CORE PANEL WALL SYSTEM
GROOVE CEILING ON ROOF PURLINS
TIMAER POST ---
F PLWOOD SHEATHING FOAM TIMBER SILL TONGUE
DRWALL AND CORE ROfED TO AND.
VArcR BARRIER PANEL-\ RECEIVE STRAF GROOVE
RIGID FOAM (oMrnED FOR TIMBER IN\ I I I
wooD
INSUUTION WITH CURIT/) APPUED FLOOR
1 JA' MIN, AIR SILL =-
TO OUTSIDE OF
SPACE AE}OVE FRAME BEFORE
NATLERS -

ROOF
BMN SPIKES
PURLINS
AT 4' INTERV&S
aT 4'O' 2X a
INTO IMBERS
o.c. SILL
2X4SruDS //pLwOOD
2X4W@D 24' O.C
NALER , SHaTHTNG 2X1
%wooD SILL-
SUBFLOOR _-}
@NNECTNG GIRT
INSUUTION
VAPOR E}ARRIER BOX BAM TIMBER
GYPSUM BOARD
GIRDER
2XASILL
CELING FINISH, TIMBER
APFLIED 2 X 12 SILL
HRST. €IST
AfrAGED L gouNoaroN waLL
TO NALERS
ANCHOR BOLT AT A'{" O.C. MA
vl/OOD NAILERS ON ROOF PURLINS EXTERIOR vt/OOD STUD SYSTEM TIMBER SILL AND JOIST SYSTEM
DRWALL AND TIMBER POST FON CORE PANEL
VArcR BARRIER
(oMmED NMBER rcST
RAKE BOARD SfuNES NEEED TO FOR CLARIT.4
AND TRIM JOIN PNELS NOT APfuIED 2XAWOODCAP
FAIING ON ruRLINS. TO OUTSIDE U€OUND rcST
AP4Y AT TOP FACE OF FRAME 3' RtGtO TO RE€NT UTERAL
BEFORE NAILERS FOAM MOWMENT

2 X 4 NAILERS ANCHOR BOLT

24' O.C. AIR SPACE aT a!o, o.c. MA.
FASTENED BEruEEN
FOAM AND
PLruOOD
PLWC)OD SHEATHING
FASCIA SUBFLOOR \
BOARD. PLWOOD
.a -
SHEATHING
3' \ r.to.
FASEN JOIST HOLD-
TO
DOWN
NAILER
STRAP
@NSRUCTION 2XA 2 LAYERS OF FASTENED
ADHESre SILL . 1 ' RIGID FOAM TO rcST
R@F (omroNAL)
ruRLINS 2XASILL
aT 4'-' O.C. -BOXBEAM
\
rcNSTRUCTURAL FOAM \\>-1
CGE PANEL (CEILING x 3 SPACER
FINISH ANAGED AT \ -- 2 X 12 S|LL
UNOERSIOE) FouruoaroN warr
CONNECTNG GIRT ANCHOR BOLT AT A'€' OC MA.
NONSTRUCTURAL FOAM CORE HORIZONTAL NAILER WALL SYSTEM STANDARD 2X LUMBER SILL
PANELS ON ROOF PURLINS
ruE}ER rcST LIGHMEIGHT PLWOOD SUBFLOOR
WOOD
DRWALL AND TRUSSES AT
VAPOR BARRIER 2'{' O.C.
NMBER rcST NOTCHED
(OMreD FOR FOR BAND JOIST
C4RIT\4 APPLIED
TO OUTSIDE OF METAL HOLD-MW
FIBERGCSS S.ruP AT ACH rcST
INSUUTION
2 X 10 BLOCKING
ON THREE SIDES.
TIGHT TO rcST
-- PLWMD 2 \ 12
AAND JOIST

2\a
- PLWOOD BASE UNMATED
UPPER SILL
JOIST, 2XASILL
ts FoUNDATION waLL CONCREE
ANCHOR EOLTS AT FOUNDATION
N OTE a'€'o.c. MM.
2 X 10S
This system allows a great deal ot insulationto be packed aT 1 6' O.C
into the nonstructuralwall cavity between trusses. The 2 X 12 PRESSURE
foundationwall mav be offset to the outside of the truss TREATED SILL,
system {with pilastersadded on the inside to suppon tim- ENENDEO TO
ENERIOR TO RECEIW
ber postsl to avoidthe app€aranceof excessoverhang. WALL @NSTRUCTION
R O (OJ F F R A M
MIIN
NGG HEAD
DEER
RSS . EXTERIOR LIGHTWEIGHT I/VOOD STICK FRAME SILL AND FLOOR DECK
TRUSS SYSTEM

RichardJ. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsville.Marvland

TeddBensonand Ben Brungraber, Ph.D.,PE: BensonWoodworkingCo.,Inc.;Alstead,New Hampshire

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
346 TimberFromeConstruction
SPACE FOR WtRtNG TONGUE ANO GROOVE
AEruEEN NAILERS ., WOOD FLOORING

EMBELLISHMENTS
STOP AT

DISTANCE FROM
ALL JOINTS

\-- GYPSUM
couNoeo gNo _
BOARD
TREATMENT \
2X4NAILER
WITH CHAMFER
T H R O U G S ' aT 24" O.C --
AT
MORTISE WITH 1/2, X 3" NAILER
ENENDED
ENON '/a' RUBBERIZED
SOUND.
--
PENDANT END DEADENING MAT --
EMBELLISHMENT

END AND EDGE EMBELLISHMENTS UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE TIMBER POST OR RAFTER AT FOAM
CORE PANEL WIRE CHASE DETAIL
TONGUE-AND- -- TIMBER POST BATHROOM SUBFLOOR CHASI WIDTH
GR@VE AND DIRECTION TIMBER POST
FLOORING /'4' DEEP NOTCH RESTRICTED BY
/ CUT IN POST TO
GLUED AND IM€RSECTING TONGUE-AND-GROOW
BLIND ACCEM FL@RING TIMBERS \ FINISH FLMRING
NAILED CIO HIDE GAPS FROM
FLOOR SHRINKAGE) TIMBER
JOIST

5X
TIMEER
SILL-.---

2XA CHASE AREA,

--CONSTRUCTION SILL -
ADHESIVE
\ DRWALL
CEILING
- FL@R JOIST
N OTE .!5x7€tsr il. \2 x 12 ADD IIC''THICK SHEET
" SILL METAL PROTECTOR
Maintain % in. gap between flooring edge and wall for ANCHOR BOLT
OWR WIRE CHASE
exoansion and contraction- AT A'{'OC. MA

S T . A . ND A R D T O N G U E - A N D . G ROOVE UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE TIMBER.SILL WIRE CHASE DETAIL

FLOOR BETWEEN TIMBER JOISTS
---- POST
2Xa
BATHRMM SUBFLOOR GYPSUM
BOARO
SMALLER FINISH
JOISTS.
AOSER SPACE
BEruEEN

4"\
2X4'S
FOR POST
TENON
ANO AEAM /
WIRING COVER -
ruO"PIECE
BASEBOARD
SOLID ALMKING
TO SUPPORT POST
2\A
SILL
2X'S FORM
CHASE AND 2 X 12 SILL
SUPPORT
DRWALL CONCRETE WALL

CONffiETE
.\ SGB ON GRADE
onwaLL cerLrruG

SOUND-RESISTANT FLOOR DETAIL UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH BOX BEAM SILL v\/IRE CHASE DETAIL
DROPPED CEILING DETAIL
CEILING PUNX
AT NORMAL FURRING STRIPS
HEIGHT / WAINSCOT
WRE IN WALL
SUBFLMR CHASE ETENDS
FROM UNDER-fuOOR
SERVCE CHASE OR
TIMBER.SILL CHASE -
BASEBOARD.

WOOD
FURRING
STRIPS\
CAR
,rtMt
Y!
ORWALL

-_ JOIST

-- ,zn'auegenzro FL@RING
DAM
SOUND. .!
. DTADENING 2X'S SUPPORT
MAT (OffTONAL) SUBFLOOR PANEL
\
-- DROPPED TONGUE
coNsnucTtoN E}ASE:E}OARD \^/AINSCOT CHASE
ADHESIW AND€ROOVE
CEILING PGNKS CHASE

GYPSUM BOARD CEILING WITH UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH SURFACE-MOUNTED \ffIRE CHASES AT
SPACERS DROPPED FLOOR DETAIL FOAM CORE PANEL

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Tedd Eenson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 PoleConstruction 347
NOTES
RIGIO INSULATION
1. Poleembedmentdepth dependson sdl, slopeand seis- TONGUE ANO
mtc zone. GROOVE
2. Cross-bracing betweeil polesmay be requiredto ieiisi
DECKING \\\
STANOINGi SEAM
lateralloads il shallow embedment.T.eat all exposed METAL ROOF
surfaceswith app.ovedp.essurelreatment.
3. Pole nolching tor major beams can help align besms
and walls that otherwisewould be out of ptu;b due to
pole warp. Notchingimprovesbearingof majorbeams
but weakenspples.
4. R6fs, walls andtloors shold be insutatedto suit lftal
climatic conditioos.Wall and sotfit insulationshould
meetcontinuouslyat the ioint. penetrafionof insulation
shouldbe minimal.
5. Varioussidingtypes can be used.
OAPPED POLE
6. Dapping.is a U.S. carpentryterm lor clning wood to CONNECTIONS
receivetimb€r connectors.

tffi

lffi-\":fl
lffi'1
-x\^-+
t7 \r:::
tE/==--=l
ir---J
KNEE
EEIN
ol[-J
KNEE ERACINO
rl|-'-l CONCRITE

ffIsfl8%g+',s"" BACKFILL

wooo
ffi
HURRICNE
cLrPS

'"iz-r?,/,)
J/
|
I
|
DECK
JOIST

SPACEO
BEAMS
DAPPED
CONNECTION

TREATEO
wooo
POLE

IEOMETRIC
GRAVEL

CONCRgTE
FOOTING

,TNOTE'
MORE
THICK
BE USEO
DIAGONAL
ARACING
LUMBER
THAN
CAN
2"
ALSO
FOR

OF POLE HOUSE

SPIKEO GRIO WITH. TAMPEO

CURVEO FACE TAMPEO TAMPEO
\ FILL FILL
To accEPT PoLE

)
I TREAT€O

H/
I l/ -z
TREATEO
wooo
POLE
2',-O"
wooo
POLE

GALANIZEO
METAL
STRAP

MIN.

-^r-aw
3?i-J1?'S.?'"
POLE CONSTRUCTION
CONCRETE
FOOTING
CONCR€TE
FOOTING
LAG

CLIMATES
BOLTS

FOR USE IN TEMPERATE

REINFORCEO
CONC;RETE
( FROST
NO DEEPER THAN
LINE
2'.O'}

COLLAR
CONCRETE
FOOTING
CONCRETE
\^/ITH EFIKEO
ANCHORAGI
FOOIING
CONCRET€
FOOTING

CONC:RETE
STR
FOOTTNO
P ANCHOR
WITH

Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
348 Log Construcfionqnd Defoils
RAFTERS GENERAL
Residential log buildings have become a significant pan of
the home construction industry. The log house industry
ROOFING
comprises two main segments: manufactured. or milled
rrX4ORrX6) houses built ffom kits and custom'built log houses House.
built from kits use logs that have been machined or milled
to a uniform shape in a variety ol profiles. Although kit-built
PURLINS. SET houses can be put together quickly and with few construc
INTO NOTCHED tion skills, the finished product tends to look artilicial. Cus-
tom-built log houses are produced from hand-peeled, hand-
notched logs in their natural prolile. These houses more
closely resemble a traditional log structure. Kits for hand-
hewn houses are also avaalable, but their reconstruction on
site is often complicated because ot longer log lengths and
the heavier weight ot the logs. A hydraulic crane is usually
required. Many building otticials require a structural engi-
neer's approval to accompany the plans, whether the log
house company generates these plans or an architect hired
by the owner.

PUNK NOTES
FLOORTNG
1- Hewing logs square removes most of the sapwood,
which reduces the weight of the log and its susceptibility
to insect damage and rot- The flat surfaces of square
logs are also easy to work with.
WALL LOGS 2. Damage {rom rot (fungal decay} can be prevedted or con-
trolled in several ways: remove sapwood, which is high
in cellulose and lignum on which fungi teed; reduce the
FLOOR log's moisture content to 207o or less by air or kiln dying;
or provide proper air circulation under tloors and around
foundations. Generous root overhangs and properly
maintained gutters help keep water oft the sides ol the
building.
FLOOR JOISTS 3. Insect damage from termites. beetles, and carpenter
PUCED IN ants can be prevented by properly seasoning the wood
MORTISE CUT (kiln or air drying) and by providing continuous vapor barri-
IN SILL LOG ANO ers under ground floors. Also, good air circulation can
FLOOR GIRDER help prevent intestations.
4. Exposed interior logs must be coordinated carefully with
placement of plumbing, electrical wiring, and mechanical
STONE AND
eouioment.
CONCRflE
FOUNOATION 5. Good drainage around the building is important, since log
buildings are susceptible to rot.
6. Manufacturers of prefabricated log structures offer
milled log details to reduce air leakage and improve
weatherability of the wall. Such details include tongue-
FOUNDATION
and€roove joints, dovetailing use of steep splines. and
SILL LOGS butyl gaskets.
7. Spaces between individual logs (chink area) are filled
with chinking, which can vary trom less than an inch to
three or more inches in width.
CHECKS IN UPPER
SURFACE OF LOG
(AT EXTERIOR ONLY)
R E O U I R ES E A L I N G
AGAINST WATER
MORTAR PENETRATION WALL LOGS
CHINKING
CHINKING

- SEAUNT WITH
GAPS
BACKER ROD
CAUSED
BY LOG SHOULDER
SELF.DRAINING OF
SHRINKAGE CHECKS IN UTERAL
LOWER SURFACE GROOVE
OF LOG NEED MUST FIT
NO SEAUNT SNUGLY
ALONG ITS
ENTIRE
PRESERVATIVE
LENGTH
SOLUTION OF
WATER REPELLENT UTERAL GROOVE
AND MILDEWCIDE SCRIBED AND COPEO
TO LOG SURFACE TO FIT LOWER LOG
v\/OOD PRESERVATION-DETAIL SCRIBED OR CHINKLESS LOG JOINERY

RECOMMENDEO (I'SYNTHETIC'' CHINKING)

SYNTHETIC
oR wooo
@
H,
CHINKING
MATERIAL

URETHANE
@
ix\
FOAM (APPLtED
FROM INSIDE)
K@'
SCRIBED
M
WOOD STRIPS
OR POLES AS
CHINKING
(@
MATERIAL 2-5|DEO SAWN OR ROUNO LOG ROUND LOG, 2-S|DED LOG, 2-StOED SAWN
(NAIL TO HEWN. STACKED CHINKLESS STACKED FUT
WITH CHINKING LOG, STACKED
FASTEN) WITH CHINKING OR SCRIBED FUT WITH
RECOMMENOED (WOOO CHINKING) SPACERS AND
CH INKING
CHINKING DETAILS TYPICAL LOG WALL PROFILES

Arthur Thiede: Log Homes Connecr: Hailey, ldaho

A
(A'
\v HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
 LogConstructionond Detoils g4g

PLYWOOO
SPLINE

CORNER
POST

SADOLE NOTCHES FULL DOVETAIL HALF DOVETAIL V.NOTCHES POSTEO CORNER

TYPICAL CORNERS

LOG POST
JACK POINTS
r/4" srEEL
PUTE
REMOVABLE
2X OR WOOD JACK
LJOIST RAtrER
CONCRETE
FOOTING
GALVANIZED
STEEL POST
BASE (FIXED
ADJUSTABLE AflER ALL
BASE USING SHIMS
PLUMB LOG ENDS AOJUSTMENT
IS TAKEN UP)

LOG POST
PURLIN ROOF CONSTRUCTION
USING CANTILEVEREO RAFTERS ADJUSTING
BRACKET
TO SUPPORT OVERHANG AT EAVES
ADJUSTING
NUTS
THREAOED
ROO

CONCRETE
FOOTING

ADJUSTABLE POST BASE

IN CRAWL SPACE APPLTCATION
MITIGATION OF SETTLING-DETAILS
STAGGERED LOG ENDS

SECTION_LOG RAFTER CONSTRUCTION F

l-
U

c
F

F
I

B
9
I

z
I
f
a
E

BEAVER CUT LOG ENDS

SECTION_LOG PURLIN ROOF CONSTRUCTION Shrinkage varies according to the moisture content ol the
logs and the humidily level at the building site.
R O O F S T R U C T U RE - D E T A I L S WALL SETTLING IN LOG
CONSTRUCTION

ROOFS SETTLING DETAILS

The rcol system on a log house should be caretully
thoughtout. Since many log houses are built rn areas oi
high snow load'ng, Iog root systems are more complex
tnan those In conventionally framed structures. Although
log roof members are desirable from an aesthetrc stan-d-
point, engineered values for logs are difticult to obtain
because the logs are not graded. tt rs theretore necessary
to burld-a structural roof of engrneered materials over the
rog root, resuttrng in, essentially, lwo structural rools. The
engrneered r@f can be buried in the insulation or cold root
space, but doing this adds considerablv to the cost of the
ARCHEO LOG ENDS structure. Log or timber framed trusses can be used to sur
pon purlins (and produce a dramatic visual effect), but this
LOG END PROFILES rs also an expensive alternative_
Log movement and senling caused by shrankagecan be a
significantproblemin log construction.The problemcan be
mitigatedthroughcarefuldetailing.
Shrinkageproblemsare more prevalentin custombuitt
houses.which use full roundlogs,than in manulactured
or
milled log structuresbecausethe latter use kilndried loos.
Althoughcustomlog companieskeep shrinkaget9 a mm,.
mum by using dead standingtrees, the moisiure content
usuallyis stillhigherthanin kilniried logs.

Arthur Thiedej Log Homes Connecr;Hailey,ldaho

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 350 TimberBridges
GEOTEXTILE FABRIC
TRAtrtrIC
, STEEL
RAIL ANACHED
RETAINER ANGLE
TO POST
FOR ASPHAL]
?',*I @7, SR!i'"JJ*=,'5H''
"*
rcST
- WEARTNG SURFACtr
TIMBER CURB
(ASpHALI. ryp )

CONTINUOUS WIDTH
FiflEsffi::l
,
NA,IL-t--AMIN,ATED
-., STEEL DOWEL CONNECTORS (OPTIONAL) DECK (SPANS TO 2,1 FT)
* s.a'- aq^" oeqa r o"-l-
t4 MrN l
TOI
- GLUED-LAMINATED 16"I
DEck PANEL
\ \ \\\ (coNsrRUC]fD OF 2<
MATERIAL ryP)
LONGITUDINAL BAM
SHORT PANEL
TO PROVIDE
DRAINAGE
OPENING
UNDER CURE
-,,' *i\--\
go'- ss'-){
TRANSVERSE
BRACING 25'€'
O.C. MA. (LUMBER
/ STEEL BEARING
BLOCKS ALSO USED)

fry
Tffi
lNTf QMb DIA I ts BtrN I - STEEL
(IF NECESSAF I) PRESTRESSING ROD
L CONTINUOUS STEEL
NOTE BEAM BEARING SHOE ON SUBSRUCTURE \- o"rtrr*t CHANNEL
STEEL PRESTRESSING ROT
Clear spans for glued taminated longitudinal beams are
from 20 to 100 ft. For sawn lumber beams, ctear sDans can 9e msde-.u.pto 25-ft. Wood specresuseJ are generally
DouglasfirJarchor Southernprne.
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL BEAM BRIDGE
LONGITUDINAL DECK DETAILS
--TRAFFIC
RAIL ATACHED

WARING SURFACE
TO POST

(ASPHALT,
_ * - -"rr=-.*
.- . ^ .
ryP )
CURB \{5614f .-
STEEL
o'.*. *"
\IH RESRESSING ROD, NP
DECK (SPAN UP TO 24 FT)
NMBER RflAINER FOR ASPHALT

GEOENILE FABRIC 4A'

LONGITUDINAL DECK

GLUED.UMINATED BEAM
BOX SECTION (SPAN UP TO 70 F'r}

| | \w@D
+
'I re.-<e.
i_l erued 1
.TTFFLNER BEAM /
(Nol REoUIRED FoR ,/
STRESS.UMINATED DECK) --

3+FE=Sf-'fi
il['€BB".3u',"S^RT,--,--' T-SECTION (SPAN LJP TO 63 FT)
NOTE CONCRETE ABUTMENT N OTE

Clear spans for gluedlaminated decks are approxrmately 35 fl
Typrc AL Lo NG rru D I NAL D Ec K su pe nEinucr-UEE
INTRODUCTION
Although wood was pfobably the frrst malefial used to con.
struct a bridge, in the 20th centUry concrete and steel have
became lhe maior bridge constructron mateflals. Wood is
slrll wrdely used for shon- and med,um-span bridges The
strength. light weight, and energy absorpiion propenies
ot
tmber make it a desirable material for bridge construction.
Timber can carry short-term overloads r,iithout adverse
effects. Large wood members are tire resistive, imperyious
lo.contrnuous freezing and thawtng, and resist the harmful
€necb ot de-icing agents.
In modern applications, the life of timber bridges
is
exlend€d to torty years or longer through the use of
vatrve-treated wood, which requires little or no
ireser_
mainte_
nance. I he sp€cifications and standards lor
preservaltve treatment of wood maintained
the
by the Ameri_
can Wood Preseryers Association (AWPA) aie tne most
widely used and comp.ehensive documents covering
treat-
ment procedures for sawn lumber, glued_laminated-trmber
tgruram,,piltng. and poles used tor trmber bridoes.
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
All timber bridges consist of two bastc comoonents_the
superstructure and the subskucture lhe superslructu.e
is
the framework of the bridge span and includes
lhe deck,
I!91 sV91em,main supponing members, raihngs,
and other
rncrdental components. The five basic types oi superstruc_
ture are beam, deck {slab),truss, arch. and suspension.
The
suostructu.e ts the ponron of the bridge that ttansmits
roaos trom the superstructure to the supporting roct
or soil.
rmoer substructutes include abutments and bents. Abut_
me,nts support the two bridge ends, while bents provide
Inlermedrate suppor( f or multiple_spancrossrngs
TIMBER SUPERSTRUCTURES
!9ry9nU.DlNllBEAM(rnbridsedesisn.
measured rn the
rhetonsitude
is
direction of traffic flow). The simp-lesland
most common timber bridge superstructure,the longitudi_
nal.beam type consists ol a deck system supponej by a
series of timber beams between two or more suppons.
Beamsare constructedfrom logs, sawn lumber,gtued-tam_
Inatedtimber(glulam),or lamrnatedveneertumber(LVL).
LONG,TUDINAL DECK:Longitudinat deck or stab suoer-
structuresare constructed ol glulam, nail_laminatedsawn
lumber,or stress-laminatedlumber decks ptacedlonqitudi_
nally b€twe€n supports. with rhe wrde dimensronjf the
lamrnationveniel. In this type of superstructure,the deck
rscesrgnedto resist all appliedloadsand deflectionwithout
aodnpnat supponing members or beams. Nonetheless,
transverse distributor beams are usually attached to the
undersideof the deck to help distributethe load.Maximum
crearspansare approximately35 ft.
TRUSS:Trussesare structuralframesconsistino of straioht
members connectedto form a senes ol triangles.Trusjes
canspandistancesof up lo 250 ft In bridgeapplications, a abutment is a sawn_lumber or glulam spread tooting placed
ryprcar trusssuperstructure consistsot two maintrusses.a
floorsystem,and bracing.Thrstype rs ctassrtied as a deck
truss(rnwhich the deck is at or abovelhe levelof the top
chord)or a through truss (in which the deck is nearthe boi_
tom cttordj.When the herghtof a throught,uss is insuffi_
crenttoJoverheadbracing,rt is calleda half_through or pony
rruss tmDer trussesare constructedin many geometric
configurations,but two of the most popular Uo*_
stnng truss and parallelchord truss. "i"-ttu
ARCH: Arches lsed in clear span timber bridge construc_
tron have glued-laminatedtimbers {or the main members.
This type of superstructure,calleda glulamdeck arch.prob.
ably b€st shows the versatilityof gluiamIn bridgeconstruc_
uon. Ine gtutamarchesare manufactured in segmental,
crrcular,or parabolicshapes.Two basicarch typesare us€d:
lhe twchinge arch(forshortspansof gOft or less)and the
three+tinge arch(forlong spansot betweengOand2OOft).
rne roaowaytor deck arch bridges is supportedby glulam
T-section may be preferable over box section for long spans
because of ease of inspection and maintenance.
ry-prc4L STRESS-LAM I NATED Tt M BER
SUPERSTRUCTURES
post bents connected to the arches with steel gusset
plales. Use ot thrs design is most practical when coiside,
able height is required and wh€n foundations can be con
structed to resist horizontal €nd reactions. lt is oartlcularlv
suitable for deep crossings because long clear spans resuti
rn suDstanltatsubstruclure @st savings.
SUSPENSION: Iimbe. suspension bridges consist of a tim
ber deck structure suspended from flexible steel cables or
charns supported by timber towers. This suDerstructure
typ-e_is capablo ol spanning clear distances oi more than
5uU tt and rs normally used only when span requirements
make other bridge types impractical or when it is not feasi-
ble to use intermediate bents.
TIMBER SUBSTRUCTURES
ABUTMENIS. Abutments support the bridge ends and con_
larn roadway embankmenl material. The simplest timber
drrectlv on the surface of the embankment rf foundation
materia,s permit. Another type is the post abutment, In
wnrch lhe superstructure is supponed on sawn lumber ol
gruram posts connected to a spread footing. pile abutments
may be used tt soils cannot hold footings.
BENTS: Bents are intermediate suppons between abut
menls used lor muttiple.span bridges. They are made f.om
Lmoer prtes or sawn lumber trames, depending on hetgbt
requirements and soil conditions.
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
For design criteria and specifications tor timber bridges.
reter to the current edition of the American Association of
State Highway and Transponation Officials (MSHTO) Stan_
dard Specrfrcations, tor Highway B.idges and ,,Trmbe,
brlogeS Uesrgn, Construction, Inspection, and Mainte-
nance, U.S Department of Agriculture, August 1992.

Richard J- Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Srudio; Crownsviile.

Maryland
Michael A. Ritter, pE, Structural Engineer; for"it pioo"cil
l"o, USDA; Madrson, Wisconsin

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 TimberBridges 35l
BEAM
WTDTH .- LONGITUOINAL BEAM GLUED,LAMINATEO DECK ON GLUED
GMINATED LONGITUDINAL BEAM .-

6 X 6 STAYS BEHIND EACH PILE

\

3 / '2 PRT SSUPE MUTID

TIMBER BACKWALL AAUruENT
PUNKING, FASTENED TO PTLES
STEEL WITH MO ffi NAILS ACH
SIDE -
,uTE
'- 12" X 12. TTMBER
STEEL
BASE PILE ABUTMENT CAP

ANCHOR
BOLT
74'X 30'LONG
4' X 14' W|NG GALVANIZED STEEL
DRIfl PIN
ABUTMEM GE -

STEEL PTATI
BEARING SHOE

TYPICAL BEARING SHOE DETATLS

TIMBER RAILING BOLTED TO POST

LL' ./
6X6TIMBERR)ST wtNG waLL /
12 X 12 NMBER CURB
BOLED TO DEq
TIMBER RETAINER FOR TYPICAL PILE ABUTMENT DETAIL
ASPHALT
UG SCRry
--.-' ASPHIT

-P 1a'aBow
/ I GRADE OR
L WATER LEEL
MIN.
ry.. X 30' GALVANZED
STEEL DRIFT PINS. WP

BRIDGE EDGE CONDITION

MP< 12' DIAMflER TIMBER PILES

rrcST
|Iv .t-n 3' X 1 2' SWAY BRAC)ING

ltl
1

a
:lll
"lll TYPICAL PILE BENT DETAIL
7T' DIAMETER MACHINE BOLTS. WP

1 %' MlN. 2' TO 3'

(coMPACTED) (coMPAffEO)
ASPHALT WEARING
ASPHALT
ilL SURFACE ON GEOTENILE
PAVEMENT
ztr\- -!TOP
LONGruDINAL GLUED. ON
/
( _^^^.^,^.,
OF
FLTruRE
F9.APYI-Y ir6ir6w7v
5Hh',.rG*'- UMINATED
TIMBER
|uNKING
BACK
OECK
WALL AS;PHALT
NMBER

SURFACE
DECK GEOTENILE
FABRIC

RESURFACE J4' DIA. SLOTED

]-qr ABUTMENT CAP OR HEX.HEAD
DOME,
BOLT
146. TO 14. URGER
(PUTE

I Jl
MULTIRAII../VEHICLE PILE GALVANZED DOME-HEAD HOLE
STAY BOLTS fuCED THROUGH THAN BOLT DtA.. WP.)
DECK AND ABUTMEM AP STEEL |uTE
PIG

=l JI STEEL E}OLT
ATTACHMENT
AT TIMEiEFI c:AP
STEEL PI.ATE
SELF.LOCKING
CUT W€HER
BOLTED
NUT

CONNECTION
ON

rlJTl
I ASPHALT
SURFACE ON
GEOTEXNLE _
WEARING %. THICK STEEL
PCTE NOTCHED
IMO DECK
ffi
2i/w- &G'gSdhvaNzED

]$ll- GLUED-
UMINAruD

NEOPRENE
BUSHING
Yr",'{,'2
STEEL PI.ATE.
ATTACHMENT
TYPICAL
TAG SCREW

(offroNAL) WEARING SURFACES

- TIMBER EENT CAST ALUMINUM GG GALVANIZED
DECK BRACKET 1 BOLT, STEEL ANGLE
STEEL AflACHMENT uG \ ryP > BRACKET \
TTMBER PrLE
?)
ANGLTS WIH THROUGH
AT ABUTMENT BOLTS (DOME. OR HEX-
HEAD)
STEEL ANGLE AT TIMBER c)AP
ATTACHMENT
GALVANIZO
GLUED-LAMINATED DECK STEEL C.CLIP
74' DIA. ANCHOR
STEEL
BOLT (IN SPANSION
BEAM
SLEEW OR GROUTED)
7.'THICK NEORENE .- GLUEO-UMINATED
PAD OR LUMBER
LONGITUDINAL BEAM
NOTE
Deck bracketsincludesmall teeth that firmly grip rhe deck
andbeam.
TYPICAL RAIL SYSTEMS TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL DECK TYPICAL GLUED.LAMINATED DECK
ATTACHMENT DETAILS ATTACHMENT DETAILS

Richard J. Mtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvtand

Michael A. Ritter. PE, Structural Engineer; Forest products Lab, USDA; Madison, Wisconsin

HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
 352 Tongueond Groove Wood Decking
LAMINATED DECK-ALLOWABLE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED TOTAL ROOF LOADS (LB/SQ FT: LIVE AND DEAD LOADS)
DOUGLAS FIR,/LARCH PONDEROSA PINE PONDEROSA PINE FACE INLAND RED CEDAR FACE
E = 1 , 8 0 0 , 0 0p 0s i E = 1, 15 0 , 0 0 0p s i E = 1,200,00p 0si E = 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0p0s i
F " = 2 . 5 8 5p s i F " = 1 , 4 8 5p s i F . = 1 , 7 2 0p s i F b= 1 , 4 8 5p s i
F " = 1 6 5p s i F , = 1 5 0p s i F , = 1 3 0p s i F "= 1 3 0p s i
ANOOM
ENGTH
SIMPLE SPAN ONTINUOUS
w40
(psf)

l4
x 8 nominal

ttl

v'o-_}. 110

4l

s,4 oR 7Vs-

x 8 nominal
rlrs,r__!r

"Kl
Kfl
-vm/7zzm
-f 5,k" oaz,h" f
I 67

NOTE

must be dividedby I .15. Loadsin table are limited by deflection;Fo= extremefiber stress in bending;F, = horizontalshear.E = modulusof elasticityin millionsof psi.

SPIKE ADJACENT
TOENAIL ADJACENT BOARDS THROUGH
BOARDS AT 3O,, O-C ORILLED HOLES

2 NAILS PER BOARD

\
AT SUPPORTS \\
SINGLE TONGUE AND GROOVE

SOLID DECKING

CONTINUOUS SPAN WITH

RANDOM LENG
MACHINE-SHAPED DECKING TYPES LAMINATED DECKING WOOD DECKING JOINT PATTERNS

DavidS. Collins,FAIA;AmericanForest& paperAssociation;

Cincinnati,
Ohio

WOOD DECKING
 Wood Decks 353

PIPE RAIL
GALVANIZED :,ttI.tt"'fl[
wELDED WIRE POST AND
FENCING
6X6WOOD
CAP CUT A5
B.^M--,v?//, , /
STAPLED AT SHOWN
TOP. BONOM,
AND POSTS COATED
STAINLESS W i'r.',
TRIM OVER
STAPLE AT
STEEL WIRE
WITH EYE
HOOKS AND
TURNBUCKLES. BOLTS
Wr,,T
t"l
TOP. BONOM. REINFORCE
AND POST CORNER POSTS
WITH STEEL ACTURED
PUTES CAP

,/4roP sLoPED
FoRDRATNAGE
<.,-K) <
t\/ |.J ;: I\,,1

ru;t{ffi ru
ll ll'l l"r
POST AND BEAM CONNECTIONS

SLOPEO TO
SHED WATER

VENTIUTE

ruO THROUGH
BOLTS AT POST

RAILINGS

SLOPE TOP OF TOP

OF WOOD SPACER
--\ RELATIVE COMPARISON OF VARIOUS QUALITIES
/-OECKING OF WOOD USED IN DECK CONSTRUCTION
MffAL
HANGER
BLOCKING
......-........"_\
.,_JOlSr

BOLTEO TO
BUILOING WALL
SPACER: SOLIO WOOO
BLOCK OR EXTERIOR
GRAOE PLWOOO
-AUILDINGWALL

CONNECTIONS AT BUILDING WALL

PREDRILL NAIG AT ENOS

3/r6" sPAcER

-OECK BOAROS LAIO WITH

.BARK"
SIDE UP, IF FST
GRAIN MATERIAL
(V,G. METAL PREFERRED)

s-l,TAi
r/." THlcK
TEMPERED
HARDBOARD N OTES
AT4 -O'O.C. 1. Includes West Coast and eastern hemlocks. 4. Use pressure preseryative treated material only. All materi-
als below deck surfaces should be pressure treated.
OECK BOARDS 2. Includes western and northeastern pines-
UIO ON EOGE 3. Categories refer to semitransparent oil base stain-
NAIL STAGGEREO
AT SPACER
NOTE
'/a spacing not recommended tor walking surfaces where
high heels are anticipated.

DECKING APPLICATIONS

The BumgardnerArchitects;Seattle,Washington

WOODDECKING
 354 Wood Decks
STAINLESS STEEL WITH BANDRAILS ARE REOUIRED FOR SLOPES l:20
TURNBUCKLES 4'O GREATER. CHECK LOCAL CODES

TOERAiL WITHIN 4" OF THE

- BEAMS CONNECTED
RAMP TO KEEP CASTER DIA HANDRAIL
WHEELS AND WALKERS TO POSTS
INSTALL PLANKS
FROM SLIPPING OVER
HAND TIGHT TO 3 JOISTS
THE EDGE
EACH OTHER
rHAN I

JOIST
HANGERS

AEAMS
CONNECTED GRAVEL
TO POSTS BUCK.

ALL WOOD SHOULD BE PERMEAALE

PRESSURE TREATED PUSTIC
CONCRETE CONCRETE SLOPED TO
SILL AND GRAVEL'/2:1'O"
FOOTING r---:cnavEu
- BUCK, WATER,PERMEABLE 2X12 CUa aO
PUSTIC WEOGE SHAPE
ACCESSIBLE WALKWAY ACCESSIBLE RAMP

\/VALKWAYS AND RAMPS

DECK OECK
EOGE -_\ SHOP FABRICATEO

LOW DECK EDGES

TREAD
DECKING
/SPACING ANER
DECKING Z SHRINKAGE SHOULD BE
r/2'
LEss rHAN

CARRIAGE JOIST
GRADE
OR PAVING
M ETAL SURFACE
HANGER
ANCHOR
PRESSURE BOLT
TREATED PRESSURE
ON CONCRETE STRINGER BOLTED TO CLEAT BOLTED TO TREATED
SUB OR APRON CARRIAGE WITH SPACERS CARRIAGE WITH SPACER
BflEEN SPACER BETWEEN CONCRffE
FOUNDATION
STEP PUTFORM STAIR CARRIAGE WITH STRINGER CARRIAGE WITH CLEATS SPACING A[ER
SHRINKAGE SHOULD BE
STEPS AND STAIRS LESS rHAN r/2-

SILL
GALVANIZED STEEL PRESSURE SEALER
OR PRESSURE
TREATED POST SILL
POST GRADE
//STEEL

ltil;;;
OR PAVING
HOLE FILLED BOLT SURFACE

!LfF,'"'*".'* TAMPED CONCRETE

5OIL, GRAVEL.
FOUNDATION
OR 5: I MIX OF
SOIL AND GRAVEL

gvl \l
itFEt:_:
coNcRETE
CEMENT BALUST ON
PUSTIC MEMBRANE

SILL SEALgR J\FINISH CONCRETE

I GRADE FOOTING
(GRAVEL OR
,-- PROVIDE FOR
DRTLLED HoLE CRUSHEO
ROCK MAY BE DRAINAGE OF
\ / FILLED WITH
\- --l SUBSTITUTED) AREA BELOW FOOTING
\ l / CONCRETE
NOT RECOMMENOED OECK
FOR MOIST CLIMATE
PREcasr torcnsrr pLTNTH/ POUREO FOOTING/ POURED OR PRECAST
TREATED POST TREATEO POST FOOTING/TREATED POST

POSTS AND FOOTINGS LO\,v DECK EDGES

FASTENERS MOISTURE PROTECTION CONSTRUCTION

'1.
Us€ hotdipped galvanized fasteners to avoid corrosion
and staining.
2. To reduce board splitting by nailing: blunt nail points; pre,
drill F/a of nail diameterlj stagger naiting; place nails no
closer to edge than one-half of board thickness_
3. Avoid end grarn nailing and toenatltng if possrble.
4. Use flat washers under heads of lag screws €nd bolts,
and under nuts.
5. Hot-dipped galvanizedcasing nails or stainless steel deck
scres are best deckrng fasteners.
6. Plated ring shank or spiral groove shank nails are suatable
for arid climates.
1. All wood members should be protected from weather by l WOOD SELECTION: Usual requirements are good decay
pressure treatment or field application of preseryatives, resistance, nonsplintering, lair stiffness, strength, hard-
slarns, or parnts. ness, and warp resistance. Selection varies according to
2. All wood in direct contact with soil and concrete must be local climate and structure.
pressure treated. 2. BRACING: On large decks, or decks where post heights
3. Bottoms of posts on piers should be 6 in above grade. exceed 5 ft, lateral stabilrtyshould be achieved with hori-
zontal bracing (metal or wood diagonal ties on top or bot-
4. Sterilize or cover soil with membrane to keeo olant
groMh away from wood m€mbers so as to minimize tom of ioists, or diagonal application of decking) in
combination w,th vertical bracing (rigid bolted or
morsture exchange.
gusseted connections at tops of posts, knee bracing, or
5. Treat all ends, cuts, holes, etc. with pfeservative before cross brac,ng between posts), and/or connection to a
placement. braced building wall. Lateral stability should be checked
6. Decking and flat trim boards,2 x 6 and wider, should be by a structural engineer.
kerfed on the underside with % in. deep saw cuts at 1 in.
o.c. to prevent cupping.
7. Avoid horizontal exposure of end grain or provide ade,
quate protection by flashing or sealing. Avoid or minimize
joint situations where moisture may be trapped by using
spacers and/or flashing, caulking, sealant. or plastic roof,
ing cement.

