Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Sea-level rise and sediment budget controlling the evolution of a transgressive

barrier in southern Brazil
L.G. Lima a, *, S.R. Dillenburg b, S. Medeanic c, E.G. Barboza b, M.L.C.C. Rosa a, L.J. Tomazelli b,
B.A. Dehnhardt b, F. Caron d
a
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Instituto de Geociências, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geociências, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91509-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
b
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Instituto de Geociências, Centro de Estudos de Geologia Costeira e Oceânica, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91509-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
c
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Instituto de Oceanografia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Oceanografia Física, Química e Geológica, Av. Itália, km 8 e Campus Carreiros,
96201-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
d
Universidade Federal do Pampa, Av. Pedro Anunciação s/n, 96570-000 Vila Batista Caçapava do Sul, RS, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents an evolutionary model for a coastal barrier in the southernmost coastal sector of
Received 11 August 2011 Brazil during the Holocene. The dataset is based on 15e20 m drill cores and ground-penetrating radar
Accepted 5 July 2012 (GPR) records. The model barrier evolution has two main steps. The first step is the transgression of the
barrier controlled by sea-level rise during the Postglacial Marine Transgression, which ended at
Keywords: approximately 6e5 cal ka. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the coastal plain began to be flooded by
Transgressive barrier
lagoonal waters between w10 and 6.7 cal ka. The second step comprises a barrier transgression
Southern Brazil
controlled by a negative sediment budget of the beach system during the last 6e5 cal ka in a period of an
Holocene
Coastal evolution
overall slow sea-level fall of approximately 2 m. During the second step, the transgressive barrier
migrated because of coastal erosion (the negative sediment budget) and the landward transference of
sand by wind and lagoonal delta washout.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction border with Uruguay (Fig. 1). Based on conventional lithological

The Holocene barrier system of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) in
southern Brazil occupies the entire 620 km coast (Fig. 1). This is the
longest continuous barrier system in South America. The RS
Continental Margin is an ideal site for coastal barriers because of its
low gradient (on average, 0.06
), significant sand availability, and
moderate to high wave energy (Dillenburg et al., 2000, 2009). The
entire coastline is gently undulating and consists of two large
seaward projections and two landward reentrants (Fig. 1). Both
features (projection and reentrance) were defined by the drowned
antecedent topography (Dillenburg et al., 2000), which is repre-
sented by the surface of non-consolidated Pleistocene aeolian and
marine deposits. With the exception of its southernmost sector, the
geomorphology and geological evolution of the Holocene barrier
coast of RS have been well studied (e.g., Dillenburg et al., 2000,
2004b, 2009; Hesp et al., 2005).
This paper presents the results of the first detailed study on the
Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo, which is located close to the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: paleonardo_7@hotmail.com (L.G. Lima).
data from drill cores, geophysical data (ground-penetrating radar e
GPR), radiocarbon dating and paleontological and palynological
analysis, the evolutionary model for the Holocene barrier at Her-
menegildo is presented, and the causes of the transgressive
(erosional) nature of the barrier are discussed. A preliminary
consideration is made about a specific and local process of land-
ward sand transference during barrier transgression.
The study area is located in the southern half of the seaward
projection between Rio Grande and Chuí (Fig. 1).
2. Regional setting
The Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo beach is located in Bra-
zil’s southernmost coastal sector near the border with Uruguay.
This coastal sector belongs to the southern Brazilian Continental
Margin, which is a rifted plate boundary formed in the Early
Cretaceous. In the vicinity of RS (29
e34
south latitude), the
deposition of a large quantity of post-rift, mainly clastic sedi-
ments produced a wide (100e200 km), shallow (100e140 m) and
gently sloping (0.03
e0.08
) continental shelf.
On land, a low-relief coastal plain was formed during the
Quaternary by the juxtaposition of the sedimentary deposits of four

0895-9811/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2012.07.002
28 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38

Fig. 1. The location of Hermenegildo beach and the general geology of the Rio Grande do Sul coast (modified from Tomazelli and Villwock, 1996). A Landsat 7 image of the modern
barrier surface illustrates the coastal dune system that dominates the present barrier, as it did in the past. The insets present Hermenegildo’s general geology, a cross-section
showing the drill core locations and the GPR profile, and the area depicted in Fig. 9.

barrier/lagoon systems (Villwock et al., 1986) (Fig. 1). According to
Oxygen Isotope Stages (OIS), the oldest systems (Pleistocene) were
estimated to have formed at approximately 400 ka (stage 11),
325 ka (stage 9) and 125 ka (stage 5e). The modern, active system
started to take form at approximately 7 ka.
The coastal plain ranges from 15 to 100 km wide (it is 50 km in
the study area) and is bordered landward by bedrock highlands.
The climate is humid and temperate, characterized by warm to
hot temperatures (a mean of 26
C) in summer and cool tempera-
tures in winter (a mean of 12
C). Rainfall ranges from 1000 to
1500 mm and is evenly distributed throughout the year (Nimer,
1990). The prevailing wind is NE, and it changes 180
during and
immediately after the passage of cold fronts (Calliari et al., 1998).
These SeSW winds are the most intense (Braga and Krusche, 2000).
The southern Rio Grande do Sul coast is oriented NEeSW and
subjected to dominant swell waves approaching mainly from the
SeSW, which produce a net northerly longshore sediment
transport, and wind-generated waves produced by strong springe
summer NE sea breezes. The average significant wave height and
period are 1 m and 10e11 s, respectively (Tozzi and Calliari, 2000).
During autumn and winter storms, wave height frequently exceeds
2 m and storm surges can reach up to 1.3 m above the modern mean
sea level (Calliari et al., 1998; Barletta and Calliari, 2001; Parise
et al., 2009). Under these conditions, intensive beach erosion
occurs along the southern portion of the protruding sections of the
coast, producing a high concentration of heavy minerals (up to 30%)
at the fore- and backshore (Dillenburg et al., 2004a). The coast is
wave-dominated (microtidal) with semidiurnal tides that have
a mean range of 0.3 m. A net northward littoral transport is evident
in the coastal geomorphic features (Tomazelli and Villwock, 1992).
Present-day RS beaches receive little inland sand because most of
the bedload carried by the few streams and rivers that drain to the
coast is trapped in lagoons and other coastal plain environments
(Tomazelli et al., 1998). Because of changes in the coastline
 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38 29

