Learning Module for General Zoology

BIO 103 BSBIO 1101

AY 2020-2021
First Semester

Prepared by:

Jovy Ann P. Valera, MSc

VIP CORALS
College of Arts and Sciences
Batangas State University
Table of Contents

Unit I
Introduction
Intended Learning Outcomes
Lesson 1
Objectives
Content and Discussion
Assessment
Lesson 2
Objectives
Content and Discussion
Assessment
Lesson 3
Objectives
Content and Discussion
Assessment
Lesson 4
Objectives
Content and Discussion
Assessment
How to earn extra credit?
Unit Test
References
Introduction

Animals are united with all other forms of life by the biological processes that they share
with other organisms. Understanding these processes helps us to know how animals
are united with other forms of life from the evolutionary and ecological processes. This
unit comprises of four lessons. Lesson 1 examines some of these unifying themes and
sets the stage for evolutionary and ecological perspectives. Lesson 2 present cell
structure and inheritance as an important unifying framework within which biologists
approach the diversity of organisms. Lesson 3 explores the work of pioneers of
evolutionary theory, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace and how their work
forms the nucleus for modern evolutionary theory. In addition, this lesson also examines
the influence of modern genetics on evolutionary which will provide core knowledge for
understanding the diversity of animal life and how evolution has influenced the animal
structure and function. Lesson 4 presents basic ecological principles that everyone must
understand if we are to preserve the animal kingdom.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Define zoology as a branch of biology, its general principles and its relation to
other sciences.
2. Define and discuss cell as the basic unit of life, its organelles and their functions
3. Discuss the principles of evolution and ecology in animal kingdom preservation
Lesson 1: Introduction to the Living Animal
Objectives:
1. Define zoology as a branch of biology.
2. Trace the historical timeline of zoology
3. Identify the different specializations in zoology
4. Explain the family relationships among animals and how great variety of
animals arose
5. Analyze how human interference threatens animal populations and the
human environment

Content and Discussion

A. Define Zoology.
The etymology of the term zoology came from the Greek work, “zoon” and “logos”,
literally translated to the study of animals. It is one of the broadest fields due to
immense variety of animals and complexity of the processes occurring within animals.
There are more than 20,000 described species of bony fishes and more than 300,000
beetle species. The subdisciplines of zoology includes functional, structural and
ecological. Specializations are often pertaining to the type of animal or what animal one
is studying.

For example: Ichthyology is the study of fishes, and ichthyologists work to understand
the structure, function, ecology, and evolution of fishes. These studies have uncovered
an amazing diversity of fishes. One large group, the cichlids, is found in Africa (1,000
species), Central and South America (300 species), India (3 species) and North
America (1 species). Cichlids of Africa (Figures 1a and 1b) exist in an amazing variety
of color patterns, habitats and body forms.

Miller-Harley 2001 Miller-Harley 2001

Figure 1.1 Cichlids. Dogtooth Figure 1.2. Cichlids. The fontosa

cichlid (Cynotilapia afra) is native (Cyphontilapia fontosa) is native to
to Lake Malawi in Africa Lake Tanganyika in Africa
 Figure 1.3. A Mouth-Brooding
Cichlid. Nimbochromis livingstonii
is a mouth-brooding species. Eggs
develop in the mouth of the female
and, after hatching, young return to
the female’s mouth when danger
threatens

Miller-Harley 2001

Miller-Harley 2001
Figure 1.4. Lakes Victoria,
Tanganyika and Malawi. These
lakes have cichlid populations that
have been traced by zoologist to
an ancestry that is approximately
200,000 years old. Cichlid
populations originated in Lake
Tanganyika and then spread to the
other two lakes.
B. History
1. The prominent ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle took detailed notes on animal
observations. Many other scientists were inspired.
2. Many universities were founded in Europe in the 16th century.
3. Mid 17th century, divisions were founded in universities that focused entirely on
animal research
4. 19th century, the microscope became commonplace in scientific research; cells
of animals could be studied at the microscopic level.
5. Naturalist, Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection
6. More recently, the discovery of DNA as life’s genetic material led to even more
new research about natural world and the evolutionary relationships between
animals

C. List of Subdisciplines and Specializations

 Specialization by animal type:

D. An Evolutionary Perspective

Animals share a common evolutionary past and evolutionary forces that influences their
history. Evolutionary processes are remarkable for their relative simplicity, yet they have
had awesome effect on life-forms. These processes have resulted in an estimated 4 to
30 million species of organisms living today (1.4 are described) many more existed in
the past have become extinct. Zoologists must understand evolutionary processes if
they are to understand what an animal is and how it originated.

Main points:
1. Common evolutionary past and forces unravel family relationships.
2. Evolutionary processes affect life-forms thus explains why animals appear and
function.