The Bumgardner Archfects; Seattle, Washington

Mark J. Mazz, AIA; CEA, Inc.; Hyattsvile, Marytand

WOODDECKING
 plywood DesignDoto 355
GRADE OF VENEER EXPOSURE DURABILITY
ON FACE PANEL cussrFrcaTroN SPAN RATINGS EXPOSURE DURABILITY
MILL NUMBER
APA{ated Sheathing, ApA rated Sturd-lFloor, and ApA_ APA-trademarked panels may be produced in four exDosure
ratedSidingcarrynumbersin their trademarks calledsoan durabiljty classifications-Exterior, Exposure 1, Exoosure 2.
A-B.G-t E r T - A P A O O OP S l - 8 : l ratings.These denote the maximum recommendedcenter and Interior. Note: All-veneer ApA-rated Sheathing, Expe
to{enter spacing in inches of supports for the panels in sure 1, commonly called "CDX" in the trade, is freouentlv
PRODUCT constructionapplications.Exceptfor APA-ratedSidingpan- mistaken as an Exterior panel and erroneously used In appti_
STANDARD els,the spanratingin the trademarkappljeswhen the long cations for whrch it does not possess the required resis-
GOVERNING panel dimension is across supports, unless the strenEi tance to weather. "CDX" should only be used for
GROUP NUMBER MANUFACTURE axis is otheMise rdentrfied.The span rating in the traae appii€tions as outlined under Exposure I below. For
markof ratedSidingpanelsapplieswhen instailed venically. sheathing grade Panels that will be expored permanently to
THICKNESS
the weather, specify APA-rated Sheathing Exterior (a-C
The span ratingin APA-ratedSheathingtrademarksappears Exterior under Product Standard PSI lor manufacturing).
TONGUE
ANO as two numbersseparatedby a slash,such as32116,4g/14.
etc. {An exceptionis APA-ratedSheathingintendedfor use EXTERIOR PANELS have a futty waterpr@f bond and are
on walls only. The trademarksfor these contain a sinqle designed for applications subject to permanent exposure to
numbersrmrlarto the spanratrngfor ApA+atedSiding.) The the weather or to moisture.
lefl-handnumber denotes the maximum recommended
spacingof supportswhen the panelis used for roof sheath- EXPOSURE 1 PANELS have a fulty waterproof bond and are
ing with the long dimension or strength axis of the panel designed for applications where long construction time may
acrossthre€ or more supports.The right-handnumber indi- delay permanent protection, is provtded, or where hrgh
cates the maximum recommended spacing of suppons morsture condtttons may be encountered in serytce Expo
ASSURANCE AGENCY when the panel is used for subflooringwith rhe longdimen- sure 1 panels are made wilh the same adhesives used in
MILL NUMBE
APA'S PERFORMANCE sronor streftgthaxis of the panelacrossthree or more suo. Exterior panels. However, because other comDosjtional {ac-
RATED PANEL STANDARD / ports. A panel marked32116, for example,mav be used tor tors may affect bond perjormance, onlv Exterior Danels
roof deckingover supports32 in. o.c. or for subfl@ringover should be used for permanent exposure to the wealher.
supportsl6 in. o.c.
APA- EXPOSURE 2 PANELS (identified as Inrerior type with inter_
RATED SHEATHING The span ralings in the trademarkson ApA{ated Sturd-l- mediate glue under PS1) are intended for orotected con,
3416 1132|NCH Fl@r and Siding panels appear as a single numb€r. ApA- struction applications where only moderate delavs in
STD@$ACING rated Sturdl-Floor panels are designedspecifi€fiy tor siG providing prolection from morstur€ may be expected
EXPOSURE gle-floor (combined subfloor underlayment)appti€tions
1
under carpet and pad and are manufacturedwjth soan rat- INTERIOR PANELS that lack further glueline information in
-000__ ings of | 6, 20, 24, 32, and 48 in. The span ratingsfor ApA- their trademarks are manufactured with interior olue and
NERQrc7 MP.IS rated Stur+l-Floorpanels,like those for APA{ated Sheath- are intended for interior applications only.
ing. are based on appli€tion of the panel with the long
dimensionor strengthaxisacrossthree or mors supports.
SANDED, UNSANDED, AND
SIDING FACE APA- APA{ated Sidingis availablewith span ratingsot 16 and 24 TOUCH-SANDED PANELS
=-
GRADE in. Span-ratedpanelsand lap sidingmay be applieddirect to
RATEDS|DING
---30&i8-S,\, studs or over nonstructuralwall sheathing(Slurdl-Wallcor Panels with B{rade or b€tter veneer laces are sanded
struction).or over nailablepanel or lumber sheathing(dou- smooth in manufacture to fulfill the requirements of their
itffi E; "j:::_____E ec- ffiJF9" ble wall construction).Panelsand lap siding with a span intended applications (€binets, shelving, furniture, buill-
SZEO FOR SPACING ratingof 16 in. may be applieddirect to studs spaced16 in. ins, etc.). APA-rated Sheathing panels are unsanded since a
FHA EXTERIOR o.c. Panelsand lap sidingbearinga span ratingof 24 in. may smooth surface is not required lor their inlended use. Other
REcocNrTroN -000__ panels-Underlayment,
rel$ \FU{Mg be applieddirect to studs 24 in. o.c. All rated sidingpanels APA rated Sturd-l-Floor, C-D
_-ryj8rc_ roy be appliedhorizontallydirect to studs 16 or 24 in. o.c..
providedhorizontaljoints are blocked.When u$d orer nail-
Plugged, and C-C Plugged+equire
''sizing" only touch.sanding for
to make the panel thickness more unrform.
APA TRADEMARKS able structural sheathing,the span rating of rate.dsiding
panels refers to the maximum recommendedsoacino of Unsanded and touch-sanded panels, and panels with B-
venicalrows ot nailsratherthanto studspacing. grade or better veneer on one side only, usually carry the
GRADE DESIGNATIONS APA trademark on the panel back. Panels with both sides of
Structuralpanel gradesare g€nerallyidentified in terms of B€rade or better veneer, or with sDecial overlaid surfaces
(such as Medium Density Overtay), carry the APA trade-
the veneer grade used on th€ fa€ and back of the oanel
(e.9., A-8, B-C, etc.) or €ted by a nam suggesting the mark on the Danel edoe.
panel's intendedend use (e.9,.APA{ated Sheathing,APA- GROUP NUMBER
rated Sturd-l-Floor.
etc.). Plyw@d can be manufactured from more than 70 species of wood. These species are divided, on the basis of bending strength
and stiffness, inlo five groups under U.S. Prdduct Slandard PS 1€3. Strongest species are in Group 1, tht next stiongest"in
VENEER GRADES Group 2..and so on. The group number that appears in the trademark on some APA trademarked' panels-primarily ;nded
grades-is based on the species of face and back veneers. Where face and back veneers are not from the
Veneergradesdefine veneerappearancein terms oI natu- sme species group,
the higher group number is used, except lor sanded and decorative panels 3/s in. thick or less. These are identified by face siecies
ral unrepairedgrowth characteristicsand the number and because they^ ar€ chosen primarily for appearance-ild used in applications where structural integrity is not critical. Sanded panels
size of repairsallowableduring manufacture.The highest greater than % in. are identified by face species if.C or D grade backs are at least r/Rin. and are no.more than one
qualatyveneergradesare N and A. The minimum grade of specres group
number larger. Some species are used widely in pl)ry@d manufacture, others rarely. Check lrcal availability before jpecifyin"g if
veneer permitted in Exteriorplywood is C{rade. D€rade particular soecies is desired.
i
veneer is used only for backs and inrer plies of panels
intended lor interior use or applicationsprotected from
exposureto permanentor srere misture. CLASSIFICATION

N- Sm@th surface -natural finish" vemer. Select, all

GROUP I GROUP 2 GROUP 3 GROUP 4 ROUP 5
heartw@dor all sapw@d.Freeof open detects.Allows Leoar, HemtGk, ASpen,
not more than 6 Epairs, wood only, per 4 x 8 panel, B€6ch,Amerien Port Western Birch,Paper Bigtooth Poplar,
Birch, Oxford Maple, Black Cedar.Alaska Ouaking Balsam
made parallelto gcin and w€ll mtched for grain and Sweet Cvoress Menokulam - Fir,Subalpine Cativo
cobr. Yellow Diruglas Mera-nli. Hemlock, Cedar,
A- Smth. paintable.Not mre than 18 neatly made re- DouglasFir No. la FirNo.2a RedD Eastern Incense
pairs,b@t. sled, or rdter typ€, parallelto grainpermit- Kapur Fit, Mersawa Maple. Western Red
ted. May be used for naturalfinish in less demanding Keruing Balsam Pine, Bigleaf Cottonw@d,
Larch,Western California Pond Pine, Eastern
appli€tions. Syntheticrepairsp€rmitt€d_ Maple,Sugar Red Red Jack Black
&- Solid surface. Shims, cirdlar repair plugs, and tight rrne, Grand Virginia Lodgepole (Western
knots to I in. acrossgrainp€rmitted.Some minol splits Caribbean Noble Western Ponderosa Poplar)
and syntheticrepairspermitted. Ocote Pacific Silver White Pine,
C- PLUGGED-lmp.ovedCgrade veneerwith splits timit- Pine,Southern White Spruce, Redwood Eastern
Loblolly Lauan, Black Spruce, Whit€
ed ror/Bin.width, knotholesand borerholes limited to '/ Longleaf Almon Red Engelmann Sugar
r x 1/zin. Admits some broken grain.Syntheticrepairs Shonleaf Bagtikan Sitka White
permitted. Slash Mayapis Sweetgum
C- Tight knotsto 1'l, in. Kmtholes to 1 in. acrossgrainand Red Tamarack
some to 1rl2in. if total width of knots and knotholesis Tangile Yellow-Poplar
White
within specifiedlimits. Syntheticor w@d repairs.Dis-
coloration and sanding defects that do not impair
strength permitted_Limired splits allowed. Stitching N OTES
rermitted.
a- Douglas Fir from trees grown in the states of Washing rado, Arizona, and New Mexico shall be classed as Dou
D- Knotsand knotholesto 2'l, in. width acrossgrainand r/2 lon, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming glasFirNo.2.
in. largerwithin specifiql limits. Limited splits ailowed. and the Canadian provinces of Albena and British Colum- b. Red Meranti shall be limited to species having a specific
Stitchingpermitted.Limitedto interiorand Exposure1 bia shall be classed as Douglas Fir No. 1. Douglas Fir gravity of 0.4'l or more based on green volume and oven
paners_ from tre€s grown in the states of Nevada. Utah, Colq
dry weight.

Bl@dg@d, Sharp,BusterArchitectsand Planners;Des Moines, lowa

Amerian PlywoodAss@iation;Tacoma,Washington

SHEATHING
 356 Plywood PonelTypes
APA-RATED SIDING PAN ELS APA A-C APA B-B PLYFORM CLASS I ANO II

For exterior siding. fencing, etc. Can be manufactured as
conventional veaeered plywood, as a composrte, or as a4
overlaid orrented strand board siding Borh panel and lap
srding available Special surface treatment such as V
gr@ve, shallow channel groove, deep groove (such as APA
Texture 1-11), kerled groove, brushed, rough-sawn, and
texture€mbossed IMDO). Span Rating (stud spacing lor
siding qGlified for APA Sturd-l-Wall applicationsl and face
grade classification (for veneer-faced siding) indicated in
trademark Exoosure Durabilitv Classilication: Exterior. Com-
mon thicknesses:,tlsz, "le,,slsz,1/u ls/zz 5le.
3O3-PLYWOOD SIDING FACE
GRADES
SYNTHETIC
PATCHES
For use where appearance of onlyone side is importantrn Concrete form grades with high reuse factor. Sanded both
exteriorapplications,
e.9., soffits,fences,structuraluses, sides and mill-oiled unless otherwise sDecified. Soecial
boxcarand truck linings,farm buildings,tanks,trays,com- restnctr^is on specres. Class I panels are slrltest, st'on-
mercialrefrigerators.
etc. ExposureDurabilityClassification gesl, and most commonly ava,lable Also available ln HDO
Exterior.Commonthicknesses: tor very smooth concrete finish. in Structurai I (all plies Im
ited to Group 1 species), and with special overlays. Expo-
APA A.D sure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior. Common
thicknesses: Bl 32,5h, n I 32,3| a.
For use where appearanceof only one side is importantin
e.9.,paneling,built-ins,
interiorapplications, shelving,parti-
APA PLYRON
tions, etc. ExposureDurabilityClassifications: Interior,
Exposure1. Commonthicknesses.,Io,31e,, /2,5/e.slo.c, Hardboard lace on both sides. Faces tempered, untem
pered, smooth, or screened. For countertops, shelving,
APA B-B cabinet doors, flooring, etc. Exposure Durability Classifica
tions: lnterior, Exposure 1, Exterior. Common thicknesses
Utilitypanelswith two solidsides.Exposure Durability
Clas-
silications: Interior. Exposure 1, Exterior.Common thick-
nesses:r/a.3/s,'I z, sla,3Io.16,

APA B.C
Utilitypanelfor farm seryiceandwork buildinqs,
boxcarand
trucklinings,containers, tanks,agricultural
equipment,as a
basefor exteriorcoatingsand other exterioruses. Exposure APA PERFORMANCE-RATED
DurabilityClassification:Exterior.Commonthicknesses:1/.. PANELS.',,,

APA B-D
APA.RATED SHEATHING
Utility panelfor backing,sides of builtins, industryshelving,
slip sheets,separatorboards.bins,and other interioror prc Specially designed for subflooring and wali and rool sheath
tected appli€tions. ExposureDurabilityClassifi€tions:Inte- ing. Also good for broad range of other construction and
rior. Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:,la,3/a,th, sla,31a.6, industrial applications. Can be manufactured as a conven-
tional veneered pllryood, as a composite. or as a nonve-
APA UNDERLAYMENT neered panel. For special engineered applications,
veneered panels conforming to PS1 may be required. Expo-
For applicationover structural subfloor. Providessmooth sure Durability Classitications: Exterior, Exposure 1, Expo-
surfacefor applicationof carpet and pad and has high con- sure 2. Common thicknesses: 5l.a,3la,1/,a, 1lz,5la,3l* 15/o
centratedand impact load resistance.Touch-sanded.Expo-
NOTES sure Durability Classilications: Interior, Exposure 1.
1. Limitations on grad€ characteristics are based on 4 x I ft Commn thicknesses:31e, 'lz, .sln, sla,23l*.31o.
,'lsz
APA STRUCTURAL I AND II RATED
panel size. Limits on other sizes vary in proponion. All SHEATHING
panels except 303-NR allow restricted minor repairs such APA C-C PLUGGED
as shims. These and such other tace aomarance charac- Unsanded all-veneer PSl plywood grades for use where
For use as underlaymentover structuralsubfloor,refriger- strength is of maximum imponance; for box beams, gusset
terastics as knots, knotholes, spiits, etc.. are limited by
aled or controlledatmosphereslorage rooms, pallet bins, plates, stressed-skin panels, containers. pallet bins. Struc-
both size and numb€r in accordance with panel grades,
tanks, truck tlmrs, linings and other exterior applications. tural lis more commonly available. Exposure Durability
303 OC being most restrictive and 303-30 being least.
Touch-sanded.ExposureDurabilitvClassitication:Exterior. Classifications: Exterior, Exposure 1. Common thicknesses:
Multiple repairs are permitted only on 303-18 and 303-30
panels. Patch size is restricted on all panel grades. For
Commonthicknesses:3la,,lz)sln, 'le, 231 r,
sz;3lo, lsz t]
tt6,
3t
ta,
1|
t2,
1At
t32,
t9t
,1L
at
rat
231
t3),

additional inforrution, including finishing recommenda

tions, see APA Product Guide:303
APA C-D PLUGGED
Plywood Siding,
E300. For open soffits, builtins. €ble reels.walkwavs,separator
2. Check lrcal availabilitv. boards,and other interior or protectedapplications.Not a
substitutetor underlayrent or APA{ated Stur+l-Flooras it
3. "Clear"
lacks puncture resistance. Exposure Durability Classifica-
4. "Overlaid" (e.9., Medium Density Overlay sidingI tions: lnterior,Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:%, 1/r,r%2,
5. "Natural Rustic" 5/e,23la,3lo.
6. "Synthetic Rustic"
APA TEXTURE I-I I
Special 3o3-Siding panel with groovesl/a in. deep,3/. in.
APA SPECIALTY PANELs
wide, spaced 4 or 8 in. o.c. Other spacings may be avail;ble
on special order. Edges shiplapped. Available unsanded.
textured, and other surfaces. Exposure Classitication: Exte
APA OECORATIVE
rior. Thicknesses: r%? and % only.
Rough-sam, brushed, grooved. or other faces. For panel-
ing, inlerior accent walls, built-ins. counter facing, exhibit
displays. Can also be made by some manufacturers in Exte-
rior for siding, gable ends, fences, etc. Use recommenda-
tions tor exterior panels vary with the particular product:
check with manufacturer. Exposure Durability Classifjca-
APA SANDED AND TOUCH. tions: Interior, Exposure 1. Exterior. Common thicknesses:
SANDED PANELS€ii, 5l,a,3la,'h,'le.
APA HIGH.DENSITY OVERLAY (HDO)
Use where appearanceof both sides is imoortantfor inte-
Has a hard semi{paque resin-fiber ov€rlay both sides.
rior applicalions suchas builtins,cabrnets,turnrture.oarlr.
Abrasion-r€sistant. For concrete forms, cabinets, counter,
tions; and exteftorapplicationssuch as fences, signs.
tops, signs. tanks. Also available with skid-resistant screeft
boats. shippingcontainers,tanks, ducts. etc. Smoothiur
grid surface. Exposure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior.
faces suitablefor painting.ExposureDurabilityClassifica-
tions:Interior,Exposure1, €xterior.Commonthicknesses: Common thicknesses: 3/a, \| z, 5| e, 3/ o.
'/o, 3/",'lr. 5ls,3lo.6r
APA MEDIUM.DENSITY OVERLAY (MDO}
APA A.B Smooth, opaque. resin-fiber overlay one or both sides.
ldeal base for paint. indoors and outdoors. Available as a
Foruse whereappearance of one side is lessimoortantbut
303 Siding. Exposure Durability Ctassification: Exterior.
where two solidsurfacesare necessaryExposureDurability
Classitications:Interior, Exposure 1, Exierior. Common Common thicknesses: 11 lzz, 31a,.lz,5la,31, 1.lsz,,slsz,23/tz
thicknesses: ./o,3| I 5/a,.1
e,' z, o.t6'
APA MARINE
ldeal lor boat hulls. Made only wath Dougtas fir or western
larch. Special solid-iointed core construction. Subiect to
special limitations on core gaps and tace repairs. Also avail-
able with HDO or MDO taces. Exposure Durabiljty Classifi-
cation: Exterior. Common thicknesse s: . lo.3l",'/2. 5/e,3lo.
APA-RATED STURD-I-FLOOR
Specially designed as combination subfl@r-underlavment.
Provdes smooth surface for application of carpet and pad
and possesses high concentrated and load impact resis-
tance. Can be manutactured as a nonveneered panel. Avaif
able square€dged or tongue,and{rooved. Exposure
'1,
Durability Classifications: Exterior, Exposure Exposure 2.
Common thicknesses.." / u/",.r/rr,.,
o.
"r,
APA.RATED STURD.I.FLOOR
4A OC (2-4-l \
For combination subfloor-underlayment on 32- and 48,inch
spans and for heavy timber roof construclion. Manufac-
tured only as conventional veneered pivwood. Available
square€dged or tongue-and-g.ooved. Exposure Durability
Classifications: Exposure 1. Thickness: 1'ls.
NOTES FOR SANOED AND PERFORMANCE-
RATEO PANELS
1. Specify performance-rated panels by thickness and span
.ating. Span ratings are based on panel strength and stilf-
ness. Since these properties are a function of panel com-
position and configuration as well as thickness, the same
span rating may appear on panels ot different thickness.
Conversely, panels of the same thickness may be
marled with diiferent span ratings.
2. All plies in Structural I panels are limited to Group 1 spe-
cies. St.uctural ll panels are seldom available.
3. Exterior sanded panels. C-C Plugged, C-D Plugged, and
Underlayment grades can also be manufactured in Struc-
tural | {all plies limited to Group 1 species).
4. Some manufacturers also produce panels with premium
Ngrade veneer on one or both faces. Available onlv bv
specral order.
5. Can also be manufactured in Structural | (all olies limited
to Group 1 sDecres)
6. Also available in "lsz, ,5/zz,,slsz,23lszin. thicknesses_

Bloodgood-Sharp.BusterArchitectsand planners;Des Moines,lowa

American PlywoodAsseiation; Tacoma,Washinqton

SHEATHING
 PlywoodUses 357
EXTERIOR TYPE PANELS INTERIOR TYPE PANELS
APPEARANCE' THICKNESS (IN.) APPEARANCE? VENEER THICKNESS (IN.)

GRADEI COMMON USES GRADEl 3

bothsidesare visible.
Smoothface; suitablefor
paanting

side asless importantbul

two solid surfacesare
neeoeo

Utrlrtypanel;alsousedas
base for exteriorcoatings
on walls and roofs

wood has a hard,semie

paqueresinfiber overlayon
both faces.Abrasionresis- PANELS.INT
tant.Use fo. concrete
lorms, cabinets;suitable
tor permanentexterior
sides;temperedsmooth
exposurewithout further
finishing or screenedfor counters
ano ooots

tural subfloor. Provides

smooth surface for appli-
cation of carpet and pad.
Touch-sanded. Also avail-
able with axterior glue

ing tile backing,cable

such as V{roove, channel reels,walkways,separa-
grmve, striated,brushed.
tor boards.Not a substi-
rougn sawn
tute for
Specaal 303 panel having UNDERLAYMENT OT
grooves 1/4 in. deep. 3E in. STURDI-FLOOR as it
wide, spaced4 or 8 in. o.c.i lackstheirindentation
other spacingoptional. resistance.Touch-
Edgesshiplapped.Avail- sanded.Also made with
able unsanded,textured. extenorglue
and medium{ensity over-
PERFoRMANcE RATED,,5 TH IC KN ESS
lay

GRADE

exteriorglue for sheath-

C.C PLUGGEDETT tural subfloor.Provides ing and subflooring.Spec-
smooth surfacefor applica- ify Exposure1 treated
tion of carpet and pad. wood foundations
Touch-sanded.
I
SHEATHING
EXP1 gradeswhere plywood
strengthpropeniesare of
maximumimportance.
Made only with exterior
glue for beams,gusset
high reuse factor.Sanded plates,and stressed-skin
both sides and milhiled paners
unlessotheMise speci-
fied. Specialrestrictionson EXP1 and2 and underlaymentunder
species.Also availablein carpetand pad. Specify
HDO tor very sm@th mn- Exposure1 where mois-
crete finish. ture is present.Available
PERFORMANCE RATED, THICKNESS in tongue and gr@ve

underlaymenton 32 and
GRADE COMMON USES 48 in. spansand for heavy
timber roofs-Touch-
sandedor tully $nded

NOTES_EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR PANELS

1Available in Grcup 1,2,3, 4, or 5 unless otheruise noted.
EXT
SHEATHING
2 Standard 4 x 8 oanel sizesi other siz€s available.
3 Also available in Structural l.
1 Maximum recommended support spacing for roofs and floors is indicated in sheathing and
single layer floor trademarks. Wall span ratings are included in rated siding panels
EXT. underlaymenl undercarpel 5 €xposure 2 allowed but not typically produced-
and pad where severe
3 Special improved grade for structural panels.
moisture conditions exist
(e.9., balcony decks). 7 Special construction to resist indentation from concentrated loads.
Touch-sanded and tongue 3 Interior type panels with exterior glue are indentified as Exposure L
and groove. e Also available as nonveneer or composite panels.

David S. Collins,FAIA:American Forest & PaoerAssociation;Cincinnati,Ohio

SHEATHING
 358 Woll qnd RoofSheothing
WOOO FRAMING RATED SHEATHING INSTALLED WITH LONG DIMENSION
t6 0.c rlz" ntcl ACROSS STUDS: STAGGER VERTICAL JOINTS
DENS|TY FIBERBoARD
SHEATHING INSTALLED VERTICALLY
AT CORNERS FOR BRACING (SPACE
NAILS 6,, O C . 3,' O C. AT EDGES) LEAVE I/a,. GAP AT EDGES AND ENDS UNLESS
O T H E R W I S ER E C O M M E N D E DB Y M A N U F A C T U R E R
HORIZONTAL
ALOCKING
DOUBLE TOP PUTE UP ENDS

FIBERBOARD r/2 SHEET oF PLYwooo

SHEATHING AS STARTER SHEET
INSTALLEO
HORIZONTALLY SPACE NAILS I2'' O.C
v,GROOVE VERTICALLY
'
JOINT (HORIZONTAL) TYP. (SPACE IN
NAIE a" O.C.. PLYWOOD FIELD
Lff IN I X 4 OR STEEL STRAP 4 0.c. AT
SPACE NAILS 6 O.C
CORNER BRACING. IF WALL FRAMING

FIBERBOARD SHEATHING RATED SHEATHING USED AS CORNER

SIDING MATERIAL BRACING: INSTALL WITH LONG
SPACE STUDS SPACE STUDS 24'' O.C, MAX OVER BUILOING PAPER DIMENSION PARALLEL TO STUOS
l6'o.c. FoR
CORNER BRACING HORIZONTAL BLOCKING STRUCTURAL WALL SHEATH I NG
SPACE NATLS 12" O.C.,
6" O.C AT ENDS INSTALL PANEL
SHEATHING WITH
LONG DIMENSION
ACROSS SUPPORTS
STAGGER VERTICAL
PANEL CLIPS JOINTS
TONGUE,AND.GROOVED
EDGES, OR BLOCKING
UNDERNEATH
IF REOUIREO

ROOFING FELT

ROOF FRAMING
SHINGLES OR 24" O.C.
SHAKES ON ROOFING
GYPSUM
FOIOW ROOFING
SHEATHING
INSTALLED MANUFACTURER'S RATED SHEATHING
HORIZONTALLY RECOMMENDATIONS
(SPACE NAILS FOR ROOFING FELTS
a"o c.) LEAVE r/6" GAP AT
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE
GYPSUM SHEATHING INSTALLED ENDS AND EDGES
I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
VERTICALLY FOR CORNER BRACING UNLESS OTHERWISE
(SPACE NAILS I 2" O.C. AND USE ADHESTVE) EXPOSURE TO WEATHER OR
RECOMMENDEO BY
NOTE USE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS MANUFACTURER
Nail sidingthrough gypsum board to studs; refer to manu NOTE
facturer'srecommandationsfor specific installationinstruc-
!ons. Cover roof sheathing as soon as possible with roofing telt for €xtra protection from moisture before rmfing is applied.

GYPSUM BOARD SHEATHING STRUCTURAL ROOF SHEATHING

SHEATHING MATERIALS
CHA,RACTERISTI STRUCTURAL SHEATHING GYPSUM FIBERBOARD PLASTIC
Nailable base Yes No Only highdensity No
Vaporbarrier No No lf asphalt-tr6ated Yes
lnsulation R value 1.2 o.7 2.6 Varieswith manu-
( 12 in. thickness) facturer
Corner bracing provided ves Yes (see manu- Only highdensity NO
facturer'srec-
ommendataons)
rel sizes (ft, except 4x8,4x9,4x10 2 x8,4 x8, 4x8,4x9, 16 x 96, 24 x 48,
sticin in.) 4x10,4x12, 4x10,4x12 224 x96, 48 x96,
4x 14 48x108
Panelthickness{in.) v t' v'2 5le23
tsz3/o r/, to 6 (for roof)
7;i' "'!; "'
Other remarks Plywoodgradescommonlyused Fire-rated pan- Also called insula- Considered an
for roof and wall sheathinghave els are avail- tion board. Can eftective vaporbar-
span ratingsof 12l0, 1610,2OlO, able in be treated or rier. so walls must
2410,24/16,32116,40120,and r/, and 5/6in. impregnatedwith be well vented.
4824; exposuredurabilityclassi- thicknesses. asphalt. Avail- Some products
INSUUTION CAN BE EXTENDED ficationsare Exposure1 and able in regular emit toxic fumes
BELOW FROST LINE FOR Exterior.For unsupported and high{ensity when burned;refer
edges,reter to manulacturer's panels. to manufacturer's
RIGID INSULATION SHEATHTNG recommenoalrons. specifications.

David S. Collins,FAIA;Ameracan
Forest& PaperAssociation:
Cincinnati,
Ohio

/^
t( )t
Y/ SHEATHING
 PlywoodSubflooringon Wood Froming 3S9
UNDERLAYMENT NAILING SCHEOULE
CARPET
U^se3d ring shank nails lor undertaymenr up to ,/, in. thickness,4d forr%, in. and thicker. Use
AND PAD
16 gauge slaples, except thal 18 gauge may be used with 'L in. thick underlayment. Crown
BLOCKING WITH wrdth should b€ % in. for 16 gauge staptes, 3/16in. for 18 gauge. Length should be sutficient to
SOUARE EDGE PANELS penetrate subllooring at least % in or extend completely through. Space fasteners at
3 in.
along panel edges and 6 in. each way in the panel interior, excepi for i,/3, rn. or thacker under_
layment applaedwith ring shank nails. In this case, use 6 in. spacing alongedges and g in. spac_
rng each way in the panel interior. Unless subfloor and joists are of thoroughly seasoned
material and have remained dry during construction, countersink nail heads below surface of
the underlayment iust prior lo laying linish floars to avoid nail popping. r/3, in. lf
- Space joints
thin resilient flooring is to be applied, fill and thoroughly sand joints.
APA RATED
STURD].FLOOR
WOOO FLOORING
16.20,24,32
OR LIGHMEIGHT
OR 4a O.C.-
END JOINTS CONCRETE

LEAVEr/s" sPActNG
AT ALL EDGE ANO ENO TONGUE AND GROOVE EDGES
JOINTS (UNLESS (OR PROVIDE 2.' LUMBER
OTHERWISE SPECIFIEO BLOCKING BryEEN SUPPORTS)
BY MANUFACTURER)

APA RATED STURD-I-FLOOR

ILED
L€AVE r/s" sPAcE
AT ALL PANEL END
AND EDGE JOiNTS
I N T E R ME D I A T E (UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENO€O BY
PANEL MANUFACTURER)

APA PANEL SUBFLOORING'

PANEL THICKNESS
(tN.)

NOTES
1. For conditionsnot listed,see APA literature. NOTES
2. Use only APA SpecificationAFG{I adhesives,propedy applied. Use only solvent based 1. Appliesto APA rated sheathinggradesonty.
glues on nonveneeredpanelswith sealedsurfacesand edges. 2. The spansassure plywmd continuousover two or more spanswith long dimensionacross
3. 8d common nails may be substitutedif ring or screw-shanknailsare not available. suppons.
4. lOd common nailsmay be substitutedwith 1 r/sin. panelsif supponsare well seasoned. 3. In sore nonrelidentialbuildings.specialconditionsmay requireconstructionin excess o{
5. Spacenails6 in. for 48 in. spansand 12 in. for 32 in. spans. minimum given.
4. May be 24 in.ll3L in. wood strip flooringis instatledat right anglesto joists.
5. Spansar€ limited to the wlues shown becauseol the possibleeffect of concentratedloads.
SUBFLOORING NAILING SCHEOULE
TILE, CARPET,
SHEET GOODS, F o t 7 l $ i n .p a n e l , u s e 6 d c o m m o n n a i l s a t 6 i n . o . c . a t p a n e l e d g| e2 si n, . o . c . a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
OR OTHER supports-Forr%, to % in. panels,use8d commonnailsat 6 in.o.c.at paneledges,j 2 in o.c.at
NONSTRUCTURAL intermediatesupports.For 1r/Band 1rl. in. panelsup to 48 in. span,use I 0d common nails6 in.
FLOORING o.c.at paneledgesand6 in. o.c.at intermediate supports.

APA PLYWOOD
UNOERUYMENT
SANDED FACE
STAGGER
END JOINTS
CARPff
AND PAD
- SITE APPLIED GLUE
PRovlDEt/32-
SPACE BETWEEN BOTH JOIST AND
UNDERUYMENT TONGUE AND
BUN JOINTS GROOVE JOINT

APA RATED SHEATHING NO BLOCKING REOUIRED

OR BOARD SUBFL@RING IF UNOERUYMENT JOINTS APA RATEO
(STAGGER OPTIONAL STURD-FFLOOR
ARE OFFSET FROM
UNOER CARPfl ONLY) SUBFLOOR JOINTS 16.20.24_ 32.
oR 4a' o TONGUE AND GROOVE
EOGES (OR PROVIDE
PLY\^/OOD UNDERLAYMENT LEAVE r/a" sPAcE AT LUMBER BLOCKING
2"
ALL ENOS ANO EOGE
PLYWOOD GRADES AND MIN. PLYWOOD JOINTS (UNLESS
BryEEN SUPPORTS)
SPECIES GROUP THICKNESS (IN OTHERWISE RECOMMENOEO 2" JOTST
BY PANEL MANUFACTURER
INT-APA (with interior or exterior glue), ot
GLUED FLOOR SYSTEM
'1.
For complete information on glued floors, including joist span tables (based on building code
criteria and lumber sizes), application sequence. and a list of recommended adhesives, con-
wide. Face grain must b€ tact the American Plywood Ass@iation.
perpendicular to boards 2, Place APA STURD-I-FLOOR T&G across the joists with end joints staggered. Leave '/s in.
space at all end and edge ioints.
NOTE S
3. Although tongue and groove is used more often, square edge may be used if 2 x 4 blocking
1. For tile, carpeting, sheet goods, or other nonstructural flooring (consult Tile Council of Amer- is placed under panel edge joints between joists.
ica for recommendations regarding ceramic tilel.
4. Based on live l@d of 40 pst, total load ot 50 psf, deflection limited to 1660 at 40 psf.
2. Where floors may be subject to unusual moisture conditions, use panels with exterior glue
(Exposure 1) or UNDERLAYMENT C{ Plugged EXT'APA. C-D Plugged is not an adequate 5. Glue to ioists and at tongue and groove joints. lf square edge panels are used, block panel
substitute for underlayment grade, since it does not ensure equivalent dent resistance. edges and glue betreen panels and between panels and blocking.

3. Recommended grades have a solid surface backed with a sp€cial inner ply construction that GLUEO FLOOR NAILING SCHEOULE
resists punch-through and dents from concentrated loads.
Panels should be secured with power driven tasteners or nailed per APA STURD-I-FLOOR
table, above.

Bloodgood, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners; Des Moines, lowa

American Plyw@d Ass@iation; Tacoma, Washington

SHEATHING
 360 PlywoodSheothingfor Roofsqnd Soffils
APA RATED LEAVE I/s'' SPACE AT ALL
APA RATEO PROTECT EDGES SHEATHING PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS
SHEATHING OF EXPOSURE 1 (UNLESS OTHERWISE
AND 2 SHEATHING R E C O M M E N D E DB Y
AGAINST MANUFACTURER)
EXPOSURE TO
SHIM AT EACH
RAffER FOR
WEATHER
ROOFING
FLUSH JOINI
AT CHANGE OF
PANEL
THICKNESS DIRECTION OF
SHINGLES OR
FACE GRAIN
SHAKES (FOLLOW
MANUFACTURER'S
OIRECTION OF RECOMMENDATIONS
LONG OIMENSION FOR ROOFING FELT)
CONTINUOUS APA RATED
SCREENED VENT SHEATHING
ANY APPROPRIATE OR EOUALLY SPACEO
EXTERIOR OR LOUVERED VENTS PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE PANEL I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
GRADE OF ADEOUATE EXPOSURE TO WEATHER. OR USE
SPAN RATING TO ANY APPROPRIATE GRADE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS
CARRY OESIGN OF EXTERIOR APA
ROOF LOADS PLYWOOD FOR SOFFIT EXTERIOR PLYWOOD SOFFIT

OPEN SOFFIT CLOSED SOFFIT GABLE.ROOF

EXTERIOR OPEN SOFFITS/ EXTERIOR CLOSED PLY\^/OOD APA RATED

SHEATHING
COMBINED CEILING DECKING SOFFITS PANEL EDGES
PANEL DESCRI PTIONS, NOMINAL SHOULO HAVE
MINIMUM MAXIMUM PLYWOOD BLOCKED EDGES, PANEL
RECOMMENOATIONS THICKN ESS CLIPS- OR TONGUE
ANO GROOVED EDGES
1 , ' t , 34,
r%2" APA sandedand MDO 1,2,3,4
BUILT.UP
ROOFING
A,PAsandedand MDO t, z,3
APA 303 siding 1,2,3,4
APA snded and MDO 1.2.3.4 EXTERIOR OR
,l EXPOSURE PANELS /
AT OPEN SOFFITl
r%r" APA snded and MDO '1 NOTE
'?%r" APA 303 siding 1, 2 , 3 ,4 Plywoodis assum€dto be continuousacross two or more LEAVE r/e" sPAcE AT ALL
'3132" APA rnded and MDO 1. 2 . 3 .4 spanswith face grainacrosssupports. PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS
(UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENOED BY
NAILING SCHEDULE MANUFACTURER)
NOTES
For closed soffits, use nonstainingbox or casing nails,6d
1. Plvwod is assumed to be continuous across two or lot t1/32in. and r5l., in. panels and 8d for 1%, in. panels.
more spanswith face grainacrosssupports. Spacenails6 in. at panel edges and 12 in. along intermedi-
2. For spansof 32 or 48 in. in open soffit construction,pro- ate supportsfor spansless than 48 in.; 6 in. al all supports
vide adequate blocking, tongue and gr@ve edges, or for 48 in. soans. FLAT LOW-PITCHED ROOF
other supportsuch as panel clips. Mjnimum loads are at
least 30 psf live load. plus 10 psf dead load.

APA PANEL ROOF SHEATHING

MAXIMUM SPAN (IN.) NAIL SPACING
PANEL SPAN
RATING INTERMEOIATE

SELF.ORILLING
SELF-TAPPING
DECK
scRss
BAR JOIST
FUNGE
BAR JOIS WEB STAPLING SPACES (IN}

INTERMEOIATE

DECK
COMMON NAILS

2X4WOOO NAILING SCHEDULE NOTES

BAR JOIST FUNGE NAILER (MAY BE
INSTALLED ACROSS Use 6d commonsm@th, ring shank,or spiralthreadnails 1. fuplicable to APA rated panel sheathing.
JOISTS) for plywoodl/2in. thickor thinnerand 8d for plywoodto 1 2. All panels will support at least 30 psf live load plus 10 pst
BAR JOIST WEB in. thick.Use8d ringshankor spiralthreador 10dcommon dead load at maximum soan. Unitorm load deflection
CARRIAGE BOLT smoothfor 24-l and 1 '/s in. panels.Spacenails6 an.at limit is 11180 span under live load plus dead load. or 1/
OR UG SCREW paneledges and 12 in. at intermediatesupports,except for 240 under live load only.
48 in or longerspanswh€re nailsshouldbe spaced6 in at
ail suppo.ts. 3. Special conditions may require construction in excess of
CONNECTIONS the given minimums.
TO OPEN WEB STEEL
JOIST 4. Panel is assumed to be continuous across two or more
spans with long dimension across suppons.

Bloodg@d, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners: Des Moines. lowa

American Plywood Assoctation; Tacoma, Washrngton

SHEATHING
 SplitRingWood Trusses 36r
SPLICE PUTE --=-\ GENERAL
SPLII RING The first wood trusses were develop€d for bridge design.
CONNECTORS WITH with the kingpost truss the earliest form. lt uses a primirv
3/a '
DtA BoLTS engineering principle: a triangle will hold its shaoe under a
ROOF PURLIN
load untir rts srde members or its ioints are crushed.

VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS

EXTENOEO TO SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS (OR JOISTJ
CENTERPOST

WOOD BLOCKING
SPLIT RING

KINGPOST

SPLICE PUTE Next came lhe queenposttruss, in which the peak of rhe
VERTICAL WEB krngpostwas replacedby a horizontalcrosspieceto allow a
MEMBERS rongerDase.
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS(OR
JOISTS)
WOOD BLOCKING

WOOO PURLIN

QUEENPOST
SPLIT RING
Furtheramplificationspermitted greater flexibilityto over-
CONNECTORS WITH come different spanningchallengesand to integratevari-
3/4- DtA- BoLTs - ous combinationsof inclined wood braces. wood arches.
steel tension rods-etc.

NOTES
SPLICE PUTE
1.A built-incamberof approximately j in.per 40 ft spanwilt
be introducedin the top and bottom chordsduring fabri-
PIYCHED HOWE cation.
2. When lumber is not adequatelyseasoned,the trusses
should be inspectedperiodicallyand adjusted.if neces-
sary,until moistureequilibriumis reached.
3. These truss designs are meant only as a guide. To
develop specitic designs, including bracingand anchor-
age.consult a structuralengineer.