orientation (azimuth varying from 10
to 50
) and the inner shelf
morphology and gradient (varying from 0.027
to 0.125
), RS bea-
ches are exposed to different degrees of wave energy and subjected
to variations in longshore sediment transport (Dillenburg et al.,
2000, 2003; Lima et al., 2001; Martinho et al., 2009).
The current postglacial sea-level history of the Rio Grande do Sul
coast extends from approximately 17.5 ka, when the sea level was
approximately 130 m lower. Thereafter, the sea level rose at an
average rate of 1.2 cm/yr, varying from 0.6 cm/yr (14e12 ka) to
1.9 cm/yr (8e6.5 ka) (Correa et al., 1995). Unfortunately, there are
no reliable data on sea-level changes for the middle to late Holo-
cene on the RS coast. However, the sea-level curves 130 km north of
RS show the culmination of the Postglacial Marine Transgression
(approximately 6e5 cal ka), when the sea level reached a few
meters (1e3 m) above its present level, which was followed by
a slow sea-level fall (Martin et al., 2003; Angulo et al., 2006) (Fig. 2).
3. Materials and methods
The radiocarbon ages were determined by Beta Analytic, Inc. The
results are presented as conventional and calibrated ages (Table 1).
Two published 14C dates of Tomazelli et al. (1998) originally pre-
sented as conventional ages were calibrated by Calib 6.0 (Stuiver
and Reimer, 1986), taking into account the nature of the samples
(marine shells and peat) and their southern hemisphere origin. The
shell sample was corrected considering a reservoir effect of 8  17
yrs, as defined by Angulo et al. (2005) for the southern and
southeastern Brazilian coast.
4. GPR records
The GPR signal revealed the entire thickness of the Holocene
deposits in the study area. Two main radar facies were defined
(Fig. 3). In their entirety, the GPR reflectors at Hermenegildo
represent a typical retrogradational stacking pattern, as described
by Barboza et al. (2011) for the Holocene barrier in areas further
north.

This study is based on ground-penetrating radar (GPR) records,
facies analysis, and radiocarbon dating. The GPR records were
obtained using a GSSIÔ SIR-3000 data acquisition system
(Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc.) with a 70 MHz antenna. The
depth adjustment was performed based on lithological data from
the drill holes. The GPR system was connected to a Differential
Global Positioning System (DGPS), enabling a real-time topographic
survey. At the time of the data acquisition, noise and gain filters
were employed. The Common Offset Array was used. No topog-
raphy correction was made because of the flat terrain topography.
The GPR field records were processed and interpreted using
RADANÔ 6.6 and ReflexW software.
All of the direct lithological information was obtained through
the standard penetrating test (SPT). The SPT integrates percussion
and water circulation. After 55 cm of penetration by water circu-
lation, a percussion sampler recovers an almost intact small cylin-
drical sample (45 cm length, with a diameter of 3.8 cm) at each 1 m
of drilling penetration. The percussion enabled an evaluation of the
compaction of all of the lithologies sampled. The sampling system
is not continuous. The altimetry of each drill hole was measured
with a topographic total station Nikon DMT-330. The sedimentary
facies description notes the sediment’s color (Munsell, 2009), the
texture, the degree of compaction, the pattern of GPR reflectors,
palynomorphs (plant and animal structures composed of chitin,
pseudochitin and sporopollenin), diatoms and macrofauna
assemblages. Grain size was determined by pipette and sieve
analysis. The chemical treatment of the peat and mud samples for
palynological and diatoms analysis was based on Faegri and Iversen
(1989). The samples were treated with cold HCl (10%) and KOH (5%)
to dissolve any carbonate and humic acid, respectively. The inor-
ganic and organic material was separated by ZnCl2 dense liquid
(2.2 g/cm3).
4.1. Radar facies description
Radar facies I is 2 m thick on average and shows continuous,
uniformly spaced planeeparallel reflectors. The lower limit is
marked by signal attenuation against the Pleistocene substrate.
Radar facies II is 10 m thick on average and formed by a series of
continuous sigmoideoblique reflectors dipping landward and sub-
parallel reflectors at the top. The reflectors show common downlap
and toplap terminations.
5. Depositional facies and stratigraphy
Three major stratigraphic units were identified at Hermene-
gildo: 1) a Pleistocene substrate, 2) an Early/Middle Holocene
lagoon, and 3) a Middle to Late Holocene Barrier. These ages were
interpreted based on contained facies and will be explained in
Section 5. Each unit is formed by a specific association of facies,
which are depicted in the stratigraphic section of Fig. 4 and
described and interpreted below. The facies are summarized in
Table 2.
5.1. Depositional facies description and interpretation
5.1.1. Stratigraphic unit 1 e Pleistocene substrate
5.1.1.1. Facies A. This facies is at least 4 m thick and formed by
a dark yellow (10YR4/2) to gray (5G6/1) medium silt at the base
grading to a dark gray (5GY4/1) fine silt at the top. Both silts are
poorly sorted, moderately to well-compacted, and show large
(centimeter scale) and very angular carbonate nodules. Fragmented
shells of estuarine and shallow marine mollusks (e.g., Erodona
mactroides and Ostrea sp.) occur in a disseminated manner and are
better preserved and more frequent at the top. Palynomorphs are