D.1. Evolutionary Processes

Organic evolution (Latin, evolutos, unroll) is change in populations of organisms over

time. It is the source of animal diversity and it explains family relationships within animal
groups. The mechanism proposed by Charles Darwin has been confirmed and now
serves as the nucleus of our broader understanding of evolutionary change. However,
understanding how diversity of animal structure and function arose is one of the many
challenges faced by zoologists. For example (Figure 1.5), the variety of color patterns
within the species Topheus duboisi has been explained in an evolutionary context.
Different color patterns arose as a result of the isolation of populations among sheltering
rock piles separated by expanses of sandy bottom. Breeding is more likely to occur
within their isolated populations because fish that venture over the sand are exposed to
predators.
 Figure 1.5. Colorful Topheus duboisi.

• Different color patterns within the

species
• A result of isolation of
populations among sheltering
rock piles separated by
expanses of sandy bottom
• Breeding is more likely to occur
within their isolated populations
because fish that venture over
the sand are exposed to
predators

Figure 1.6. Trilobites fossilized in Paleozoic

rock
(Hickman et al 2001).
Charles Darwin Contribution to Evolution:

Evidence of Evolution (1859)

1. Perpetual change: The living world is always changing.
2. Common descent: All forms of life descended from a common ancestor through
a branching of lineages
3. Multiplication of species: evolutionary process produces new species by the
splitting or transformation of older ones.
4. Gradualism: large differences in anatomical traits that characterize different
species originate through the accumulation of many small incremental changes
over very long periods of time.
5. Natural Selection: 1) there is variation among organisms for anatomical,
behavioral and physiological traits, 2) The variation is at least partly heritable so
that offspring tend to resemble their parents

Helpful terminologies in relation to evolution:

Phylogeny – the origin and diversification of any taxon or the evolutionary history of its
origin and diversification usually presented in a form of a dendrogram
Homology – similarity of parts or organs of different organisms caused by evolutionary
derivation from a corresponding part or organ in a remote ancestor, usually having a
similar embryonic origin. For example:

Figure 1.7. A study of Michio Hori from Kyoto University.

Fish sample on the left has a mouth asymmetrically

curved to the right. It approaches and bite scales from
the left side of their prey. On the other hand, the fish
sample on the right has a mouth asymmetrically curved
to the left and it approaches and bites scales from the
right side of their prey. Both are maintained in population;
otherwise the prey would be wary to be attacked on one
side
Lee 2015

D.2. Animal classification and evolutionary relationships

Evolution not only explains how the animal functions and forms but also unravel the
historical relationships within the animal kingdom.

The main concept for this point is that groups of individuals which share more genetic
material are more related to each other compared to those which do not share common
genetic material;.
Now let’s look closely at the case of African cichlids to better illustrate this evolutionary
perspective.

Figure 1.8. The case of African

Cichlids.
Genetic studies have found that
African cichlids originated in Lake
Tanganyika, and from there the dish
invaded African rivers and Lakes
Malawi and Victoria. Lake Victoria’s
400 species have been linked to an
invasion by ancestral cichlids
~200,000 years ago.

Like all organisms, animals are names and classified into a hierarchy of
relatedness. Karl von Linne (1707 – 1778) or Carolus Linnæus, proposed the
Binomial Nomenclature: which includes the genus and the species name of an
organism e.g. e.g. Felis domesticus, Canis familiaris. Organisms in the same
species are more closely related than organism in the same genus and so on.
Remember the taxonomic group: species, genus, family, order, class and so on.
In naming, how much DNA are shared has been aside from variations in traits
are important to include in the classification of an organism. When zoologists
classify animals into taxonomic groupings, they are making hypotheses about the
extent to which groups of animals share DNA, even when they study variations in
traits like color patterns, behaviors, because these kinds of traits ultimately are
based on the genetic material.

Evolutionary concepts hold the key to understanding why animals look and act in
their unique ways, live in their particular geopgraphical regions and habitats, and
share characteristics with other related animals.
 Example of Hierarchy of Relatedness:

Figure 1.9. The classification of a housefly, horsefly, cichlid fish and human illustrates
how the classficiation system depicts degree of relatedness.

E. An Ecological Perspective

Ecology (Greek oikos, house and logos, to study) is the study of relationships between
organisms and their environment. Central to this relationship is dependence (or
interdependence) of one animal to another animal or vice-versa. Humans (animal higher
taxa) depend on animals (lower taxa) for food, medicines and clothing. However, human
activities upset the ecological balances.

Let’s take a look at this ecological situation as an example. In the 1950’s, the giant Nile
perch (Lates niloticus) was introduced into Lake Victoria (in Africa) in an attempt to
increase the lake’s fishery, for human consumption. This voracious predator reduced
the cichlid population from 99% to less thatn 1% of the total fish population and has
resulted in the extinction of many cichlid species. Because many of the cichlids fed on
algae, the algae in the lake grew uncontrolled. When algae died and decayed, much of
the lake became depleted of its oxygen. To make matters worse, when Nile perce are
caught, their excessively oily flesh must be dried. Fishermen cut local forests for the
wood needed to smoke the fish. This practice has resulted in severe deforestation
around Lake Victoria. The resulting runoff of soin into the lake has caused further
degradation.
World Population and its Resources

Over all, there are two main problems that are the focus of our ecological concerns: 1)
global overpopulation and 2) the exploitation of world resources.