WOOD BLOCKING

6;;
SPECIAL GROOVE
WOOD PURLIN CUT IN BOTH WOOD
MEMBERS

PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS OR

CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/4' Dta.
BOLTS

BELGIAN S P L I T R I N G C' O
, NNECTOR
2't2' ANO 4 TNSTDE OtA

SPLICE PLATE
SPLIT RING CONNECTOR

/- NUr wooo TRUss

MEMBER
WOOO PURLIN

PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
3/4- otA-
qt
( anotr.r. SPECIAL CUT,OUT
(DAP} FOR SHEAR
PUTE
SHEAR PLATE
THREADED 2tl2' aND 4 "
EXTENOED TO tNstoE otA. /
SUPPORT ROOF SUSPENDED
PURLINS OR JOISTS ROD
(OPTIONAL)
SPLICE PLATE

FINK SPLICE PUTE

Pitched trusses are very economical for spans up to 70 ft
(with an average spacing of 15 ft), since the rember sizes
are small, the joint details relatively simple, and the trusses
easily fabricated.
All pitched trusses require either knee braces to columns or
some other provision for lateral restraint against wind or
other forces,
PITCHED TRUSSES
A typical span (l) / depth (d) ratio for the Pratt, Howe, or Bel-
gian truss is 4 to 6, which gives a relatively norrul slope of STEEL GUSSff PUTE
4:12 lo 6:12. Fink trusses are prelerred where the slope is
steep (over 7:12). Scissors trusses and other typ€s of SHEAR PLATE AOLT
raised lower chord pitched roof trusses are used for sp€cial
conditions where clearance or appearance requir€s an N OTE
arched bottom chord. Consult with structural enoineer to Shear plate conn€ctors are commonly used to connect
check deflection. wood lruss members to steel gusset plates but may be
used to connect wood to wood.
CONNECTORS

TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland

WOODTRUSSES
362 SplitRingWood Trusses
wooD
PURLINS
WOOD SPLICE PLAIE

3lo" Drn. tnnseoeo sreeL

SUSPENSION ROD

VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS

EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)

SPLIT RING CONNECTORS

wtrH 3/.' otA. BoLTS

NOTE
A greatercenterdepthminimizesde{lection
andthrusl on walls.
WOOD (OR STEEL) sctssoRs
KNEE BRACE
MAY CONNECI PITCHED TRUSSES
WITH SPLIT RINGS PUTE WOOD PURLINS
WOOO SPLICE
AT TOP ANO/OR u-f7T-T-'--
BOTTOM CHORD
l// | \l_,-^-> VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
?ltl ROOF PURLINS
(OR JOISTS)
iEo.i i i
ffi

NOTE SPLIT RING CONNECTORS

wtrH 3/." DtA. BoLTS
Kneebracesare useful wh€r6 buildingsupportsdependon
truss lor stability.
DETAIL-KNEE BRACE
METAL FRAMING
ANCHOR
(WHERE POSSIBLE
EXTEND TRUSS SEGMENTAL BOWSTRING
WEB MEMB€R TO
MAKE CONN€CTION)

VERTICAL WEB MEMEERS

TRUSS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
TOP ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
CHORD
MEMBERS

wooD
JOIST (OR
PURLINS)

Top chord lateral bracing is achieved by fastening roof

sheathingto joistsor purlins,which are securely fastened
to the truss.
DETAIL-BRACE OF JOIST AND PURLIN
TO TRUSS SPLIT RING CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/." DrA. BoLTs
WOOD TRUSS
SEGMENTAL BOWSTRING

wooD Jorsrs
UMINATED TOP
CHORD
UMINATED OR SOLID
WEB VEMBERS

ffi
SHEAR PUTES
wlrH 3/a" Dta. BoLTS
AT TRUSS ENDS NOTE
ONLY
All members in same plane use
metal gusset plates for web to
chordconnections.
VERTICAL
SWAY BRACING
OF STEEL RODS
oR wooo rN STEEL SPLICE PLATE
BOWSTRING
END SECTIONS
MlN. i ONE lN Bowstring trusses are theoretically the most efficient and Connections and knee brace requirements are samalar to
MID.SPAN FOR economical of all wood truss types for larger spans, panicu- that of pitched trusses, since lateral load forces have a sim
LONG SPANS larly over 80 ft. although spans up to 250 tt are obtainable. ilar etfect on them. The bottom chord members may also
CONTINUOUS UTERAL Conneclions are simple and designed to give minimum be glue laminated to eliminate splices.
BRACING RUNS FULL LENGTH
stresses to the web members. A typical span (1)/depth {d)
OF BUILDING FASTENED TO AONOM
CHORD OR WEB MEMBERS NEAR CHORD ratio for bowstring trusses is 6 to 8.

DETAIL--.-LATERAL AND VERTICAL BO\/vSTRING TRUSSES

S\MAY BRACING

TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
Rachard
J. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudiojCrownsville,
Marvland

WOODTRUSSES
 SplitRingWood Trusses 363
WOOO TRUSS
WOOD SPLICE PUTE

r*"""
SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
wrTH 14" DtA AOLTS\

STEEL PURLINS
THROUGH VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS
TOP CHORD MAY BE
BOLT EXTEND TO SUPPORT
SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
ACCOMMOOATE DRATNAGE
UG BOLT REOUIREMENTS

ANGLE
BARING
PUTE TOP
PUTE

BUILT-UP
POST OF
2X

.DETAIL-STEEL ANGLE BRACE TO

WOOD PLATE
FUT PRATT

BEARING
PLATE

wooo
TRUSS

wooD
STRAPS SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
WITH 9L" OIA. BOLTS ..-
SPLIT RING WOOO PURLINS
CONNECTORS TOP CHORO MAY BE
wtTH 3/4" otA. WEA MEMAERS
SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO
BOLTS EXTEND TO SUPPORT ACCOMMODATE DRAINAGE
REOUIREMENTS
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BUILT-UP
POST TO
MATCH
TRUSS
WIDTH

NOTE
End grain b€aring of posts provides suppon for the truss-

DETAIL-\^|OOD STRAP AT r^r'OOD

COLUMN

FLAT HOWE

WOOD SPLICE PLATE

SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
wtTH r/4" DtA. BOLTS \

TOP CHORD MAY BE

ROOF SHEATHING SLOPEO SLIGHTLY TO
ACCOMMODATE ORAINAG€
ROOF JOISTS REOUIREMENTS
This detailfor uss with light wnical and horizontall@ds.

DETATL--srEeu FRlmrNc ANc HoR o o o'o, ,o. o

wooD
TRUSS

THROUGH
AOLT
ANCHOR
BOLT
MORTAR WOOD BLOCKING
WARREN BffiEEN WEB MEMAERS
CMU Combinationsof flat truss types are sometimesuseful. For
Flat trusses are generallyless economicalthan oitched or
(GROUT bowstring trusses, since connections are usuallv more Instance,a t.ussmay be builthavingone-haltprattandone_
complicated and higher side walls are required. But half Howe design.Warren t.usses mav have ends ol erther
becauseof their geometry.flat trus$s allow th€ smallest Pran or Howe designsincorporated,dependrngon the typ€
rof area versuspitchedor bowstring trussesfor the same ot support.In general,Warren trusses are used for shoner
BEARING spans.
PUTE span. As in pitched trusses. the maximum soan for flat
N OTE trussesis about 70 ft.
Flat trussesdo not requireknee bracessincethe uorer and
With scissor trusses, use slotted holes in steel to allow for A typi€l span (1)/depth{d) ratio for all types of flat trusses lower chordstake the placeof a laterargrace.
thrust. rs generallyI to 10.
DETAIL_BEARING ON MASONRY WALL FLAT TRUSSES

TECOProducts;Collier,West Viroinia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville. Marutand

WOODTRUSSES
364 Joists,ond TrussedRqfters
Wood Trusses,

GENERAL
Monoplaner trussesare usually made up lrom 2 x 4
or 2 x 6 lumber. Spacing.normally 24 in. o.c., varies
lor spmial uses, esprcially in agriculture.Camber is
designed for dead load only. Bottom chord furring
generallyis not required for drywall ceiling.Joints in
plywood floor or roof should be staggered.Many
trusses are approved by model codes, such as BOCA,
I C B O .F H A , a n d S B C .

cAMBER = L(FT)
(USUAL) 60
REeIOENTIAL TYPE TRUA€ED FLOOR JOIET BRACING
STEEL PLATE CONNECTED
Adequatebracingof trussesis vital. Sufficientsupport
at right anglesto plane of tru$ must be providedto
DUCT SIZES DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE hold each trus member in its designatedposition.
OF DUCTWORK Consider bracing during design, fabrication, and
Ease of running electrical and mechanicalservicm erstion. In addition, provide permanent bracing/
through framing is a major advantageof trussedjoists. DEPTH 12" to 20" anchorageas an integral part of the building.Strong-
Most manufacturec provide a large rectangularopen backs are often used,
panelat midspan;this void will generallyaccommodate- SHAPE
a trunk line. A 4x9 o x tz 7x 13 8x14
Sizes given here are approximations.Becauseweb r0" 12" 14"
sizeand anglesvary with different brands,the designer

T"-
8"
is €utioned to verify individual sizescarefully. Note n
that shapeE is the duct that will tit in a flat trusswith 9" 13" 17"
double chords too and bottom. E 6" t0" 14" 18"

WOOO TRUSSED RAFTERS SPANS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN

RESIDENTIAL LIVE LOAOS
(DOUBLE
x
rrerwerer
2X3
3z;1'RYrcoo
LAMINA'EO FLANGE
wEB,

FLOORS ROOFS cHoRDS)

nl
55 PsF 6) 40 PsF (A 55 PsF 55 PsFad

OEPTH 12" 16" 24"

TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING IC TO CI
16" 16', 24" 16" 24"
t-----t i-----t i----
i }igi"fJis#-
tz 23-6 21-O 7-1 24-O 21-4 18-2 illl iii-"**ii-\
13-
14"
15"
24-11
26-4
2t-7
22-O
22-11
2 3 -1 0
7-11
8-8 23-3 24-5 t 9 -1 0 HI
16" 28-7 24-9 20- 1 30-3 25-O zo-q 21-4 3 1 -1 0 27-10
40'- 60'
18" 30-6 26-4 32-11 26-9 28-1 22-9 35- 1 30-7
20" 32-4 27-11 22-8 34-8 28-0 23-11 38-1 33-1
22" 34-0 26-9 23-11
24" 35-8 30-10 25-O JO- J 30-11 43-l0 JO- /

28' 4 1- 6 33-6 35-5 28-7 49-2 39-t1

JZ 44-3 35-7 37-8 30-4 52-9 42-9
ANO WEBS
36" 47-O 3 7 -1 0 40- 1 JZ-5 56-3 45-7
48"

n
60-0 53-3 TO LONG 40',-AO'
COMMERCIAL LIVE LOADS

FLOORS
80 PsF aD) 100 PsF (A 120 PsF
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING {C TO C) tl
DEPTH
12"
14"
12"
19-0 ,
21-4
16"
17-3
19-4
24"
1 5 -1
i6-6
12"
17 - 3
19-4
t6"
l5-8
t7-7
24"
t3- t

14-9
12"
16-0
r8-0
16"
14-7
16-4
24"
l2-4
13-6
! CHOROE,20 GAUCE 6TEEL

16" 23-6 2l-5 1 7 -1 0 21-5 t9-5 15-11 l9- 10 17-11 14-6

25-A ?3-4 19-0 23-4 21-O t7-o 19-2
20" 27-8 24-10 25-2 I 8-0 23-4 20-3
24" 31-6 27-S 22-2 28-5 24-6 1 9 -t 0 25-11 22-4 t 8 -1
16". 27-7 za- | 25-1 19-11 23-2 18-5
Jd-u J+-O 30- 1 34-6 31-4 27-4 32-0 29-1 za- |
32"' 47- 1 42-9 JO- | 42-9 38-10 32-3 ?o_e JO- | zJ-a

Top chord live load 40 psf 20 psf 35 psf 60 psf 80 psf 100 psf
Top chord dead load 10 psf '10psf
10 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10psf
Bonom chord dead load 5 psf l0 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10 psf
Total load @ 55 psf @ 40 psf @ 55 psf @ 80 psf @100psf @120psf
NOTES
1. Spans are clear. inside to inside, for bottom chord 5. Asterisk{'l indietes that tru$ has double chords,
bearing.Valuesshom would vary very slightly for top and bottom.
a truss with top chord loading. 6. Spansshown are for only one type of lumber; in
2. Spansshould not exceed 24 x depth ol truss. this case-#2 Southern pine, with an fo value of
3. Ocigned deflection limit under total load is Q/240 1550. Charts are availablefor other grads and
for roofs, 11360 for residential flors. and l/480 sprcies. Lumber and gmdes may be mixed in the
for commercialfloon sme tru$, but chord size must be identical. Re-
4, Bmf soansincludea +15%short term stress. petitive member bmding stressis u$d in this chart. TYPES OF FABRICATED TRU66EA

Michael Bengis,AIA Hopatcong,New Jersey

WOODTRUSSES
 Wood JoistConnections 365

ruYWOOO

BEARING ON STUO WALL EIARING ON LEOGER

SOTTOM CHORO BEAM

PLYWOOO \^/EEI TRUSS (WOOO CHORDS AND FLANGES)

BOTTOM G:HORO TOP CHORO BEARING- TOP CHC)RO BEARING o'N

BEARING ON ETUO WALL MASONRY TOP CHC)RO BEARING
WALL STUD WALL

OPEN \^/EB TRUSS (STEEL WEB \^/OOO CHORD)

CONTINUOUS
NAILER FOR
LATERAL
SUPPORT

BOTTOM CHORO TOP CHORO BEARING ON CANTILEVEREO BOTTOM

BEARING ON 6TUO \^/ALL MA€iC)NRY
CHORO
WALL FLOOR TRUSS BEARING

WEEI TRUSS (WOOO CHOROS AND WEEI. METAL PLATE CONNECTORSI

TimothyB. McDonald;Washington,
D.C

WOODTRUSSES
366 WoodTruss
Construction
MIN SLOPE - 1 75 12 WP

PLWOOD ROOF
SHEATHING
K|NG rcST CryP MAX SPAN - 37' APPROX )

ryP, R@F
FUSS ---

-
XX
MODIFIED OUEEN POST
CryP. MA. SPAN. - 47 APPROX.)

FINK CryP. MA. SPAN - 27 APPROX.)

TOP AND
BOfrOM
CHORD

ruBLE FINK CryP. Mu. SPAN - 37'APPROX.)

STRONGBACK

mlfu€ W CryP. MA. SPAN - 4A APPROX.)

AMILEER CNYP. Mg. SPAN - 20' APMOX }

PROTECTIVE
FUSHING

CLERESTORY TryP, Mg SPAN : 37' APROX.)

TNWRTEDCryP.Md. SPAN:37 APROX.)

NOTES
'1.
The averagespacingfor light trusses {trussedrafterslis
2 ft o.c. but variesup to 4 ft. The averagecombineddead
and live loads is 45 lb per sq ft. Spans are usually
between 20 and 32 ft but can be as much as 50 ft.
2. Earlyin the design pr@ess, consult an engineeror truss
supplierfq pre€ngineeredtruss designsto establishthe
most economi€l and efticient truss proponions. The
suppli€rmay providefinal truss engineeringdesign. FOUNDA
3. Perrunent and temporary €rection bracing must be
TRUSS FRAMING
installed as specified to pr€vent failure oI properly
designedtrGses.
4. Sore locales requirean engineer's stamp when prefab
trussesare used. Check localcodes.
5. Member forces in a truss rise rapidlyas the lower chord
is raisedabovethe horizontal. \ l--.--
PITCHED CHORD TRUSSES CONNECTOR
|uTE T@TH ruNCHED THROUGH PSTE PUTE
HAS
PARTICU4R LENGTH, SHAPE, AND ruIST: ALL
AFECT WITHDRAWAL STRENGTH CT@TH
UERAL RESISTANCE) -__-_
GAUGE NET AREA OF \
SFUOURAL STEEL LEff \
rN tuTF aflfR PUNCHFD \-
EETH ARE FORMED:
RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF
THIS UNruNCHED STEEL
IS USED TO RANSFER
FORCES IN RUSS JOIM:
fuTE C'ONNECTOR
RFSSED BY
&'s8ilER FXPEe",,\f.
BoTH srDES oF TRUSS /
"rSUBqq
\,0,2
TYPICAL METAL PLATE CONNECTOR TYPICAL PITCHED CHORD ROOF TRUSS

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,

Maryland

WOOD TRUSSES
 Wood TrussConslruction 367
RECTANGULAR OPENING
{AT MIDSPAN. TYP.) ..
roT=\
DUCT A -.-
DUCT B -.
+
SCISSORS 'ryP. MAX SPAN : 45'-O" APPROX )

BONOM YA9LLiD CETLTNCCryp MA. SpaN _ 42.o-

CHORO \UTERAL EEARING
STRONG BACK. BRACE. IF CAMILEVER
IF REOUIRED - REOUIRED

TYPICAL PARALLEL CHORD FLOOR AND ROOF TRUSS MONO-PrCH - 23€.

Cryp. Mu spaN AppRox.)
DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE OF DUCTWORK

DUAL PITCH CryP ME SPAN -32'€' APPROX)

SPAN : 42'{"

NOTE:The relativeease of runningelectricaland mechani_ individualsizescarefully.Duct sizesare basedon maximum

cal componentsthough lraming is a major advantageof a pan€lsizesallowableby prior arrangement.
truss roof system. Sizesgiven here are approximatelveritv
SCISSORED WARREN 'NYP MA- SPAN - 42'€'
PARALLEL CHORO TRUSS_SPANS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN APPROX.)

T R U S S E D R A F T E R SS p A C t N G ( C T O C ) ( t N . ) - R e S t O E t t r r n r _ I O A O S

ROOFS
B.40 PSF c. 55 PSF c.55 PSF" BOWSTRTNG CryP. MS SPAN - S.€. appRox.)
PITCHED TRUSSES

E
tl
_,V
CHORDEEB
ORIENTANON

tx
H
CHORDryEB
ORIEMATION

PARALLEL TRUSSES

GENERAL
Metal plate{onnected wood trusses have been used in
building construction since 1953, when the metal connec-
tor plate was invented. These proprietary metal plates are
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING (C TO C)(IN.)_COMMERCIAL FLOOR LOADS available in a range of styles and tooth orientations. The
metat ptates are punched with barbs that grab onto the
F. t20 PSF wood truss, thus reducing the hand nailing reauired to fabri_
cate a structure. Plate size tor a given truss is based on a
combination of the tooth withdrawal strength of the plate,
the tensile and shear strength of the steel, and the nei sec-
tional area of the lumber.

This system is primarily used tor roofs with either oitched

or parallel chord trusses. lt is o6asionally employed for
fl@rs with parallel chord trusses. lndividual trusses a.e cut
lrcm2 x 4 in. ot 2 x 6 in. lumb€r and can be soaced 24 in. or
48 in. o.c. For typtcal residential construction, 24 in. o.c. is
used. Exceptionally long spans are possible with metal
plateronnected trusses, allowing the large, unencumbered
Interior spaces often requjred in commercial. agricultural,
and other nonresidential building types.

B (PSF) E ( PSF) Camber is designed for dead load onlv:

Camber fin.) = LenSth ift)/60

Top chord dead l@d BRACING

10
Bottom chord dead load Providiog adequate bracing for trusses is essential, both
10
during installation and in the overall roof desiqn. Truss
members must be held in place with suppons ih"t -eet
' indi€tes a doublHhorded truss. top and bottom. them at right angles. Truss chords and web members are
3. Spansshouldnot exceed24 in. x depth of truss. placed in a venical, plumb position and maintain that posi-
N OTES tion, resisting applied design loads, throughout the liie of
4. Roofspansincludea +15% short-termstress.
1. Spans are clear, inside to inside. for bottom chord bear_ the structure_ Permanent bracing and anchorage are
ing. Values shoM woutd vary only stightly for a truss 5. Spans shown are for only one type of lumber; in this expecled to be an integral pan of construction, and strong-
wrth top chord lGding.
case--+2 Southernpine. with an fb value of I 550. Charts backs are often used for this DUroose.
are availablefor other grades and species. Lumber and
2. Designed deflection limit under total load is lf24j lol gradesmay be mixed in the same truss, but chord size Movement by crane can damage trusses. Crane sp.eader
r@ts, ,F60 for residential floors. and //4gO for commer_ must be identical.Repetitivemember bending stress is bars are used to avoid this "out{f-plane" buckling. Special
cial floors. usedin this chan. strllenrng may be applied lo trusses during erection.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

WOOD TRUSSES
368 Wood FloorTrussDetoils
2X6.MIN
CODE APPROVED
ANCHOR AT STRONGBACK
TRUSS - RESTRAINTD AT
EACH .---\
EACH END
\ \
(SECURE
THREE 1@
WITH

WOOD BFAM NAILS AT IACH

VERTICAL) .-

WOOD
TRUSS
CUT BELOW
BTAM, IF
REOUIRED
GTERAL - 2 X 4 VERTICAL BLOCKING.
BRACING SECURE WTH ruO 1Od
(REAUIRED) NAI S A] ]OP AND BOflOM
N OTE
Locate strongbacks at maximum 10 ft o.c. at free-span
trusses.

TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT

EXTERIOR BEARING WALL
WOOD ARACING,
(2X4UTDFCT).
FASENED
TO TRUSS ENDS

SOLID

TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT EXTERIOR WALL BEARING DETAIL DIAGONAL BRACING AT BEARING END
INTERIOR BEARING WALL

WOOD GIRDER

DOOR OPENING TRIMMER

AND KING STUOS

BEARING

BEARING

2X LEreER
CONTINUOUS
SUPPORT TO
FOUNOATION
SOLID WOOD
BL@KING UNDER
TRIMMERS ABOVE

BOTTOM CHORD SUPPORT AT LEDGER DETAIL BLOCKING DETAIL AT INTERIOR

BEARING WALL BEARING WALL

J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile Marvland

6 WOODTRUSSES
 Wood RoofTrussDetoils 369

JACK TRUSS SYSTEM

GABLE ROOF OVERHANG DETAIL

JZ1 J/z-4 K K A z ( A,z -z? - .4 -4/
z 4- #=::-:
bA
"?=6
JACK TRUSS COMPONENTS

COMMON WOOD

(HOWE TRUSS)

END.BEARING ROOF TRUSS WITH

METAL CONNECTORS

TRUSS

HIP JACK ryP

OVERHAre -..-- STEP.DOWN TRUSS SYSTEM

WEDGE

CAMLEWR
STEP.DOWN COMPONENTS
OWRHNG

AMILEWR
OWRHANG

-,.

LEWL
ffi_\_+
R*f*o*t RruN --_|==-
U
6MMON
W@D TRUSS
EEARING
BELOW
WALL

+- (HOWE TRUSS)

OVERHANG DETAILS ROOF INTERSECTION WITH VALLEY FILL

RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsviile,Marytand

WOODTRUSSES
370 Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
BEARING WALL WOOD ts@IST
BL@KING NAILED TO BLOCKING NAILED
TOP PGTE BELOW WOOD TO TOP PLATE WITts
WTH Ad NAILS AT LJOTST. ilP.--- 8d NAILS AT 6' O.C
1 1/2" flP
6'OC.. ryP. reB
STIFFENERS, J PLWOOD
LAMINATED-
VENEER LUMBER ryP. EACH SIDE OR OSB
FLANGE (OR WHERE CLOSURE
soLrD wooD) REOUIRED. J

PLW@D OR
OSB WEB --

ffiB
TYPICAL rivooD I-JOIST SNFFENER

SIDE, IF
NTCESSARY
DO NOT BEWL-CUT
JOIST BEYONO
INSIDE FACE

EEARING 2'-O'MU.

MANUFACTURER'S
DETAILS)
W@D tsJOIST AS
RIM JOIST. NAILED
TO TOP PUTE
AELOW WTH Ad NOTE
NAILS AT 6' O.C.. TYP
Joist must b9 designed to carry the load-bearing wall.
LOAO-BEARING CANTILEVER DETAIL
WEB
TYPICAL BEVEL-CUT JOIST STIFFENER
- 2X SOLTD WOOO
TACH NAILED TO SIDE
SIDE, IF OF WOOD BACKER
NAIL TO NECESSARY. BEARING
2X SL|O
JOIST WEB WOOD RIM
. LEAVE 1/16' ' V'6" GAP, SEE BOARD
,,/ MANUFAftRER'S SOLID WOOD
RECOMMENDATTONS WOOD tsJOIST
BACKER

WAL MUST BE OF SUFFICIEM

WIDTH TO PROVDE THE REOUIRED
BARING SURFACE FOR THE JOIST
WOOD I-JOIST AS RIM JOIST

BEARING WTL ABOW

TIGHT
Fr -.--- fuT BARING AL@KS CANTILEWR
r/o'ABOE wmD TJOIST LENGTH. NO
WEB (SEE MANUFAfrRER'S CONCEN'
SNFFENER RECOMMENDATIONS) TRATED
7+'tuW@D OR LOADS (E.G,.
wooD
tsJOlST-
OSB RIM E}OARD
SOLID WOOD
). /
BEARING
waLLS)
., tN TH|S
BARING BEARING AREA
BL@KS. \
LEAVE rr' 6' z4 MtN_ \ 1/eX
FILLER PANEL. *€. GAP. SEE &CH SIDE CANTILEER
IF NTCESSARY MANUFACruRER'S / LENGTH
RECoMMENDAT|oNS /
| -/ 3il.,t.r.*
.1' LENGTH
E]EARING WALL EIEARING WALL
E}ELOW ABOVE PANELS FOR
w@D A MIN- OF
NON-LOAD.EIEAFIING DROPPED
!JOIST 4'€' AT EACH CANTILEVER DETAIL
WEB STIFFENER DETAILS BEARING END ND AT
LEAST 4'O' BEARING WALL
BELOW . FOR EWRY .-e.' PLWOOD OR
GENERAL 25'O' OF ,/ osB cLosuRE
BARING PANEL
A wood l-joist is made of a web with top and bottom E}EARING BLOCKS WALL LENGTH -.- WOOD tsJOIST
flanges. lt is similar in shape and profile 10 the steel lbeam, . BLOCKING
BEARING WALL ABOW
but while the steel component is forged from a single ingot, -wooD
the w@d member is a composition. Plywood or oriented 2 GYERS OF
strand board (OSBI is used lor the web of the w@d l-ioist. 7.'RW@D
and either solid lumber or laminatedveneer lumber for the OR OSB
flang€s. Many manufacturers produce wood l-joists under
different trade names, and each differs in its dimensions, as END JOIM
well as span and deflection, loading. and performance char- MUST BE
AT WOOD
acteristics. Consult manufacturers for d€tails and oerfor- FJOST
mance cflteria. L@ION

Compared to solid lumber, w@d l-joists have both relative )

advantages and disadvantages:
reB
STIFFENERS
ADVANTAGES W@D EACH SIDE CANTILEER
LJOIST WHEN LENGTH, NO
1 . Easier to handle and lighter weight, with about 50yo tess REOUIRED CONCENTRATED
AEARING LOADS (E.G.,
w@d material per ioist than an equivalent solid wood BEARING WALLS)
memDer. BELOW IN THIS AREA
2. Makes efficient use of a nalural resource-the lioist can STANDARD 2X RIM JOIST ax caNrtrevrn \ 'BEARING
be made from second and third growth timber stands, LENGTH
with no need for old growth trees- N OTE BEARING WALL WALL
3. Available in lengths up to 60 ft, priced per linear foot. Check building code for appropriate detail in areas of high NON-LOAD-BEARING CANTILEVER
4. Greatest strength when loaded parallel to plane of web. lateral load. DETAIL

5. A high degree of unitormity, with no crowns, checks, or STUD BEARING WALL DETAILS CANTILEVER DETA,ILS
loose knots_
6. Plumbing and HVAC can easily be run through web struc- DISADVANTAGES
ture (based on the manufacturer's guidelines). 1. Material costs are generally more (per linear foot) than 3. Less lateral stitfness than solid lumber.
7. Starts with dry materials, so there is much less shrinkage for solid lumber (for standa.d residential floor ioist dimen-
4. Can be shifted by winds during construction due to light
than with solid lumber. saonsand spans)-
weight.
8. W@d lioists €n generally be set at wider onrenter 2. Contractors are less {amiliar with wood l-joists and can
5. Some adhesives used in laminated-veneer components
spacang. thus reducing installation time. creale problems by cutting holes into webs and weaken-
may pose indoor air{uality problems.
ing the member.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand

WOODTRUSSES
 Wood l-JoistConsfructionDetoils 371
wooD r-otsT / BACKER
DOUBLE SOLID WOOD FILLER AEARING WALL
BLMK (usEo
aLocK wlTH ABOVE (STACKED
INSTALLED HEAW LOAD ON
TIGHT TO
METAL €tST
BONOM
wooD L-rorsT)
OF TOP
\
FUNGF
I
\l
BLGK

WEB
STIFFENER

BACKER
(EACH BLMK
WEB STIFFENER
INSTALLED
SIDEi MAY BE REQUIRED
IGHT TO
FOR JOIST STABILIW TOP OF
HANGER COMPATIBILry,
OR JOIST BOfrOM
REACTION)
FUNGE
N OTE NOTE
Connectim between iorsts must provide adequate load Conn€ction between joists must provide adequat€ load
translerbetween members transterbetweenmembers
wooD t-JolsT coNNECT|ON TO WOOD WOOD I.JOIST CONNECTION TO WOOD
I-JOIST HEADER BEARING WALL ABOVE AND BELO\/V
I-JOIST HEADER (HEAVY LOAD)
WOOD SOLID
L.'OIST wooD
rcUBLE- FILLER
HADER BLCK

a
o
o
J
)
x
U
F
)

METAL
w@D RAMING
STAIR ANCHOR AT
(xRAGE EACH SIOE

N OTE wooD
Connectron between joists must provrde adequate load Thicker wood plate over beam may be required; check
transter between members. hanger manufacturer's top flange nailing iequirements.
STAIR CARRIAGE CONNECTION WOOD I-JOIST SUPPORTED AT TOP OF
DETAIL LATERAL LOAD BLOCKING AT END
BEAM (OR WALL) v\/ALL

BL€KNG AryEEN JOIST HANGER SHU CUT SOLID BL€KS

-rorsTs \ BE LOCATED ABOW BL(::SING FOR %6" HIGHER THAN
NEUR{ dIS OF HORIZC)NTAL JOIST HEIGHT W@D rcST
BAM (SEE W@D SDING
MANUFACruRER'S IN LINE \ffi BARING
sEcrFrcaToNS) STUDS- SOLID
W@D BAM BL@K
AI
NEUTR& rcSTS
AIS OF FROM
EEAM ABOE
TO
BEARING
BELOW
w@D
fJorsT

wooo
tsJOIST
NAILED TO
TOP PUTE
WITH Ad
NAILS AT
6'O.C -
ffiB STIFFENER (EACH
SIDE: MAY BE REOUTRED
FOR JOIST STABILR,
HAreER COMPATIBILW. SILL
oR JO|ST REACTTON)

JOTST HANGER DETAIL TYPICAL WOOD BLOCKING AT COLUMN LOAO TRANSFER

EXTERIOR \^/ALL

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland

WOODTRUSSES
372 Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
WOOD IJOIST ALOCKING WOOD BACKER -
NAILING PER
I'JOIST VENTILATION BLOCK MANUFACTURER'S
WOOD I JOISTS BU]T HOLE CUT IN BEHIND REOUIREMENTS
ABOVE RIDGE BEAV BLOCKING T\
WEB OUTRIGGER
__-srNGLE (OR DOUBLE)
VENTILATION // 2X OUTRTGGER
HOLE CW
BLOCKING
IN
WEB
:(
VENTIUTION
74'PLW@D WOOD HOLE CUT IN
GUSSET I.JOIST BLOCKING
EACH RANER WEB
SIDE
WEA
.;
STIFFENER
EACH
SIDE
WHEPE
REOUIRED

OOUBLE 2X WOOD

i
BLOCKING
WMD PUTE; FOR SOFFIT
SUPPORT.

N OTE - RIDGE BEAM NOTE

NAILED TO z ' o " \ >i.
WOOD IJOIST MAX ,
WEB
Uplift connections may be required Uplift connections may be required

WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIOGE BEAM WOOD I-JOIsT RAFTER AT OVERHANG \^/OOD I.JOIST RAFTER WITH
DETAIL OUTRIGGER
wooD t-JolsT ,-- METAL CROSS
STEEL SRAP MAY BE RAilER, /. ERACING AS w@D .- NAIL OUTRIGGER TO
REOUIRED WHERE IJOIST
SLOPE EXCEEDS 7 12 -w@o
// REOUIRED
RAffER. /' WE'.e.la.tlNgf€B
BEVELED WEB
WOOD I-JOIST LJOISTS STIFFENER
RAflER, WP. -\ BUN AT EACH SIDE,
RIDGE WHERE wmD r-JorsT
RIDGE REAUIRED BLrcKING
BEAM
CONTINUOUS
PGTE VENTIUTION
SLOPED HOLE Cfr IN
METAL BLMKING
JOIST WEB
HANGER

\
=".o-r,*L-l SINGLE (OR
rcUBLE) 2X
2 X 4 L@KOUT 1X8
OfRIGGER
NAILED TO FASCIA
W@D I.JOIST .-
NAIL 2X CRIPPLE
END NAIL BL€K (WTH
AEWLED WEB
INTO LOOKOUT
>i< SHEATHING
WEB SNFFENER
STIFFENER MA TO2X6
AT OTHER
ilCH SIDE SIDE
NOTE SUAFASCIA
oF wooD tsJotsT)
WHERE /
REOUIRED- Uplift connectionsmay be required Uplilt connectionsmay be required.
I/VOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT'OVERHANG r/YOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT OUTRIGGER
DETAIL
W@D FJOIST BLGKING
VENTIUNON
HOLE CUT IN
BL@KING WEB
WOOD IJOIST NOTCH
RA-ER, WP.-.\ OUTRIGGER
BEVELED AROUND
WOOD PLATE WOOD LJOIST
FOR SLOPES FCNGT

THAN !/2:1 2 wooD

(FOR I.JOIST
31/2'
BEARING
LENGTH)i
FOR SLOPES
GREATER THAN
4:12. ADOITIONAL
CONNECTORS
MAY BE
REOUIRED ' J
4..o" oR 1/3 :_ \y
NorEs cBii:ilxl _,_- \ 2X FLY
RA|:TR
1. Upl'tt conneclions may be required
2X
2. Special sloped seat-bearingmetal connectors can be OWRIGGER
used in lieu of beveled w@d plate in some slopedappli- (UDDER TRUSS)
cations.see manulacturer'srecommendations. END WALL

WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM WOOD I.JOIST RAFTER AT OVERHANG FLY RAFTER DETAIL
DETAIL
WOOD tsJOIST
BL€KING,
EACH SIDE -
WOOD tsJOST BLrcKING w@D
tsJOIST
WNTI4TION
HOLE CUT IN
BLOCKING WEB _-
BEWLED WEB WEB
STIFFENERS STIFFENER
EACH SIDE EACH SiDE
WHEN METAL
REOUIRED
MOUMED
JOIST
HANGER

BOfr JC)IST WEBS

w@D
LJOIST
RAtrER, BOnOM
1 : >< \*-o '-ro'.t
HEADER
FLANGE
MUST BEAR
MANUFAOURER'S FULLY ON
REOUIREMEMS) - TOP PLATE WOOD I-JOIST SKYLIGHT FRAMING
\nrDGE eEav DETAIL
NorE NOTE
Uplift connections may be required. Uplift connections may be required N OTE

LAPPED VI/OOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT TYPICAL BIRD'S MOUTH I.JOIST CUT Check code and manufacturer's requiremenls lor all ventila-
RIDGE BEAM DETAIL tion hole sizes cut in blocking web.

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville.

Maryland

WOOD TRUSSES
 Glued-LominotedConslruction 373
STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED SAWN OR
TIMBER TAPERED -
The.term"structuial
gluedlminatedtrmber,refersto an
engrneered, stressJated producl made Of WOOd lamina-
trons bonded with adhesives. wrth lhe grarn approximatelv STRAIGHT DOUBLE TAPERED*CURVEO
pa.allel lenglhwrse Laminaled preces cin be end_iorned
t6 /SAWN OR
torm any tength. or glued edge_to.edg€ to make wider t-l
tl
pre@s, Or ol bent preces curved durrng glutng
SI NGLE TAPEREO_STRAIGHT
DOUBLE TAPERED_PITCHEO
STANDARD DEPTHS I

Dimensional lumber sudaced to i 4 in. (38 mm) is used to OOUBLE TAPERED_STRAIGHT

lamrnate straight members and members that have a curya-
ture within_the bending radius limitations for the spe;ie;. MAXIMUM PRACTICAL DIAMETERS
Boards surfaced to % in. (j9 mm) are recommended for
laminating curved members when bending radius is too
shon to p€rmit the use of dimension lumbe;. provided that
the bending radius limitations lor lhe species are obseryed.
Other lamination thicknesses may be used to ."ei
reoutrements_ "peit"i
RADIAL ARCH
TRIANGULATED
2OO N
650 FT
A
PITCHEO THREE-CENTEREO

A
STANDARD WIDTHS
/A\
// \\

/\
GOTH IC

* 3, 5, 8t/,, and | 0'/2 in.for

southernpin€
--^t
;ifi+&<'

CAMBER
Camberis curyature(circularor parabolic)made into struc_
turcl glued laminaled beams opposite the anticipated
dellectron movement. The recommendedminimum cam-
ber is one and one-halftimes deadloaddeflection.After ini_
tial dead load detlectionand additionatplastic deformation
(c@p) has taken place, this usually will produce a near
l€vel floor or rmf beam under dead load conditions.Addi-
tioml camber or stope may insure adequate drainageof
r@f b€ams. On long-spanroof beams and floor bearirsof
multistory buildings,addjtionalcamber may be needed to
counter the optical illusionof the beam sagging.
FIRE SAFETY
The self-insulatingqualitiesof heaw timber cause a slow
burning. Good structuraldetails, eliminationof concealed
spaces, and use of verticallire stops contributeto its fire
performance.HeaW timber retains its strength under fire
longerthan unprotectedmelals.
+
LAMINATEO DOME PARABOLIC
STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER SHAPES
NOTES ON SHAPES
Consideration must be given to the perimeter bond
1. Beam nam€s describe top and bottom surfaces of the
beam design since wind torces will produce loads in this
beam. Sloped or pitched surfaes should be used on the
member. The length of main members ol the radil arch
tension side of the beam.
system, whjch must span a distance greater than hall the
2. The three hinged arches and frames shown above oro_ dome diameter, limit the maximum practical dome diam,
duceiorizontal reactions r€quiring honzontal ties or mod_ eter. The tar smaller members of the triangulated dome
rtred loundations. result in the greater diameters. The triangulated system
3. The triangulated and the radial arch are the two basic can be designed for five or more segments with an equal
types of stuctural glued laminated wood dome svstems number of peripheral supports at each segment.
available. Both systems require a tenston ring at the 4. More complicated shapes may be fabricated. Contact the
dome sping hne to conven axial thrusts to venrcal loads. American Institute oI Timber Construction (AITC) and the
American Plywood Association (ApA.

Buildingcodesgeneralty classifygluedtaminatedtimberas CONNECTION DESIGN

heavytimb€rconstruction if cenainminimumdimensional
requirementsare met. Codes also allow for calculationot
onehour fire ratingsfor exposedgluedlaminatedtjmbers.
See Councilof AmericanEuildingOffrcialsNationalEvalua.
tion ServiceCommrtteeReponNo. NER-250.
It is not re@mmended that firtretardant treatrents be
appli€d to glued laminatedtimber as thev do not substan-
tially increasethe fire resistanceof heaw timber conslruc-
tion. In @nsid€ringfire{etardanttreatments.the reduction
ot strength related to type and penetrationof treatrent,
lho mmpatibility ot treatmentand adhesive,the use of spe
cial gluing preeddres, the difficultyof apptication,and ihe
efttrt on wd color and fabricationpr@edures must be
investigated.
.AAco
LlLrl
'l
r r|l
rrrll
The design of connections for glued laminated timbers is
srmrlar to the design of connections for sawn lumber. Since
glued laminated timbers often are much larger than sawn
lmber and the loads transferred also are larger, the effect
of increased size should be taken into accouni in the design
of connections. In addition to being designed for streng'ih
to transter toads, connections also should be designed to
avoid splining of the member and to accommodate swell
ing and shrinking of the w@d.
BEAM END CONNECTIONS
Eeam end connections shoutd be designed to carry both
anduced horizontal and verti€l lGds. Bolts or fastenings at
the end of the beam should be l€ated toward the boitom
of the b€am so that the effed ot shrinkage between lhe
bottom of the beam and the tastening is mimimized. Bolts
or connectors lGted near or above the beam.s neutral axis
PURLIN TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
Th€ preferred purlin to beam connection method is to trans-
fer the end reacton by bearing pe.pendicular to grain in a
saddle lype conneclion extendrng over the beam top.
When the end reactio oi the beam or purlin is relatjvelv
small, the hanger can be fastened to the fae of the girdei.
The bolts or connectors in the main €rrying beam or-girder
should be placed above the neutral axis of the membe; and
In the supponed member should be place rear the bottom
to avoid potential splitting.
SPLICE CONNECTIONS
At beam splice connections occurring over columns, it is
important
to allow for movement in the upper portions oI
the beam
due to end rotation. Slotted connections will helo
to reduce the problem by allowing for some beam moave_

rrtll should not be used on large glued laminated beams or gird-

ers srnce the concentration of the tension perpendicular to
grain due to restralnt of shrinkage. and shear stresses act-
ment.

CONCEALED ANO PARTIALLY CONCEALEO

rng at tasteners localed in these beam areas tend lo cause
splitting of the member.
A-SINGLE CANTILEVER
LSUSPENOEO
SUSPENDEO LOADS
HOUBLE CANTILEVER
TSINGLE END SUSPENDED In cases where it is not possible for lhe suspending system
to be carried on top of the beam, it is g@d practice toplace
CANTILEVERED AND the fastener above the neutral axis. particularly when other
CONTINUOUS SPAN than light loading is involved or when a number of loads are
Cantilever beam systems may be composed of any ol the to be suspended lrom the member. For heaw loads. a sad-
various types and combinations ol beams shown above. dle detail placing loads directly on top ot the beam is .ec-
Canlilever systems generally permit longer spans or larger ommenoed.
loads p€r size member than do simple span systems.
Very light loads may be suspended near the bottom of a
For economy, the negative bending moment at the support glued laminated timber. The distance above the beam bor
ot a cantilevered beam should be equat in magnitude to the tom must exceed the specified edge distance of the fas_
posrtrve moment_ Iener used_
PURLIN HANGERS
Panially concealed purlin hangers are used for normal
loads. Concealed hangers are appropriate fo. retatively light
roads, as weil as connections where the support plate at
the base is notched into the beam, should be desiqned as
notched beam reactions.
It rs recommended that the suppon for the purtn be close
to the bottom of the member to utilize the maximum effec-
lrve area for shear. End fastentngs should not include rows
ot bolts or other fasteners perpendicular to the grain. Glued
lamrnated ttmbe.s, although relatrvely dry at the time of
manutacture, may shrink when the members reach eouilib-
rium moisture content in place. lhis mav cause tension per
pendicular to the grain and result in splitting.