Table 1
14
C ages.
13
Sample/Laboratory Material C/12C Conventional Calibrated
number dated ratios (&) age (14C yr BP) ageb (cal yr BP)
D1/Betaa e 231430 Peat 25.4 780  40 710  40
D2/Beta e 231431 Organic 25.4 8790  70 9855  305
sediment
FS-28-10/Beta e 231434 Shell þ0.2 6310  40 6770  100
FS-29-08/Beta e 231435 Shell 0.7 6270  40 6730  90
FS-29-13/Beta e 231436 Shell 0.8 42,260  1400 e
FS-28-06/Beta e 285322 Shell e 4410  40 4465  155

Fig. 2. The sea-level envelope for the Brazilian coast south of 28
S (modified from a
Beta Analytic, Inc., Miami, Florida, USA.
b
Angulo et al., 2006). 2 sigma calibration (95% probability).
30 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38
Fig. 3. The GPR profile (for the location, see Figs. 1 and 4). A e 70 MHz antenna; B e interpretation of 70 MHz antenna. The GPR signal did not penetrate the Pleistocenic substrate.
Radar facies I and II are entirely Holocene in age.
present in two levels of this facies in drill core FS-27 (Fig. 5). Marine
palynomorphs are represented by dinoflagellate cysts (Dinophyta)
(0e4%) and a high frequency of acritarch cysts (0e24.4%), repre-
sented by Micrhystridium and Cymatiosphaera. Palynomorphs of
Chlorophyta (0e16.3%) are common and predominantly repre-
sented by Botryococcus colonies. The pollen of herbaceous plants
(NAP) is represented by Poaceae (14.2%). The pollen of arboreal
plants (AP) amounts to 0e12.2%. The most frequently occurring
pollens are Alchornea and Anacardiaceae. Spores of Bryophyta (4.7e
14.2%) and Pteridophyta (0e10.2%) are represented by Anthoceros
and Phaeoceros and by Azolla filiculoides and Osmunda, respectively.
The fungal palynomorph Glomus is the most abundant (0e95.2%).
Coal particles were not analyzed in this study. However, during
the palynomorph study, a high concentration of coal was found in
this facies. The contact with facies B is abrupt (observed in drill hole
27 only).
5.1.1.2. Interpretation. Facies A was formed in an estuarine/
lagoonal environment, as indicated by the dominance of silty
sediments and estuarine and marine mollusk species. This envi-
ronment is additionally attested by the high percentages of marine
palynomorph indicators. The charcoal particles could have been
produced by natural fire events and could indicate the presence of
adjacent grasslands (herbaceous) during the estuarine/lagoonal
sedimentation.
Fig. 4. The stratigraphic cross-section of the present Holocene barrier/lagoon system at Hermenegildo. The shoreface profile is from Ferrarelli et al. (2004) and based on bathymetric
data only (for the transect location, see Fig. 1).
5.1.1.3. Facies B. This facies is 6 m thick on average and formed by
yellow to orange (5Y 4/4) quartzose fine sands, which are well-
sorted and highly compacted. Some thin (millimeter to centimeter)
strata in the middle and lower portion of the facies contain
reworked shallow marine shells of Ostrea sp., Mactra isabelleana,
Pecten (Chlamys) tehuelchus, Olivancillaria urceus and Corbula sp.
and estuarine shells of E. mactroides. A well-preserved marine shell
(1.5 cm) of O. urceus was dated 42,226  1400 yrs BP. The top 2 m of
the facies were modified by pedogenetic processes. Here, the facies
shows a light brownish gray (5YR6/1) paleosol and contains low-
density carbonate nodules and abundant root marks.
5.1.1.4. Interpretation. The highly compacted and well-sorted sands
and the thin strata containing reworked shallow marine shells of
this facies are considered evidence of a beach deposit (foreshoree
upper shoreface). Beach sand deposits are formed by processes
related to wave action (swash and back-swash), involving higher
expended energy, such as selective grain entrainment and shear
sorting (Clifton, 1969; Slingerland, 1977), which form highly com-
pacted (high-density) beach deposits. Laboratory experiments
demonstrated that the beach sediments deposited by wave action
in the foreshore zone are significantly more compacted compared
with other sections of the beach profile (Nishi et al., 1999). The date
of 42,226  1400 yrs BP is most likely a result of contamination by
new carbon. Otherwise, a sea level approximately 10 m lower than
 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38 31

Table 2
Description of stratigraphic units.

Stratigraphic units Facies Deposition environment Description

Unit 1: Pleistocene A Estuarine/Lagoonal Dark yellow and medium silt in the base grading to a dark gray fine silt in the top. Poorly sorted, moderate to
Substrate well-compacted, large and very angular carbonate nodules. Predominance of marine palynomorphs. Presence
of estuarine and marine mollusks and high concentrations of charcoal particles.
B Foreshore/Upper shoreface Yellow to orange quartzose fine sands, well-sorted and highly compacted. Facies top modified by pedogenetic
processes, shows a light brownish gray color, low-density carbonate nodules and abundant root marks.
Laminated layers of estuarine and marine mollusks.
Unit 2: Early/Middle C Shallow peat Black, fine, poorly sorted and low-compacted silt, containing 55% amorphous organic matter.Highest diversity
Holocene Lagoon and frequencies of arboreal pollen.
D Estuarine/Lagoonal Dark gray/light green fine to very fine silt, sometimes laminated; poorly sorted and low-compacted. Contains
an average of 8% organic matter. High diversity of brackish-water diatoms. High concentrations and diversity
of well-preserved shells of marine and estuarine mollusks.
E Estuarine/Lagoonal margin Gray-greenish quartzose fine sand, moderately sorted and low-compacted. Dispersed rounded carbonate
nodules. Presence of estuarine and marine mollusks.
F Shallow peat Black silty peat, very poorly sorted and moderately compacted. Sand laminas rich in heavy minerals. This silty
peat is 70% particulate organic matter. Predominance of pollen of aquatic herbaceous plants.
Unit 3: Middle/Late G Aeolian Light gray at the bottom to pale yellow at the top, well-sorted and rounded quartzose fine sand, low to
Holocene Barrier moderately compacted and a high concentration of heavy minerals.