Roger W' Kipp. AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora

GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
 374 Glued-LqminotedConstrucfion
ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESS RANGES FOR STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERI-NORMAL DURATION OF
LOADING
EXTREME TENSION COM PRESSION COMPRESSION
FIBER IN 1 PARALLEL PARALLEL HORIZONTAL PERPENDICULAR MODULUS OF
BENDING' TO GRAIN TO GRAIN SHEAR TO GRAIN ELASTICITY

NOTES
1. Multiply dry{ondition{f-use stress rangesby the above wide faces ot laminations, For ranges of allowable current American Instilute of Timber ConstructionPubli
factorsfor correspondingwet{onditionsofrse value. stressesfor members loadedprimarilyas axialmembers cationAITC 117-Design (Table2).
2. Values given are for members loaded perpendicularto or loaded parallelto the wide {ace of laminations,see 3. Valuesshownare for the tensionzonesof the member

LAMINATED FLOOR, ROOF BEAM, AND PURLIN DESIGN CHART

TYPICAL SINGLE.SPAN. SIMPLY SUPPORTED. GLUED LAMINATED BEAMS (MEMBER SIZES IN IN.)
TOTAL LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY (PSI}-ROOF FLOO R
SPAN SPAC I NG BEAMS
(FT) ( FT) 30 PSF 40 PSF 45 PSF 50 PSF 50 PSF
12 tt 3'laxl'lz 31lex7ih 31lex7 1lz 3 1 l s x - 7l l z 31lsx7tl2 31/ax7.lz 3r/sx9
8 31ls\7 \1, 311"x7112 31lox71l, 3'l"x9 3'lex9 3'l"x9 31/6x1o1lz
10 3'lax71l2 3r/"x9 3i/sxg 3,/ex9 3,/ex9 3rlsx10r/, 3'lsx111l2
12 3r/sxg 3'/ax9 3rl"x9 3'/sx9 31lsx191l2 J1/"x1O1/2 31/"x12
8 31/sx9 311"x10112 31/"x1O11, 31/ex101l2 3116x12 !11"x12 311"x'l31lz
t2 3 llax 10 1/, 31lsx12 3tlax12 31lax12 311sx131/, 3 l l s\ 1 3 t 1 2 3 ' / s x1 5
t4 311"x12 31lsx12 31lsx13tl, 3tl"x13'lz 3l/sx 15 3rl€x15 3r/sx15
3 ' l sx 1 2 3'/sx'13'/, 3r/sx 13r/, 3rlsx 15 3r/sx 15 3 r/sx 16 r/, 3 l l a x1 6 1 1 ,
8 3tlsx 12 3 llsx 12 31|sx131/2 3)lsx131l1 3 t l ex 1 3 1 1 2 3'lsx15 3 1 1 " x 1 61 1 2
3 tl"x 13 1lt 3 1/"x13 tl, 3r/.x15 3'/sx'15 3 1 l ax 1 6 1 1 2 5'/sx131/2 5rlsx15
3r/8x15 311"x16112 311"x16112 3r/Bx'18 5r/6x15 5 r/sx 16r/2 g 1 l "x 1 6 1 1 2
20 3]/sx16]L 3rlsx18 5'/sx15 51/"x16r/, 5'lBx 16 112 grl"x18 5r/"x 18
u 8 3 1l"x 13 tl, 3'/sx15 3r/sx15 3 i l B x1 6 1 1 2 3 ' 7 " x1 6 r / z 311"x1611, 5 1/"x 1611,
12 3 1/6x 16 '/, '18
3t6x16'/, 3'/sx18 5'/8x15 5 ' / 6 x1 6 r / , 511"x1611, 5 '/s x
16 !r/"x 18 5tl"x161lz 911"x16112 5 r l sx 1 8 5 ' / s x f8 5'lrx19\12 5ilsx21
20 5 r/e x 16 r/2 S t l s x1 61 1 2 brlsx.tB g1/rx19'/2 5'lax21 5\lox21 5 ' l e x 22 11,
tt 3tlsxl6tl2 3rlsx16r/, 3r/sx18 3r/sx18
'18
5 1 l s x1 6 1 1 2 5 t/sx 16'/, 5 '/s i 19 %
5 '/s x 19 r/,
e 3r/sx18 5'/sx16'/, 51/sx18 5 J/sx 5 r / 8 x1 8 5 tlsx21
10 5'/sx18 5]/sx18 5'/sx19r/, 5 \/ax21 5 r/" x 19 r/, 51|sx22112 5tlex24
5'/sx18 g1/"x19'/, 51/sx21 51lsx21
51{sx2211, 51{sx2511, 51|sx251/,
'18
J',/sxlu 5'lsx16'J2 5'lsxl8 5 r/sx 5rlsx18 5rAx19r/, 5 1lsx21
12 5r/sx18 51/"x1911, 511"x19112 51lsx21 5 tlsx21 511"x2211, 5 ) l s x2 4
16 5 tlsx 19 112 51/sx21 511sx2211, 51lsx24 g rl"x25 112 5 1lBx 25 112 5'/e x 27
20 51lsx21 5tlsx221l, 511ax2511, 5 1/"x27 5 1 1 " x 2 8t 1 2 5'lsx30 6 3 / o x2 7
12 5 'lsx 22 tl| 5 ]/s x 24 51lsx24 5 1lBx25 tl2 5tlax27 6JlAx25,l, e1"' 28 V,
to 5 1lax24 5 1lsx27 5 1 1 "x 2 8 1 1 2 5'/8x30 631tx 281l2 63lax28tl, 63/ox311/z
20 5 11"x27 5r/sx30 g3lox28t/, 63/ax30 63lox31 11, 6%x33 6%x33
24 5'/"x30 63/ax 28\ l, 63/ox30 g3lox34 1/, 6%x 36 6 3 l a x 3 71 1 ,
12 5t/sx21 b'lsx2E'12 5'/s x 30 63lax28tlz 63lax28tlz 6%x 30 63/0x33
16 5'lsx30 63/ax28 11, 6{ox30 63la\31 112 63/ax3411, 63/ax36 63/ox37 \1,
20 63lax2811, 63lax31 112 63/ax34 1/2 63/.x36 8 3 / . x3 3 8%x 36 Sfox 36
24 63lax31t/, 63/ox 341/, 83[ x 33 83/ax3411, 831ax3711, 8%x39 8 3 /a x 4 0 |l ,

NOTES
l.Total load carying weight capacity includes beam 3. Deflection limits: roof = 1/rm,floor = r/3@ 5. AITC tables extend to members up to 40 leet in span.
weight. Floor beams are designed for uniform loads of Ameri€n PlywoodAssociation(APA)tablesextend up to
4. Values are for preliminary design purposes only. For
40 ps{ liv€ load and l0 psf dead toad. 48 feet in span. The design of members of far greater
complete information see the American Instituto of Tifr
2. Allowabli stresses: Fb = 2,400 psi (modified volume fac-
'165 ber Construction Timbe( Consttrction Manuat. span is possibleusing good engineeringpractice.
tor). F" = psi, E = 1.800,000 psr.

APPEARANCE GRADES ARCHITECTURAL APPEARANCE GRAOE FINISHES

Structural glued laminated timber is oroduced in three
appearance grades that do not modity desrgn st.esses, fab-
flcatron controls, grades of lumber used. or other provisions
of the applicable standards. A textured (rough sawn) sur-
face may be called for instead of the surfacing described. ln
all grades, laminations will possess the natural growth char,
acteristics of the lumber grade.
INDUSTRIAL APPEARANCE GRADE
Void filling on lamination edg€s is not required. The wide
face of laminations exposed to view will be lree of loose
knots and open knotholes. Edge joints on the wide face will
not be filled. Members will be surfaced on two sides onlv.
an occasional miss being permitted.
On exposed surfaces, knotholes and other voids wider than
Gluedlaminatedtimber finishesincludesealers.stains.and
% in. (19 mm) will be dressed with clear w@d inserts or a paints.
w@d-tone colored filler. Inserts will be selected for similar-
ity of the grain and color to the adiacent wood. The wide
End sealers retard moisturetransmissionand minimize
face ol laminations exposed to view will be free of loose
checkingand normallyare appliedto the ends of all mem
knots and open knotholesj all voids greater than '/16in. {2
bers.
mm) wide in edge joints on thrs face will be filled. Exposed
faces must be surface smooth. Misses are not permitted.
Two types of sealersprotect againstsoiling, control grain
The corners on the wide face of laminations exposed to
raising,mrnrmizechecking,and seryeas a motstureretdt
view will be eased. The current practice for eased edges is
dant.Penetrating sealersprovidelimiledprotectionand are
tor a radius between ]/s tn. (3 mm) and r/, in. {13 mm).
usedwhen the finallinishrequiresstainingor a naturalfrn
ish. Primerand sealercoats providemaximumprotection
PREMIUM APPEARANCE GRADE by sealingthe surfaceof the w@d but should not be sDeci
Similar to architectural grade except that all knotholes and fied for a naturalor stainedfinalfrnish.Wood coloris modi.
other voids on exposed surfaces will be replaced with fied by any sealer application;theretore, wood sealers
wood Inserts or a wood-tone colored filler. Remaininq knots followed by staining will look different from stajned,
will be hmrted in size to 2oyo of lhe net face width of the untreatedwood.
lamination, with no more than two maximum size knots
@curring in a 6 ft (1.8 m) length.

Roger W. Kipp, AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects. lnc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora

GLUED-LAMINATED
CONSTRUCTION
 Glued-LominqtedConstruction:Connections 375
BENT STEEL PUTE
TO CARRY SUSPENOED
LOADS BOLTED TO
BEAM ABOVE

N OTE
GLUED
Very light loads may be placed near bottom of beam; how- UMINATED
ever, the heavier the load the higher on the beam th€ sus- BEAM
wooo
pensaon points should be located. N OTE COLUMN
This detail is recommended for use with heavy loads.
SUSPENDED LOAD-BENT PLATE
ATTACHED TO SIDE -SAODLE
SUSPENDED LOAD
RAFTER TO COLUMN CONOITION

BEAM CANTILEVER

SIDE PUTE
WELDED TO STEEL N OTE
An abrupt notch in the end of a w@d member reduces the
effective shear strength of the member and mav permit a
more rapid migration ot moisture in the lower portion of the
member causing potential splitting. The shear strength of
the end of the member is reduced and the exposed end
RAFTER TO BEARING WALL grqr.n may also result in splitting b€cause of drying. At STEEL COMPRESSION BOX
rnclrned beams, the taper cut should be loaded in bearing.

CONNECTION DESIGN
The design of connectionstor glued laminatedtimber and
sawn timber is similar. Gl@d laminatedlimbers and their
loads, however, often are much larger than sawn lumber,
so the effect of increasedsizeshouldbe takeninto account
in the design.

Used to add strengthto transfer loads,connectionsshould

be design€dto avoid splitting and to accomrcdate swell-
ing and shrinking.

GLUED LAMINATED COLUMNS

The detail above is just one ot a large variety of special con,
nectrons and connection assemblies possible using struc,
tural glued laminated timber. lt is c.itical that connections
be designed carefully in accordance with good engineering
practice.
SPECIAL CONNECTION
GLUED LAMINATED
Structural glued laminated timber columns otler higher
allowablestresses,controlledappearance,and the abilityto
fabricatevariablesections.For simple rectangularcolumns.
the slendernessratio (the ratio of the unsupportedlength
between points of lateral support to the least column
dimension) may not exceed 50. The least dimension for
tapered columns is the sum of the smallerdimensionand
one-third the diflerence between the smaller and qreater
dimensions Spacedcolumnsconsrstof two or morJmem-
bers with longitudinalaxes parallel.separatedat the ends
and at the midpoint by blocking,and joined at the ends by
shearfastenings.The membersact togetherto ca.ry the
total column load; becauseof the end fixity developed.a
greater slendernessratio than allowed for elid columns is
COLUMNS permitted.

Roger W. Kipp, AIA: Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis. Minnesora

GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
376 Connections
Glued-lominoiedConstruction:

,e" MtN.
CLEARANCE

LAMINATE:O
BEAM

CLIP ANGLE,
BOTH SIOES
TO PROVIOE
LATERAL
SUPPORT i OO
NOT FASTEN
TO BEAM

ANCHOR

BEAM HAN€ER BEAM ANCHOR BEAM ANCHOR

FIXEE) ARCH ANCHORAOE TRUE HINGE ANCHORAGE ARCH PEAK CONNECTION

FOR ARCHES

wooD wooo
wooo COLUMN COLUMN
COLUMN GALVANIZEO
CARRIAGE
BOLTS
EIOLTS
WELOED
STEEL CEMENT
ANCHOR WASH BEARING
AASEPLATE
E'OLTS PLATE

CONCRETE
BASE

GALVANIZEO
oR ztNc
coATto
STEEL ANCHOR

\^/ET POBT ANCHORAGE TO \|VOOD COUUMN ANCHORED WITH U-ETRAP COLUMN ANCHORAGE
CONCRETE BABE STEEL BASEPLATE TO CONCRETE BABE
This derail is rmmmended for indurtrial buil4
This detail is r€commendedfor herw duty us where ings 8nd warehds to r6i't both horizontal
moisture protection is d$ired. Anchor is *t and tq6 rnd uplifL Moisture bsricr is |'mfr
leveledin ret concrete after scre€dino. mended. lt may b€ usd with shear plat6

TimorhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C.

GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
 Glued-LominoledConstruction:Connections

SUPPORTED BEAM

AEARING PLATE
TOP SURFACS
FLUSH WITH

V
",,i
t\

.);>
\i
CONCEALEO
PURLIN HANGER

NAILS OR LAGE}OL]-S

seavroffi aeavffi BEAM EPLICINO

TOP CLIP ANGLE

F* LATERAL
SUPPORT; DO
NOT FASTEN

BATS
THROreH
BEAM

U-PLATE

BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTION BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTTON BEAM SPLICINO

SLOTTED
.rOP HOLES
IN PLATES
WILL RESIST MOMENT
BUT NOT EPLIT SEAM.

METAL COLUMN CAP \^/ITH BEAM CONNECTION MOMENT

BEAM GPLICING
6EAT6

Timothy B. McDonald;Washington.D.C.

GLUED-LAMINATEDCONSTRUCTION
378 WoodSiding
HORIZONTAL OR
DIAGONAL SIOING
VERTICAL SIOING

EUILOING PAPER
LAP SIDING BUILOING PAPER
BEVEL

SH EATH ING SH EATH ING

FLOOR JOISTS
EOARDS
CORNER BAROS
BUILOING PAPER
APPLY SEALANT
APPLY SEALANT OURING
SHEATHI NG
OURING INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION. REMOVE EXCESS
AEVEL STARTER STRIP* REMOVE EXCESS
CONTINUOUS USUALLY €QUAL

TERMITE SHIELO
(OPTIONAL )

CORNER BOARO i,OINT A CORNER BOARO JOINT B

EXTRA STUOS FOR

PROVIOE HORIZON - MOPER ENO NAILING
T& ROWS OF SOL|O WHEN USING ANY
VERTICAL OR OIAGONAL BLOCKING AT 24" SIOING
HORIZONTAL
SIOING O.C FOR ALL
VERTICAL OR
NEARLY VERTICAL SHEATH I NO
BUILOING PAPER
EIOARO SIO I NG
SHEATHING APPLICATIONS BUILDING PAPIR

BEVEL JOINT. SHTATHI NG

APPLY HORIZONTAL SIDING
SEALANT OURING
INSTALLATION. BUILOING PAER
REMOVE EXCESS CORNER BOARO
SOLIO BLOCKING AT JOINT VERTICAL SIOING
APPLY SEALANT
OURING
NOTE: A SIMILAR OETAIL APPLY SEALANT INSTALLAT!ON.
WITH SQUARE CUTS WOULD OURTNG REMOVE EXCESS
APPLY TO VERTICAL JOINTS INSTALLATION.
IN BEVEL LAP SIOING REMOVE EXCESS

BEVEL SUTT JOINT CORNER BOARO JOINT C CORNER EOARO JOINT O

VERTICAL SIOING VERTICAL SIOING

BUILOING PAPER OVER BUILOING PAPER OVER

FLASHING FLASHING
SHEATHING SH EATH ING

'BLOCKING
OPTIONAL F@OR JOISTS EXTENOEO

LTLINE
CORROSIVE
NON-CORROStVt
METAL FLASHING
BELTLINE
NON. CORROSIVE TLINE
ORI P METAL FLASHING
FLOOR JOISTS BUILDING PAPER UNOER
FLOOR JOISTS
FUSHING
BUILOING PAPER
BUILOING PAPER UNDER RASHING
UNDER FLASHING

BELTLINE JOI NT A E'ELTLINE JOINT B BELTLINI JOINT C

SHEATHI NG SH EATHI NG SHEATHI NG

STU O STUO OR
BLOCKING
AUILOING PAPER BUILDING PAPER

I.' OVERLAP r/6" ExPANSroN

CLTARANCE NAIL CLEAF?S TIP
USI CAUTION NAIL CLEARS TIP OF UNOERCOURSE
FACE NAILEO
WHEN ORIVING OF UNOERCOURSE
NAIL HOME. HEAVY NAIL CLEARS TIP
BLOW MAY SPLIT OF UNOERCOURSE
wooo ouE To lrl2" MlN.
NONSUPPOffi
PgNETRATION-
TYP. FACE NAILEO
IN CAVITY

FACE NAILIO

PLAIN E|EVEL ( HORIZ. I RABBETEO BEVEL ( HC)RIZ.I 6HIFLAP V ( VERT. OR HORIZ, }

SHEATHI NG SHEATH ING SHEATH ING

STUO OR BLOCKING AT BLOCKING AT

Bt.OCKING 24" O.C. 24- O. C.
EUILOING PAPER BUILOING PAPER BUILOING PAPER
BLINO NAIL
FACE NAILEO
BOAROS 6'OR
LES. ONE NAIL FACE NAILEO
PER BEARING rzz" SPACE

FACE NAIL
r/."EXPANSION
BOAROS €I" OR I/2..
wtotR. ruo NA|LS CLEARANCE OVERLAP
PER BEARING

TON<}UE ANO OROOVE I VERT. OR HORIZ.I CHANNEL (VEffi. I BOARO ANO BATTEN (VERT.I

Gerald D. Graham; CTA Architects Enginee.s; Billings, Montana

FINISH
CARPENTRY
 37s
' , 't r r " . r t r " . t . t z z " , ,
tz,,,,nttr,. ata.,_
z---------------- -r:,
-___-_--F

ft nT-
tttl,l
I I l-il1-
I ii#-
I I I l l lz -
I----1l lr-r--
lt"-
TEXTURE I.II REVERSED BOARO AND BATTEN ROUGH SAWN

4" OC
6 0R{
a- o.c

OPTIONAL

CHANNEL GROOVE MD-O (MEDIUM DENSITY ovERuIo} HOR IZONTAL-qPFEO

V-GRoOVE SHOWN; OTHERS AVATLABLE
MDO AND ROUGH SAWN
PLYWOOD SIDING 3O3 A N D Tt-t | (3O3 SPECIAL)
NO OIAGONAL WALL BLOCKING REOUIRED
BRACING
Medium donsity overlay (MDO) ptywood
OR SHEATHING AT END JOINTS r/e"
lap siding: standard thickness is 3/, in. in SPACING AT ALL
REOUIRED WITH STANDARD '16 PANELEDGES --
THICKNESS PANEL SIOING l€ngths to ft on dder; standard ;idths
are 12 or 16 in.
CAULK VERTTCAL
JOINTS OR BACK
WITH BUILDING PAPER
SHINGLE WEDGE UNOER
AS VERTICAL JOINTS 2 X 4 BLOCKING
R€OUIRED AT HORIZONTAL
INSULATION JOINTS
AS REOUIRED

BUILDING
PAPER

STAGGER AUTT
JOINTS OVER
STUDS
7j-"
,/\
6- MrN I
RATED CLEARANCE I
SIDING ABovE GRADE/
N OTE
LEAVE I/s,, sPAcE AT END STARTER MAY USE BANENS
AND EDGE JOINTS UNLESS OTHERWISE STRIP ,- Nailable panel or lumber TO CONCUL
RECOMMENOED BY MANUFACTURER sheathing required BUTT JOINTS

PANEL SIDING VERTICAL APPLICATION

LAP SIDING APPLICATION
PANEL SIDI NG HORIZONTAL
CAULK oR BACK fi-7
w r r HB U T L D T N G APA STURD-I-WALL CON-STR UCTION
"or." llyl T o s r u D s A N D o v E R N o r q s r R u c r r i nReEi C - S
O M M E N DATIO N (SIDI NG DI RECT
iHearnrNG)
L1[f---r MAX. STUD SPACING (IN.) NAIL SIZE (USE
,-- PANEL SIDING
DESCRIPTION NONSTAINING
NAIL SPACING (IN.)
BUTT ANo cauLK \ ,r",,wroe (ALL SPECIES BOX, SIDING.
GROUPS)
N7
txl
sg I
thick or less
8d for thicker r€nels

VERTICAL BA

NOTES MINIMUM BENDING RADII FOR

'1.
SHIPLAP lf siding is applied over sheathing thicker than r/, in., use PLYWOOD PANELS
next regular nail size. Use nonstaining box nails for stdino
installed over foam insulation sheathing. PANEL THICKNESS (IN.)
VERTICAL JOINTS
2. Hotdipped or hot-tumbled gatvanized steel nails are rec-

FFF
ommended for most siding applications. For best perlor-
mance, stainless steel nails or aluminum nails should be
consid€red. APA tests also show that electricallv or
mechanically galvanized steel nails appear satisfaitoru NOTE
w-hgl-11lating meets or exceeds thickness requirementl
of AS-TM 464l Ctass 2 coatings and is further'prorJcreJ The types of pl! rood recommended for exterior siding are
DV yelow chromate coatino APA grade trademarked medium density overlay (UbOi
Typ€.303 siding or lexlure 1-1 I [rt-t I speciat 303 sidrngi'
3. Only- panels 1V,r.in. and thi-cker that have certain groove
I,l-11 plywood srding is manufactured with 3/" in. wrde pJr
depths and spacing quality fo( 24 in. o.c. Span Rating.
allel gr@ves and shiplapped edges. MDO is recommended
4. For.braced. wall iift2 in. or
.seclions with % in. siding Ior parnt trntshes and is available in a variety of surfaces.
applied horizontally over studs 24 n. o.c, space narls 3 303 plywood panels are also available in a wide variety;f
AUTT AND SHIPUP OVER UP In. o.c. atong panel edges- surfaces. The most common ApA plywmd siding pinel
FUSH drmensions are 4 x I fl but the panels are also availa-ble in 9
HORTZONTAL JOINTS and 10 ft lengths, lap srdrng to 16 ft.

Bl@dgood, Sharp, Euster Architects and planners; Des Moines,

lom
American Plywood Association; Tacoma. Washinqion

FINISHCARPENTRY
380 Wood Joints

END JOINTS_TO INCREASE LENG

,#l
/'ll
-a\

.A
'/ll ll
.C.t I

"")^
BACK BATTEN
".ffi 1l
SPLINE

'l I I (._t4- |
;A
' "'tr I
TONGUE ANO GROOVE BUTTERFLY WEDGE BUTTERFLY SPLINE

EDGE JOINTS_TO INCREASE WIDTH

-'-Y"-./

"V-
\tr "v
\-l
\,

s-z
IV

!,j--
--V-
KEYEO JOINT
STOPPEO OADO

RTGHT ANGLE JOINTS

v---S--
WOOD SPLINE

---lr-
*

FOXTAIL WEDGE
SHOULDER TONGUE AND GROOVE

MITER JOINTS
WEDGED JOINTS

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Vitullo Architecture Studio; Washington, D.C

RALWOODWOR K
ARCHITECTU
 Wood Joints 38r

\\,

\\\t
VI
-\Y,a l
z
g
\"/\
->2 €
OOVETAIL HALFUP SECRET DOVETAIL LAP OOVETATL THROUGH MULTIPLE
(MITER DOVETAIL) (HALF BLIND) (COMMON DOVETAIL)
DOVETAIL JOINTS

V
>rt -,-
v
;
<*-7
-iY-/
MITERED HALF LAP CROSS LAP

LAP JOINTS

w
THROUGH TENON PINNEO ALIND HAUNCH BLIND

HALF BLINO
HAUNCH

MORTISE AND TENON JOINTS

RichardJ. Vituilo.AlAj Vituilo ArchitectureStudio;Washington,D.C

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
382 CobinetDetqils
BUTT JOINT. SET GENERAL
NAILEO.PUNIED
AND SANDEO The Architectural Woodwork Instatute's Ouality Standards
classify custom-manufactured cabinets in three categories:
premium, custom, and economy. The materials, toinery,
HARDWOOD EDGE
MAY 8E MOLDED and finish quality are delineated in the specifications for
TO PROFILE cabinet shops to follow. Premrum is the highest grade, with
close tolerances reserved for only the finest cabinets. Cus-
OF WEB FRAME tom€rade cabinets, the most common, are made lrom
very good materials with durable joinery. Economy-grade

illl--
WOOD SPLINE MITER cabinets are used for utilitarian and inexrensive residential
SHOWN (TONGUE AND caDrners.
GROOVE ALSO USED)

3to" uor
OR PBI
The AWI Ouality Standards classify cabinet parts as
exposed, semiexposed, and concealed. 3nd specify a mini
mum grade for each. The finish to be used is specified as
paint grade or stain grade or whether plastic laminate or
ulr-
WALL CABINET
other material will be used.

LINE OF WEB FRAME To prevent movement caused by wood shrinkage, use only
kilndried solid lumber or panel product for base supports.
PUSTIC UMINATE
PUSTIC UMINATE COUNTERTOP ON
oN 3/4" MDF oR PBI ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used on the three AGS
pages on cabinet details: MDF{ediumdensity libeF
board: PBI;ndustrial oarticleboard.

LINE OF WEB FRAME

SOLID CORE UMINATE

' /
oN 3/o" MoF oR PBI

NUI
l\\)L
l,\:
____________y/)
---------74
|
L\\17-7771
EDGE OETAILS
F:lv///,t/)
ltl
1I HARDBOARD//
ll lll BAcKING-

AACKSPLASH
lll_
Flush overlay construction oflers a clean, contemporary
lL__llr-
-Tl[
POST FORMED PUSTIC designbecauseonly the doors and drawerlronts are visible
UMINATE ON BASE ll \/ |
in elevation-The grain between doors and drawer lronts suPPoRT
MDF OR PBI
can be matched by cutting all pieces from the same panel. r .""^' *"-
,+l x I
Thiscabinetstylelendsitselfwell to the use ot plasticlami- ll/\l
ry
nate tor exposed surfaces. Conventionaland concealed \
hinges are availablefor a varietyof door thicknesses.Door
and drawer joinery and materialsmay vary from the selec-
tion shownin the details.
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION

-Fll
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION-
VERTICAL SECTION A.A
-TII-
HARDBOARD BACKING
POST-FORMED LAMINATE COUNTERTOP

SCRIBE TO

U U
MEUMINE, WOOD
BACKSPLASH VENEER, OR PLASTIC
UMINATE SURFACE ON

-:-tE
MOF OR PBI. TYP.

SOLID SURFACE.
SOAPSTONE. GRANITE
MARBLE. OR OTHER
]TIE ----]
STONE ON THIN,SET BED

WALL CABINET_SECTION A-B

3/a" PLYwooD

SOLID HARDWOOD FACE PANEL

STONE COUNTERTOP
AASE CABINET-SECTION C-C

COUNTER AND BACKSPLASH DETAILS FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTTON-HORIZONTAL SECTIONS

Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
 Cobinet Detoils 383

HARDBOARD
BACKING, TYP

MEUMINE. WOOD
VENEER OR PLASTIC

iFgs,?rE
UMINATE SURFACE
ON MDF OR PBI, NP l1 ll llll
:-1F L_ll -]/
tL)
- ___jilL_ ITF \ lr_ --'__--/
REVEAL
\--
TYP
REVEAL.Typ.J
WALL CABINET SECTION B.B

li llN
IJN\
uilll
AD
BASE CABINET S€CTION
soLtD
C.C
HAROWOOO
=ryz N-
\ \
CABINfr
-DRAWERFRoNT
DOOR TYPICAL CABINET ELEVATION

REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION_HORIZONTAL SECTIONS REVEAL OVERLAY

CONSTRUCTTON
In this style of cabinet construction, the separation
between d@rs and drawerlronts is accentedby the reveal.
The style is suited equallyto €ither wood or pla;tic laminate
construction.The detailsshown at left show a revealat all
venicaland horizontaljoints. but th€ designermay vary this
arrangement.

A revealgreaterlhan h inch would requirethe additionof a

face trame,whichwould changethe hinge requrrements.
Wrth or without a face tram6. this sMe allows the use of
conventionalor concealedhinges.Door/drawerjoinery and
materialsmay vary from selectionsshom in the drawinos.

FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION

WALL CAAINET SECTION A-A WITHOUT FACE FRAME
In this style of construction,all dmr and drawer faces are
flush with the face of the Gbinet. This swle allows the use

HMWH
UMgUM
of door and drawerfronts with differentthicknesses.

Conventionalas well as concealedhingesare availablefor a

variety oI door thicknesses.The material chosen for the
case and doors and drawers influences lhe choice of

l hinges Avoid conventionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws

would be attachedto the edgegrain of panel products.

BASE CABINET SECTION A-B

FLUS H I N SET CONSTR UCTION
L CABINff DOOR
Flushinset constructionwithout any face frame is generally
an expensrvestyle becauseincreased€re is necessaryto
fit and align the doors and drawers.The design featurei of
(WITHOUT rACC FNATTE;_HORIZOI.ITAL=ECT,ON5 this case-workstyle are the same as for conventionalflush
constructionwith lace frame except that here the lace
trare has b€en eliminated.
HARDBOARD This style does not lend itself to the economicaluse of Dlas-
BACKING. TYP
tic laminate cov€ring finish€s. Dor/drawer joinery and
materialsmay vary from s€l€ctionsshown in details.

nur,:'ffir ll ll
:=vW:r: 'E
illl llll FLUSH
WITH
INSET CONSTRUCTION
FACE FRAME
ln this style ol construction,all dmr and drawer faces are

-,- r,,
-lF: )V =W
flush with the face of the €binet. This style allows the use
of differentthicknessesfor dor and drawer fronts.

Conventronal as well as concealed

hingesare avatlable
for a
SOLIO WOOD FACE FRAME, TYP varietyof door thicknesses.The hingeschosen dependon
WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
the case and door/drawermaterialchosen. Avoid conven-
tionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws would be attachedto
the edge!rainot panelproducts.

utirl Flush inset constructionwith face frame is generallythe

WJ
most expensiveof the lour cabinetdoor styles because,in
additionto the cost of providingthe face frame, there is the
u
illl cost of the increasedcare n€ededto fit and align the doors
ano orawers.

FACE FRAME. TYP

KZZ This style does not lend itself well to the €conomicaluse oI
plasticlaminatesurfaces.D@r/drawerjoineryand materials
may vary from the selectionsshown.
BASE CASINET SECTTON C.C

FLUSH I NSET CONSTRUCTION (VI/ITH FACE PU].A EI-gOCIZOFITAL= ECT'ONS

Greg Heuer:ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
 384 Cobinei Detoilsond Hqrdwore

-----w_
F-lI
t{--

Ii l 1tt-
-. -]lll E'
1 I F]
iltl
ilil_
qJ[-
lIl_
Ulr
l=llllll lrll-=llllll
Lllr-
-=-- ---- ,xl
- REVEAL, TYP

;3:t'fFIi{ :s=..+E.HIYJ'
ilt l
ffiffi. =
tl
MDF OR PBI

\
t, l*m T =fl '-,-
-l l -TEr --nilM
^."L-l
l'\\-
ll
ffi
=;lu
lttl

u - -z) ill[\
N\ llllI
,r...urr-Z "*"*t- ur, I
NL :Ullillrl I
llu roR^wER
u I [\IZZ|]- -:Z.L I
|l\)-t-
\- onnwen llll I -WiA1i,,.
lt]?n:f: - I W) . ,o". I
"o*o"oo*o
=U |lll | EiEP,R?1y-,| V/,/( FR^ME. aAcKtNG. J
ll lilt nrnoaonno llll | *-
-rw aYP- , I
(2 nP
--v
rYP- |

ll lll\ls:- ii,cl'^s,-111|
FRAME
ll lA Z I iltT I
:====1) I I/+
',n I :=:="P'2
il
ll ll_
il
lllll
ll ltz*:
ll lt-: --- - llll
lll I
I
I tr-
ll]fi- _--]x il:m:ffi
ilfl-- llll I lLillf-
--TNll--
,o=.:*fi7-:Mn BASE | aasE ll\/l
:$:?n:-1l^l l/\I | 3t5:?f,'"-ll^l l^l I suPPoRT
BLOCKING/
.41 \ |
II /\
il/ \l
I

i/\ /\ | J/\ /\ | Jr \
BASE CABINET BASE CABINET BASE CABINET

REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION FLUSH INSET qONSTRUCTION (WITH
VERTICAL SECTION A-A (WITHOUT FACE FRAME) FACE FRAME) VERTICAL SECTION A-A
VERTICAL SECTION A.A

MINIMUM NOMINAL THICKNESS

HARDWARE HINGES AND MATERIAL FOR CABINET COMPONENTS
MIN. NOMINAL
COMPONENTS THICKNESS
s

without face
frame, revealover
lay, flush oveday

and rail cabinet doors

n. up
heighl
1 Consulta woodworkingprofessionaltor shelf specificationsto carryanticipatedloads.
, Givespecialconsiderationto buildingvery wide and/orvery tall doors of this thickness;con,
openrn9;no catcn
sultmanufactur€r for guidelines.
requiredon self,
3 Thicknessof glassfor doors shouldmeet localcode.
closing styles
a Use like materialsand thicknessestor face of cabinetdoors and drawerfronts. Veneer core
doorscannotbe guaranteedagainstwarping,telegraphing,or delamination.

Greg Heuer; Architectural Woodwork Institute; Restm, Virginia

Architectural Woodwork lnstitute, Architectural Woodwork Auaity Standards, Tth ed. (version ',t997
1).

ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
 Wood Shelving 38s
8 MM DIA WOOD DOWELS
METAL STANDARDS GENERALLY
SURFACE MOUNTED

NOTE
All dimensions and spacing are
based on a 32 mm module
2"Ml

BOX FRAME

STANDARDS AND BRACKETS SYSTEM

32 MM BOX FRAME SYSTEM

BLTND DADO
METAL CAM INSERTED
INTO FRAME WALL
THROUGH OADO
SUPPORT DETAILS AT SIOE

STANDARDS AND CLIP FIXED SHELF SYSTEM

WOOD VENEER OR
PUSTIC UMINATE

,r'PLYWOOO
MEOIUM DENSITY
PARTICLEBOARO
OR FIBERBOARO
NOTE
WOOO EOGE BANO
This system can b€ hand mounted or machineinserted.A
half turn of the cam screw tightens connection and pre-
vents disassemblv.
SEMI-FIXED FRAME/SHELF DETAIL

PLUGS INTO TWO

\\

\F _-<

{'"*"""

HANGING

NOTE
CLEAT HANGING BRACKET

All details except hanging bracket and rail must also be floor
N OTE
This system can be used for horizontal shelf attachment or
\F
\tr
supported. vertical divider suppon. BULLNOSE

BOOKSHELF vt/ALL ATTACHMENT REMOVABLE GROOVED SHELF DETAIL SHELF EDGE DETAIL

Richard J. Vtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Helmut Guenschel, lnc.; Baltimore, Maryland

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
 386 InteriorWollPonelingDetoils
COVE MOLDING

9 WAINSCOT CAP
z
caowir E
MOLDING
o
wooD lRrM

CORONA MEOIUM DENSITY

FIBEREOARD RAIL
PLYWOOD ANO STILE WITH

I
L BACK UP WOOO VENEER a
E
l
\ BED MOLDING F
5
@
soLrD wooo
RAIL (AND STILE)
\ oEruttL ropr.r F
z LIP MOLDING
FLUSH PANEL
MOLDING

FLAT PLYWOOD
RAISED PANEL ,.
PANEL WITH
WOOD VENEER
<F

PLYWOOD
/ <PUSTER BELOW BACK,UP
P ENTABUTURE

RAISED PANEL

PLYWOOD BACKUP

AASE CAP
BASE CAP

BASEBOARD
BASEBOARD

BLOCKING
ALOCKING

BASE SHOE

SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED SECTION - WAINSCOT \ivITH FLUSH

PANEL AND FLUSH MOLDING PANEL AND RAISED MOLDING

BLOCKING

MEDIUM OENSITY
FIBERBOARO FOR
PAINT FINISH ONLY
RAISEO PANEL

BASE CAP

AASEBOARD

BASE SHOE

1. Becauseof its stability,plywood is prelerableto solid

lumberor other mat€rialsas backup.
2. To join stile to rail, monise and tenon or dowelled ioints
are used.Stte to stitejointsal outsidecornersare ipline
lorntsor lockm;ters;insidecornersare bun iointed.

SECTION _ FULL HETGHT WALL PANEL

INTERIOR \^/ALL PANEL DETAILS

Architectural interior paneling consists of a series of thin
sheets ot wood (panels) lramed together by means of
stouter strrps of wood, vertical (stiles) and horizontal (rails),
to lorm erther a d@r, screen. or lining for internal walls.
Paneling was first used as a wall coveri;g in England in the
13th century. Up to the l6th century. the lriming was
almost as massive as half,timber constiuction. Then it was
WOOD VENEER ON
prcgressively lighrened until by the middle of thal cenrury SOLIO PLYWOOD OR
when lhe thrckness of the framing was reduced to an Inch. STILF/RAIL MEDIUM OENSITY
loday, Inch thick or less panels are made from veneers FIBERBOARD
over plywood or composrtion boards, which €n be treated
for fire proteclion The strles and rarls are made lrom solid STILE/RAIL TO PANEL JOINERY TYPES SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED
wood or veneered boards. Rim and lip moldings and other PANEL AND RAISED MOLDTNG
tflms are almost exclusivelv made from solid wi@d.

Richard J. Vituilo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

Architectural W@dwork Institute; Arlington, Virginia

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK

GUIDELINES
Conslruction details on thrs page are for shop-built stairs
using Premium Grade Standards of the Architectural Wood-
work Institute. W@d stairs used in private, residentialapplr
cations usually are not governed by the ADA; however.
wood stairs in commercial lacilities and olaces of oublic
accommodatron must conlorm to ADA accessibrlrtygutde-
lines (ADMG). Details on these lwo pages depict both
alternattves.
1. Check current l@l building codes and regulations lor
requirements that may differ from the general recom-
mendations provided here.
2. Interior stair width: 36 in. minimunr.
3. Minimum headroom is 6 ft 8 in. as measured verticallv
from a dragonal line connecting lread nosings to the
underside of the finished ceiling or stair landing directly
above the stair run. Recommended headr@m is 7 ft.
4. Only handrails and stair stringers may prcject into the
required width of a stair
Handrail projection: 3,/2 in. maximum.
Stringer projectionr 1'12in. maximum.
For a stair to comply with ADMG, no proiections are
allowed Into the mrnrmum requrred starr wrdth.
5. The width of a landing or platform should be at least as
wide as the stair.
6. The maximum vertical rise of a stair between landinqs is
12 tI-
7. Biser height: 4 in. min. and 7 in. max.
'11
Tread width: in. min.. measured from riser to riser.
Variation in adiacent treads or rjsers should not exceed 3/
16in. The maximum difference allowed the tread width or
riser height within a ftight of stairs is % in. ADAAG
requires unrform treads and risers.
Nosings project 1rl2 in. max. Check codes and ADAAG
for other restrictions.
Wood Stoirs 387
L Height of handrail above stair nosings: 30 to 34 an.;34
to 38 in. per ADMG. Guardrail height at landings: 36 or
42 in.; check lo€lcode.
9. Design handrails that can be gripped easily and fit the
hand. Recommend€d diameter is 1,/a to t,/, in. for
round handfails and a similar srze for an eilrblrcal or
rounded square edge section. Handrails should be
structurally designed so that both downward {vertical}
and lateral (horizontal) thrust loads are considered.
10. Exlensions ot handrail at top and bottom ot stair may
aflect total length ot required run. Verify extensions
required by local codes or ADAAG when designing a
stair.
1 1 . Refe. to related stair topics in chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9.

NEWEL POST AALUSTER

TREAD RtrURN SHOE RAIL
MITERED AT END

HOUSED STRINGER FILLER

BETWEEN
BALUSTERS

ffi['fJ,"\]:
NffEL POST
ROUTED FOR ALL
INTERSECTING
TREAOS ANO

BLOCKING
FLOOR LEVEL

NffEL POST SHOWN

FOR LANDING.
POST STOPS AT FLOOR
LEVEL AT BONOM OF
STAIR

BALUSTERS AND TRIM AT FACE NEWEL POST SECTION A

STRINGER

HANORAIL (INSTALL ON
FINISH BOTH SIOES WHEN
DESIGNING FOR PERSONS
WITH OISABILITIES)

HOUSED WALL FILLER

STRINGER BETWEEN
BALUSTERS

AALUSTER

BALUSTER
DOVETAILEO
TO TREAD
ACCESSIBLE NOSINGS FOR
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

TREAO
RffURN

BLOCKING .

CARRIAGE

FACE
STRINGER

WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
BLOCKING
BEruEEN
CARRIAGES
Center carriage is recommended

TREADS AND RISERS AT HOUSED ACCESSIBLE NOSINGS SECTION B

STRINGER

The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle. Washington

Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington. D,C.