present occurring at 42 ka should be considered. Our interpretation
is that this facies corresponds to a barrier system formed during
isotope stage 5e at approximately 125 cal ka. The well-marked
paleosol on the top marks the driest continental climate of the
Last Glacial Stage, as noted by Delaney (1962).
Together and because of their stratigraphic relationship, facies A
and B comprise a transgressive barrierelagoon system. For the
purpose of this paper, both facies will be referred to below as the
Pleistocene substrate (stratigraphic unit 1), over which strati-
graphic units 2 and 3 were deposited.
5.1.2. Stratigraphic unit 2 e Early/Middle Holocene lagoon
5.1.2.1. Facies C. This facies is less than 1 m thick. It was sampled by
the innermost drill core (FS-27) only (Fig. 4). It consists of a black
(N1), fine, poorly sorted and loosely compacted silt containing 55%
amorphous organic matter. The lower and upper contacts of this
facies are gradational and abrupt, respectively. A sample of the
organic silt collected from the base of the facies was dated
9855  305 cal yrs BP. Palynological results revealed the highest
pollen diversity. The pollen of herbaceous plants (NAP) amounts to
21.4e25.7% and is mainly represented by Asteraceae and Poaceae.
Arboreal pollen (AP) amounts to 1.1e10.4% with Moraceaee
Urticaceae and Cecropia being the most significant. Cyperaceae,
Chenopodiaceae and Typhaceae are the most frequent aquatic NAP
(26.6e57.7%). Bryophyta spores (2.42.9%) are represented by
Anthoceros and Phaeoceros, and Pteridophyta spores are less
frequent (0.71.4%): Azolla filiculoides, Equisetaceae and Poly-
podiaceae. Marine palynomorphs are rare and represented by
microforaminifera (0.4%) and acritarch cysts of Micrhystridium
(0.2%). The more frequent freshwater diatoms (8.1e20.8%) are as
follows: Navicula, Pinnularia latevittata and Eunotia, followed by
mixohaline Surirella, Diploneis, Nitzchia and Rhopalodia (0.9e4%).
Palynomorphs of Chlorophyta (0.4e0.7%) are rare and only repre-
sented by freshwater Spirogyra and Zygnema. Indeterminate paly-
nomorphs and Glomus amount to 2.2e9.7%. Scolecodonts comprise
0.2% of the total sum of all of the encountered palynomorphs.
5.1.2.2. Interpretation. The sedimentological properties of this
facies (silt with a high content of particulate organic matter)
correspond to a peat deposit. The palynological content shows
a dominance of pollen and freshwater diatoms with rare marine
forms, indicating that this peat formed under predominantly
freshwater conditions. The facies’ stratigraphic position and age
(directly over the Pleistocenic substrate of the Holocene barrier
system and formed at w9.8 cal ka) (Fig. 4) are compatible with
a basal peat formed during the first stages of a coastal inundation of
the region related to the Postglacial Marine Transgression.
5.1.2.3. Facies D. This facies was sampled by all of the drill cores. Its
thickness varies from 1 to 4 m. It is composed of dark gray/light
green (5YR2/1), fine to very fine silt, which is poorly sorted, loosely
compacted, and sometimes laminated. There is an average of 8%
organic matter. The contact with facies E is gradational. This facies
shows a large diversity of marine mollusks (e.g., Amiantis purpur-
atus, Carditamera plata, Corbula caribaea, Corbula lyoni, Corbula
patagonica (life position), Nucula semiornata, Nucula uruguayensis,
Calyptraea centralis, Crepidula protea, Ostrea puelchana, Ostrea
equestris, Mactra patagonica and Natica limbata) and estuarine
mollusks (e.g., Anomalocardia brasiliana, Parodizia uruguayensis and
Heleobia australis). All of the disarticulate valves of this facies are
intact. In drill cores FS-28 and FS-29 at depths of 3.0 and 4.5 m,
respectively, C. patagonica in life position was dated to
6770  100 cal yrs BP and 6730  90 cal yrs BP, respectively.
Palynomorphs and diatoms occur in two levels in drill core FS-27,
and in six levels in drill core FS-29 (Fig. 5). The diatoms are rela-
tively abundant and mainly represented by the mixohaline Paralia
sulcata (10.5e63.7%). Marine diatoms (0e68.9%) show a high
diversity and are represented by Actinocyclis, Actinoptychus, Aulis-
cus, Coscinodiscus, Cymatozira, Melosira, Podosira (Hyalodiscus),
Talassiosira and Triceratium. Marine palynomorphs are frequent and
represented by silicoflagellate skeletons of Dictyocha (1.517.5%),
microforaminifera (017.5%), cysts of Micrhystridium (38.3%), and
dinoflagellate cysts of Operculodinium (5.2%). The pollen of arboreal
plants is predominantly represented by Palmae (1.6%). The herba-
ceous plant pollen (0e5.2%) of Asteraceae and Poaceae is the most
common. Aquatic non-arboreal pollen (6.3e67.4%) is represented
by Cyperaceae and Chenopodiaceae. The palynomorphs of Chlor-
ophyta (086.9%) are Spirogyra and Botryococcus. Bryophyta spores
(Anthoceros and Phaeoceros) amount to 03.3%.
5.1.2.4. Interpretation. The very fine silt composition of this facies
indicates that it was formed in a low-energy water body. The
presence of marine and estuarine mollusks and the high frequen-
cies of marine palynomorphs and marine and mixohaline diatoms
indicate a significant presence of salt water. Thus, facies D is
considered to have formed in a lagoon with a permanent connec-
tion to the ocean in the form of one or more inlets. Lithofacies D
corresponds to radar facies I and shows continuous planeeparallel
uniformly spaced reflectors, which are consistent with lower-
energy, laminated fine sediments.
32 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38
Fig. 5. Palynomorphs and diatoms (%) in drill cores FS-27, FS-28, FS-29 and their respective facies. Depth (m) in relation to current sea level. AP e arboreal pollen; NAP e non-
arboreal pollen; NAP aquatic non-arboreal pollen.
5.1.2.5. Facies E. This facies demonstrates a large lateral continuity
and was therefore sampled in all of the drill holes. Its thickness
varies from 1.5 to 4.5 m, and its top surface is positioned at þ1 m
(above sea level) (Fig. 4). The facies is composed of a gray-greenish
(5Y 4/1) quartzose fine sand, which is moderately sorted and
loosely compacted. Estuarine mollusks are represented by well-
preserved shells of Heleobia australis, P. uruguayensis and Anom-
alocardia brasiliana. Marine mollusks are Acteocina candei, Crepidula
protea, Corbula patagonica, Mactra marplatensis, Amiantis purpur-
atus and Nucula semiornata. Rounded carbonate nodules are found
dispersed in the facies. At the top of the facies, a well-preserved
shell of the estuarine gastropod P. uruguayensis was found, which
was dated 4465  155 cal yrs BP.
5.1.2.6. Interpretation. This unit represents a high-energy lagoonal
margin dominated by fine sands and showing well-preserved shells
of marine and estuarine mollusks, indicating a significant saltwater
influence. Most of the sand entered the lagoonal margin by an
aeolian process (transgressive dunes moving into the lagoon) and
the formation of washout deltas along the lagoonal margin. Both
processes produced reflectors showing a sigmoideoblique pattern
dipping landward, with common downlap and toplap terminations
related to progradation of the lagoonal margin. This facies corre-
sponds to the basal portion of radar facies II.
5.1.2.7. Facies F. The thickness of this facies varies from 0.5 to 1 m.
Its top surface is positioned at þ1.5 m. The facies is composed of
a black (N1) silty peat, which is very poorly sorted and moderately
compacted. Sand laminas are common along the entire facies. This
silty peat is composed of 70% particulate organic matter. The lower
and upper contacts of this facies are gradational and abrupt,
respectively. One sample on drill core FS-28 revealed an age of
750e670 cal yrs BP. The oldest age of 2525  182 cal yrs BP was
obtained by Tomazelli et al. (1998) for the peat outcropping at the
backshore of Hermenegildo (Fig. 4). Palynomorphs and diatoms
were present in three samples in drill core FS-27, in two samples of
drill core FS-28 and in two samples of drill core FS-29 (Fig. 5). Facies
F contains a predominance of pollen of aquatic herbaceous plants
(6.3e67.4%), which are mainly represented by Typhaceae and
Polygonum hydropiperoides. The pollen from terrestrial herbaceous
 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38 33

Fig. 6. The two main steps characterizing the evolutionary model of the Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo (schematic and not to scale): step 1 e the sea-level rise controlling the
barrier transgression (AeC); step 2 e the negative sediment budget of the beach system controlling the barrier transgression (DeF).

plants (11e45.9%) is mainly represented by Chenopodiacae and
Poaceae, followed by Apiaceae. The pollen of arboreal plants (1.3e
17.2%) is mainly represented by MoraceaeeUrticaceae and Ana-
cardiaceae. The distribution of the diatoms is marked by the pres-
ence of freshwater taxa (0e50%), such as Eunotia and P. latevittata
and marine diatoms (0e51.6%), such as Chaetoceros costatus and
Trigonium. In a secondary form, mixohaline diatoms (0e3.3%), such
as Fragilaria and Nitzchia, also occur. Pteridophyta spores amount to
0.5e41.6% and are represented by Azolla filiculoides, Dicranopteris,
Equisetaceae, Microgramma and Osmunda. Palynomorphs of
Chlorophyta (0e50%) are mainly expressed by Botryococcus and
Spirogyra. Bryophyta spores (0e1.3%), such as Anthoceros and
Phaeoceros, are rare. Fungal palynomorphs are frequent (0.5e
27.3%), represented by Glomus and Tetraploa. A significant diver-
sity of scolecodonts (0e6.8%) occurs in this facies. Strictly marine
palynomorphs are represented by dinoflagellate cysts of Oper-
culodinium (0e0.5%), and microforaminifera (0e3.8%) are encoun-
tered in drill core FS-28 only.
5.1.2.8. Interpretation. The sedimentological properties of this
facies (silt with a high content of particulate organic matter)
correspond to a peat deposit. The rare frequency of marine paly-
nomorphs and microforaminifera compared with terrestrial paly-
nomorphs and diatoms indicate that this peat was formed in
a restricted lagoonal environment (with a minor connection to the
ocean). Intercalated sand laminas suggest that the peat was formed
during lagoonal silting, which was promoted by transgressive
dunes that entered the lagoon.
5.1.3. Stratigraphic unit 3 e Middle to Late Holocene barrier
5.1.3.1. Facies G. This facies varies in thickness from 2 to 6 m, and
its highest top surface is located at þ7.7 m. It consists of a light gray
(10YR4/2) (at the bottom) to pale yellow (10YR6/2) (at the top),
well-sorted and rounded quartzose fine sand, which is loosely to
moderately compacted and showing a high concentration of heavy
minerals (on average 3.3%, measured in three samples).
5.1.3.2. Interpretation. Well-sorted, loosely to moderately com-
pacted sands are typical of aeolian deposits on the Rio Grande do
Sul coast. Different from beach deposits, aeolian deposits are
formed by sand accretion in vegetation and occasionally by
avalanching on the leeward slope (Hesp, 2002). Both processes,
particularly the avalanching process, produce low-density (low-
compacted) sand deposits, which is attributed to minimum energy
expenditure (Denekamp and Tsur-Lavie, 1981). The facies
comprises almost the entire emerged portion of the Holocene
barrier at Hermenegildo. This facies corresponds to the upper
portion of radar facies II, characterized by presenting sub-parallel
reflectors on top that most likely represent the surfaces of the
deflation plains of a transgressive dunefield.
Together, the succession of facies C, D, E, F and G is typical of
a transgressive barrierelagoon system (Fig. 4).
34 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38
6. The evolution of Hermenegildo’s barrierelagoon system
At 17.5 ka, when the sea level was 120e130 m below the present
level, a complex of delta systems dominated the shelf edge of Rio
Grande do Sul (Urien et al., 1978; Dillenburg, 1987; Corrêa, 1990).
During this period, the study area was part of a large coastal plain
(Fig. 6a) that was distant from the present shoreline by a distance
proportional to the sea-level lowstand and the average slope of the
continental shelf. Transgressive barriers were most likely formed
close to the shelf edge as soon as the Postglacial Marine Trans-
gression started. At the end of the PMT (approximately 6e5 cal ka),
the process of barrier transgression controlled by sea-level rise was
over. At this time, the coastline at Hermenegildo was part of the
southern portion of a gently protruding sector of the RS coast
(Dillenburg et al., 2000). This gentle coastal projection still char-
acterizes the coastal sector of Hermenegildo (Figs. 1 and 7; Fig. 7
schematically represents all of the stages of the barrier evolution
in the Hermenegildo region). From 6 to 5 cal ka, the continuity of
the barrier transgression was controlled by a negative balance in
the sediment budget of the Hermenegildo beach system. The
evidence for this negative budget is presented and discussed in
Section 6.2.
Thus, the evolution of the Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo can