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
 388 Wood Stoirs

HOUSED STRINGER AT

NOTE
Open riser stairs do not comply with Americans
with DisabilitiesAct AccessibilityGuidelines.

OPEN RISER STAIR

OPEN STRINGER/ CLOSED STRINGER/ CLOSED STRINGER/

OPEN RAIL SOLID RAIL OPEN RAIL
ELEVATION OF FACE STRINGER

HANDRAIL DOES NOT

I l/2" MtN ,',a'rrrl@ coMPLY W|TH AOAAG
)
lttt - 11t2':
Itto' Itta':--'aQ
wa-
tr\
A WEfl \ DowEL LET
METAL
eRrcrEr /
rl
/1
$,'sH^IffS
) ffi
\-BLocKrNG ---l ] HB
CLOSED RISER STAIR/CARPET FINISH
NOTE
Handrail complies with
ADMG if dimensions
are maintained.
st BLOCKING

FLUSH
TRANSITION
l/2" RADtus
WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
TRtM Typ. = CARRIAGE - CARRIAGE
TREAD
9PACER -S
wooo BLocK
CUT TO FIT NO STRINGER NOTCHED STRINGER
ADAAG
ACCEPTABLE
BASE AT WAL|_ NOSTNG CLOSED RISER STAIRS AT \^/ALLS AND SOLTD RAILING vi/ALLS

WOOD FINISH FLOORING

PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
AT TREAD ANO RISER RADtus'/2" STEEL ANGLE WITH UG
OR THROUGH BOLTS TO
60'MtN BEAM AND CARRIAGE
FULL
STRINGER ST€EL ANGLE
BEYOND
NOTCHED
STRINGER
ADAAG ACCEPTABLE
NOSING

TREADS AND RISERS

(2 X MrN.)

BEAM TREAD
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
CARRIAGE
CHAMFER
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE

STEEL ANGLE WITH SECTION A

UG BOLTS TO
CARRIAGE AND FLOOR

CLOSED RISER STAIR/\MOOD FTNISH HEAVY TIMBER STAIR

The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington

Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington, D.C.

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
 Wood Ornomenls 389

CYMA MOLDING -

CORONA (DRIP
MOLDING) -- --

DENTILS

SCROLL
GEE
MOLDING

AAY.LEAF
FRILZE
ORNAMENT

l
OGEE MOLDING WITH
TALON ORNAMENT _
FRIZE

DOOR ------__\

OVERDOOR DETAILS

wooD
CORBEL (BRACKET)

] "o**,.-

- --^.---
@_ . lirliffiear
] ORNAMENTS
EWt
r IaRCHTTRAVE
:i

PUSTER APITAL

FLfED PIUSTER

V \ / O O DC O R B E L S

GENERAL
W@dwork is considered an ornament when it has a sEcial
or uniq@ design that does not tall within the standard cate .STOP'
FLUTING
gories ol architectural woodwork as defined bv the Archi-
t€ctural Woodwork Institute.

Some typical uses for ornamental wood include pediment

heads, mantels. ornamental gfllles, fluted pilasters, cupe
las, finials, medalltons, corbels, balusters, posts, and col-
umns. Wrthrn the classificatrcn of ornarental wood are
combinations of flat or molded solid lumber, or cored lum-
WAINSCOT
ber components with wood veneer {aces with. or wilhout_
the addition of moldings. All joinings between ornamental
members should be designed lor lunctional as well as dec- FLUTING
orative ourmses.

Wood ornamentation is an art that can take shaoe in an

almost infinire number ol lorms and designs, limited only
by the mechanical production constraints of woodworking
shops. "Wood" ornarents can also be produced in largei FTEVERSE FLUTING
quantities (in molds) with the synthetic material polyure-
thane. Once cured, the polyurethane @n be painted and
substituted for the wood ornaments.
FLUTING SECTIONS ORNAMENTAL V\/OOD PILASTER

Richard J. Vatullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland

ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
 Wood Ornoments

ffi ffi ^
M
_l
]va"-.e

jFRrzE

ffi "&
W
#
@
I ARGITRAVE

PIUSTER
CAPIT&

FIREPUCE
%$tri
M
SURROUND

ffi r\l
1t
(NON-
COMBUSTIBLE)
MATERIALS

PIUSTER

w
SHAfl PANEL

@
ALSO CALLED

ffi u
\
CANDEUBRUM
PANEL

ffi ffi @ PLINTH

.(qT/A

G.fr
@ @ W FIREPLACE MANTEL

MISCELLANEOUS ORNAMENTS
@N

--------------- ffi r7----------,

' )t-Jl '/)-
_______l _-/ll lv/
s.ecr

:."o*^-ff
-:::: .=]--

ffiM
ffiW
A
WL)
PINEAPPLE
AA
ACORN ACOR,N

FRIEZE ORNAMENTS MISCELIANEOUS ORNAMENTS FINIALS

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville,Maryland

ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
 GENERAL
Intenor trim ts a generally decorative treatment -applied
atter mll. floor, and ceiling finishes have been installed. lt
can be made of flat or molded wood from single pieces of
wood or built-up pieces that give a more complex ind deco_
ratrve appearance_ lnterior trim conceals joints between
dif_
ferent materials and blocks air infiltration through wails,
which typically is greatest at material joinrs. Int;rior vim
also- frames wall and ceiling openings idor and window/
skylrght trim). defines planar edges (crown and base mold_
Ingl, and acts as a visual divider between dissimilar materi_
als (chair rail).
wrNDow
casrre ---
N OTES
The Architectural Woodwork Institute differentiates wood 1. Blockrng that recerves moldings shoutd be set
olumb
trim €ccording to its length. Standing wood trim is trim tevet, true. and straight, with no distortion, and should be
that
can be accommodated easily wilh s,ngle lenglhs ol wood provided for full surface contact. Attach blocking to
iub-
l@penorng on specres). such as crown moldings, fasc;as, slrales wrth nails, screws. or bolts.
soffits, chair.rails. baseboa.ds, ana sfroe motOing's.'nunnn!
2. Woodwork should be stored in a dry, ventilated space. tf
tflm. is usually made up of frnger jointed woodto achievJ
this is oot possible, seal the ends ot all pieces as ioon as
rne rengths customarily needed tor thrs tvoe ot trim.
possible- Moldings should be at optimum moisture
cm
tent at the time of installation and should be allowed to
acclimate to project conditions before installation.
3. Joints In adjacent and related members should be staq_
gered. Cope at inside corners and miter at outsiae
coi.
ners to produce tighlJitting
ioints with full surface
contact lhroughoul lhe length of the jornt, use scarf
DOOR CASING Jornts{face mitered) for end-to€nd joints in trim.
4. Blind nail where possible, and use finishing nails in
BUILT.UP CORNTCE exposed areas.. Predrill as required to eliminat; splitting;
MOLDING set exposed nail heads for filling.
5. Most flat rrim like baseboards and casing has a ploughed
or retieved back, whjch gives wide trim a degree of itexi
orrry, alowtng tt to frt snugly against a wall surface
6. The molding profiles illustrated are a small sampling of
those available from most millwork shops. Custom "pro_
liles should be shown on drawings full size. Dimensrins
grven are tor typical Stock molding profrles.

r>\
:(/b
-_+'_v
_,.\
| >--
l,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ \
(,2-72-*, L-4-'rJ
| / / / / / >1 aTEDEDGE
l/'- t

fuINTH BLOCK
F7__* LJ--/_A
// / / >\-r'
f / /./ ,/ /\ a-7-7-7---
TYPICAL WOOO TRIM AND MOLDINGS NOTE

WINrcW Casings are used to tinish the joint b€tween the window or
F%ME BLIND INSIDE CORNERS OF d@r h€ad and side jambs and wall finish. Often a casing
SHAPED MOLDINGS used at windows is also used as apron material, wtth th;
Hru STOP
ARE COPED (CUT WTH
JAMB PAffiING @PING SAW TO FT wde stde toward the stool
OVER COMOURS
PARTNTG G PffiNG OF ADJOINING MIM CASINGS
STOP
OR
PARTING SIDE JAMB

WINDOW
ASING

SASH. WP.

INSIOE STOP

-t/
STOOL MTERED
AT CORNERS
r
ARON MMERED
AT CORNERS NOTE
LEMON S;PLINE OR
SCARF E}ISCUIT JOTNT St@ls are used as interiorcaps on windowsillsand recetve
TYPICAL WINDOW TRtM ca$ng fiom above and apron below. They are specifiedby
MOLDING CONNECTTON DETAILS width of rabbetand degreeof bevel.
W@D BL@KING
AS NECESSARY, AP MOLDING
sTooLs
WP (MreRED AT
CROWN MODING @NER)\ MOLDED
CryPICALLY USED
TOWARO TOP OF MOLDING

tfr-" N W'?'*Ew
CORNICE ASSEMBL).) AT TOP
CORNERS
MOLDED
D@R
ASING
ONE.PIECE
ll N N N P-=o='=oo*o
BASEBOARD
:l N N t.i N
\ ovouo
SHOE
ts S S M'Fhiq::
NOTE
PLINTH BLOCK
DENNLS Baseboards and base moldings are used at the juncture of
\ aase MoDING BASE CAP wall and floor exclusively. Baseboard may be one piece
PICTURE BASEBOARD {with integral.base cap) or flat with optional base cap. Sepa-
MOLDING BED MOLDING rate caps and sh@s are flexible and tacilitate a close fit to
BASE SHG
uneven wall and lloor surfaces.
TYPICAL CORNICE TRIM TYPICAL DOOR AND BASE TRIM BASEBOARD AND BASE MOLDINGS

Richard J. Vitullo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsvjlle. Maryland

ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
 392 InteriorWoodTrimond Moldings

,\';
\"
,r4
-tf

/
o"/ I
/t,
<?
N OTE
ffv
Crown moldingsare appliedalone at the joint betweenwall
NOTE NOTE
and ceilingor togetherwith other moldingsin a built-upcor-
nic€,typicallytoward the top of the corniceassemblyjmea- Cove moldingsare used at insidecorners,such as wall-to- Bed moldings are used at the bottom of built-up cornices
e' 'r6a oi^6 r^ odd6 wall or ceiling-to-wall. and at other vertical-tehorizontaliunctures.
CROWN MOLDINGS COVE MOLDINGS BED MOLDINGS
1/2' - Y^-,

"*Fffi t fiI
w \rm
((p
rVTtxl
i l\\r- F ROUNDS

i|u/ N
11h6'frP.

Mwn
t- a
r*-n
:l/\r I Auh* rx R
l>
,.eI V2^ li/lll.! W,hr F\

NOTE
V }F)*L1Z
-T--
BASE CAPS
N OTES
U_p/ U.I_ly Ey

1. HalJ-roundsare used to conceal vertical and horizontal

joints. Ouarter-roundsare used at inside corners and as
Often integratedwith cornices,picture moldings are used base shoe.
NOTE
as continuousprcjecting supportslor picture hooks. Cus- 2. Base caps are appliedat the top of the basebcrd, flush
This molding is used on outside corners tomflade h@ks are availableto fit th€se orofiles. againstthe wall.
CORNERS PICTURE MOLDINGS BASE CAPS AND ROUNDS

%W
T1
td* aR a WWMW
,lu = a s n ilW u) II-EYVN
._-l_-
rf R.
rl -2
fI
; F\trSSN
lf-J
| r:r
ll..-l

NOTE
Stops are used at iambs to guide windorc
NOTE
These moldings are used in panelsto concealjoints, over N OTE
window jamb edges in a multiple{pening window, and as Backbands are applied as trim at the outer edg6 of door
and stop doors. astragalsat middlejoints oI doubleleal d@rs. jamb and head, among oth€r uses.

STOPS PANEL STRIPS, BATTENS. AND BACKBANDS

ASTRAGALS

|
--- ---T
1 th. - 21b". wP.

1--

t N
|:'

SIS:
N
S
FS
+!,
a
*l b-lo
IIE*WWF
t,7
|
a.
%:
%-,-,

N\v-
*t\z F F-a ?b
NOTE NOTE
Cap or rake moldings are used at head of door and window Panel moldings are typically used as door and wainscol
trim and at top of wainscots. trim, mitered together and arranged in rectangles.
CAP OR RAKE MOLDINGS CHAIR RAILS PANEL MOLDTNGS

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeatStudio;Crownsville,

Maryland

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK

FACE VENEER
/
- PARTICLEBOARD
'Gffu.*
@='GFF..^
PARTIC)LEBOARD MEDIUM.DENSITY
FIBERBOARQ
HARDV\/OOD PLYWOOD CORE TYPES
GENERAL
Architecturalwood panels are made from wood material
that is cut or formed into sheel Droductsthat are reterredto
as the "panel core.- These sheets are used alone (with or
without a finish) or laminatedtogether with other veneer
products to make plywood. A great variety of panels are
manufacturedusing differentcore materialsand adhesives
or binders and various torming t€chniques and surfaco
treatments. The characteristicsof the panels vary with
these differencesin materialand construction_
PANEL CORE TYPES
Panelcores,which sere as the substratefor laminat€sand
veneers on the outer surfae, are classifiedby ingredients
and methods of runufacture. The following types of panel
cores are suitabletor architecturaluse:
INDUSTRIAL GRADE
P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
This core type is made by using heat and pressureto bond
together synth€ticresinor binderand wmd particlesot var-
ious sizes- Employed in a wide variety ot architectufal
woodwork applications,industrial grade particleboardis
especially well suited as a substrate for higlFquality
veneers and de@rative laminates.When used as mnels
without any surface layqs, the product is called panicle-
board. When used with wood vener on the surface.the
panels are referred to as particl€ore plywood. Particle-
board core classifiedby density or weight per cubic ft falls
into three categories:
1. Low density---lessthan 40 lb per cubic ft (640 kg per
dbic meter)
2. Medium density--4o to 50 lb per cubic ft (640 to 800 kg
oer cubic meter)
3. High density-more than 50 lb per cubic ft {80Okg per
cubic meter)
MOISTURE.RESISTANT
P A R T I C L E B O A R DC O R E
Some mediumdensity industrial particleboardis bonded
with phenolic resins, which makes it more resistant to
swellingwhen exposedto moisture.Phenolicresins,unlike
urea resins, do not emit significantquantitiesof tomalde
hyde. The most common gradesare type 2-M-2 (M-2exte-
rior glue)and 2-M-3 (M-3exteriorglue).
CHARACTERISTICS OF CORE MATERIAL
PANEL TYPE
(mediumdensity)
core (MDF)
Lumber core-hardw@d
softwood
board core
N OTE
or
Characteristicsof core materialoerforrunce are infl@nced
by the gradeand thicknessof the core and specificgravity
of the cor€ species. Visual edge quality is rated belore
treatment with edge bands or fillers and, for lumber 6re,
assumesthe use of 'clear edge" grade.Surfaceunilormity
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte.Marvland
ArchitecturalWoodwork lnstitute; Centreville,Virginia
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers
FACE WNEER
/-
VENEER CORE
VENEER
F I R E - R E T A R D A N T P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
Mediumdensity industrialpanicleboardmay be treateddutr
ing manufactureto carry a UL Class'l frre ratingstamp
(flame spread20, smoke developed25). This materialcan
be used as substratefor panelingrequiringa Class'l rating.
MEDIUM-OENSITY
FIBERBOARD (MDF) CORE
MDF is made from wood particles reduced to fib€rs in a
moderate?ressur€steam vessel,combinedwith resin.and
bonded together under heat and pressur€.The surface is
flat, smmth. uniform.dense,and free of knots or grainpat-
tern. MDF is useful as a substrate for paint, thin overlay
materials,veneers,and decorativelaminates.The homoo€-
neous edge allos machiningand paint finishes. MDi is
ono of the most stable mat-forred panel productsand is
widely us€d as an architecturalparel.
M O I S T U R E - R E S I S T A N TM O F C O R E
Some MDF is bonded with an exterior resin to oroduc€a
highlywater-resistantproduct.
VENEER CORE (PLYWOOD)
This panel product is made up of alternatinglayersof thin
veneer and is commonly known as plywood. Adhesive is
placedb€tween the layers,and th€ panelsa.e presseduntil
th€ adhesiveis set; heat is often used to sp€ed the cure.
The two outside layers, often sel€cted for species,grain,
and appearance,are calledthe face venesrs.
HARDBOARD CORE
Hardb@rdis made of interfeltedfibers consolidatedunder
heat and pressureto a densityof 31 Ib per cubicft or more.
Availablewith either one side (S'lS) or two sides (S2S)
smooth, hardboard is often used for €sework backs.
drawer bottoms, and divider panels. Architecturalwood-
workerstypicallyuse two types of hardboardcore:standard
(untempered)and tempered. which is standardhardboard
that has been subjected to a curing treatment to increase
its stiffness,hardness,and weight.
PERFORMANCE
ABILITY
rs drrectlyrelatedto the performanceof fine veneersplaced
over the surface. Dimensionalstabilityis usuallvrelatedto
exposure to wide variations in relative humidiv. Screw
holding and bending strength are influencedby proper
designandengineering.
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
393
PLYWOOD TYPES
The term "plywood"meansa panelproductmadeof three
or more layers{plies)of w@d or wood products(veneersor
overlays and/or core materials)that have been laminated
into a single sheet (panel).Plywood falls into two groups
according to materialsand manufacturing:
HARDWOODPLYWOODpanelsare made from hardwood
or decoratiw softwood veneers ov€r a core materialsuch
as mediumdensity panicleboard, mediumiensity liber-
board.or lowdensity lumb€r.
SOFTWOODPLYWOODpanels are made with soltwood
face veneers and are seldom incorporatedinto finished
architecturalwoodworkingprojectsbecauseof the instabil-
ity of the corematerialandcorevords.
W
A THEDru
PANERN
This is the slicing method most often used lo produce
veneers for high{uality architecturalwoodworking. Slicing
is done parallelto a line through the center of the log. A
combinationof Gthedral and straight-grainpatternsresults,
with a naturalprogrsssionof patternfrom leaf to leaf.
PLAIN.SLICED (FLAT-SLICED)
VENEER
NARROW
SNIED
PAreRN
N OTE
Ouarterslicing,roughlyparallelto a radiusline through the
log segment, simulates th€ quarter-swing process used
with solid lumber,In many speciesthe individualleavesare
narcw as a result. A series ot stripes is produced,varying
in density and thicknessamong species. "Flake" is a char-
acteristicof this slicingmethod in red and white oak.
QUARTER-SLICED VENEER
KNIFE
LOG
PATTERN
N OTE
Rift verers are producedmost often in red and white oak.
rarelyin other species.Note that rift veneersand rift-sawn
solid lumber are produced so diff€rently that a "match'
between them is highlyunlikely.In both casesthe cutting is
done slightly off the radius lines. minimizing the "flake"
ass@iatedwith quarterslicing.
RIFT-SL|CED (R!FT-CUT) \/ENEER
ffi
VERY
PAfrERN
BROAD
To create rotary{ut veneers,the log is center mounted on
a lathe and "peeled' along the path ot the growth rings,
like unwindinga roll of paper.This providesa bold, random
appearance.Rotary{ut veneersvary in width, and matching
at veneerjoints is extrerely difficult. Almost all softwood
veneers are cut this way. Rotarytut veneers are the least
useful in fine architecturalwoodwork.
ROTARY.CUT VENEER
 394 PonelProductsond Wood Veneers

SLIP MATCH
ffiffi BOOK MATC:H RANDOM MATCH RUNNING MATCH

mmffiffiffi
WIVVIW
WIVIW W
NfMTm
PANEL
hl/Ah
1234135/
END MATCH ARCHITECTURAL END MATCH E}AI-ANCE AND CENTER MATCH BAT-ANC:E MATCH

VENEER MATCH TYPES

GENERAL CHARACTERISTTCS OF \,VOOD VENEER SPECIES MATCHING BETWEEN ADJACENT VENEER

LEAVES
It is possible to achieve cenain visual effects bv ths manne(
in which the leaves are arranged, Botary cut veneers are
difficult lo match, therefore most matching is done with
sliced veneers. Matching of adjacent veneer leaves must
be specified. Consult your AWI woodworker for choices.

BOOK MATCHING
Book matching is the most commonly used match in the
industry. In it, every other piece ol veneer is reversed so
ad,acent pieces (leaves) are "opened" hke the pages of a
'tight"
book. Because the and "loose" faces jlte-rnate in
adjacent leaves, they reflect light and accept stain differ
ently. The veneer joints match, creating a symmetrical pat,
tern that yields maximum continuity of grain.

SLIP MATCHING
Adtoining leaves are placed (slipped out) in sequence with-
out being turned, thus all the same face sides are exposed.
The grain figure repeats but toints do not show grain match
All faces have some light refraction.

END MATCHING
End matching is often used to extend the apparent length
of available veneers lor high wall panels and long con{er
ence tables. End matching occurs in two types:

ARCHITECTURAL END MATCH: Leaves are individuallv

book or shp matched, alternating end-to€nd and side-to
side. Architectural end matching yields the best continuous
grain patterns for l€ngth as well as width.

PANEL END MATCH: Leaves are book or sliD matched on

panel subassemblies, with sequenced subassemblies end
matched, resulting in some modest cost savings on
projects where applicable. For most species, panel end
matching yields a pleasing. blended appearance and grain
conlnu[y.

RANOOM MATCHING
Veneer ieaves are placed next to each other in a random
order and orientation, producing a casual board$y-board
effect in many species. Conscious effort is made to mis-
match the grain at joints.

RUNNING MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from as manv veneer leaves
as necessary. This often resulls in an asymmetrical appear-
ance, with some veneer leaves of unequal width.

BALANCE MATCHING
rCost retlects raw veneer Each panel lace is assembled from an odd or even number
costs weighted for waste or yield N OTE
characteristics and degree of labor drlfrculty of veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
'?Seasonalfactors may When quanered or plain sliced are listed on the same line,
affect availability
the widrh dimensions are listed with quartered lirst and BALANCE AND CENTER MATCHING
3Availability ot blond
teak is very rare. plain sliced second.
Each panel face is assembled from an even number of
veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
Thus, there is a veneer joint in the center of the panel, pro-
ducing horizontal symmetry.

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studaoj Crownsville. Maryland

Archrtectural Wmdwork lnstitute; Cenrrevrlle.Virqinta

ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
 PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers 395
FACING MATERIAL TYPES
Wmd product substratesare classifiedin two main facinq
material categories:decoratrvelaminates/overlavs ana
wood veneers.

DECORATIVELAMINATES/OVERLAYS
This finish surface category can b€ broken down into the
tollowingbroadgroups:

HIGH-PRESSURE DECORATIVELAMINATESare formed

under heat and pressure from resin-impregnatedkraft
paper substrateswith decorativeplasticface materialsand
a clear protective top sheet. This assembly, commonly
€lled plastictaminate,offers r€sistanceto wear and manv
stains and chemicals.Common uses include casework
A.PIECE SUNE}URST BO)< MATCH PARAUET MATCH exterto.s,countertops,and wall paneling.

IHERMALLY FUSED DECORATIVEPANELS are ftat

pressed lrom a thermoset polyester or melamine resin-
impregnatedweb. and most have been prelaminatedto
industrialparticleboardor mediumdensiry fiberboardsub-
strates when they arrive at the woodwork fabricator.Per-
formance is similar to that of high-pressuredecoralive
laminates.Common uses includecasework interiors,furni-
ture, shelving,displaymat€rials,and decorativepaneling.

MEDIUM-DENSITY OVERLAYSare made from oressed

resin-impregnated paperoverlaysand ar€ highlyresistantto
moisture. They are availableapplied to cores suitable for
both interior and €xtorior uses. Tho seaml€ss oanel face
and uniformdensityoffer a soundbasefor opaquefinishes
ano parnr.

VINYLFILMS,FOILS,AND LOW BASISWEIGHTPAPERS

are decorativefacingmaterialsthat, althoughth€y have lim-
REVERSE c)R END HERRINGE}ONE S\^/ING MATCH ited use in custom architecturalw@dworking, are suitable
GRAIN BO)<
for sore installations.

WOOD VENEERS
W@d veneers are produced in a variety of industry stan-
dard thicknesses.The slicing process is controlled by a
numberof variables,but the thickn€ssof the veneerhas lit-
tle bearingon the qualityof the 6nd product.

There are two types of veneers, hardwd and softwood.

Haldwood vene€rs are available in many domestic and
imported w@d sp€cies and are nomally plain sliced. but
certain sp€cies can be rift sliced, quansr sliced. or rotary
cut. Softwood veneersare usualtysliced from Douglasfir,
but pine and other softrcods are available.Most soltwood
vene€r is rotary cut, but plairsliced and rift-sliced(vertical
grain)softw@ds can be obtainedwith a specialorder.

Most veneers are tak6n from largs tre€s, but some are
DIAMC)ND REVERSE DIAMOND SKETCH FAC:E sliced from fast{rowing trees, dyed, and regluedin molds
NOTE to create "grain" patterns.Th€ color of these reconstituted
veneers is establishedduring manufactur€ because the
During specitication,use both names and illustrationsto high percenlageof glue line resists later staining.
define the desiredeffect, as nares vary by regionlor these
matchingtechniques. The manner in which a log segment is cut with relationto
SPECIAL V\/OOD VENEER MATCHING OPTIONS the annualrings of the tree detemines the appearanceof
the veneer. Individualpieces of veneer, refered to as
"leaves," are kept in the order in which they were sliced{or
COMMON FACE VENEER PATTERNS OF SELECTED COMMERCIAL SPECIES referenceduringinstallation.The group ot leavesfrom one
slicingis €lled a "flitch" and is identifiedby a number and
FACE VENEER PATTERN th€ gross squarefeet it @nt8ins. Th€ faces ot the leaves
PRIMARY
COM M ERC IAL Pr.-AtN SLTCEO with relationto their positionin the log are identifiedas the
HAROWOOD SPEC (FLAT CUT) ROTARY CUT "tight tace" (toMrd the outside of the logl and rhe "loose
face" (towardthe insideor hoart of the log).

Yellow poplar
methods ol
I The headings above reter to the face vener pattern, not
to the rethod of cutting. Fa@ ven@r panerns other
than those listed are obtainable by special order.
'zThe method of cutting lor a given face wneer pattern
shall be at mill option unless otheMise specified by the
NOTES
1. To achiew balancedconstruction.panelproductsshould
be absolutelysymmetri€l from the c€nter line. Materials
used on either side should@ntract and expandor exhibit
moisturepermeabilityat the sme rat€ as the veneer.
2. In parel construction,the thinnerthe facing matedal,the
less torce it can generateto cause warping.The thicker
th€ subslrate, the more it can r€sist a warping move-
menl or rorce.
3. Wood veneer standards: For hardwood plwood, the
face veneer characteristicsof the Hardwood Plwood
and Veneer Association (HPVA) have generally been
adapted for use. These tace grades apply to custom
architecturalw@dwork.
4. Flamespreadfactors:The fire rating of the core material
determinesthe ratingof rhe assembledpanel.Fire-retar-
dant veneered oanels must have a tirHetardant core.
Particleboardcore is availablewith a Class| (ClassA rat-
ing, but MDF is not currentlyavailablewith a lire rating.
Existingbuildingcodes. ex@pt where locallyamended,
buyer in an explicitmannerto avoidthe possibiliryo{ mis- providethat facingmaterialsr/a in. or thinnerare not
understanding.Fo( example,plain-slic€dveneercut on a
consideredin determiningth€ flame spreadratingof the
venical slicer or Dlain-slicedveneer cut on a half-round panel. For more information, refer to the Architectural
rotary lathe could be specified.
Woodwork lnstitute guide 'Fire Code Summary."

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crwnsville, Marvland

ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Centreville,Virginia
Chan reprintedwith permissionfrom the Hardwmd Plvwoodand VeoeerAss@iation

ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
396 Screens,Blinds,ond Shutters
HAUNCBED
MORTISE AND

I
TENON JOINT,

ROUTED SI.-A DADOED 5LATS PIVOT PIN MOVABLE SI.ATS

FI.AT RAISED LOUVERED
PANEL PANEL PANEL LOUVER TYPES
SHUTTER TYPES
SCREEN MATERIALS
SLOT MORTISE WORKMAN-
--
AND TENON JOINT SHIP LEVEL PREM IUM ECONOMY

,APPLIEO TRANSPARENT OPAQUE

FINISH FINISH FINISH

parts.any ot the otneryrse

listedspecies specified,
unlessotheM,se same as
specafied transpar-
ent

bronzewrre Nylonor tab€rglass

mesh
the listedmateri- ( 1 8x 1 4 m e s h )
JOINT TYPE
als unlessother- { 1 8x l 4 m e s h )
wise specified
WOOD FRAME
BLIND AND SHUTTER MATERIALS
WIRE CLOTH
CUSTOM PREM IUM ECONOMY
W@D BEAD WORKMANSHIP WORKMANSHIP WORKMANSHIP
METAL STAPLES TRANS- TRANS- TRAN S-
aT 3'O.C. Ms OPAQUE PARENT OPAQUE PARENT OPAQUE
PARENT
TERIALS FINISH FINISH FINISH FINISH FINISH FINISH
WIRE CLOTH INSTALLATION DETAIL
Strles.rarls, tl
CUSTOM v\/ORKMANSHIP GRADE grade slats and plus prus w[n no
SCREEN DETAILS tumoer mullions compatibility compatibility selectionfor
of color of grain and grarnor cotor
HAUNCHED MORTISE Applied between color between
AND TENON rcldings veneer and vereer and
lumber lumoer
rtat panets not permrtted tl
permitted for panels less permittedfor panelsin
than l4 in. across the grain anydimension
harseo pan- tl
els usedto rim panelproduct used to rim usedto permittedfor paneisin
centersandpermittedfor panelprod- rim panel anVdimension
panelslessthan 14 in. ucr cenrers product
acfossrne grarn centers
Veneered panrcteooaro particleboardor panicleboard or fiber- not
products stiles.rails, or fiberboard fiberboard rec- board (veneer only by
andmullions (veneeronry ommenoeo direct
by direct (veneer specification)
JOINT TYPE specification) permitted)
panrcleDoard or lDer- panrcteDoaro panrcle-
KERF CUT INTO WMD panercor€ or fiberboard fiberbGrd rec- board (veneer only by or fiberboard board, fiber
TO HOLD WRE CLOTH
{veneeronly omrenoeo orrecl recommenoeq board, or
W@D BES WITH by direct (veneer specilication) (veneer veneer
ffiGILE TO LMK permitted)
INTO KERF sp€cilication) permitted)
METAL STAPLES race: veneer "A" face plus "B'veneer, "AA face "A veneer. b race "B vene€r,
- prarn
AT 3' O.C, MAX. gradetor compatibility Plarn prus comparF prarn veneer
WIRE CLC)TH INSTALTATION DETAIL transparentfin- of mlor fiberboard,or bility of grain tiberbeard. fiberboard,
ish and mate between medrum- and color or medrum- or medrum-
PREMIUM WORKMANSHIP GRADE qensrryover-
SCREEN DETAILS
rialtor opaque veneer and densityoverlay between oensrlyover
finish lumDer veneer ano tay lay
lumber
NOTES r / , " ( 1 9m m ) ' L " ( 1 3m m )
7 , ' ( 1 9m m )
1. For additional information, refer to Architectural Wood- panel stilesand rails
work Ouality Standards, 6th edition (version 1.1), 1994, products
Flat panels /z (l3 mm) /2 (l3 mm)
Architectural Woodwork Institute {AWl}.
2. Lumber grades indjcated in the charts on this page are
according to AWI quality standards:
Grade l: Pieces are selected for uniform grain and color
ship,materials, andinstallationare requiredfor workwith 4. All exlerior screens and shutters must be treated with a
on exposed laces and edges.
this designation. wood preservative in accordance wilh AWI Ouality Stan
PREMIUMGRADE:This specificationrequirescareful dards, Section 100.
Grade ll: Pieces are selected tor uniform grain on
exposed taces and edges.
oversightto guaranteethe highest qualityworkmanship, 5. Pivot oins for use in damo or coastal areas must be man-
materials.installation,and executionof designintent-lt ufactured of nylon. stainless steel, or brass.
Grade lll: No matching lor grain or color is required. is typically reserved for special projects or project fea- 6. Exterior grade panel products are recommended for
3. AWI recognizes three levels ol workmanship for wood tures. blinds and shutters because once installed they are typi-
screens, blinds, and shutters: ECONOMYGRADE:This gradeindicatesthe minimum cally kept open. with one face constantly exposed to the
CUSTOM GRADE: Most conventional architectural expectationsfor quality,materials,and installationwithin sun and other weathering (and drying) conditions, while
woodwork falls within this grade. High{uality workmar the scope ot AW standards. the other face is Iikely to retain moisture.

Richard J. Vitullo, dlA: Oak Leaf Studioj C.ownsville, Marvland

ARCHITECTU
RAL WOODWORK
 CHAPTER SEVEN

THERMALAND
MOISTIJREPROTECTION

Waterproofing and Membrane Roofing 415

Dampproofing 398
Flashing and Sheet Metal 429
Thermal Protection 4O2
Sheet Metal Roofing 434
Exterior Insulation and Finish
Systems 4O4 Flashing 438

Vapor Retarders 4O5 Roof Specialties and

Accessories 45O
Shingles, Roof Tiles, and Roof
Coverings 4o,6 Gutters and Dornrnspouts 459

Roofing and Siding Panels 413

398 Woterproofingof Foundotions
SUMP PUMP (OPTIONAL) NOTES
BFLOW REMOVAELL COVER
1 Consult a soils engineer to determine sorl types anil
SAND FILL groundwater levels and their effect on drainage ancl
BENTONITE CUY WATERPROOFING waterproofing methods. Consult a waterproofing special.
MATERIAL (PANEL ist 10 determine a specific design approach for problenr
soils and conditaons.
,," PLYWOOO OR
OTHER RIGID 2. Most waterproofing materials require a stable, rigad,anr
PROTECTION level subslrate. Generally, a mud slab (subslab that rs
TIMBER UGGING nonreinforced and nonstructural) is used when the
PUCEO TIGHTLY waterproofing material is placed below the structural slab
TOGETHER and/or when a solid working surface is needed on unsta
SHEET
PILING COMPOSITE ble soils. When waterproofing materials are placed on
DRAINAGE top of the structural slab, a protective cover, such as
BENTONITE MATERIAL
cuY another concrete slab, is required.
OR OTHER
WATER STOP 3. Bentonite clay waterproofing is usually manufactured r.
AT KEY JOINT
PROTECTION
BOARO the form of corrugated cardboard panels with bentonite
BENTONITE clay material filling the co(ugation voids. When morst
OR OTHER ened, the clay swells and takes on a gellike consistency.
WATER STOP forming an impermeable barrier when confined
MATERIAL Bentonite panels may be placed over a substrate of com
DRAIN TILE pacted eanh, sand, and pea gravel (or mud slab, for rein
TO SUMP forced slabs greater than 6 in. thick). Since the panels
' swell when hydrated, pressure is exerted on adjacent
{OPTIONAL) construction. For slabs less than 6 in. thick, which may
COMPACTED OR be adversely affected by bentonile swelling, special pan-
UNDISTURBED EARTH els, made to accommodate the swelling, are required. A
6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier between the mud slab
GRAVEL BED
and gravel base will provide additional p.otection against
NONREINFORCED water penetration. Consult with a structural engineer and
THIN CONCRETE SLAB the manulacturer to assure proper use and structural
2'' MIN. (MUD adeouacv.
BENTONITE CUY 4. Protect membrane waterproofing or coatings during con
WATERPROOFING struction and backfjlling. Protection materials include the
MATERIAL (PANELS) following {select according to soil, climate, and cost
PROTECTION BOARO (OPT,) requrremenlSr:
CONCRETE SUB a. Composite drainage material: Recommended when
water is frequently present in soils surrounding foun
BENTONITE OR OTHER WATER STOP dations. Usually made up of a rigid open-weave mate-
MATERIAL AT SUBilALL JOINT rial, approximately % in. thick, covered on both sides
BENTONITE CUY WATER STOP AT KEY JOINT by a geotextile tiltor fabric preventing small stones or
other materials from clogging the drainage route of
I " HIGH, MIN. RIGID NONAIOOEGRADABLE
water inside- Typically terminated at drain tiles at the
LIQUID MEMBRANE COATING AT TOP SURFACE bottom of the foundation. Higher in cost than other
protection board materials.
WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE OR COATING
b. Rigid insularion boards: Used above trostline or if
VI/ATERPROOFING APPLICATIONS AT CONCRETE FOUNDATION CONDITIONS ground temperatures are low. Usually made of
expanded polystyrene. Minimum thickness is'/4 in.
GRAOE (when used as protection board only), up to 114 in.
thick (or greater. if desired) which gives an R-8 insulat
MIN MIN Ing value.
SEAUNT AND SEAUNT AND c. Protection board: Used only to protect waterproofing;
BACKER ROD BACKER ROO does not drain or insulate. Usually mad€ of r/s in.
AT EXPANSION - AENTONITE AT EXPANSION BENTONITE asphalt-impregnated fiberboard or, as mentioned
JOINT CLAY OR OTHER
JOINT
CUY OR OTHER above, r/. in. extruded polystyrene. Least expensive.
WATER STOP
WATER STOP
COMPOSITE 5. Footing drains are recommended when groundwater
RIGID INSUUTION level may rise above top ol floor slab or when the founda
ORAINAGE
OR OTHER
MATERIAL (ACTS tion is subject to hydrostatic pressure after heavy rain.
PROTECTION
AS PROTECTION Composite drainage material conveys water to the drain
AOARD MATERIAL
BOARD) tile, thus reducing hydrostatic pressure.
WATERPROOFING
WATERPROOFING 6. Special negative-side coating on interior face of founda
MEMBRANE OR M E M B R A N EO R
BENTONITE COATING COATING tion wall is only recommended when exterior is not
BENTONITE
cuY f GRAVEL FILL
cuY
accessible-
WATERSTOP WATERSTOP
GRAVEL FILL
7. Bentonite ciay water stop should be placed on top of
footing, at vertical concrete keyed joints, and along inside
MIN edge of outermost verti€l rebars before pouring the con
FILTER FABRIC MIN FILTER FAARIC
OVER 4'' DRAIN OVER 4,' ORAIN crete wall.
TILE 8. Grout, packed around pipes penetrating the loundation,
I " HIGH, MIN. RIGID SHAPE SOIL ,' SHAPE SOIL should have a mixture of iron oxide. lron oxide chemically
I HIGH, MIN. RIGID
NONBIODEGRADABLE TO FORM GUNER NONBIODEGRADAALE TO FORM GUNER alters lhe grout to be more water-resistant.
CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE
COATING AT TOP SURFACE COATING AT TOP SURFACE
CONCRETE FOOTING CONCRETE FOOTING IN WET SOILS
CONCRETE FLOOR SUB BENTONITE CUY
PROTECTION (OPT.) WATER STOP
BOARD SEALANT WRAPPED
6 MIL POLYNHYLENE AND BACKER AROUND PIPE
VAPOR BARRIER ROD AT BEFORE GROUT
INTERIOR REPACKED
GRAVEL BED
AROUND PIPE
COMPACTEO OR GROUT THICKEN LIQUID
UNDISTURBED SOIL JOINT
WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB COATING AROUND
PROTECTION BOARO (OPT.) PIPETO I-THICK
AND/OR ADD
BENTONITE CUY COLLAR SEAL
WATERPROOFING (SEE MFR, DETAILS)
MATERIAL (PANELS)
WATERPROOFING
NONREINFORCED THIN MEMBRANE OR
CONCRETE SUB,2'' MIN, COATING
6 MIL POLYETHYLENE PROTECTION
VAPOR AARRIER BLOCKOUT AOARD
OF GROUT WITH IRON
GRAVEL BED
CONCRETE OXIDE ADMIXTURE
COMPACTED OR PACKED AROUND
UNOISTURBED SOIL PIPE

WATERPROOFING UNDER SLAB PIPE PENETRATION AT vt/ALL

Krommenhoek/McKeown& Associates;San Diego, California

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak leaf Studio;Crownsviile.
Maryland; in consultation with James B. Thompson Co.; San Marino, Calilornia

WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
 fems over Occupied Spoce 3gg
WEARING When the membrane is lurned up on a wall, il
SURFACE is prel to surface drarns and to allow a minor portron to tnlil
erable.to terminate it above the wearing surface
to !lim, trate to the membrane.
wEARING Inate the possibility ol ponded surface
\)&-- water Denetratino
.\ COURSE tne wail above the membrane and running down A drainage course of washed, round gravel or prelabri.
behinj
+.ORAINAGE COURSE it into the building. cated drainage composite should be provided above the
PRorEcrroN oR protection board, over the membrane. This permiti
^O-
&a 0 WORKING SLAB Penetrations should be avoided wherever possible. water to filter to the drain and provides a place where
o 6, .d '( protectton at such critical locations, pipe
For
sleeves should rt can collect and treeze without damaging the wearing
NSULATION be cast into.the structural slab against which couase.
the mem.
or-are can be terminated by flashing onto the pipe
sleeve- INSULATION
DRAINAGE
COURSE When required, insulation should be located above the
Treatment at reinforced and nonreinforced joints
de_ membfan€, but not in direct contact with it.
PROTECTION
pends on the membrane used. See following pages.
C} BOARD
PROTECTION OR WORKING SLAB
<l Two.concepts can be considered in the detailing
WATERPROOFING of ex_ A concrete slab could be placed soon after lhe mem-
pansion joints at the membrane tevet:
MEMBRANE ttre posirive seat
o concepl directly at the membrane level and brane, protection board, drainage course, and insulation,
d the wa-
" " r ,G--BERg?Effg.^- tershed concept with rhe seal at a higher tevet rl requrred, have been installed. lt would serve as pro_
than th; tection for the permanent waterprogfing materials and
membrane. Where additional safeguards are
desired, a Insulation below, provide a working platform for con_
drain€ge gutter under the joint could be considered.
EIASIC Frexrbte upward suppon of the membrane is st.uction traflic and storage of materials (within weiohr
COMPONENTS OF required in
WATERPROOFING each case to provide watershed_type arainage. limitsl, and prcvide a substantial substrate for the plaie_
SYSTEMS expin_
sion joint details should be considered and ur=sed ment ot the finish wearing course materials.
GENERAL in ac-
co.dance with their movement capability.
WEARING COURSE
The basiccomponents,subsystems,and featuresfor a
Durtdrngdeck waterproofingsystem are the structural The positive seal concept entails a greater risk The major requirements for the wearing course are a sta_
than the
Durtdrng watershed concept, since it relies tully
deck or substrateto be waterproofed,water on positive seal blesuppon of sufficient strength, resistance against lai_
proofingmembrane.protectionof membaane,drainage, joinery of materials at the membrane eral lhrust, adequate drainage to avoid ponding of water,
levei, where the
insulation,and wearingcourse.See followingpagesioi membrane is mosl vulnerable to water penelration. and proper treatment of ioints. Under a thick-set mortar
Since
genelc membrane applications. the precision requi.ed is not always attainable. bed supponing masonry units, a prefabricated drainaoe
this con_
cepl ts best avoided. composite helps resist freeze-thaw damage to tie
SUSSTRATE wearing course by expediting water flow down to rhe
Th€.watershed concept, allhough requiring a g.eate,
The substrate referred to is reinforced cast-in-olace subsurface drainage system.
nergnr and more costly concrete forming, is superior
structural concrete. Pr*ast concrete slabs pose more in
sareguardtng against leakage. having the advantage Joints in which movement is anticipated should be
technicalpfoblemsthan €st-in-place concreteand the of
provrotng a monoltthic concrele water dam treated as expansion ioints. Various compression seals
probabiliryot lasting watertightnessis greatly dimin_ at the mem_
rshedand difficult to achievebecauseof the multitude brane level. However, it a head of water rises to are available that can be inserted into a formed ioint
the
height of the materials joinery, thrs concepr becomes under compression. lvlost of these, however, are not
of ioints which have the capability ot movercnt and
must be treated acco.dingly. atmost as vulnerable as the positive seal concept. flush at the top surface and could fill up with sand or
nererore, dratnage is recommended at the membrane din.
.r
The concrete used lor the substrate should have a min- level-
Wet sealants are the materials most commonly used in
imum density of 1762 kg/m3 1110 lb/ft3) and have a PROTECTION SOARO movaog joints at the wearing su.face level. Dimension A
maxrmummotsturecontentof 8% when cured. is the design width dimension o. the dimension at which
Tie mmbrane should be protected frcjm damage
SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE the joint will be formed. The criterion normally used for
th.oughout construction. protection board shoul{
6e determining this dimension with sealants capable of
A monolithic concrete subst,ate slope of a minimum I l applied atter the membrane is installed. The properi;6-
l25 movement is to mulliply the maxtmum exgected
mm/m {% in./ft| should be maintained. Stooe is besr ing of application after placement of the membrane
is movement in one di.€ction by 4. Generally, this is ex.
achievedwith a monolilhicsl.ucturalslab and not with mponant and varies with the type of membrane pected to be about three-fourths of lhe rotal
used. anticipated
a separateconcrete fill layer. tsoilow the manufacture.,s printed Insrructtons. joinr movement, but il there is any doubt,
mulripiy the
MEMBRANE ORAINAGE SYSTEM total anticipated ioint movemenl by 4. lt is better io have
lhe joint too wide than too narrow. Dimension B (sealant
Oetectionof leakagecan be a signiticantproblemwhen Drainage should be considered as a total system
t.om depth) is related to dimension A and is best established
the membrane is not bonded to the structural slab or the w€afing surface down to the membrane, including by the sealant manufacturer_ Generally, B is equal to A
when additionallayersof materialsseparateit trom the use o, multilevel d.ains. f o r w i d t h s u p l o ' 1 3 m m ( % i n . l , I 5 m m l e l r ei n . ) f o r a 1 6
structuralslab. Therefore,only membranesthal can be Drainage at the wearing surface rs gene.aily mm l7B in.l width. and 16 mm {% in.) tor '19 mm (3/orn.l
bondedto the substrateshouldbe used. accom_
pxsneo In one ol two ways: {11 by an and greater widths. This allows some tole.ance Ior self-
open jornt and
pedestal. system permitting the rainwater leveling sealants.
The.membraneshould be appliedmder dry, frost-free to penelrate
raproly down to the membrane level and subsurface
conditionson the surfaceas well as throughoutthe deprh Reference: ASTM C 898 and C 981. Highlights of text
drainage system; and (2) by a closed-joinr sy"te.
of the concreteslab. ae_ and figures are reprinted with permission fro,-mCommit.
srgned to remove most of the rainwater rapidly by slooe
tee C-24 ot the American Society for Testing Materials.