be summarized as occurring in two steps.
6.1. Sea-level rise controlling the barrier transgression (step 1)
The first signs of a barrier transgression at Hermenegildo
correspond to facies C (Holocene basal peat) (Table 2). The dating of
this facies (9855  305 cal yrs BP) indicates that it was formed
when the sea level was rising (Figs. 6b and 7). As indicated by
palynological data, facies C most likely marks a rise in the
groundwater level as a consequence of increased precipitation and
a rising sea level. The two ages obtained for facies D indicate that
lagoonal floor sedimentation was active at approximately 6.7 cal ka
(see the cross-section in Fig. 4). Thus, lagoonal waters started to
flood Hermenegildo’s coastal plain between w10 and 6.7 cal ka
(Fig. 6b and c). The seaward continuity of facies D (Fig. 4) indicates
that at the time of its deposition, the barrier was located some-
where seaward of the present barrier. At the maximum level of the
PMT (6e5 cal ka), the transgression of the barrier during a sea-level
rise was over.
6.2. Sediment budget controlling the barrier transgression (step 2)
The sediment budget is important to long-term coastal behavior.
Along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul, the sediment budget of the
beach system has been a fundamental factor controlling barrier
evolution during the Middle and Late Holocene (Dillenburg et al.,
Fig. 7. The evolutionary model for step 1 e the sea-level rise controlling the barrier transgression (10 and 6.7 cal yr BP); step 2 e the negative sediment budget of the beach system
controlling the barrier transgression (6.7, 4.4, and 0.7 cal yr BP, and the present).
2000, 2004a,b, 2009; Travessas et al., 2005; Hesp et al., 2005;
Martinho et al., 2009). As previously mentioned, the RS coast
receives none or very little sediment from rivers (new sediment).
Thus, the sediment budget is mostly affected by littoral drift and
cross-shore transport. To the present, few data on the cross-shore
transport along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul have been ob-
tained. Therefore, only the evidence of a most likely large long-term
longshore transport will be discussed here as a tentative explana-
tion of the cause of the long-term coastal erosion, under which the
Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo has transgressed in the last 6e
5 cal ka.
Many causes have been noted of the current and long-term
erosion in the Hermenegildo area, all of which are associated
with natural phenomena: (1) the elevation of the relative sea level
(Tomazelli and Villwock, 1989; Tomazelli et al., 1998); (2) the effect
of meteorological tides associated with storm surge events (Calliari
et al., 1996); (3) the longshore variation of sediment transport
(Lima et al., 2001) and (4) the trapping of the littoral drift by large
rock promontories on the coast of Uruguay since the Middle
Holocene (Lima and Dillenburg, 2007). The first two hypotheses
imply an overall and temporally and spatially variable erosion
condition along most of the 620 km coast of Rio Grande do Sul,
which is mistaken. Regarding the sea level, Fig. 2 shows that the sea
level is falling long-term.
As demonstrated by many studies, the RS coast shows the
alternation of large coastal sectors that were subjected to erosional,
stable and depositional conditions on short- and long-term scales
(decadal and centuries to millennia) (e.g., Toldo Jr. et al., 1999; Lima
et al., 2001; Dillenburg et al., 2000, 2005, 2009; Esteves et al.,
2002).
Lima et al. (2001) found that a higher potential of longshore
sediment transport is estimated to occur along the southern half of
RS coastal projections (the Hermenegildo region in the south and
Bujuru on the central RS coast), whereas a lower potential occurs
along the gentle coastal re-entrances of this coast (Fig. 8). Accord-
ing to the same authors, this higher potential of longshore sedi-
ment transport is a consequence of the higher energy of the
southerly waves that are dominant 30% of the time, forming
a higher angle of approach along the southern half of the coastal
projections. Additionally, a study on the longshore variation of
wave height (wave gradients) on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul
demonstrated that the highest and lowest waves (significant waves
at the first break line) occur at coastal projections and re-entrances,
respectively (Dillenburg et al., 2005, 2009) (Fig. 8). Therefore,
because wave power is mainly determined by the approach angle of
waves and their energy (approximately corresponding to wave
height), the highest wave power values are observed along coastal
projections, particularly in their southern portions, where the angle
of approach is the maximum and the wave height is intermediate
 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38 35

Fig. 8. Beach locations along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul with significant wave height values at the first break line and arrows indicating the resulting littoral drift with estimated
volumes of the littoral drift (103 m3/yr). The wave heights increase from the embayments to the coastal projections (modified from Dillenburg et al., 2009).

between the higher values of the middle portion of the coastal
projections and the lower values of the middle portion of the
coastal re-entrances. The above consideration corresponds to the
classical graphical model for littoral sediment transport of May and
Tanner (1973). If we assume that this condition was existent long-
term, we might additionally consider that the southern half of the
coastal projection, where Hermenegildo is located, was submitted
to a higher potential of longshore transport long-term. By simu-
lating the RS coastal evolution during the Holocene, Dillenburg
et al. (2000) demonstrated that the general pattern of projections
and re-entrances of the coast has existed since the end of the PMT
(6e5 cal ka). In the last millennia, these features were somewhat
smoothed by erosion along the southern half of the coastal
projections (the formation of transgressive barriers) and by depo-
sition along the coastal re-entrances (the formation of regressive
barriers).
Particularly at Hermenegildo, a negative long-term sediment
budget was most likely determined by this higher longshore
transport combined with the trapping of the littoral drift by the
large promontories on the coast of Uruguay since the Middle
Holocene (Lima and Dillenburg, 2007) (see Figs. 1 and 7 for the
promontory locations). There is no information whether the
promontories were active (existent) before 6e5 cal ka, when the
sea level was still rising. Whereas the first process resulted in
a significant withdrawal of sand from the Hermenegildo beach
system, the second process prevented the arrival of sand at Her-
menegildo by the littoral drift system. The consequence was coastal
erosion.
Because of this long-term (centuries and millennia) negative
sediment budget, an apparently paradoxical coastline behavior
occurred after the end of the PMT (6e5 cal ka) at Hermenegildo:
during a slow sea-level fall of approximately 2 m (Fig. 2), from 6 to
5 cal ka to the present, the Holocene barrier translated landward.
What evidence is there of this long-term coastal erosion? The
most important evidence of such behavior is shown in Fig. 4. As
previously mentioned, the seaward continuity of facies D (lagoonal
floor) indicates that at the time of part of its deposition
(w6.7 cal ka), the barrier was located somewhere seaward.
However, most important is the seaward extension of facies E
(lagoonal margin) at the time of its deposition (w4.4 cal ka), also
placing the barrier somewhere seaward at this time, when the sea
level was slowly falling (Fig. 2). Together with facies F (top peat),
facies E is presently outcropping at the backshoreeforeshore of
Hermenegildo and showing ages of 4446  195 cal yrs BP and
2525  182 cal yrs BP (Tomazelli et al., 1998) (Fig. 4). The two ages of
facies E (that of this study and that of Tomazelli et al., 1998) are
36 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38
Fig. 9. Washouts forming coalescent deltas in the modern eastern lagoonal margin (the western border of the Holocene barrier) (for the location, see Fig. 1). A and A0 e classical
configuration of washout-deltaic feature; B and B0 e discrete landward progradation of lagoonal margin washout deltas.
almost identical (4.4 cal ka). The ages were obtained for a well-
preserved shell of the estuarine gastropod P. uruguayensis (this
study) and an estuarine/marine Tagelus plebeius in life position
(Tomazelli et al., 1998). Both specimens were collected
between þ0.5 and þ1.0 m above the present sea level in facies E.
The present study concludes that these mollusks were alive at
4.4 cal ka, when the sea level was slightly higher than or at
approximately þ0.5/þ1.0 m and the Hermenegildo barrier was
positioned seaward.
Additionally, the peat record (facies F) provides an indication
regarding barrier behavior, particularly the development of facies
G. As shown in the geological section of Fig. 4, the two peat ages
suggest that the peat becomes older as it extends seaward. This
ageing profile is a consequence of the landward progressive
development of transgressive dunes (facies G), producing the
progradation of the western margin of the barrier (lagoonal margin
progradation) (Fig. 6d and e). Oblique slip faces of dunes dipping to
the west are well documented in the GPR records, interpreted as
radar facies II (Fig. 3). Additionally, these two ages indicate that the
dune transgression was active at least between 2.5 and 0.7 cal ka.
We believe that the dune transgression was also active from 6 to
5 cal ka, when the barrier was positioned seaward. During barrier
erosion, the record of transgressive dunes older than 2.5 cal ka was
completely reworked.
It is considered here that the Hermenegildo coastal area has
evolved from 6 to 5 cal ka to the present under the so-called chaotic
coastal behavior of Roy and Cowell (1995), “chaotic” in the sense
that when the sea level is changing slowly, it loses its primary
control of coastal evolution to factors that influence the coastal
sediment budget. In the long-term, Hermenegildo evolved under
a condition of coastal erosion during a slow sea-level fall that
occurred between 6 and 5 cal ka and the present, a condition that
could result in the transgression of the shoreline, according to
Curray (1964). This transgressive behavior of the shoreline under
a sea-level fall is not easy to accept. It is important to bear in mind
that a very low rate of sea-level fall is being considered here: 2 m of
fall during 6e5 cal ka, which represents a rate of 0.33e0.40 mm/yr.
The curves of the oxygen isotope record of the last 300,000 yrs