/zsuPPoRT\ _WEARING
f-f
6 SURFACE
t- WEARING
SURFACE ( SEALANT
l r_i-l
\gAB
MEMBRANE
POSITIVE €EAL CONCEPT LEVEL
OPEN JOIN?
{MOST VULNTRASLEI
- WEARING
SURFACE FOR JOINTS UP TO l/2" W|OE
WEARING
SURFACE

SEALANT

EONO BREAKER
MEMBRANE ANO JOINT
LEVEL FILLER
WATERSHED CONCEPT (PREFERREO) SLIOING PLATE
WEARING

NN
SUPPORT\ FOR JOTNTS Up TO tt/2', wtOE
/
---v,ll
\dA ./ WEARING
SURFACE

--,Jl SEALANT

BOND BREAKER
-

SLIOTNG METAL
SUPPORT

COMAINATION POSITIVE
NWNN
.\\\S\\\\ r,\\Wr\\\ a\\\W\\ FOR JoINTS wtDER THAN t,2.,
(sHowN) pLUs EXpaNsoN SAL@TTER
OR WATERSHEO
coruCeei
{PROV|OES AOOITIONAL SAFEGUARO) SEE OTHER PAGES FOR JOINT OESTGN
"WET" SEALANTS
OIMENSIONS
EXPAN6ION JOINT CONCEPTS AT JoINT
MEMBRANE LEVEL EXP-AIIS|oN coNcEPTS aT WET SEALANT OETAILS AT
WEARING SURFACE LEVEL WEARING SURFACE

CharlesJ. Parise,FAIA,FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& crylls Assmiates. Inc.; Detroit. Michioan

WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
400 PlqzoBuilt-upBituminousMembroneWoterproofingSystems
TYPE I FELT SE:ALANT IN VERTICAL
SUBSTRATE ASTM O CONCRETE JOINTS
MEETING
The building deck or substrate referred to is reinforced 226 OR ASTM D JOINT SEAL
227 deR Atav-
casl-rn-place struclural coocrele. J MINOUS PLASTIC SURFACE
ZL_ CEMENT I/EETINIG
V FEDERAL
The structural slab should have a tinish of suilicientlv :__b_ --
ss-c-ls5c'
SPEC
TYPE
-4 LB LEAD COUNTERFLASHING
o\ NAILEO TO WOOO NAILER
rough texlure to provide a mechanical bond lor the mem- @
'
oD . O\- nEtruronctruc TREATEO WOOO NAILER
brane, but not so rough lo preclude achievrng contrnurty
t" WITH LEAD FLASHING
of the membrane across the surface. CAST IN CONCRETE
REINFORCEO CRACK
EUILT-UP BITUMINOUS
The concrete should be cured a minimum of 7 days and RENFORCED MEMBRANE
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
aged a minimum of 28 days, including curing time, be- PROTECTION AOARO
tore applicalion of the bituminous membrane. Curing is JOINTS
TREATMENT AT REINFORCED TERMINAL CONDITIONS ON CON-
accomDlished chemically with moislure and should not
CRETE \^/ALL BELOW FINISH
be construed as drying. Liquid or chemical curing com- SURFACE AT GRAOE
CONCRETE JOINT OPTIONAL \^/EARING
pounds should not be used unless approved by the man-
ulacturer of the buill-uD bituminous membrane as the SEALED VERTICAL
malerial mav interfere with the bond of the membrane JOINTS IN CONCRETE
to the structural slab. f MtN.

MEMBRANE TRTATEO WOOO NAILER

A builr-upbituminouswaterproolingmembraneconsists ION BOARO
ot componentsjoined togetherand bondedto its sub- TRIPPING
strateat the site. The major membranecomponentsin- EULT-UP BITUMINOUS
clude primers,bilumcns, reintorcements,and flashing MEMERANE
materials. "Q :oo' CONCRETE SUBSTRATE
TERMINAL CONOITION ABOVE FINI€iH
Surfacesto receivewaterproofingmust be clean. dry, GRAOE ON CONCRETE WALL
reasonably smooth,and free ot dust. dirt, voids,cracks,
laitance, or sharp projections before applicationol
msterisls. MASONRY
METAL COUNTER.
FLASHING WITH
Concretesudaces should be unilormly primed to en- LAPPEO ANO
hance the bond between the membrane 8nd the sub- SEALEO JOINT
WEEP HOLES
Strate,so as to inhibit{atefalmovementof water.
JONT SEAL
FNISH WEARING
The numberol pliesol membranereinforcement tequired SURFACE AT
is dependentupon the head of water and strengthre- Oo GRAOE
0
quked by the design tunction ol the wearing surface. CONCRETE 4 EoLT aNcHoRS --ll::=====
SUEISTRATE MIN.4LONG-
Plazadeck membranesshouldbe comoosedof not less " O.
TAL COUNTER_
than three plies. The composition ol the membrane ASHING
is normallyol a "shingle" or "ply-on-ply" {phasedl
conslruction.
r
For applicationtemperatures, lollow the recommenda- BUILT-UP BITU-
BOARO TERMINATION AT PIPE PENETRATIONS
tims of the manulactu.ersof the membranematerials.
TERMINAL CONDITI()N \^/ITH
Over.einforcedstructuralslab joinrs. one ply of 6-in.- MASONRY ABOVE FINISH \^/EARING
wide membranereinfo.cement should be applied belore SURFACE AT GRADE
applicationol the bituminous membrane.
JOINT SEAL
Nonreinforced joints should receivea bead ol compat-
ible sealanrin a recessedjoint beforeapplicationof the FINISH WEARiNG SPONCE RU6€ER
SURFACE AT GRAOE
memDrane. PROTECT'ON 6L
BAC(€O
M€MBR
PROT€CAON
NE ^IIACHEO
wrTH ^oHEgrvE ro

At expansionjoints, gaskets and tlexible preformed RIGIO NSULATION R160 INSULATON MEVARAN€ 6FLICE

sheetsare requiredinasmuchas bituminousmembranes STAINLESS STEEL

have little or no movementcapability.Since such ma- SCREEN
tedalsmust be ioinedlo the bituminousmembrane,the inorecrror
watershed conceot should be used BOARD

Reinlorceall intersectionswith walls and cornerswith

two layersot woven fabric embeddedin hot bitumen. ORAINAGE
CLAMPING COURSE
RING--
Flashingmembranesshould extend above the wearing
surtaceand the highest possiblewater level and not less
than I 50 mm (6 in.l onto the deck membran€.
STRIPPING

The flashingshould extend over the wall dampproof- METAL FLASHING,

ing or membranewaterproofing not less than 100 mm IF REQUIREO \^r'ATERSHEO CC)NCEPT EXPANBION
JOINT
l4 in.). ? @ -" \BUTLT-ue BrTUMrNous
6 MEMBRANE
Dfainsmu$ be providedwith a wide metal flange or base -^\' - - " t " T " T U R A L S L A B
o
and sel slightlybelow the drainagelevel.Metatftashing o
fo, the drain,if required,and the clampingring shouli
be set on the membranein bituminousolasticcement.
The metalllashingshouldbe slrippedin with a minimum
ol two pliesof membranereinforcementand three ao-
plicationsof biluminousplasticcemenr. TERMINATION AT DRAIN

oQ
Penetrationsth.oughthe membranesuchas conduitsand
pipes should be avoided wheneverpossible.Penetra- REINFORCE
LAYEre
CORN€R WIfH TWO
OF WOVEN RENFORCEMENT
tions must be flashedto a heightabovethe anticipated FABRIC EMBEOOEO IN HOT BITUMEN
OR FIA€HINO CEMENT CARRY
water tablethat may extendabovethe wearingsurface. FSRTC ONTO ECK ANO UP WALL TO
FULL HEI4T OF FLAeHING

The built-upbituminousmembraneshouldbe protected 5" X S" FIEERrcARO CANT ETRIP

REQUFEO WITH M€M6RANE
fiom damage.Protectionboardshouldbe placedon the REINFORCEMENT
WOVEN FABRIC
OTHER THAN
wate.prooting membranewhen the finalmoppingis being
BIiUMINOU6 MEMBRANE
placed.lt will then be adheredro the membrane.
TIBLE EEALANA
Reference: ASTM C 98 1. Highlightsol text and tigures 6IRU'ruRAL 6LAE
a,e reprintedwith permissionfrom ASTM Commitlee NONREIN|:GCEO 6INT
C-24 of the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials.
TREATMENT AT NONREINFORCED \^/ATER€HEO CONCTPT EXPANAION
JOINTS JOINT

CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA, FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GryllsAssociates,lnc.; Detroit, Michigan

WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
 PlqzoLiquid-AppliedElostomericMembronewqlerproofingsystems
40t
SUBSTRATE ooueLc THrc<NESS MEMSRANE BONOFO
r
. J TOGLTHER CONCRETE JOINT
The building deck or subslrate relerred to is rerntorced
cast-in,place structural concrete_ +i$lQEt
-,-- -E% IN6iRUCTO€
toPTroNAL)

P.F3.oi%xu.+I'"aL JorNTs
o^
QE'NFoRCED .(.E .II G \- L,QUID-APPLIED
" o --
Polymeric, latex, or other organic chemacal_based srEEL coNT o lL ME-MBRANE-
admix. rsnouGt
- - o cnac<ll\
JOINT SEAL
lures or modifiers can coat the concrele partrctes
and - \ --
;-' I H A | R L T N Ec F a c K
teduce lhe abilitv ol lhe membrane to bond
to ths sub.
strate. Admixtures should not be used in the concrete THtCKNeS6
J-''.,t
_-
/oousLe MEMBR^NE BONOED LIQUIO.APPLIED MEMBRANE
unless determined that theV are acceptable for -
use wrth l*- 6.- -
a----JJ3""'.'lit"1
_ FACTURER.S
PROTECTION BOARO
lne membrane ts J .
NSTRUCTIONS

The underside of the concrete deck should not gt-ffi,o-o"".,.o I_Ei!,tN {loN c_o_No
GRADE
r-rro r.r-eE6VE rrr.r'iGH
coNcRETe
have an walL
rmpermeable barrier. A metal liner or coaling THRoUGHJoi\T]:\ MEMBRANE
that forms -- -.- . -f -s -L
a vapor barrier on the underside traps moisture in r- coNsTRUcrroN PROTECTTON BOARO
the /
concrete and destroys or prevents the adhesrve . . /. ecrxroa.Eo =re..\
bond ol )!oHl coNTrNUouS
Ine membrane to lhe upper surtace of the concrete. rHRouGH JorNT----\b'
ANO JOINTS IN G)ONCRETE ? N
SLAB
The sur{ace should be ot sufficiently rough texture
to
provrde a mechanical bond for the memb.ane,
but not so
rough as to preclude achreving contrnuity of the
mem
brane ot the specified thickness across the surface.
\ LIQU-IO-APPLIED
MEMBRANE
The concrete should be cured a minamum of 7
days and -\sEauarur
aged a mrnimum of 28 days, rncluding curing time.
be-
\--- \JOINT FILLER
rore apprrcalron ot the liquid_applied membrane.
Curing \ co^srnuct,o^ TURNUP DETAILS AT REINFORCEO
rs accomplished chemically with moisture and
should noi JOINT IN CONCRETE JOINT
De construed as drying_ Liquid or chemical curing
com_ TREATMENT
pounds should not be used unless approved OF NONREINFORCEO
by thi man- etUT-FED JotN-r tN coruCae-re
utacturer of the laquid,applaedmembrane as the material
may anterfere with the bond of the membrane
slae
t d 3Bi,:+-,J,5-,,CI3'"'
22A. 'r\
IEfrfil /-rotNr=EAL----\
to rhe
struclural slab. MASONRY

METAL COUNTER-
-- il
FLASHING WITH i l z l l l l'iF l / , r n r s r wEARTNG ".i.1
MEMBRANE FOi: I I / / SURFACE AT \g I
""""'
LAPPEO ANO

The.membrane should be applied under dry, trost_tree

SEALED JOINTS
.8!r
Ii*f ['E?E"r^i.'::=
x
condttrons on the surface as well as th.oughout the
deprh
of the concrete slab. Use manufacturer,s ,equirements
WEEP

JOINT
HOLES

SEAL
PE.
lLffi Y\i;$
3i$ '.m-93"
for the particular membrane.
FINISH WEARING
SURFACE f
GRADE
TERMINATION WITHOUT REGLET WITH REGLET
ON WALLS
LIQUIO-APPLIEO
A liquid-applied memb.ane, because ot its inherent
ad. MEMARANE
TERMTNAL coruorrroNs oru
hesive properties, may be terminated flush on CO_NCRETE WALL BELOW FINISH
the wall
wrthout the use of a reglet. Howeve., the use .TERMINAL CONDITION WITH \MEARING SURFACE AT GRAOE
3E=o5S'.*wEaRrNG
of a realet
In a concrete wall has the advantage of providing grei'ter goF_xt+r.*P
depth protection at lhe terminal. OPTIONAL LIFTABLE
ESCUTCHEON-
rcNT SEAL PIPT SYSTEM SEAL
TERMINATION AT DRAINS JOINT SEAL
Drains should be designedwith a wide flange or base as
an Integralpan. The drain base should be sat flush with INSULATION
the structuralslab. Vehicularsupportingdrainsgener
DRAINAGE COURSE
axy requrreaddttronatweep holesdrilledinto them (see
detaill. PROTECTION AOARD

TREATMENT AT REINFORCED
JOINTS STAINLESS

One recommendedtreatment of reinforcedconcrete SCREEN

joints in rhe structuralslab is to apply a douOte
layeroi
membraneover the crack. This rype of detail is quire t/2 DlA.
limited and implicitlyrelieson the memb.ane.scrack- wzEF€OLES,

bridgrngability.An alternarive approacnts lo preventthe o

memD.anetrom adheringto the subst.atetor a linite o JOINT
wrdth centeredon the joint o. crackby meansol a prop- FILLER
efly 0esrgned compatiblebond.breaker taoe.

TREATJi.I ENT Ai NONREIN FORCED PIPE SLEEVE CAST

JOINTS tN coNcRETE -

Srnc€the joints are not held togetherwilh,einforcinq

steet,somemovement,howeverslight,shoutdbe antic:
rpatedand providedror, since the liquid_applied
mem- TERMINATION AT
b.ane has limited ability lo take movement. TERMINATION AN ONAIN PENETRATIONS
EXPANSION WEARNG C@RSE
JONT AT \ EXP^NSTON JOrNt
/
TREATMENT AT EXPANSION WEARING
OTHER
COURSE
PAGES FOR
(SEE
/ AT WE'RING
a__) couRs€ (sEE
JOINTS CONCEPTS ANO OETATLSI
J OTdER PAGES FOR
fu coNc€Prs aNo
Gasketsand tlexibleprefo.medsheetslend themselves SPONGI RUBBER OET ILSI
AACKED PROTECTION
better to absorbinglarg€amountsof movement.Srnce / MEMERANE ATIACHEO CONCREIE SIE TEFMINAL
PROIECTION
sucn matenals,when used at an expansion _ wrTH ^oHesrvE ro SLAB
ioint, must nrCO rlSuUaltOl, ELASTOMERTC
be joinedto the liquid-applied O, o LAP OPTIONAL
membrane,the watershed MEMgRANE SPLICF LIqUIO.APPLIEO
q)
conceplshouldbe used. suPPoRr
RIGIO NSOLATON

:;E!A?:?MERrc erostowec,i
SUPPOR- GASK€f
PROTECTION BOARD METAL REIAINER

The liquid-applied
membraneshouldbe p.otectedfrom r/16' ELASTOMERTC
damagepriorto and durng lhe remarnderof deck con_ SHE€T MEMaRANE
WATERMOOFING
srrucrron.the proper timing of lhe applicationof tttd' u,*
the AONOEO LAP
Doarots lmportantand the manufacturer,sprinted in_ ^NO 60NOEO
JOINTS
TO
L IOUIO - ^PPLIEO
structionsshouldbe followed. Lreuro-appLrEo vewecirue
MEMBRANE AS PER
rcrcLrlHtc STFUCi MANUFACTURER'S
SLAS NO CURB - INSTRUCTIONS
ASTM C 898_ Hightighlsof rexl and,igures
l"-tu1:1"":
Ae rep-nntedwith permissionfrom ASTM COmrn'ittee
u 24 ot the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Matenals. WATERSHED CONCEPT EXPAI\ISION
JOINT

CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA. FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GMts Associates,lnc.;

Detroit, Michjoan

WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
 402 BuildingInsulotion
INSULATION DEFINED
The word insulate comes from the Latin "insula. " meanino
island, i.e.. an isolated and/or separated Filace or condition:
An insulating material is one that isolates sources of elec-
tncitv, heat, or sound energy. Building insulation should
effectively isolate heat, sound or both

Nature seeks consonance. This explains why heat {energyl

moves toward cold (lack of energy). A balance and harmony
is being sought. The primary concept of insulators is to GUSS FIBERS CELLULOSE FIBERS
resist the natural tendency of energy to ilow from the
source and affect the surroundings. By this definition, any HEAT FLOW HEAT FLOW
The fibers of glass fiber insulationhave firm and cylindrical PARALLEL PERPENDICULAR
material that effectrvely blocks, absorbs, slows down, or
cross sectionsthat only touch at tangentpoints.Therefore,
reflects heat and sound is a building insulator.
there is little heat transmitted by conduction.In addition,
glassfibers trap a largeamountof air, which increasesinsu- lf fibrous insulation is used, the direction ol the fibers in
lationootential. relation to the direction of the heat flow will affect the rate
of heat movement. Under equal @nditions, fibers perpen
The tibers of cellulose and other blown or hand Dacked dicular to heat flow transmit heat slower than fibers oaralle
rnsulatorsare softerftbersthat havewider contactooints. to heat flow.
VAPOR AND MOISTURE
This permitsmore heat transterthroughconducttonthan
In conjunctron wilh thermdl insulators ts the necessary con- glass fibers. These fibers also trap a large quantity of air
cern tor vapor retarders and barners. Although heat energy that Increasesinsulationvalue.
moves an a variety of ways such as direct radiation, convec-
tion, and conduction, one primary vehicle tor heat transfer f;A-FFi4h,:S=''*---- ----v
-,^,
is air. Air expands when it is heated and gains the capacity
fl\\r/
$ffi-
to hold more water vapor. When warm and moist air is
c@led, it condenses and loses the caoacitv to hold the
,r=Y-OI-;B|:iEIlg. -,^rd.
same amount ol vapor. The water vapor condenses, dew-
poant is reached. and the water vapor becomes liquid in the
*o liinu, (oX..9
same manner that moisturo occurs oo the warm side (outer
surface) oJ a cold glass of iced tea on a hot and humid day.
Since an insuiator is normally placed on th€ warm side of
the building, closest to the interior to r€sist the flow of heat
to cold, it follows that this is also wher€ the greatest poten-
tial for moisture and moisture daruge may occur inside the
idoxx
^,O f,--,U
vV2

a(! (
i\\v
u wr
i1
/)
*orove"e'r-{)y'Vf
o f2a^--coNVEcTloN
M''EMENT

NouoveuErutY
/:t
fn

building section. GRANULAR CELLUUR

Vermiculiteand perlite insulationare composed of small, l{ there are many smallfibers of insulationmaterialwithin a
rock-like,rounded granulesthat have small contact points given space, they provide more surface area than larger
It is virtually impossible to construct a perfect vapor barrier.
'bader" that limit h6at conduction. Spacesbetween the granules fibers in the same ar€a. Since thickness o{ air films sur
The word is us6d in common buildino terminol-
containinsulalingair. roundingany fiber is essentiallythe sare understill air con-
ogy Construction vapor barriers are actually vef effectrve
vapor retarders made of such materials as polyethylene and
ditions, smaller libers provide more surlac€ and more air.
Extrudod,molded, and foamed plasticinsulationsare cellu- Largerfibers may leavelargergaps and paths that allow air
various facings on insulation that do not totally stop mois-
lar or honeycombed.Walls of the cells conductheat around to flow by means oI convection.Granularand cellularinsu-
ture vapor transmission. When a retarder reduces the trans-
the c€lls. Cells contain a large volume of air that greatly lation also possess air films. lf the cell or space between
mission of moisture to one perm or less, it may be referred
increasesinsulationvalue. granulesis too large,convectioncurents €n occur that will
to as a vamr barrier.
transmit heat acrossthe soace.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON BUILDING INSULATION

o
o
iU DEGRADATION DUE TO
^;z o
tr(DY n> U o
F J u
trtlt i 5L t o z
z l z
zl ii"
>z=
99
FU
ts U
tr o<
UJ
z
<LZ o
**, t o-i U

BUILDING
Fd-

v,0-
ola
urU
fr3;
igil
U^>
rd<
>uJ
dt
9
x
I! ID
>s
U
L
l
F
o dE3
zoo
T

u
o
t
t
INSULATION
83tr >: lL S.ix J0-
LO F oo
u o l<E
3
o
o
bans and blankets
rigid boards

(rigid boards)

Vermiculite (loose

or ngid b@rds)

1 . By volume
2. Aged unfaced or spay applied

David F. Hill: Burt Hill Kosar Rittelmann Associates; Butler, pennsylvania

Donald Bosserman. AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appleton; Alexandria, Virginia

THERMALPROTECTION
 BuildingInsulotion 403
THERMAL INSULATTON BASIC MATERIALS
Thermal insulation@ntrols heat flow under tempera. PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND FORM
tures ranging from abslute zero to 3000oF. This Thermal insulationis made from the following basic
materials: Thermalinsulationis availablein the followingphysiel
broad range can be gbdivided into four generaltem- forms:
perature regimesthat classifyapplicationsfor vaious l . M I N E R A L F T B R O U SM
: a t e r i asl u c ha s g l a s sr,m k .
tvpesof insulation: slag, or asbestosrhar is melted l. LOOSE FILL: Dry granulc, nodules, or fibers
.pri inio it iri pouredor blown into place.
1. LOW TEMPERATUBES: lnsulation for vm*ls fibers. "no
containing cryogmic materials, ruch as liquefied 2. MINERAL CELLULAR: Materiatsuch as foamed 2 . F L E X T B L E O R S E M | R t G t D ; B t a n k e ba n d b a t t s
natuiel gas. glass,calcium silicate,perlite, vermicutite, of wool-likematerial.
ioamJj
2. AMBIENT TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor buitd- concrete,or ceramic. 3 . R I G t D : B o a r d sa n d b t c k s .
Ing structures. 3. ORGANTCFIBROUS: Materiatsuchasrcod, cane_ 4. MEMBRANE: Reflrctiveinsutation.
3. MEDIUM TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor tanks, cotton, hair, celluloe, or syntheticfibers. 5. SPRAY APPLIED: Mineral fiber or insutating
pip6, and equipment in industrial prces heai 4 . O R G A N I C C E L L U L A R : M a t e r i a l$ c h a s c o r k , concrete.
apDlications. foamed rubDer,polystyrene, or potyurethane. 6. POURED-lN-PLACE I n: s u l a t i ncgo n c r e t e .
4. HIGH TEMPERATURES: Refractory or other 5. METALLIC: Aluminum or other foils, or metallized 7. FOAMED-lN-PLACE: polyurethane,urea formal-
speialized insulation materials used in foundrv orga,nic reflective membranB that must face air, dehvde-
work, nuclear porcr facitities, te aercspi! 96 filled. or evacuatedsoac6.
industry, and $ on. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Architects and buildec are generally concerned with Heat flos through materialsand sprceby conduction.
rne.d6rgn and material performance of buildino conv_trtion, and radiation. Convmiion .na
Insutataons that opecte within ambient temperaturi are functions of the roughnss ot ,urt.""s,lii.o"'"1
"onOr"iiori
limits. As tempectuG range much above or below ment, and the temperaturedifferencebetweenthe
ambrent conditions, d6ign and per{ormane reouire_ air
ano sudrce. Mas insulatioos.by their low densitiB.
ments_change and flust be matched with insulation are oestgned to suppre$ conduction and convction
materials that withstand the stress introduced by acrossthelr.sectionsby the entrapment of air molftules
extreme temperaturG, large temperature differentials, wrlnrn ther structure. Convective air cg1lgn1r
and themal cyclinO. CURVE (c) ar"
Jo;r6L:3osT b" surounding marrix of fib;;; ;;-;e-ilt
:,:1{,
and .the
the chancesof heat transfer by the collision oi
BUILDING INSULATION_THERMAL air.moleculesis reduced. Radiant t transts Uet*el
FUNCTIONS oolcts.operates independentlyof"ai air currents and is
E fNsuLATroN / conrroiled by the characterof the surfacs (emisivitv)
The. -two maior furctiom of building insulations are THrcKNEss wtrH / and the.temperature difference uetween'warm
to- (l) control tef,peraturB of inside surfeE that U LOwEST CoSa /+_3 oij-
.// lffis.emrtttng radiation and cooler objects absorbing
altrct the comf6t ot Gupants and aid or deter LAYERS
raotatlon-
condenstion and (21 consrve enerqv bv reducino U \ | -//
heat transmision through buitding'sctions ttrai 0
INSULATION The rmistanc€ of thse modes of heat transfer
oer€rmtn€ the_en€rgy.requirements for both heating a mav be
retardedby the elementsof a buildingwall sction.
(B'
and cooting. E@mmics in fuel consumption en bi CURVE

calculated- with reGonable *cur*y and balanced J

LOST/ 1. OUTSID.E_ SURFACE FTLMS:The outsidesrfrce
J
againsl initial ccts of insulation and the costs for
- o ENERGY
2 LAYERS
lraps a thin film of air, which raists heat flow. Thii
heating and cooling with equipment (seefigurey.-'- o _
nrm vafl6 with wind veleity and surfrce roughnes.
2. MATERIAL LAyERS; Erch tayerof material
con-
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
Thermal inrulatioN may also perform *veral other
functions:
< - I LAYER
tributs to the rsistance ot ieat flo-. uiuati"
mording to its density. A tayer of suitaUielns]ia1
Uon.ts normally many times more effective
in
reststtngheat.transfer than the combination
INSULATIc)N of all
1. Add. structural strtrgth to a wall, ceiling. or flmr other materials in the fftion
s*tron- 8FIFBUU+r,5o^i oF EcoNoMrc THTCKNE6G 3. AIRSPACE: Each meaurable ainpae also
adds
2. Providesupport ttr a srfae finish. to the owrall rBigtance. Foil faced iurfrcc of low
emissiviti6 that form the boundariesot ttrc ii^o*"
3. I mpedewater vapor transmission, can funher reduce the rate of radiani i;;f;;,;
4. Preve_ntor reducedamageto equipment and struc_ the space.
ture trom exposG to fire and freezingconditions. 4. lNS|DE.
5. Reducenoie and vibration. .SURFACE FtLM: The Insrdesurraceo,
ne outtdrngstion also traps a thin film
of air.
I ne arr trtm thus formed is usuallythicker
bcause
or mucn tower air velocities_

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM THERMAL

RESISTANCES (R) OF INSULATION
ZONE CE ILING WALL FLOOR
,| to ll l1
zo 13 l1
26 19 't3
30 r9 19
JJ 19 22
38 19
NOTE: The minimum insulationR valu6 recommended
HAWAI I for variousparts of the United Statesas delineatedon
the map of insulationzones.
ALASKA

NOTE: REC&MEWO TNSULATION ZONES FOF| EATING ANO COOLTNG

David F. Hill; Eurt Hill Ko$r Rittelmann Ass@iates; gutler, pennsylvania

Donald Bosserman, AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appteton; lfexanOrial
Viiqinia

THERMAL
PROTECTION
404 ExletiorInsulotionond FinishSyslems
FINISH AND BASE UYERS ARE THICKENED FOR HEAVY DUTY USE GENERAL
-\\HEN
aRE usED ovER HEAVY DUTY MESH lNsrEAo
' --x -> MECHANTCAL FASTENERS Exterior insulation and finish systems provide a uninter
/// -oF RICESSED rNTo PANEL
rupted layer of rigid insulation that is attached by adhesives
ormechanical faateners directly onto the building substrate
A continuous tiberglass mesh layer is then applied and
OR PLYWOOD SUBSTRATE
- EXTERIOR GYPSUM BOARD
attached bv adhesives oi mechanical tasteners A finis'
coat covers and seals the entlre system.

NOTES
I lnsulalron panels are made in varyrng thrckness from l
INTERWOVEN FIBERGLASS to a in., depending on the wall U-tactor reqriremenls
MESH RETNFORCEMENTLAYER Thev come in varying sizes, generally 2 x 2 11'2x 4 ll, ol
2 x'8 ft, depending on manufacturer or sysEm used
Exoanded polvstvrene (l to 2 lb/cu ft) is genslly usPd
POLYSTYRENE INSUUTION above qrade; extruded polystyrene (2 to 3 lb/cu tt) is gen
PANEL erallv used below grade or in high lrallic areas
2. For areas likely to t€ceive abuse by high impct or.high
traffic, a heavy duty fiberglass mesh reinforcerent layer
ADHESIVE
is used in addition to, or in place of, the standad mesh
Also, zinc casing beads are frequently used at fnish layer
edges.
3. When mechanical lasteners are used they should be
installed tlush with oI, preferablY,recessed into the insu
lation Danel to orevent "bubbles" on the surfce When
recessed, some manufacturers provide an insdation plug
over the lastener to leave a continuous layer otinsulation
at the surface belore the finish is applied
4. For walls with damaged or brittle subslrates, a mechanl
callv fastened track ststem is used bY some mnutactur
CMU SUBSTRATE ers io fasten the insulaion panels to the substrale'
5. The svnthetic-stucco finish layer is generallY weather
resistmt. crack resistant. and vapor p€rmeable and ls
troweled, rolled, or sprayed onto the surface over the
PLASTIC FASTENER
ground coat adhesive. lt is generally made fnm acrylic
DISK
polymers with an aggregate or silica sand, quru chrps.
br marble chips to glve it the desired texture Color is
INSUUTION PLUG NOTE achieved bv either tinting the finish coat with ligment or
CORROSION RESISTANT MECHANICAL FASTENER painting the surface.
SYNTHETIC STUCCO Extend mechanical fasteners
FINISH UYER GROUND COAT ADHESIVE ANACHES MESH into studs.
TO INSUUTION BOARD

EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEM

INSUUTION
PANEL
INSUUTION
PANEL
FIBEFIGLASS
MESH
SUBSTRATE
5/a" MtN.