(Martinson et al., 1987) suggest that the initial phases of sea-level
fall, which were related to the onset of glacial periods, were as
rapid as the initial phases of the sea-level rise, which was related to
the onset of interglacial periods. Thus, a sea level falling at a rate of
0.5e1.0 cm/yr would be the primary control on coastal evolution,
producing a forced regression of the shoreline. However, what
occurs when the sea level falls at a rate 15e25 times lower? Does it
remain the primary control on coastal evolution, producing a forced
regression? What if high wave power removes sediment from
a coastal stretch that is in a period of low sea-level fall? Our
study at Hermenegildo suggests that in such a case, the shoreline
could move landward. Analyzing RS coastal evolution during these
2 m of sea-level fall during the last 6e5 cal ka, Dillenburg et al.
(2000) reported that approximately 0.7 m3/m/yr of sediment
could have been reworked at the shelf and transported onshore.
This volume represents a small quantity of sediment that could
have been easily removed by longshore currents or landward
winds, thus contributing to the development of transgressive
dunes.
The transgressive dunes covering the lagoonal facies do not
necessarily indicate that the barrier has been under transgressive
processes. However, the large erosion of the lagoonal facies at the
present beach profile leaves no doubt about the barrier trans-
gression (erosion). Thus, it seems that dune transgression has been
occurring at the same time as barrier erosion. A connection
between coastal (barrier) erosion and the formation of trans-
gressive dunes has been noted at many coastal sites (e.g., Semeniuk
and Meagher, 1981, in Western Australia; Cooper, 1958, in the
western USA; Dillenburg et al., 2004a, in southern Brazil). This
connection indicates that the processes of longshore transport have
not acted alone in eroding the barrier. Part of the sand has been
eroded from the sub-aerial beach of the barrier by onshore winds.
As previously mentioned, onshore winds have promoted the
formation of transgressive dunes, which played an important role
in the progradation of the lagoonal margins of the barrier’s western
margin. This progradation was a direct result of dunes entering the
lagoon (Fig. 6cef). By observing closely the barrier’s modern
western margins, a different mechanism for lagoonal margin
 L.G. Lima et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 42 (2013) 27e38
progradation is suggested: the development of deltas produced by
washouts. These washouts and deltas are presently active
throughout the eastern lagoonal margin (the western margin of the
barrier) during the rainy season (Fig. 9). Thus, it might be consid-
ered that during rainy periods, the progradation of the lagoonal
margin was additionally promoted by a suite of washouts forming
coalescing deltas. In summary, aeolian sands in the form of trans-
gressive dunes seem to promote the progradation of lagoonal
margins during the dry seasons, whereas progradation by washout
deltas would occur during the wet seasons. Therefore, the oblique
slip faces of radar facies II may have been generated by both
processes (Fig. 3). Both processes have participated in the forma-
tion of facies E and F. Facies G has expanded landward over facies E
and F. However, at the same time, all three facies were eroded along
the oceanic beach profile because of a negative balance in the long-
term active sediment budget.
The detailed and complete history of the barrier transgression
during the sea-level fall since 6e5 cal ka is not well known. We
assume that the barrier has translated an unknown distance
landward during the entire period. An approximate estimate of this
distance could be obtained considering two facts: 1) the outcrop of
lagoonal facies (E and F) at Hermenegildo’s present foreshore and
2) the erosion of the thickest portion of the lagoonal deposits
(facies D, E and F), as indicated by the geological section of Fig. 4.
Considering these two factors together, we might conclude that the
outcropping lagoonal facies correspond to a central basin deposi-
tional center (approximately 8 m sedimentation thickness).
Therefore, the inner (continental) portion of the former barrier,
existent at 6e5 cal ka, was located at least some hundreds of meters
or possibly a few kilometers to the east.
7. Conclusions
The Holocene barrier at Hermenegildo has evolved during the
Holocene as a transgressive barrier. From 10 cal ka to approximately
6e5 cal ka, the barrier transgression was mainly controlled by the
Postglacial Marine Transgression. Radiocarbon dating indicates that
the Hermenegildo coastal plain started to be flooded by lagoonal
waters between 10 and 6.7 cal ka. From 6 to 5 cal ka to the present,
the barrier transgression was mainly controlled by a significant
negative balance in the sediment budget of the beach system
during a sea-level fall of approximately 2 m. Previous studies
indicate that this negative balance is most likely the result of a large
volume of sand being eroded from the Hermenegildo beach profile
by longshore currents. By preventing the arrival of sand at Her-
menegildo, the promontories of the coast of Uruguay may have
contributed to the long-term negative sediment budget. In the
present study, we suggest that onshore winds may have addition-
ally contributed to the negative balance. In the latest process of
barrier transgression (from 6 to 5 cal ka to the present), the land-
ward transference of sand was promoted by winds blowing sand
into the lagoonal system and by a net of washouts forming coa-
lescent deltas at the lagoonal margin.
Acknowledgements
Leonardo Lima, Sérgio Dillenburg, Eduardo Barboza and Luiz
Tomazelli thank theNational Council on Technology and Scientific
Development (CNPq)for providing their research fellowships.
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