FIBERGUSS
CMU SUBSTRATE
MESH
ROUTER CUT
INSUUTION PANEL DRIP
FINISH UYER BACKER ROO

EXPANSION JOINT AT DISSIMILAR SUBSTRATES

CMU
PARAPET DETAIL
INSULATION
BACKER ROD
PANEL
ANO SEAUNT
ROUTER CUT
3la" MtN
DECORATIVE EXPANOED
V-JOINT ,r
FINISH UYER POLYSTYRENE
INSULATId
FIBERGUSS BOARD
MESH MESH { EXTRUDED
3L" MtN.
INSUUTION POLYSTYRENE
PANFL FINISH UYER INSUUTION
BOARD
SUBSTRATE
CMU
OECORATIVE JOINT

CMU
EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL AT FLOOR LEVEL
SULATION
PANEL
SUBSTRATE'
FIBERGUSS
INSUUTION MESH
PANEL
FIB€RGUS5
MESH BACKER ROD
AND SEALANT
FINISH LAYER BRING GROUND
COAT, FIBERGLASS
CMU MESH, AND FINISH
SIDEWALK
UYER DOWN
ONTO WALL

DETAIL AT SIDEWALK DETAIL BELOW GRADE

MA,SONRY DETAILS MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS

\^/OOD FRAME DETAILS

Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsville,

INSULATION
EXI'ERIOR SYSTEMS
AND FINISH
 WoterVopor Migrotion 405
WATER VAPOR MIGRATION grven, setecl an average value or use judgment in
assign.
Ing a value based on the character and potential installa_ MATERIAL PERM IN-]
Water is presentas vapor in indoor and outdoor air and as
tion method of the material prooosed td use. THERMAL
absorbedmoisture in many building materials.Within the INSULATIONS
rangeot temperaturesencounteredin buildings,water may . Start at the top of the list and note any material
that has Luilular glass 0.0-
existin the liquid,vapor,or solid states.Moisture'relateA less permeance than the materials above it on the list. At Mineral wool, unprotected
problemsmay arise from changesIn motsturecontenl, thatpoint the possibilrtyelrsts that vapor leaking through 29.4
lne rrsl mdtenal may condense on the second, provided
Expanded polyurethane (R-11 blown) 0 . 4- 1 . 6 5
lrom the presenceof excessivemoislure,or from the Expanded polystyrene - €xtruded 1. 2 5
effects ot changesof state, such as freezingwithin walls or the dew point (condensation point) is reached and the Expanded polystyrene - bead
mvement is considerable. In that €se, provide ventila_
2.0 - 5.85
deteriorationof materialsdue to rouing or corrosion.
t,on through the cold-side material or modify the design PLASTIC AND METAL FOILS AND FILMS'
ln the designand constructionof the thermal envelooeof to eliminate or change the material to one of greater p;r
0.0
buildings(lhe enclosureof desired temgeraturesand meance. Polyethylene (4 mil) 0.08
humidities),the behaviorof moisture must 6e considered, Polyethylene (6 mil) 0.06
particularlythe change of state from vapor to liquid (con Polyethylene (8 mil) 0.04
densation). Problemsa.isewhen morsturecomesinto con ESTIMATED Polyester (1 mill o.7
tact with a relativelycold surface {temperaturebelow the PERMEANCE Polyvinylchloride,unplasticized (2 mit) 0.68

%Mffi
dew point),such as a window, or within outdoor walls or GWts(% ) 50.0 Polyvinylchloride, plasticized (4 mit) 0 . 8, 1 . 4
undeHoof ceilings. Excessivecondensationwithin indoor vapor BUILDING PAPERS, FELTS, ROOFTNG
walls that enclosecold spacesmust be considered. retarder 0.6 (lowest) PAPER53
Insulalion 29.0 _-
While moisture moves in still air by vapor pressure differ Duplex sheet, asphalt lamrnated,-trmum
Wood
foil one side (43)a 0.176
ences, it is important to recognizethat mojsture in air is sheathing 2.9
moved by the air. Consequentlv,tne causes of ajr motion 4" brick Saturatedand coated roll roofing(326)4 0.24
must be considered,especiallythe infiltrationand exfiltra- veneer Kraftpaperandasphaltlaminated. rern-
1.1 {next}
tion at undesirableleakagerates at windows, doors, and forced 30-12G30 (34). 18
other penetrationsthrough the thermal envelope of the Asphalt-saturated, coatedvaporbarrier
EX.A,MPLE paper (43). 0.6
building.
ln this examplethe vaporretardertransmits I grainot mois- Asphalt-saturated, not coatedsheathrng
pape( (22)4 20.2
Moisture problems in residencesgenerallyoccur in sea- ture per square toot per hour for each unit of vaoor ores-
sonswhen the outdoortemperatureand vaporpressureare 15-lb asphaltfelt (701! 5.6
sure diflerence,or one perm. and nothingelse iranjmits
low and there are many rnd@r vapor sources.These may 1slb rar lelt (70)4 18.2
less. However.since the cold brick veneer is nearlvas low
includecooking,laundering,bathing,breathing,and perspi- In permeance.it is advisableto make certainthat the vapor Singlekraft,doubleinfused(16)d
ratlonlor the @cuF€nts,as well as automaticwashers and retarderis €xpertlyinstalled,with alt openingsa pipes ind LIQUID APPLIED COATING MATERIALS
dryers,dishwashers,and humidifiers-All of these sources with outlet boxes or ioints carefullyfittod or sealed.Alterm- - MO COatS
combine to cause vapor pressure ind@rs to be much tively, the brick veneer mav have open mortar joints near Aluminum varnishon wood
higher than outdoors, so that the vapor tends to migrate the top and bottom to serve both as reep holes and as 0 . 3- 0 . 5
Enamelson smooth plaster 0 . 5- 1 . 5
outward through the buildingenvelop€.Vapor cannot per- vaporreleaseopenings.Theywill also ventilatethe mltand Primersand seal€rson interiorinsulation
meate glazed windows or retal dmrs. but most other help reduceheat gain in summer.
buildingmaterialsare pemeable to some extent. Walls are
board o . 9- 2 . 1
Miscellaneousprimersplus one coat llat oil
panicularlysusceptible to this phenomemn, and such paint on plastic
migrationmust b€ prevent€dor at least minimized bv the 1 . 6- 3 . 0
Flat paint on interiorinsulationboard 4
use ot ow pemeance membranes, alled vaDot retarders ESTIMATED Water emulsionon interiorinsulationooaro
lfomerly, vapor bailersl. fh6/ arc now called retarders, PERMEANCE Paint- three coats 30-85
nol barriers, because they do rct stop moisture flow coG
pletely.A vaporretarderis a materialthat has a flow ratino
cwETm- Exteriorpaint,white leadand oil on wood
Furred 50.0 siding 0 . 3- 1 . 0
of one perm or less. ('l pem = 1 gcin/hr ft - in. Hg vapoi space Exteriorpaint.whit€ lead-zincoxideand oal
pressuredifference;there is no metric perm.) 8- CMU 2.4 on wood 0.9
4" brick Styrene-butadrene latex coating.2 oy'sq fl 11
Vaporretardersshould be installedas close as possibleto veneer 1.1 (lowest) Horwrnytac€tateIatexcoating,4 ozlsq ft
the side of the wall through which moisture enters. Estab. 5.5
Asphaltcutbackmastic
lish the side of moisture entrance in walls of controlled l/16 in. dry
r@ms wilhin buildings.Howswr. the beneficialeffects of 0.14
3/16in. dry 0.0
g@d vaporretardersar€ lost without adequateair barriers. Hot melt asphalt
EXAMPLE
2 ozlsq ft 0.5
Moisture in building materialsusuallyincreasestheir ther Vapor(underpressure)would easilypass throughthe inte- 3.5 oZsq ft
mal conductancesignificantlyand unpredictably.porous 0l
rior finish,be slowed by the concreiemasonryrinit, and be
materialsthat become saturatedwith moisture lose most neadystopped by the cold brick veneer.Unlessthis design
of their insulatingcapabilityand may not regain it when is radicallyimproved, the masonrywill become saturated
they dry out. Dust, which usuallysettles in airspaces,may and may cause seraouswater stainsor apparent"leaks" in NOTES
become permanentlyaffixed to originally reflective suc cold weather.In addition,alternating treezingand thawing '1.
faces. Moisture migrationby evaporation,vapor flow, and of condensationwithin the masonry wall can physicallt The vapor transmission rates listed will Dermit comoari
condensationcan transpon significantquantities of latent damagethe construction. sons ot ruterials, but selection of vapor retarder mateil
heat.panicularlythroughfibrous insulalingmaterials. als should be based on rates obtained from the
manufacturer or from laboratory tests. The range of val-
Positive steps should be taken to prevent migration of ues shown indicates variations among mean values for
moisturein the torm of vaporand acumulation in the form materials that are similar but of different densitv. Values
ol water or ice within buildingclmponents. Vapor retard- are Intended tor design guidance only.
ers. corectly l@ated near th€ source ol the moisture, are 2. Usually installed as vapor .etarders. lf used as exterior
an effective reans of preventingsuch migration.Venting linish and elsewhere near cold side, special consider-
of moistureladon air frem bathrooms,laundryrmms, and ataons are required.
kitchenswill reduceind@r vaporpressure.as will the rntrq
3. Low permeance sheets used as vapor retarders. High
ductionol outd@r air with low rcisture content. p€rmeance used els€Mere in construction.
PERMEANCE AND PERMEABTLITY
4. Bases (weight in lb/500 sq ft).
OF MATERIALS TO WATER VAPOR
BUILDING SECTION ANALYSIS 5. Permeability (perm in.)
MATE R IAL PERM IN.'
FOR POTENTIAL CONDENSATION
MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
Any buildingsection my be analyzedwith simple calcula-
tions to determine where condensationmight @cur and uoncr€te (1;2:4 mix:) 3.25 Based on data lrcm ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentats,
Brick-masonry (4 in. thick) 1984 l-P section. chaoter 22.
what might be done in selectingmaterialsor their method 0.8-1.r
of assemblyto eliminatethat possibility.The section may or Concrete masonry (8 in. cored, limestone
may not containa vaporretarder.or it may containan inade- aggregate) 2.4
quateone; the bualdingsectionmay includecold-sidemate- Plaster on metal lath (3/din.) tb
rials of comparativelyhigh resistance to the passage of Plaster on plain gypsum lath (with stuos, 20
vapor (which is highly undesirablel.With tew exceptions, Gypsum wallboard {% in. plain} 50
the vaporresistanceat or near th€ warm surfaceshouldbe Structural insulating board (sheathing quaf
tive times that of any components. The table gives peF tIy, 20 - 50s
meance and permeabilityof building and vapor retarder Structural insulating board {interior,
materials.These values can be used in analyzingbuilding uncoated. 1/, in.) 50-90
sectionsby the lollowing simple method: Hardboard (r/e in. standard) 11
Hardboard (r/s in. lempered) 5
. List the materials,without surface lilms or airsoaces.in Built-up roofing (hot mopped) 0.0
the order of their appearancein the building sectron. Wood, fir sheathing, % in. 2_9
beginningwith th€ insidesurtacematerialand working to Plywood (Douglas fir, exterior 9lue, '4 in.) o.1
the outside. Plyw@d (Douglas fir. interior glue, 1[ in.) 1.9
. Againsteach malerial list the permeance(or permeabit- Acrylic, glass fib€r reinforced sheet, 56 mil o.12
ity) valuefrom the table or a more accuratevalue if avail- Polyester, glass fiber reintorced sheet,
able from tests or manulacturers'data.Where a rangeis 48 mil 0.05

DavidF. Hill; Eurt Hill KosarRittelrunn Associates;Eutler,pennsylvania

Marc A. Giac€rdo; Collegeof Architecture,Texas Tech Unive.sity;Lubbock.Texas

VAPORRETARDERS
 406 Wood Shinglesqnd Shqkes
REMOVE OLD RIOGE
] A'' WIDE 30 LB UNDERUYMENT IO- ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR LESS COVERING: REPLACE
OVER TOP PORTION OF EACH 7" ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR MORE
l'lz MlN WITH CEDAR BEVEL SIOING
COURSE OF SHAKES
30 LB FELT UNOERUYMENT MilAL VALLEY
SPACED
{1 X40R
SHEATHING
I X6)\
+it 7 FDSHING SHOULD BE ALUMINUM
OR 26 GAUGE MIN GALVANIZED IROI

30

REMOVE 6'
WIDE STRIP
OF OLD
ROOFING;

CRIMPED MN
USE LONGER NAILS TO
vaLLEY FusHtNG \ r/d' PENETRATE THROUGH NEW
SHAKES ANO SHEATHING
NOTES
Shakes€n also be appliedover any existing wall or roof.
UNIFORM Brick or other masonrv requires venical frameboardsand
WIDTH
SHINGLES
horizontalnailingstrips.
3" TO 5'
wroE Over stucco, horizontalnailingstrips are attacheddirectlyto
wall- Nailsshould penetratesheathingor studs. Over wood,
applyshak€sdirectlyjust as it on new sheathing.
OOUBLE STARTER
COURSE \iVOOD SHAKES APPLIED TO EXISTING
STNGLE (SAWN) STNGLE (HANDSPLTT)
ROOF

RED CEDAR HANDSPLIT GENERAL NOTES

SHAKES
1. Wood shingles and shakes are cut from wood species
that are naturally resistant to water. sunlight, rot, and
hail:i.e.. red cedar, redwood, and tidewater red cvpross.
Ihey are typicallyinstalledin the naturalstate,although
RED CEDAR HANDSPLIT SHAKES starns,pramers, andpaintmay be applied.
GRAOE LENGTH AND THICKNESS DESCRIPTION 2. Nailsmust be hot dippedin zincor aluminum.Nailheads
NO. I nandspttt 15 starter-tinish Theseshakeshave split faces and swn Orcfs.tedaiiog!;61 should be driven flush with the surfaceof the shinqleor
and resawn 18 x1lr" medium cut intodesiredlengths.Elanksor boardsof properlhickness shakebut neverinto the wood.
aresplit
18 x 3/o" heavy andthen run diagonally
lhrougha bandsawto producetwo tapered 3. Underlayment and sheathingshouldbe designedto aug-
24 x3le" shakesfrom eachblank. ment the protection providedby the shinglesor shakes,
24 x t12" medium dependingon roof pitch and climate. A lowfitched roof
24 x 3/.,, heary subject to wind driven snow should have soljd sheathing
rro r tapelsplr /4 x 'lz Produced largely bv hand, usrng a sharp bladed steel froe and a andan additional underlayment.
wooden mallet. The natural shinglelike taper is achieved by reversing
the block, end-lor€nd, with each sDlit.

AV
No. 1 straight srde wall Producedin the same manneras tapersplitshakesexcept that by
18x% splittingfrom the same end of the block,the shakesacouir€the same
24 x 3le" thicknessthroughout.
tt
(,
RED CEDAR SHINGLES
NO. 3 BLACK LABEL
t--l ffi
MAXIMUM EXPOSURE RECOMMENDED FOR ROOFS (IN.}
tl
tt
tl
tt
r-l
HALF-COVE

UNDERLAYMENT AND SHEATHING

r-t
tl
ROOFING TYPE SH EATHING UNDERLAYMENT NORMAL SLOPE LO\^/ SLOPE
asphalt 4ta12 Jtn
shangles telt interlayment

":?:"*
and up slaner course; to
rnteilayment over 4in12 entire r@f;
entire roof anterlaymentover Fancy butt shingles are 5 in. wide aod 7 ltzi^. long, custom
entire r@f produced to individual orders.

FANCY BUTT RED CEDAR SHINGLE

SHAPES

Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand

SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
 Wood Shingtesond Shqkes 4O7
ROOF SHAKE PANEL
SHEATHING

ROOF PANEL

ROOF PANEL SYSTEM

(l {R] rEECBO
EMP MO UTSIDE AND tNstDE CoRNERS
ENDED)
PANEL NAILED DIRECTLY
TO STUOS

30 LB BUILOING
PAPER
SINGLE COURSING
APPLICATION

EXPOSURE FOR SHINGLES AND

SHAKES USED FOR StDtNG (tN.)

EXPOSURE OF SHINGLES

SIDEWALL PANEL APPLTED TO STUDS

PANEL NAILED TO NAILING

STRIP AT STUOS
WOVEN OUTSIDE ANO INSIDE CORNERS
(MORE ECONOMICAL)

NAILING: THtCKNESS AND NAtLs

30 LB BUILOINC
PAPER

NAILING
STRIP
SHEATHING NOTES
1. Sheathing may be strip type, sotid 'l x 6 in. , and diagonal
SIDEWALL PANEL APPLIEO IO NAILING STRIPS type, io plywood, fiberboard, or gypsum board. Horizonlal
PANEL NAILED TO w@d nailing strips (1 x 2 in.) should be used over frbef_
SHEATHING AT STUDS board and gypsum sheathing. Space strips equal to shin-
gre exposure.
2- Many finishes can be used on red cedar shakes and shin-
gles: solid color or semitransparent {,,weathering,,)
30 LA BUILDING stains, exterior latex paint with primer, wood preseria.
tive, and bleaches.

SHEATHING CORNER BOARDS AT OUTSIOE AND INSTDE

CORN ERS
WALL PANEL:
9" - X 36" W|TH WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES FOR
7 SIDING
EXPoSUREI
8" x 96- wtTH
I4- EXPOSURE ta" wtDE,30 LB FIRE RETARDANT FIBERGUSS BAN
SIOEWALL PANEL APPLIEO TO SHEATHING ASBESTOS FELT RED CEDAR SHAKES INSUUTION
UNOERUYMENT OR SHINGLES 5/r- TYPE x
NOTES GYPSUM AOARD
1 . Vvith the panel system, shakes and shingl€s plus sh€ath- PLASTIC
ing go up in me operation: 8 ft rmf panels\hive 't6 hand COATED
SEEL
split shakes bonded to 6 xrl, in. plywood strip, which FOIL
2 X 4 STUDS
forms a solid dtrk when the panels are mited. A 4 to i 2 t 6 0R 24' O.C
or st@per roof pitch is recommended.
2. After appli€tion of starter p€nels, attach panels directly RAFTER BUILDING
to rafters. Although designed to center on 16 in. or 24 in- PAPER
spacrng, they may meet between rafters. Use two 6d
nails al each rafter- rlz" oR 5le
36" W|DE, GYPSUM
3. 8 ft sidewall panels are ot twcply consrruclon: 30 LB FELT SHEATHING
a. Surface layer of individual l+1 grade shingles or shakes. STARTER STRIP BOARD
WITH 2- OVERUP
b. Backup of exterior grade plywood shakes or shingles
is bonded under pressure with exterior type adhesives UNTREATEO PLY
)D DECK OR I " CEDAR
to plywood backup. NOMINAL AND THICKER SIDING
4. Lap building paper behind panels 3 in. vertically and hori- TONGUE AND GROOVE
zontally. Stagger joints between panels. ROOF CONOITION DECKING
SIOEWALL CONDITION
5. Application types are determined by to€l buitding codes.
N OTE
6. Matching factory-made corners for sidewall or roof Dae
€ls are available. In treating shakes, fire-retardant chemicals are pressure impregnated into the wood cells,
and chemicals are then tixed in the
wood to prevent leaching. Treatment does not alter appemnce. Fire{etardant red cedar shakes
are classified as Class C by UL.
Class I classification by UL can be met with the addition of the deck constructed of 5/" in. plywooJwith e;riJr gfue or 1 in. nom_
Inal tongue and groove boards, overlaid with a layer of approved asbestos feltlapped-2 in. on all joints
andin ld in. wide strip of
approved asbestos felt berween each shake and not exposed to rhe weather. Decbrative staini m;t
;;;p;[";.
PANEL SYSTEMS FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTTON

RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio: Crownsville,Maryland

SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
408 Aspholtond CompositionShingles
EAVE FLASHING
ECHEDULE OF UNDERLAYMENT EAVES FLASHTNG STRIP Eave flashing is required wherever the JanuarY daily av-
PREVENTS AACKUP DAMAGE
erage temperature is 30oF or less ot where there is a
Single layer of 15 lblasphalt etura' possibiliry of ice forming along the eaves.
ALL LAPS SHOULD
ted lelr over entire rbbf BE OUTSIDE
WALL LINE NORMAL SLOPE_4 IN./FT OR OVER
Two layers of 15 lb asphalt salura'
ted telt over entire roof
A course of 90 lb mineral surJacedroll roofing or a
course of 50 lb smooth roll roofing is installed to
t/. to 3/s
overhangthe underlay and metal edgelrom
t5 LB ASPHALT FELTS
||\
in. Extend up the roof far enoughto cover a polnt at
UNOERLAYMENTT ,
least 24 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
When the werhang requirm flashingwider than 36 in.,
the horizontal lap joint is cementedand lcated on the
roof deck extending beyond the exterior line of the
buildinq.

LOW SLOPE_3 TO 4 IN./FT

-o=raor- Cover the deck with two layersof 15# asphaltsatur
) ated felt. Beginwith a 19 in. startercour* laid along
CEMENT/
the eaves,followed by a 36 in. wide sheet laid even
with the eavesand completely overlappingthe starter
course. The starter course is covered with asphalt
cement. Thereafter, 36 in. sheetsare laid in asphalt
cement, erch to overlap the precedingcouree 19 in.,
Us only enoughnails to hold underlaymenlin placeunlrl exposing17 in. of the underlyingsheet.
shinglesare laid. The plis are placed in asphaltcement to a polnt at
APPLICATION OF UNOERLAYMENT ON least36 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
LO\^r' ALOPE ROOFS _'----------\
CHIMNEY MASONRY
EAVE FLAEHING

SCHEDULE OF SHINGLE TYPES (II

DESCRIPTION DESIGN MATERIAL U.L. RATING WEIGHT stzE IT2 REGLET

205-225 lb/sq
I rar
Fiberglass
Three-tabsquare butl
G; Oroanictelts 235-30O lb/sq
36"x1
SHEET METAL,
CAP FLASHING
260-325 lb/sq
I r+r
Fiberglass
Two-tab souare butt
fil Organiclelts 300 lbi sq
36" x

Fiberglass 300 lb/sq 36" x 14

Laminatedoverlav(21 Organicfelts c
rJ,
330-380 lb/sq MINERAL-.-.-
SURFACED ROLL\
225-260 lb/sq
I r:r
Fibe,glass ROOFING
[J
\
Randomedge cut 36" x 12 EMAEDOEO IN
Oroanicfelts 250 lb/sq ASPH{T PLASTIC
CEMTNT ON
NOTE: Exposure5" , edge lap 2" .

NOTES
FLASG
1. Exposure5 in., edge lap 2 in., lor all designs. T ORF TOP
EDG AM TE STffi 36'MIN.
2. Mo.e than one thickress for varying suttace texture OVER FELT
ONG RAKE
3. Many rated as wind resistant.
4. All rated as wind resistant. w@D
DECK
(VARES)
5" EXPOSURE

MET

(r( 9'STARTER STRIP

G COURSE OF SHINGLES
*INEES INVERTEO
START FIRST COURSE
WTH FULL STRIP
METHOO OF EECURINO CAP
\START THiRD STAff SECOND FLAEHINO TO CHIMNEY MA€'ONRY
WITH FULL STRIP C@RSE WITH F&L

w
MINUS FIRST TA8 srRrP MrNs 72 TAB

THREE TAB eQUARE BUTT STRIP SHINGLEe

36" ROLL ROOFING AT

wooo LEAST 55 LB OR
IE'STRIP FACE OOWN '46 NEoPRENE
OECK SHEET
SINGLE.
EACH STRIP TO EX_ COURSE
TEND AT LEAST I2" G CEDAR
BEYOND CENTER OF SHINGLES
VALLEY ALUMNUM. GALVANIZEO
IRON OR COPPER.
PLASTIC BFEAK SHAES, NAIL
ASPHALT
UNDERLAYMENT
CEMENT
UNOERLAY. EXTRA NAIL IN END
FACED
MENT OF STRIP
36" WIOE STRIP
UP MINERAL SURFACE
ROLL ROOFING HEM EDGE
OF METAL

DRIP EOGE r)ETAILA

n--
SMOOTH

OPEN VALLEY CLOSEO VALLEY

Fry*"**
.Valley width should be 6" wide at fldg€ and spreadwrder at THREADEO
n
the rate ofil""/loot downward to eave. Establish vallev t
scREw
width uring chalkline trom .idge
.idoe to cove THREAOEO

APPLICATION DIAGRAMA NAIL TYPEA

Robert E. Fehlberg,FAIA: CTA Architects Engineers;Billings,Montana

ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES, AND ROOFCOVERING
 SloteRoofing 409
WOOO POINT WITH
STRIP
ELASTIC CEMENT
SOMETTMES
OMITTEO
COMBTNG
ELASTTC SLATE
CEMENT
ROOFING
SLATE

INSULATION a
SECTION
o
:- J<

FN
<l
J(,
oz
oQ
ELASTIC CEMENT
za
ol
o{
POINT WITH ni

DIAGRAM OF PROPER LAP FOR RIS|E/RUN

SAODLE HIP
GENERAL NOTES
1 . C O M M E R C T A LS T A N D A R D : T h e q u a r r y r u n
of
vr6 In..thtckness; includes tolerable variations
aDoveand below r/r6 in.
2. TEXTURAL:.A rough textured slate roof with
un-
wen. butts; the- slates vary in lhickne$ and size.
POINT WITH wnrcn ts generallynot true of slatemore than 3/s
in-
thick.
3. GRADUATED: A textural roof of large slates;
more variationin thickness,size,and color,
4 . A S O U A R E O F R O O F T N GS L A T E : A n u m b e r
of
$ates,ol any.s-izesufficient to cover 100 ft? with
a
J tn._tap.wetght per square:3/re in._g0Olb; r/r in.
- 9 0 O l b ; 3 / e i n . - 1 1 0 Ol b ; r / ,
i n . - 1 7 0 0 t b ;i / . i n . _
2600 tb.
s NOMENcLATURE FOR sLArE
:I4!?A10
MITERED HIP btue btrck, mottted sray, purpiel
9_9-!Ol
green. ^ql*.k.
motued purple and green,purplevarieoaied
TAPER r/6" TO q" pr€^eded by the word .,Unfadins,,oi
r'-O :,:g; 19
"weatherang."
WIOEN TOWARO
,ROOF
Other colors and combination-s are
BOTTOM
SHEATHING
available.
6. PROPER JOtNTtNG FOR PITCHED ROOFS:
Requirs a 3_in. minimum venicaf overfap.b-virla'p
' varieswith pitch; seegraphabove.
UNOER.EAVE
OR STARTER RAFTER 7. FELT; With CommercialStandard Slate use
30#
SLATE sturared felt. With graduared ,oot, ur" !O+

W
INSUL '/. t-oi
ATION
.tn. slate and 45#, 50#, or 65# prepared.oll
r@Ing lor he&aerslate-
8 . N A I L F A S T E N I N G : U s l a r g eh e a d .s l a t e . s h , ard
copper wtre nails, cut copper,cut bra$, or cut vel-
OZ COPFER
tow metat stating nails. Eeh slate purched with
FLASHTNG
oc ,4o., NEoPRENE rwo, natt hots. Use nails that are I in. longer
than
SHEET tnrckn6s of.slat€.Coverall exposd headsw-ithelas-
O:P= E
=::
N ::::
VALLEY
: ::HEET
rrc cement. ln dry climats hot dip galvanizednails
EAVE
GABLE RAKE may be usd.

30' FELT STANDARD SLATE DIMENSIONS'

TWO NAILS
TO A SLATE

RAFTER

NSULATION

ROOFERS
r" /a€ G . 6 0R a.

JE!'S8.3=
35"R:?"J- 1 1 , 1 2 ,1 3 , 1 4 .1 6
a.e split in th6e thicknesses: rlrd, t/t,3/a,
':fhg,sfa-t6_
!3,3h, 1,11/a.
5i''SR"'"?+E"sIF" WOOO RAFTER
RECEIVE SLATE
TO RC)OFING SLATE
l:],
and 11/z in.
rl. ar.rd larger.slat6 are not often
srzes. Handom widths are usually used.
used in the*

Domenic F. Valente,AlA, Architect& planner;Medford, Massachusetts

SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
410 Concrete TileRoofing
WEEP HOLE
AROWEL FUI L 1 O" MASON TROWEL
1O" MASON
M MORTAR FULL OF ryPE M
OF frPE -
MORTAR

NAIL COVER
HERE OryBEN
,' MORTAR REOUIRED)
', CoNTACT NAIL HERE (WIIEN
, IS MADE WIIH .I
REQUIRED) MORTAR BED
THREE TILts.S AND rcINT TO
FINISH

i NAIL HERE
(WHEN
REOUIRED)

FASCIA a'- HERE

FASCIA O'HEN
WEEP HOLE: REOUIRED)
HALF TILE
OVERUY
__OVERSP
PREFABRICATED MORTAR BED
FOR COWR
MORTAR BED AND EA€ CLOSURE (EPDM)
rcINT TO FTNISH
rcINT WITH MORTAR AND
10" MASON TROWEL
FINISH TO MA]CH ]il E SURFACE
FULL OF ryPE M
EAVE DRIP ROLLED GABLE (SPANISH S CUTS) MORTAR

S TILE E}ARREL
FI-AT TIT-E SPANISH
NOTE
Mortar contact is made with 3 tiles
MORTAR AND TILE PLACEMENT

GENERAL
Concrete tile is manufactured by extruding a mixture of
oortland cement. sand, and water on individual molds under
irioh oressure. The finish surface of the tile is covered with
a;ementitious material that has been colored with syn
thetic oxides. The tiles are cured to required strengths tn
chambers where humiditv and temperature are controlled.
Moisture absorption by concrete tiles can lead to structural
r@{ problems, and particular Gre should be given to spects
fying the correct corcrote til€ for a given environment
For both categories of concrete tilHoll or flat-it is impor-
tant to adhere to minimum slope requirements as follows:
'1.
be installed on roof decks with
Roll tile and flat tile cn
more when at least one layer of
slooes of 4 in. oer ft or
3Glb felt underlayment is apptied horizontally and tiles
a minimum 3 in. headlap. Use of
are nailed or wired with
spaced sh€athing is notrecommended.
2. Anv concrete tile can be used on solid-sheathed roof
decks with slopes less than 4 in. per ft as long as two or
more layers ol No. 30 or No.40 asphalt-saturated (non
perforated) felt are set in hot asphalt o. mastic lo serue
as the underlayment. A single layer of modafied bitumen-
coated roofing systems rollgood sheet with laps either
torched or heat welded is acceptable. Venical lath strrng-
ers with horizontal battens are installed over the under-
layment. creating a supporting surface lor the tile, which
must be installed with at least 4 in. headlap. Do not use
spaced sheathing.
3. Reqardless of slope, in l@alities vvhere the January
me;n temoerature is l€SS than 30oF. Stricter mrnimum
requirements appv. Rofer to the National Rooling Con-
tractors Association manual-
FLAT TILE
When using ttat roof tiles, a metal eave-riser wath weep
holes should be installed at the eave line. During installa-
tion, adjust tile spacing to provide uniform exposure, with a
minimum 3 in. headlaD.
ROLL TILE
When usina roll, or mrssion,tile, apply the first murse
above a meial brrd-stopwith weep holes. Fit the underside
of the tile with speciallyformed eave closure strrps' las-
tened insidethe tile cover. The headsof all remainingtiles
shouldbe alignedwith the horizontalguide lines.Adiust roil
tile soacinqto provideuniformexposure'with at leasta 3
in. hbadlap.Jamminginterlockingtiles together(side to
._METAL
BIRD-STOP
side)will restrictmovementand result in brokencorners' WITH WEEP
HOLES
ROOF SLOPE 1 X 2 MOLDING
For roof slooes5 in. in 12 and less.solid sheathingmay be
used with dr without battens. Nailingis not requiredwith UNDERUYMENT CARRIED
battens, but every tile should be nailed if battens are not OER METAL BIRD-STOP
used. ln eithercase, perimeternailingis requiredIor 3 ft or
three courses.whichever is greater,from all €aves, rakes, TYPICAL ROLL TILES
ridges,hips,or valleys.{Donot nailintovalleymetal.)
For roof slopes between 5 and 7 in. in 12. nail every other
tite over soiid sheathingwith battens and every tile if bat-
tens are not used.For slopesbetween7 and 12 in. in 12,
with
every otherlrle shouldbe nailedover solidsheathrng
battens.Perimeternalltngis requiredin all thesesituations
For slopes12 in.io 12 and greater,naileverytile oversolid
sheathingwith battens;perimeternailingis n*essary.
TILES sET IN MORTAR
The practiceof installingcementtiles with mortarover a
built-up subroof evolved in hrgh-windand higtFmoisture
areasof the southeasternUnitedStates ln this system. the
built-uosubroofprovrdesthe moisturebarrier,and the tiles
oroteci the subroof from solar ultravioletrays, high winds,
ind externaldamage.This concretetil€ system €n also b€ WEEF HOLES
usedon low-slopeioofs, but the minimumis 2 in. in 12. On METAL trAW RTSER WnH
slooes b€tween 5 in. in 12 and 7 in. in 12, additional N OTE
mechanicallastening is requiredfor the lirst three courses This detail is for pitches 4:1 2 and greater
of tile in areassubiectto high winds For r@fs with steper
INSTALLATION OF FLAT TILES
slooes.tile shouldbe mechanielly fastened. FIELD

RIDGE NAILER
OF SUFFICIENT
ATTACHMENT PROCEDURES FOR CONCRETE ROOF TILES HEIGHT TO MAINTAIN
EVEN PUNE OF
FIELD TILE NAILING RIDGE TILES'-\

SOLID SHEATHING SOLID SHEATHING

AILING FOR PERIME-
ER TILE AND TILE ON \
WITH BATTENS WITHOUT BATTENS' ANTILEVERED AREAST
ROOF SLOPE
lo Not required Everytile
Every tile to 7:1 2 tte MINIMUM
5:12to less Everv other tile ON W@D
Every tile N/A nre
2:12andover AND WRAPPED
NAILER -
OWR
NOTES
1. For slopes exceeding 7:12, battens are requrred trom edqes ot eaves and gable rakes ln special wind
areas de-srgnaledbv lhe buildrng oflicial, additronal fas'
2. Perimeter nailing areas include three tile courses but not
tenings may be required.
less than 36 inches from either side of hips or ridges and

WMD SHEATHING

HIP AND RIDGE DETAIL

National Rooting Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois

Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C

AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
 Miscelloneous
RoofingTiles 4tl
COMPOSITE ROOFING TILES
Fiber cement. cemenl w@d, galvanized steel with acrylic
coatrng. and ceramic slate roofing tiles are popular alterna_
trves to clay or concrete roofing tGs },e.e tomposire r,tes
nave_oeen desrgned to be lighter, slronger. and easier
to
Inslail than traditional, "natural, tiles. Thetr strength
and
combination of ruterials make them more lire re'tardani
and wind resistant than conventional tiles.

FIBER CEMENT
Fiber cement tiles combine organic flber with cement, sil_
rca, water, and other additives. The resulting product is
a
rooJ slale thar rs tightweight, strong, versatil6, and easy
to
Instail. Ihe tttes can be made in a variety of dtstinctive E}OTTOM RIE}E}ED SIOE CEMENT WOOD TILE
shapes. colors, and textures that mimic natural materials OF FIELD SHAKE LAYOUT
such as_slate and patterned wood shingles. Fiber cement
tiles resist deterioration and moisture penetration and are Cf OFF
UNDERUP
immune to pests and lungal growth. iley are wett_suitea MEN FINISHING
ror coastat regrons and other areas with high humidity. GABLE IF I
OERHANGS
Frbercement tiles should be applied to narlable decks only.
l-or plywood decks with rafters spaced 20 rn or less, the
plywood,should be at least '4 in. thick. lf rafters are spaced
greater than 20 in., % In. plywood is recommended. io fas_
len, use standard |/, in. galvanized 1 1gauge flat_headroof_ FUSHING
Ing nails wrth a % in. head. Flashing should be
of a
noncorrosive metal not lighter than 2g gauge.

CERAMIC SLATE
Ceramic slate tiles combine the l@k ot natural slate with CW OFF
OVERGP WEN
the fireGin strength and durability of ceramic tite. Such tiles STARTING AT GABLE /
haw the thickness, texture, and appearance of older slate oFtoN{
but at a Jraction of the weight and cost. They are imperyi_
ous to treez+thaw cycles, tire. moisture, and effiores- TWO UYERS OF /
cence. UNDERUYMEM/
TOP SIOE OF FIELD SHAKE EAVE OETAIL
CEMENT WOOO TILES CEMENT WOOD TILES
Cement wood trles are lightweight tiles that €n be used for
reroottng as well as for new ccnstruction. They have
excel-
lent impact resistance and ar€ easily sawn and nailed. As a
richly textured, composite product. cement w@d tiles cre_
ate an aesthetic similar to that of heavy cedar shakes yet
provde the fire protection ass@iated with cementitious
products. Cement wood_tiles, with their composit€
of port-
land cement and w@d fiber, are long lasting. The poriland
cement is noncombustible and allows for Class A fire rat-
Ings. and.the rcod fib€rs provide excellent tensile strength
and a light weight when compared to standard concr;te
lrles.

METAL ROOFING TILES

The advantage of metal roofing tiles over traditional clay or 2'
concrete tiles is that they are lightweight. They are easier to BATTEN
nanole, qurcker to install, and, because they.equire fewer HEIGffi
oulotng components, are less costly. Minimum recofr OWR CAM STRIP USED
OPEN RAFTER FASOA as sHowN FOR 'DRY IN' STATE
nrended root pitch for use of metal rooting tiles is a stofe of sotlD
'in SHEATHING
3 in 12. R@fs with shallower slopes re{uire sealant jtt NOTE
side laDs. Metal roofrng panels can be applied directly over solid
oly_
wood, sheathrng or over open ratters if a self_supponing
Metal roofing tiles usually come in sheets and have a base undertayment is used.
material of roll-formed 24- to 26gauge prepainled
oalva_
nrzed or galvalume steel. A layer ot crushed and gcded METAL ROOFING TtLE UNDERLAYMENf
stone granutes is bonded to the steel panels with an;crylic
resin formula and lhon a clear acrylic overglaze is
applied.
)row oven cunng completes the process, and the undetr
sr@.or the.ile rs protected with a final coat of polyester
parnr. tsaners can b€ mstalled quickly and ar€ secured
to
erther wood or stsl banens, creating a strong, weather-
pr@t constrwtion- Th€ panels can be installed
directlv over
exrstrng rmts, unlike clay or concrete tiles, and are thus ide
ally surted tor .etrofitting r@fs.

END AP
(SECURE

SCREWS
VERTICAL I.AP
RIDGE AT GAE}LE
METAL ROOFING TTLES

FE.LT OVER %' PLWoOD

FRAMING
/,/-
FRAMING GM STRIP

-$
, eaneN
HEIGffi
N OTE ABOVE
SHATHING
When an equal oumber of full courses cannot be accommo_ The tascia_must be positioned above the root deck sheatfts
drted at the pitch change, a full panel can be bent to Ing or rarters by the height ot the batten. The tascia
suit.
vvnen lne
_rmflrne changes drarutically, install a batten at becomes the first oanel batten
rne prtch change.
SOLID SHEA]-HING A.]- EAVE SOLID SHEATHING RIDGE OETAIL
METAL ROOFING AT PITCH CHANGE
METAL ROOFTNG DETAILS AT EAVE ANO RTDGE

Grace S. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C

SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
412 Cloy TileRoofing
FTXTURE crRcuLAR aNo
CIRCULAR COVER TOP _v_ ^T_YP^E^.Ti
STARTE R RIOGE COVEF

OETACHEO
GABLE RAKE

UN DER
EAVE PIECE

FIELD TILE

TILE
ITHESE PIECES MAKE
UP THE MAIN EXPANSE,
''FIELO" TILEO
OR OF
AREA )

TILE FLAT TNTERLOCKING

SPANIAH EX POSeO
Typ FrELo rtLE ts t374" rcNG aNo 95/." wloq ..WHEN INSTALLEO. F|ELD TrLeS ARE 14" LoNG aND 9" W!O-E . llaSTALL.E-Or
i i-ru-crx =--f wro-H : a7-:' oNE sQuaRE WEIGHS ABoUT aoo LBS
eieosEo ueruorx AvEnaces ror4; wl-DTH E,!.: - of E SQUARE oF 4"tN r2"MtN, aNcHoR TILES wlrH
iiiis-weroxs aeouT 9oo uss.-aoor sLoPE'sHouLo aE Nor RooF sLopE,
THAN 4.. IN 12' NONCORROSIVE NAILS.
LESS

THE HIP ANGLE IS

THAN THE ANGLE
TYE COVER
HIP SECTION HIP €ECTION

TOP FIXTURE

FLASHING
FLASHING OVER TILE AT FLAT ROOF
FLAT ROOF MEETA SLOPE TILES OVER TILE AT SHEO ROOF RIOGE SECTION

FIE@ TILE CUT FIT ANGLE OF VALLEY

BUILOING FELT

NOTE
IN CLIMATES WHERE
SNOW AND ICE
BUILDUP OCCURS;
VALLEYS SHOULD
Bt avoroEo
VALLEY SECTION / CONCRETE ROOF

Darrel Downing Rippeteau, Architect; Washington, D.C

AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
 L- 5'-O' TO 39.-O" POWER SEAM CLO9URE
w- 3 -6.. C)OVERAGE

L-3-O-TO 39-O'
w- 3'-4- COVERAGE

STANDING SEAM ALUMINUM ROOFINE

INSIOE
CLOSURE

V BEAM ALUMINUM
L- 3'-O' TO 39-o- FLASHING
w- 5 -5'. C)OVERAGE OUTSIOE
CLOSURE

FACTNG
SHEET
FACING

WALL CiECTION E AVE PARAPET

/// //.[\
FLASHI NG

COF'RUOATEO
L- 3'-O. TO 39_o"
w- 2'-a- c-ovERAeE

EXPAN6ION JOINT

FoRMEo ALUMINUM RooFINc-;RD =,IE;TE

NOTES
l. Endlapsfor roofing and sidingshallbeat teasr in.
6
ano .tastened at every rib. Two fastenersmay be
I3y]l"d *L"l designing for a negative (uptiftl
toaotngcondttron.
2. Minimum sidelapsshall be equar to one rib
or
c-orrugationand laid away from prevailingwind.
tsastenerssh?ll be spaceda maximum of lj in. on
centerfor all typesol rooling and siding.
^
3. F-or rofing,_fastenerushall prerce onty th€ high AND SIDING N.
corrugation..Forsiding,fastene.sshallpierceeith'er BOLD RIB 4" Box RtB
OESIGN BEAM I coRRUGATED
Ine htgh or low corrugation.Consult manufacturer LOAD 0.032rN 0.040 tN. 0.032rN. 0.040rx. 0.032rn. 0.040
ror proper shet metal fastenersand acc6sories. THICK
rN U.UJZ IN 0.040 rN 0 . 0 3 2r n . 040 rN
THICK TH ICK THICK THICK THICK
4. Minimum slopesfor sheetroofing are as tollows: TH ICK TH ICK TH ICK
20 95 rzJ 100 120 131
a. I in. depth corrugated_3in 12. l5'l 90 98 103 124
b. 1rlz in. depth ribbed-2 in 12. 77 t00 a2 98 r07 124 73 80 86 104
c. 13h in. v-@rrugated_2 in t 2. 87 71 85 92 r07 64 69 77 92
5. Se ,page on Metal Walls for insulation detaits 60 OJ 83 96 qf
62 ?o
and tire ratedwall assemblies. NO :vatues are basedon uniform poritire 1do*n*ard1-ndliifGg
83
t-ildin singtespan onty.

John A. Schulte;Hellmuth,Obata& Kassabaum,Inc.; St.

Louis,Missouri

ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
414 lnsuloledMetol Ponels
INNER FACE EXTRA STRENGTH OF
PERFORATEO DEEP SECTION ONEN
FOR SOUND PERMITS FULL
CONTROL HEIGHT PANELS

INTERMEDIATE
INSUUTION
METAL DIVIDER
(OPTIONAL
FOR EXTRA
CONTROL)

THERMAL
INSUUTION

EXTERIOR
PANEL

CUSHIONED SEAM

ACOUSTICAL EXTRA RIGIO

TYPICAL INSUUTED
FIELD-ASSEMBLED SYSTEMS

GASKETED
PANEE DO
NOT INTERLOCK;
ANY PANEL MAY
BE PLACED OR
REMOVED WITHOUT

NESTED JOINT
CONCEALS
PANES
INTERLOCK INSULATION
SIMILAR TO CORE

FOIL SIDE MUST

NOT BE
EXPOSED
CLIPPED TO GIRTS (NO

ADDTTIONAL JOINT CONFIGURATIONS

TYPICAL INSUUTED
FACTORY.ASSEM BLED SYSTEMS

OUTSIDE CORNER JAMB AT DOOR

I8.26GAUGE FUSHING
GALVANIZED STEEL
ALUMINUM OR COPI NG
STAINLESS
casKEr-.-k_rF_fH
EXTRUOED
ALUMINUM +]+#ffitr-t-ffi
.t-+-tsH
FASCIA t> / ffiffi+
CONTINUOUS
NOTCHEO
M ETAL
ffilE=Sffi1]1
| | r rft{ L_-l
----@--.'lr-----l'm@- t ,-_r.l m!f,
CLOSUR€

OUTER SHEET GASKETED WINDOW

CONCEALED PREDESIGNEO OETAILS

COPI NG
GUNER
OUTER SHEET
EAVE / COPING NOTES
INSUUTION
WINDOW Shown here are basic panel designs with an assortment of
UNIT
SUBGIRT connection details. A vast array of folded. ribbed, and
grooved sheet configurations is available.
FUSHING

Typical applied frnrshes avarlablefor ouler sheets are acryl

INNER SHEATHINC l o' MtN ics, vinyls, alkyds, fluoropolymers, porcelain ehamel, and
RADIUS on aluminum onlv, various anodized finishes. Length ot
3r/4" wtDE (TYP.) sheets available is 40 Jt. Span and wind load must be con'
INTERMEOIATE
INTERMEDIATE INSULATION sidered in the selection of panel components and spacrng
of girts.

OUTER METAL Panels can span from 9 ft 6 in. to 26 ft or more if placed in

SHEATHING multispan arrangements. Face panel configuration and wind
CURB ANGLE
load value vary.
SUBGIRT
Consult manutacturers for thermal and acoustical ratings
EXTRUDED
ALUMINUM
CLOSURE FOUNOATION

FIELD.ASSEMBLED INSULATED METAL FACTORY-FORMED, FIELD.

WALLS ASSEMBLED INSULATED METAL

Beach; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.

=)
a ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
 4t5
VAPOR RETAROER OELETE BITUMEN ON
TEMrcRARY ROOF NAILABLE OECKS AND
WHEN REQUIRED I SECURE WITH FASTENERS

INSULATION, APPLY INSULATTON tN A MtNtMUM OF

TWO LAYERS. BREAKING JOINTS BOTH WAYS.
WHEN INSULATION JOINTS ARE TAPED. JOI NTS
MAY BE CONTINUOUS IN BOTH OIRECTIONS

STEEP GRAOE ASPHALT FOR CEMENTING VAPOR

BARRiER. INSULATIC)N. RC)OF TAPE, ANO BASE siHEET

SHEET: MAY BE ELIMINATEO WHERE

OI M ENSI ONALLY STABLE INSULATION HAS 40 LB
OR HEAVIER FACTC)RY APPLIEO BASE ANO
JOINTS ARE TAPEO

BITUMEN FOR FINISHING PLIES MAY BE COLO

PROCESS MASTIC, TAPEO ASPHALT. OR COAL TAR
AITUMEN . USE ASPHALT WITH ASPHALT COMPATIBLE
FELTS AND c;c)AL TAR PITCH WITH TAR SATURATED
GRAVEL OR SLAG \ FELTS. NUMEER OF PLIES VARIES ACCOROING TO
IN SURFACE BITUMEN
ROOFING SYSTEM USED; CONSULT MANUFACTURER

NOTES
INSULATION
1. Fo. smooth surface rools omit gravel or slag and add
addiriooal ply using inorganic plysheets only.
2. On slopes over 1 in./lt atl felts along top edge must
usually be slrapped and back-naited.
3- When vapor retarder is used, edges of feh should be
turned up to a height of 2 in. above cant strio at ver-
tical surlaces. Felrs should overlap alt roof edges a
minimum ot 6 in. befo.e application ot roofing. 6 in.
of felt musl be re-turned over the insulation and
mopped solidlv.
20 YEAR TYPE BUILT.UP ROOF OVER INSULATTON

NOTES
'1.
Over nonnailable deck or insulation omit rosin paper
and cement with asphalt. Nailing strips must b€ pro-
vided.
2. Minimum slope to, ofganic felt: '/, in.ttt.
3. Minimum slope for tiberglass telt: O in./ft.
4. Consult manufacturer lor spacing of nails for partic-
ular rooling system.

SCHEOULE OF FELT OVERLAP

TAGGER NAILS aT t2" o c
flNCHES)

OECK

/NATLABLE
I

MINERAL SURFACE
{ovER
EXCEPT
WOOD,
PLYWOODI
+g+
IJ
ROOFING.
SELVAGE
3'' SIOE
2"
IS
LAPS
SIDE

IF
LAPS
UNGRANULATED:
IF

SELVAGE 'ASPHALT
BETWEEN
r.r6 0 0 0 0 0
IS GRANULATEc)
PLIES OF i5 Lg FELT
ASPHALT TYPE II.N,
II!, OR E )
STEEP GRAOE ASPHALT DETERMINEO BY PATTERN Fc)R NAILING BA6E
ROOF SLOPE
SHIET c)R VAPOR RETAROER OVER
NAILABLE OECK
MINERAL SURFACE BUILT- UP ROOF

Kent Wong: Hewlett, Jamison,Atkinson& Luey; Portland,Oregon;

Developedby AngeloJ. Forlidas.AIA; Charlotte,North Carolina;trom data furnishedby RobertM. Staflord, p.E., ConsultingEngineer;Charlotte,North Carolina

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
 416 Built-upRoofing
. ASPHALT
THREE-PLY OVER NAII.-AE}LE DECK
N OTES
1. lI applied over sheathing pansls, add rosimized
base sh€et.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable product.
AGGREGATE SURFACE BUILT.UP ROOFING
EreE OF ROOF
ONE NAIL €R PLY
\^r'OOD NAILER BACKNAILING SYSTEM
GENERAL
A built-up roofing (BUR) system is composed ot a base
sheet attachedto the r@f substrate,two or more reinforc-
ing felt ply sheets, and a surfaced cap sheet. AsDhaltand
coal tar are the bitumens used for built{p roofing.As the
heatedmoppingbitumen fuses with the saturatingbitumen
in the roofinglelts. the layersare welded together.Surfac-
rngs rncludeaggregate,minerals,protectiveor reflective
coatings,andsmoothsu.face.
Fourtypes of asphaltand two types ot coaltar are presently
used as bitumensin built-uproo{ingsystems.The gradeof
asphaltused for BUR systems shouldbe appropriate for
the slope ot the roof. Backnailingof telts is recommended
for built up roofingwhenever the roof slope exceeds '/2 in.
per ft. Aggregate-surtaced built-up roofing should not be
usedon slopesexceeding3 in. per ft
Reinforcingtelts for BUR may b€ saturated. coated. or
impregnatedwith bitumen and are manufactured{rom both
organrcand inorganicmaterials.Organicfelts are manufac-
tured from the fiber of paper.wood. or rags.Saturatedfelts
are saturatedwith asphaltor coal tar bitumen. lmpregnated
roofing telts are generally lighter in weight and termed
impregnatedbecausetheir surface is not completelycov-
ered (coated)with asphalt. Saturatedand coated roofing
felts are generallylactory coated on both sides and sur-
NationalRootingConlractorsAssociation;Rosemont.lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
ASPHALT
THREE-PLY OVTR
NOTES
sheathing paper between the deck and
1. For a more con$ryative system, specify four plies rather than three.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable producl.
COAL TAR TYPES
ASPHALT TYPES
KIND OF ASPHALT
faced on one or both sides with fine mineral sand or other
release agents to prevent adhesion inside the roll prior to
aoolication.
Prepared r@ling materials are saturated and mat€d felts
with talc, mica, sand, or ceramic granules incorporated into
the weather surface of the telts, both to provide weather
protection and for decorative purposes. Reinforced flashing
membrane consrsts of a glass-fiber base lelt that is lami-
nated with cotton or glass fiber fabric and coated with
asphalt. Rosin-sized sheathing paper asa rosin+oated build-
ing paper generally used in built-up roofing to separate felts
from wood olank root decks-
TEMPERATURE
Proper application temperatures are vital to the creation of a
quality root membrane system. Temperatures that are too
high can lead to incomplete coverage, voids, and a lack of
waterproo{ing qualities. Temperatures that are t@ low can
lead to poor adhesion, high expansion propenies, and low
tensile strength.
Bitumens can be heated at high temperatures for short
periods of time without damage and must be heated at
DECK . .\
)/
FIRST LAYER
PREFGMEO R@F
INSUUTION BOARD -
EDGE OF ROOF '
SECOND LAYER
AGGREGATE
NON.NAII.ABLE DECK
SOFTENING POINT (OF)
SoFTENTNG POTNT (.F)
high temperatures in order to achieve complete fusion and
strong bonding of the plies. There is an optimum viscosity
range and an optamum temp€rature range at the point of
application that allow complete fusion, optimum wetting
and mopping properties, and the desirable interply bitumen
weight. The equiviscous temperature (EW) is defined as
the temperature at which the viscosity of roofing asphalt is
125 centistokes, plus or minus 25'F, at the mop bucket or
Ielt layer immediately prior to application to the substrate. A
centistoke is a unit that measures the kinematic viscosity.
Centistokes = IDynamic ViscosiV/Densityl x Centipoise
The recommended EVT range for roofing asphalt, Types I,
ll, lll, and lV, is the temperature at which a viscosity of 75
centipoise is attained, plus or minus 25"F. The recom,
mended EW range for coal tar products, types I and lll, is
the temperature at which a viscosity of 25 centipoise is
attained, plus or minus 25"F. One consequence of a change
in EW from 125 centistokes to 75 centipoise, plus or minus
25"F, is the potential need to increase the temperature at
which bituren is heated in the kettle or tanker. Excessive
and prolonged heating of asphalt and coal tar products may
have a deleterious effect on the quality of the producl.
 417
ASPHALT
SECOND LAYER FIRST LAYER
PREFORMTD ROOF PREFORMED ROOF
. ASPHALT INSULATION BOARD INSUUTION BOARD --\

EreE OF ROOF

ASPHALT ASPHALT GUSS

GUSS

ASPHTT

OVER NAII-ABLE OECK MINERAL-SURFACED

OVER NON-NAII.-ABLE DECK INORGANIC CAP SHEET
NOTE
lf appliedover nailabredeck sh€athingpaners,add a rosin-sizedsheathingpaper
between the
deck and base shet.
MINERAL-SURFACED CAP SHEET BUILT.UP NOOTTNC
NAUBLE DECK SECOND UYER F|RS] UYER NON.NAUALE
iEEfoByED Roor cnLlonMED RooF
NSUunoN BoaRD-__\ rNsuulonaoaeo

\!------- \, \ ---------\ \

ROOF
R@F
ASPHALT GUSS
ASHALT, EMULSION, OR FTBRAED
{UMINUM TOP COAT ASHALT, EMULSION, OR FIBRATED
ALUMINUM TOP COAT
THREE-PLY OVER NAII,-AEILE DEC}< THREE.PLY OVER NON.NAITABLE DECK
NOTE
lf applied over sheathing panels, add a rosiftsized sheathing paper between the deck NOTE
and base
sheet.
ror a more Conseryattve system, specify four plies rather than three
SMOOTH SURFACE BUILT.UP ROOFING

BUILT-UP ROOF SURFACING

Surfacing protects the bitumen and felts of a built-uo roof
trom direct sunlight and weather exposure.
and may pro,
vide other properties such as tire resistance or reflectivity.
Surfacing types include aggregale, smooth surfacing, ani
maneral cao shet.
AGGREGATE SURFACING
The aggregate in roofing seryes as an opaqw covering that
tmproves the appearance and fire resistance ot the roof and
helps resist premature aging and damag€ from weather,
temperature fluctuations, and ultraviolef.ays.
Aggregate
also increases lhe wind uplift resistance of the oi m-em_
brane and permits much heavier pourings of bitumen than
MINERAL SURFACED (CAP SHEET)
would otheMise be possible.
Some areas of the country, particularly the far western and
southern states, use mineral-surfaced cap sheets as the
SMOOTH SURFACING
final surfacing for built-up roofing membranes. These specr
Built-up roof membranes may be left sm@th, surlaced lcalons are srmrtar to aggregate and smooth_surfaced
with a top coating of hot asphalt. Smooth surfacing should specrlrcatrons excepl that a final layer of prepared roofing
not be confused with a built{p membrane left unsurfaced material is installed on top oI the multiply built-up rool
(exposed felts). Smooth surfaced buill{p roofing should b€
assembly. This specification is not popular in colder cli-
specified only in those circumstances where aggregate-sur- mates, primarily because it requires phased construction ot
faced built-up roofing is impractical. such as whln1he roof
the final layer of roofing material.
surface exceeds 3 in. per ft. where the proximity of an air-
Intake or exhaust equipment may cause loose aggregate, or
Mere appropriate aggregate is not available.

National R@fing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
'
4t8 ModifiedBifumenMembroneRoofing

NAILABLE
DECK
"="'"'-
r
PFL-ORMLO
TNSULATTON
ROO'
BOARD ----
\ON NAIGBLF

\\
\.

BASE SHEET
..-
EDGE OF ROOF
CAP SHEET
\MODIFIED BtrUMEN SHEET
SURFACED WTH
MINERAL GRANULES. SURFACED WrH MINERAL ffORCH ryELDED. HOT-MOPPED,
METAL FOIL, OR FIELD. GUNULES, MET{ FOIL. '!R SELF.ADHERED TO BASE
PPLIED COATING OR FIELD-APPLIED COAT1NG SHEET)
TI /O-PLY OVER NAIL.A,EtLE OECK TWO.PLY OVER NON-NAILABLE DECK
N OTE
lf applied over-sheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot-mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath
ing paper between th€ deck and base sheet.

T\,VO-PLY MODIFIED BITUMEN MEMBRANE

NON.NAIUBLE
ASPHALT / AY SHEET

EreE OF R@F

MODIFIED BIUMEN
SHET CTORCH reLDED,
HOT-MOPPED, OR SELF.
AOHERED TO AASE SHTM
GP SHEff (SURFACED
Wffts MINERAL GRANULES.

THFTEE-PLY OVER NON.NAII.AEILE DECK

THREE-PLY OVER

N OTE
lf applied ovetrsheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot,mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath-
ing paper between the deck and base sheet.

THREE-PLY MODIFIED BITUMEN MEMBRANE

MODIFIED BITUMEN MEMBRANES

Polymermodifiedbitumen membranescouplebitumen and
oolvmerswith variousreinforcementsto form a membrane
system with improvedproperties.Modifiersinclude atactic
polypropylene, styrene+utadiene-styrene,and styrene-
butadiene-rubb€r. The modifying compounds impart
jmproved flexlbility. cohesive strength, toughness, and
resistanceto flow at high temperatures.The seams are
sealed by torch welding or with hot asphalt. Thickness
rangestrom 40 to 160mils.
For some systems a base sheet is fastened to the deck as
an underlayment. In the hot-mopped system, the mem-
brane is constructed similar to a built{p roof with hot
asphalt mopped between the plies. Self-adhered sheets
have a factory-applied asphalt-adhesive coating on the
underside. The protective sheet is peeled away to stick the
membrane to the roof deck. Torch-applied membrane sys-
tems have a tactory-applied coating of modified asphalt on
the underside of the sheet, which is melted with a oropane
torch to make the sheet adhere.
Reinforcing materials for polymer modified bitumen mem-
branes include plastic Iilm, polyester mat, glass fiber, felt or
fabric. and metal foils. embedded within or laminated onto
the moditied bitumen sheet. Memb.anes may be surlacad
with liquid coatings, metallic laminates, or ceramic or min
eral granules to enhance resistance to weatherang, ultravio-
let rays, or fire or to improve appearance. Terminations at
roof edges, parapets, and olher tlashings may be torch-
applied, hot-mopped, or self-adhered. Laps are formed as
the sheet is being applied.

NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;
Rippeteau Architects,PC:Washington. D.C.

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
 Eg!!!-upond Modified BitumenDetqits 419
GENERAL
=
-- XFJAbS,'FiEJ;'4?83'^ In. general. the details for installation of bitumen rooftnq_
whether burlt-up roofing or modifred Oltumen rootLnq'_
ail
srmrrar In many respects. Details for both types of rdofrno
are included where applicable. I he details strow typicat
cqni
gluons that occur at bitumen roofs. such as roof;dge con-
orrons, prptng penetrations, and equrpment suppodJ
L"J?S?|i9",3X.FJFUSHING

2'WID€ CLIP, APPROXIMATELY S' O,C HEAW METAL EDGE FUSHING

BruMFN FUSHING STRIP)

FASTENERS AffiOXIMAELY A' O.C

-
FIB_ER GNT STRIP SE] IN BITUMFN
(OPTIC)NAL FOR MC)DIFIED BIUMEN)

WOOD NAILER SECURED TO DECK

WTH FASENERS AMOXMAELY
24' O.C

BULT{P ROOFNG (OR MODIFIED

FrLq:rEJ! MEMBUNE) wrH omoNAL
suRFAcrNG oR coariNc

HEAVY METAL ROOF EDGE

BASE SHEET (OR MODIFIED BruMEN
N OTES SHEfl IF REOUIRED)
'l.
This d€tail,shouldb€ used onty when the deck is sutr
dered. Breaks in soldered joints could channel water
Ponedbv the wall. behind the flashing.Clips at the bottom of the flashinq
2. The joints in the two piecesof flashingshouldnot be sot- are not necessaryon tlashingsof 6 in. or less.
BASE FLASHtNG FoR wALL-supponieo oecr<

MflAL REGLfl. FASENERS

APPROXIMATELY 24' O.C.

RilOVABLE COUNTERFUSHTNG
UP ME:TAL AT JOIMS

FLUTBLE VArcR RETARDER/INSUU] toN

RETAINER

FASTENERS APPRC)XMATELY A' O-C.

2'WIDE CLIP APPrcXIMAELY S'O.C.

SCUPPER THROUGH ROOF EDGE

BASE FUSHING. CC|WR TOP Wfr
VArcR RETARDER
3Uffi;3L3OJL"5-'E=JilERFR*=O
COMPRESSIE}LE INSUUNON RIME Cc)NCRffi
CAULK WH ETASTOMERIC
SAUM
ANGLE CUMPNG BAR
WOC)D CAM STRIP Tc) PRC)VDF WTH SLOfrED
STBUCTURA SmENGB; narf rOe ANCHOR HOLES
AND BONC)M AffiC)XMATELY FASENERS
16'OC IN
EXPANSION S;HIELOS
COMRESSIBLE
EUSTOMERIC
TAPE TO SPAN
IRREGUURMES
WOOD M[ ER SECURED TO DECK WTH CHAMFER TOP
FASTENERS APROXIMATELY 24' OC. TO DRAIN
\ seoa roP oF sysrEM
BUILT-UP RC)OFING (OR MODIFIED WTH FAERIC TAPE AND
BTUMEN MEMBRANE) WG OMONAL \ MASIC (Om|oNAL)
SURFACING OR C;OAING FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY A' O.C

BASE SHEFT (OR MODIFTEO BTUMEN

NOTES SHEET) AS REOUIRED
'1.
This detail allorc mll and deck to move independentlv.
vertical wood member should be fastened to the deck FIBER CANT STRIP
2. This detatl should be used where there is any possibility only. Thrs is one satisfactoryrethod of ioinrngthe two SET IN BITUMEN
that differential movement will occur betwdn the decl piece flashingsystem. Other methods miv be-used. ANACH WOOD NAILER
and a venical surface, such as at a penthouse wall. The TO CONCREE Wft
AFROVED MEBOD
BAsE FLAs H ING Fo R No rg_wa,r_l-sUFFoETEEEEEI
rros HrNGco Nc RErE
Ff*"IrLlF
NationalRoofing ContractorsAss@iation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitect;. pC: Wa;hin;io; D.C

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
420 Built-upond ModifiedBitumenDetoils
1 2' WLDE FELT UNDER JOINT

JOINT COVER 4 TO 6
WIDE SET tN MASTIC STRIPPING (MODIFIED JOINT COVER. 4- TO 6'
BITUMEN FLASHING STRIP) WIDE SET IN ELASTOMERIC
SEALANT

CONTINUOUS _ OSIONAL SEAL TOP OF

CLEAT FUSHING WITH FABRIC
AND MASTIC
NAILS STAGGERED
APPROXIMATELY 3'' O.C
FASENERS
APPROXIMATELY A' O.C
METAL SET IN MASTIC: PRIME
FUNGE BEFORE STRIPPING
EfERIOR PLWMD ON
CLEAT OR TAPERED BLCKING
M O D I F I E DB I T U M E N M E M B R A N E TO PROVIDE SLOPE
+----

TO I 8" TAPERED EDGE STRIP BASE FUSHING (OR

MODIFIED BITUMEN
AASE SHEET (OR MODIFIED FGSHING STRIP)
BITUMEN SHEET)

TURN DOWN ONE PLY OF FELT TO BELOW

BLOCKING FOR AUILT.UP ROOFING

FIBER CANT STRIP SET IN

BTUMEN
N OTES
'1.
Envelope shown is for coal tar pitch and low-slope asphalt.
\.==- MoDTFTED BrruMEN
2. Attach nailer to masonry wall. MEMBRANE

3. This detail should be used only where the deck is supported by the outside wall.
4. This detail should be used with light{auge metals, such as 16 oz. copper, 24{auge galva-
NOTE
nized metal, or O.O4Oin. aluminum. A iapered edge strip is used to raise the gravel stop. Fre-
quent nailing is necessary to @ntrol thormal movement. This detail should b€ used onlv when the deck is suppbned by the wall. An expansionioint
5. Wood bl@king may be slotted for venting wher€ required. detailshouldb€ used for a deck not supportedby a wall

GRAVEL STOP LIGHT METAL PARAPET CAP

DRW CLAT OR STRUCTURAL SECTION

STANDING SEAM
INSUUTE TO PREVENT
CONOENSATION
FLEXIBLE VArcR
RETARDER/INSUGTION WELDED PUTE, SEALED
RETAINER AfrACHED TO WATERTIGff
TOP OF CURB J
FASTENERS AS NECESSARY
FASTENERS 1
APMOXMAELY FASTENERS
1 2', O.C. o APffiOXIMATELY A' O.C.
z BASE FUSHING
(oR MODTFTED
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY FL$HING
BITUMEN
A' O.C, BOTH SIDES STRIP)
_ CHAMFER TOP OF BOfr
WOOD CURBS TO ORAIN FIBER CAM STRIP
.Z TO ONE SIDE SET IN BIUMEN
--.2'_
BASE FuSHING
COVER Wfr VAPOR
',( RETARDER (OR MODIFIED
BITUMEN FSSHING STRIP) D BTUMEN
T (OR
SHEEI)
COMPRESSIBLE INSUUTION
MODIFIED EITUMEN
WOOD CANT SMIP TO /- MEMBRANE
PROVDE STRUCTURAL
STRENGTHj NAIL TOP AND
BONOM APPROXIMATELY
16', O.C.
MODIFIED BITUMEN
MEMBRANE NOTE
WOOD NAILER EACH SIDE This detail illustrates one method of eliminating pitch pockets. The curbed system aliows for
SECUREO TO DECK WTH
FASTENERS AI 24' O.C, movement in the structural member without disturbing the rool system.

EXPANSION JOINT STRUCTURAL MEMBER THROUGH ROOF

CAP FUSHING STRUCruRAL FRAME

IN SfuNT
CAULK WTH SEAI}NT
SET BOLTS

NEOPRENE PAD
DRAW BANO

FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY
WATERTIGHT UMBRELU
24' O.C. OWRUPPING JACK BY
RAOIUS OF 3' TO 4'
REMOVABLE
COUNTERFUSHING SHEET MSAL ROOF
JACK MIN. A' ABOVT
BASE FUSHING (OR ('/"'MIN
R@FING
MODIFIEO BIruMEN CLEARANCE TO UMBRELG)
FCSHING STRIP)
1/.' MlN. CLEARANG TO PIPE
FASTENTRS APPROXIMATELY

- 3" MIN TO 4' MAX FUNGE

BASE SHEET (OR MODIFIED - SEI lN MASTIC OVER
BruMEN SHEET) /-/ R@FING PRIME FUNGE
./ I BEFoR. S] RIPPINC (FOR
MODIFIED EITUMEN, NAIL
MODIFIED BITUMEN FLANGE TO WOOD NAILER)
MEMBRANE

STRIP SET IN WELDED ANCHOR PUTE

FIBER CANT
AIUMEN

NOTE
This detail allows for roof maintenancearoundthe equipmentsupport. Continuoussuppon is
preferredin lightweight roof systems becauseequipmentweight can be spread over two o-r
more supponingmembers. Clearancemust be providedfor removal and replacementof roof
ing and flashingbetween parallelsupports.
N OTE
This detail depicts site-fabricated construclion. Many manufacturers now offer prefabricated
llashing piece! or permit the use ot materials lor flashing purposes other than those shown
he.e- Proprietary designs vary widely: consult individual manulacturers about use.

NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.

ROOFING
MEMBRANE
 Built-upqnd Modified BitumenDetoils 421
WOOD NAILIF. NOMINAL 2 X 4
METAL FRAME
SEAL STRIP
FUSHTNG RECEIWR APPROXIMATELY
/- 24' O C.

' COUNTERFLASHING FASTENED

APPROXIMATELY 1A'O,C. FASTENERS
APPROXIMATELY
FASTENERS APMOXMATELY A' O.C a' o.c.
-
---- BASE
1 4' STANDARD FUSHING
MANUFACTUREO HEIGffi

COUMERFUSHING EXTENDED
DOWN TO ROTEfr AGAINST
FOOT OAMAGE (OffIONAL)

AASE FGSHING (OR

MODIFIED BITUMEN
FUSHING SRIP)
INSUUTON
NOTE
FIAER CAM SRIP. An area divider is designed simply as a raised double wood
SET iNTO BIruMEN member attached to a properly flashed wood base plate
that is anchored to the roof deck. Area dividers should be
WOOD BLOCKING FASTENED located between the roof's expansion joints at 150 to 200 lt
TO DECK (OmONAL) intervals, depending upon climatic conditions and area prac-
tices. Thev should never restrict the flow of water.
EQUIPMENT CURB AREA DIVIDER

EreE OF SUMF
sRrFlNG FELTS sRtffiNG FELTS
METAL FGSHING
SNAINER

CUMANG RING

SET BOLTS IN
EUSTOM€RIC
DECK SEAUNT
CUMP -

MJUSTS WRTICALLY
AND HORIZONTALLY -
SMIFING
FELTS
NOTE
TAPER INSUUNON TO DUIN
This detail allows for expansionand contractionof pipes
N OTES without roof damage.
1. Minimum30 in. square,2'l2to 4 lb leador 16 oz solt cop 3. Stripping felts extend 4 in. and 6 in. beyond edge o.f PIPE ROLLER SUPPORT
per flashingset on finishedroof Ielts set in mastic.Prime llashingsheet, but not beyondedge of sump. ROLLED FUSHTNG
LEAD
top surfacebefore stripping. 4. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended. 1'OOWN rMO PIPE
2. Membraneplies,metalflashing, andflash-inpliesextend PLUMBING VEM STACK
underthe clampingring.
ROOF DRAIN

INSUUTE INSIDE OF METALWORK

IN COLD CLIMATES
SHEff METAL ErcLOSURE, CRC)SS;E}REAK OR
SLOPT FOR DRAINAGE

SHEET METAL OR FLg-ruBE COLI.A

FUSHING RECEIWR

SLffi PIPES AWAY Mc)M H@D

COUNTERFUSHINc;

FASTENERS APROXIMAELY 24' O,C

-- MIN. 4' CLEARANC)E FROM PIPE TO TOP
, OF CURB, MIN- 2'BETWEN PIES

o-?:- - 't)
/ - // SITE-FAE]RICATED DETAIL
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY A' O.C. PREFABRICATED
PIPING BOOT
(CONSULT
MANUFACTURER
BASE FbSHING FoR spEctFtcarloNs),,--1

FIBER AM STRIP
SET IN BruMEN _

PREFABRICATED DETAIL
N OTE N OTES
This detail illustrates another method of eliminating pitch 1. Sheet lead minimum of 2rl, lb per sq lt.
pockets and a stisfactory method of grouping piping that 2. Minimum clearance of 12 in. from cant strips and other
must come up above the r@f surface. curDs or prpes.
MULTIPLE PIPE PENETRATION SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION

NationalR@fing ContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
 422 EPDMSingte-Pty
Roofing
EPDM SINGLE-PLY ROOFING
Ethylenepropylenediene monomer (EpDM)membranes
are 30 to 60 mil thick, single-sheetroofing materials.They
are availableeither nonreinforcedor reinlorcedwith fabric
Seamsin the membraneare splicedandcemented.EPDM
membranesare highlyresistantto degradation from certain
chemicals.ozone,and ultravioletradiationand have excel-
lent resilience,tensile strength, abrasionresistance,hard-
ness. and weatheringproperties.
EPDM membranes may be laid lmse, mechanicallvfas-
tened, or fully adhered to either nailable or non-nailable
decks For loose-laidsystems, ballast provides resistance
agarnst wind uplift forces. Some membranes require field
application of surfacings or coatings to provide weather
resrslance, aesthetrcs, or other propertjes. Specifications
for formulation and installation of EPDM membranes vary
wth the individual manufacturer.
Separation layers of asphalt-saturated organic felt or board-
type r@f insulation permit the membrane to move relative
to the deck without abrasion. Membrane terminations at
roof edges, parapets, and other flashings employ material
id€ntical to the roof membrane material shaoed to conform
to the substrate and area berng flashed. Standards for
EPDM membranes are maintained bv ASTM and the Bub-
ber Manufacturers Association.

SEPARAION
UYER NAIGALE
FrcM SHEET (tF REOUIRED) DECK
\ \ LOOSE.LAID EXPANSION JOINT
\ \\--
\\2 /. SEAUNT

DRAWBAND SET IN
ELASTOMERIC MASTIC

PREFABRICATED
COWR ADHERED
TO EPDM MEMBRANE
WITH APPROPRIATE
ADHESIW

SEAL EDGE OF
COVER WITH UP
EDGE SEAUNT

z' ile-vilnarue

ADHERED MLUST PREFABRICATED PIPE FLASHING

SEAMS

OVER NAII.-AEILE DECK OVER NC)N.NAIL-A,E}LE DECK SMOOTH CONCRETE, / CAULK WITH
ErcSED SURFACES EUS;TOMERIC
LOOSE-LAID EPDM ROOFING MUST BE SEALANT
WATERMOOFED
/ ANGLE
COMPRESSIEILE / cuMPtNG
EUSTOMERIC ,/ 8AR WTH
SEPARATION / SLONFD
EPDM UYER TAPE TO SPAN
IRREGUURMES ANCHOR
SHEET\ OF REQUIRED) HOLES

\r \/'--\
) FASTENERS
IN
EXPNSION
SHIELDS
PRIME
CONCRETE
IF REOUIRED

-- CURED OR
3 UNCURED
MEMBRANE
ADHERED TO
WALL AND
MEMgRANE
WTH
ADHESIVE
SEAL EDGES
OF FUSHING

EDGE
SEAUNT
EPDM MEMBRANE
INDIVIDUAL OR BAR.ryPE FASTENING STRIP APPLIED TO DECK
MECHANIAL FASTENER OR W[L. FASTENED 1 2" O.C,
INSTALLEO UNDER UP
OVER NON-NAILAE}LE DECK PARAPET COUNTERFLASH I NG
MECHAN.ICALLY FASTENED EPDM ROOFT
SEAL EOGES OF CURED OR UNCURED
FUSHING WITH LF FLASHING MEMEiRANE
EOG€ SAI..N ADHERED TO BELLOWS
EMM SHEET- AND MEMBRANE WIH
MLAE]LE DECK APRC)PRIAT€ ADHESIVE
FLUIBLE VAPOR
RETARDER TO
SERVE AS COMPRESSIBLE
NSUUNON INSUSTION
RETAINER.

/ ilrL"viEearue

CHAMFER
EACH SIDE
oF wooo
CURB
OVER NAITAE}LE DECK TO DRAIN
OVER NON-NAII-AE}LT DECK
FULLY ADHERED EPDM ROOFING EXPANSION JOINT

National Roofing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Ejckelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
 Singte-ptypVC Roofing 423
SINGLE-PLY PVC ROOFING ryPE l: Unreinforcedsheet . TAPER INSUUTON 24' DOWN TO DRAIN
Polyvin-yl chloride (PVC) membranes may be nonreinforced ryPE ll, CLASSl: Unreinforcedsheercontaining fibers
or.rernlorce-dwith glass fibers or polyesier faOnc aS io ryPE ll, CLASSll: Unreinforcedsheet containingfabrics
6d
mils thrck. Seams are formed by heat or chemical weldrna
TYPElll: Reinforcedsheet conrainingfibers or fabrics
and may require additional caulkrng pVC memb,anes
aie
resrstant to bacterial growth. industrial chemical afto,
PVCmembranesmay be laidloose,mechanically fasrened.
spheres, r@t penetration, and extreme weather conditions
PVC membranes have excellent fire resrstance and
or lullyadheredto etthernarlable or non nailable
decks.For
seam_ looselaidsystems,ballastprovides,esistance against;n;
rng capabttft€s.
uplrttlorces. Some PVCmembraneshave a factory-appled
coatingto provideweather resistance,aesthetics,or other
ASTM Standard D{434 classes pVC materials into several
properties to the membrane. Some membranes may
types and classes dependrng upon the conslruction of lhe
requiretield applicationof surfacingsor c@tingsto provide
sheet materiall
these ororerties.
ryC SHEET\ NAIGBLE OECK -\
3X?..- SEFeT"-o" F'S.'J^H)FF
---

ROOF DRATN

HAT-MLDED OR HEAT-WELDED OR
CHilIALLY FUSED UPS GEM&IY FUSED UPS

LOOSE-LAID PVC ROOFING

LOOSE-LAID EXPANSION JOINT

FEXIBLE TUBING ryC FUSHING STRTP

(MtN. DtA. 1 /2 TTMES WELDED TO MEMBRANE
WIDTH OF JOINT)
ryC MEME}RANE

FASTEN AS
REOUIRED
W@D NAILER
EACH SIDE GAMFER
SECURED TO EACH SIDE OF
BAR.ryE FASTENER DECK WITB
.- @WRED APPROPRIATE
WMD CURB
WIH FASTENERS
TO DRAIN
MEMBUNE PIECES
SLIP SHET
(IF REQUIRED)

HEAT-WELDED OR NSUUION BOARD

CHEMICALLY FUSED HtaT_wEDED OR
UPS CHEMICALLY FUSED UPS
OVER NAIT-ABLE DECK OVER NON-NAILABLE DECK
MECHANICALLY FASTENED PVC ROOFING

WATER-.OR
SOLWM-BAS;ED
DHESW\
*\ EXPANSION JOINT

SMOOT CONC:RETE-UPOSED
SURFACES MUST BE WAERRMFED
.\ AULK WTH
EUSTOMERIC SEAGM
ANGLE UMPING BAR
MH SLOTTED NCHOR
|..&ES

@MPRESSIBLE
EUSTOMERIC TAPE TO
SPAN IRREGUURMES
ryC FUSHING MEMBRANE
ADHERED Tc) WALL AND
€LDED TO MEMBRANE
PRIME CONCRETE
FASENING STRIP APPLIED
TO DECK OR WALL,
FASTENED 1 2' O,C.

ryC MEMBRANE
OVER NON-NAII,ABLE DEC:K SLIP SHEET (IF REOUIRED)
FULLY ADHERED PVC ROOFING
PARAPET COU NTERFLASHI NG

Na-tional R@ling Contractors Assciation; Rosemont, lllinois

Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, O.C

MEMBRANE
ROOFING
 '-
424 Single-PfyPVCRoofing

NOTE Contaminants to avoid: Bitumen, oils, animal fals. and

coal lar pitch. See manufaclurer's chemacal resistance
Polvvinyl chloride (PVC) is a semirigid malerial that re
hsl.
quires the addition of plasticizers to fabricate a flexible
roofing membrane. PVC exhibils excellenl weldabilitv tor
M i n r m u m s t a n d a r d s rA S T M h a s d e v e l o p e d s t a n d a f d t e s t
making lap joints or attaching to PVC clad metal llashrng
methods to evaluate the materials p.operties of PVC rool
membranes. These test r€sults form a useful basis for
comparing various PVC membranes. ASTN''l's standard
TYPES OF MEMBRANE
specificarion eslablish€s minamum performance ctllerla \
s%N

lof tensile streoglh, elongation, tear resistance, heal ag-

\-'c
Unreinforced sheet / rr.s-'rc vevae^rua

Sheel reinforced with fiberglass or polyester ing, wealhering, and waler absorplion.

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE INSTALLATION

Calendering General guidelines: lt is recommended that all roofing
Sp.ead coating materials be installed on toofs with positive slope lo
Ext,uding drainage. Check with manulaclurers regarding their spe-
cific requirements. TYPICAL PARAPET FLASHING

GENERAL Lap ioining methods: Hot air or solvent weld

Single ply roofing sYslems are also referred to as flexible
sheet rooling systems. Consult manufacturers for spe_ Flashing methods: Membrane or PVC coated metal
cilic requirements regarding mate.ials selection and in- COATED
stallation requirements. Compatibiliry of malerials Types of preformed accessories available: Inside and -PVC
FLASHING
METAL
comprising tolal rooling system is essential outside cornersi pape stacks ,,.

Weather restriclions during inslallalion: 0o-1 20oF tem' ..$r- pvc MEMBRANE wELoEo
y' To Pvc COATED METAL
perature range. Substrates and welding/bonding sur- FLASH ING
MATERIAL PROPERTIES taces must be dry. FASTENEO AS
Thickness: 48 and60 mil;45 milminimum
Typically REQUI RED
Merhod of repair: Clean surface; hot air or solvent weld
SHEET
graY;othercolorsavailable
Color:Typically of PVC patch

ALTERNATE PARAPET FLASHING

FIRST LAYER
ROOF
INSULATION
BOARD

PVC SHEE\ COVERED WITH ME

PrEcE /-\
) ( ri i ll,f ) =F.'i3ar.9-Rl
/ \-/ |\ \J-.{
)-l-^ >!!=.r-.]:f.
Jiiinr'csAr I!
PVCSHEET/ ll \ ---+r

AT-WELOEO OR
HEAT-wELoEo oRr THOD "A ',
EMICALLY FUSED T WELDED
CHEMICALLY FUSED LAP
MECHANICALLY
SECOND LAYER ASTENEO PVC OISK
ROOF
IN SULAT ION AT-WELDEO OR
BOARD HEMICALLY FUSED

'
THOD "C
- TYPE FAS]
ERED WITH

Membrane sheets are laid loose over.oot insulation {also
laid loose) and secured at the petimetet af,d around pen-
etrations only. The membrane is then covered with a
ballast ol river-washed slones (typically l0 lb/sq ftl or
appropraate pavers.
This syslcm wo.ks eflicienlly with insulatioo app.oved
bv the membrane manulacturer and on r@fs with a slope
not exceeding 2 in 1 2.
For system with no slope limitations which secures
membrane to substrate with bonding adhesive and by
mechanically fastening lhe membrane to perameter and
penetrations. Syslem is appropriale for conloured roots
and rools that cannot withstand weight of ballasted
system.
Membrane can be directly applied to deck surface of con-
crete, wood surfaces, or be applied to compatible insu-
lation that is mechanically lastened to the deck.
A mechanically anchored rool system is appropriate ior
rools that cannot canv lhe additional load ol ballasted
roof sVstems. Systems are available with lasteners that
oenetrate the membrane or that requlre no membrane
penelration.
The membrane is anchored to the rool using metal bars
or individual clips, and it may be installed over concrete,
wood, metal, o. compatible insulation.

FULLY ADHERED SHEETS MECHAN ICALLY ATTACHED SHEETS

Membrane sheets are laid loose over a sloped roof deck 1.T',
and with the insulation on lop of it. When the roof deck
is dead level. tapered rool insulation is either loose laid MEMBRANE

or mechanically altached under the membrane to achieve

positive slope to drainage. In either inslance, a layer ol
insulation is olaced over the membrane and held in place
;"'"""*') STRIP

,INSULATION
by one of two methods: Either a loose labric is laid over WITH
INTEGRALLY
the insulation, wilh a minimum of 10 lb/sq ft of ballast BONOEO
laid over rh€ labric, or insulation with an integrally CONCRETE
bonded concrele tacing is used in place of the fabric and FACING
OR STONE
loose ballast. Membrane manufacturers should be con- BALLAST OVER
sulted for their approved insulation list. In this roofing FABRIC
svstem, the membrane is protected ftom year'round M EMBR ANE
temperature extremes. direct exposure to weather. and
damage from other sources. The heat gain or loss is just TAPERED
FILTRATION I
the same as i{ the insulation were installed under the FABRIC\
INSU LATION
membrane. Since lhe walerprooling membrane is placed i
on the warm side ol the insulation, it funclions as a vapor H- \ t -eo..asr BARRIER IF
REQUIRED
retarder. For high humidiry conditrons with a dead level
roof deck utilizing tapered insulation, a separate vapor
barrier should be placed directly beneath the lapered in'
C)EAO LEVEL ROOF
sulation to oaevent condensalion.

PROTECTED MEMBRANE SHEET

Billings,Montana
CTAArchitectsEngineers;

ROOFING
MEMBRANE
 Liquid-AppliedRoofing 425
GENERAL 12" W|DE
REINFORCING - --- JOINT COVER
. 4I TO 6" WDF
Liquid-applied roofing systems are systems primarily FABRIC OVER sET rN MASTTC
applied as liquids at ambient tempe.atures. Most of them METAL 4<-z ,_
h?v.e som€ sort of reinforcing fabric that is applied along
FGNGE <\_ r- -. -:- LroutD-appLtED
with the liquid component. Liquid,applied rooting applied -rJ1{..' Lff'" }?:RBil'='
over exasting roofs is not generally accepted as a "mem,
brane" but as a coating.
METAL SET IN
Acrylic latex and urethane are the two main types of liquid- MASTIC: PRIME
FUNGE BEFORE
applied roofing. Acrylic latex refers to a familv of products STRIPPING
that use water,based polymers and cure by water evaoora- NAILS APPROX
tion- Liquidapplied urerhane roof coatings are chemically 3' O.C. STAGGERED
cured lo form an elastomeric membrane. Because these LIOUID'APPLIED
@tings are applied as liquids, installation is relatively sim- ROOF BASE COAT
(UNDER FLANGE)
ple, even for roofs with irregular geometries or multiple 1 'h"
penetrations. For systems using a reinforcing tabric, a coat,
ang is applied to an acceptable surface. While the coating is .-
CONTINUOUS CLAA
still wet, a layer of polyester or fjberglass is laid into it iof NOTES
lwed by an additional layer ol coaling. Subsequent layers
L Attach nailer to masonry wall. Refer to Factory Mutual
may be added as desired or necessary.
data sheet # 1-49.
Liquid-applied rooling systems are appropriate for new con- 2. This detajl should be used only when the deck is sup-
structaon but are most commonly used 6 enhancements or ported bv th€ outside wall.
for repairs to existing roo{s, including modified bitumen 3. This detail should be used with light€auge metals such
r@fs and built-up roofs. as a 16{2 copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.04 in.
alumanum. A tapered €dge strip is used to raise the
Advantages ol liquid-applied roofing are that it conforms gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to control ther-
very well to irregular surfaces, is easily applied, and comes mal movement_
Roofslopeminimumis 1/oin.in 12 or 29o:no maximum
in various colors. However. it does cause marginal ponded
water performance end is best used in sloped roof situa, GRAVEL STOP RETROFIT LIQUIO-APPLIED ROOFING
IOnS. OVER EXISTING METAL ROOF
CHAMFER
ROOF COANNG OR SEAUM
ACH SIDE
W BACKER ROD REINFORCING
OF W@D FLEXIBLE VAPOR RETMDTR
CURB TO TO SERW AS iNSUDTION
/\ffi[E AGYLTC DRAIN:
TOPCOATTNG
RflAINER: AnACH TO T