1) Overpopulation
Global overpopulation is at the root of virtually all other environmental problems.
Human population growth is expected to continue in the the 21 st century. It is estimated
that the world population will reach 10.4 billion by the year 2100. As the human
population grows, the disparity between the wealthiest and the poorest natons is likely
to increase. This will have negative implications in the space we live in, in the resources
we have and the pollution we will cause to the environment.

2) Exploitation of world resources

Human overpopulation is stressing world resources. Continued use of fossil fuels add
more carbon dioxide to that atmosphere, contributing to the greenhouse effect and
global warming. Deforestation of large areas of the world results from continued
demand for forest products and fuel. This trend may result in the extinction of many
plant and animal species, especially in tropical forest. If forest are left unpreserved,
identification of new species of plants and animals that could be important human
resources (new food, drugs, building materials, predators of pests) will no longer be
feasible.

b)

Figure 1.10. A Brazilian tropical rain forest. a)

before and b) after clean-cutting to make way for
agriculture

a)
Summary of Lesson 1.
1. Zoology is the study of animals. A broad field of specializations and
subdisciplines.
2. Animals share a common evolutionary past and evolutionary forces that influence
their history.
3. Evolution explains how the diversity of animals arose.
4. Evolutionary relationships are the basis for the classification of animals into a
hierarchical system. The classification is binomial nomenclature. Higher level of
classification denote more distinct evolutionary relationships
5. All animals share a common environment, and ecological principles help us to
understand how animals interact within that environment
6. Human overpopulation is at the root of virtually all other environmental problems,
stresses world resources and results in pollution, global warming, deforestation,
and the extinction of many plant and animal species.

Assessment:

Short Quiz
Direction. For items 1-4, select the best answer that pertains to the unifying principles in
zoology. For items 5-8, give the correct answer.

Items 1-4 options:

a. organic evolution
b. common descent
c. gradualism
d. phylogeny

1. All life forms descended from a common ancestor through a branching lineage.
2. Large differences in anatomical traits that characterize different species originate
through the accumulation of many small incremental changes over very long
periods of time.
3. The origin and diversification of any taxon or the evolutionary history of its origin
and diversification.
4. Changed in the population of organisms over time.
Options.

5. Give one example of feature/trait of an organism displaying evolutionary process.

6. Root of all environmental problems in an ecological perspective.
7. Give at least one evolutionary perspective.
8. A tree diagram showing taxonomic relationship based on evolutionary history.

Thinking questions:
1. How is zoology related to biology? What major biological concepts, in addition to
evolution and ecology, are unifying principles within the two disciplines?
 2. Why should people in all parts of the world be concerned with the extinction of
cichlids in Lake Victoria?
Lesson 2: Levels of Organizations in Animal
Complexity
Objectives:
1. Recall cell as the most basic unit of life
2. Review the functions of the different cell organelles
3. Differentiate the types of animal tissue
4. Define organ and organ systems

Content and Discussion:

Because all animals are made of cells, the cell is as fundamental to an understanding of
zoology.

Figure 2.1. The cell and its

organelles.

The cells is the fundamental unit of life, in which all of the chemical reactions necessary
for the maintenance and reproduction of life take place. It is the smallest independent
unit of life. Structurally, it is either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Discovered fist by Robert
Hooke and was described to be a boxlike cavities in slices of cork and leaves which he
referred calling as “little boxes of cells”.

General Differences of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes:
• “Before nucleus”
• Independent, single-celled organisms (e.g. bacteria)
• Describes cells in which DNA is localized in a region but is not bound by a
membrane
Eukaryotes:
• “true nucleus”
• Have cells with a membrane-bound nucleus containing DNA
• Contain other structures called organelles (“little organs) that perform specific
functions
• Have a network of specialized structures called filaments and tubules organized
into the cytoskeleton (shape + intracellular movements)

Three Basic Parts of Eukaryotic Cell

1. Plasma membrane – outer boundary of the cell; separates the internal metabolic
events from the environment and allows them to proceed in organized, controlled
ways; has specific receptors for external molecules that alter the cell’s function
2. Cytoplasm – (Gk. Kytos . Hollow vessel + plasm, fluid) portion of the cell outside
the nucleus; semifluid potion of the cytoplasm is called the cytosol; suspended
within the cytosol are the organelles
3. Nucleus – cell control center; contains the chromosomes; separated from the
cytoplasm by its nuclear envelope; the nucleoplasm is the semi-fluid material in
the nucleus
Why are most cells small?
• Ratio of the volume of the cell’s nucleus to the volume of its cytoplasm must not
be so small so that the nucleus can control the cytoplasm
• Cell volume to limit cell size; If cell volume becomes too large, the surface-area-
to-volume ratios is too small for an adequate exchange of nutrients and wastes
 Figure 2.2. Surface
Area:Volume (SA/V)
Ratio of a Cell.

Cell Membranes:
1. Plasma membrane surrounds the cell
2. Other membranes inside the cells enclose some organelles and have properties
similar to the plasma membrane

Structure of cell membranes:

• S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson (1972)– fluid-mosaic model of
membrane structure
• A double layer of proteins and phospholipids, and is fluid rather than solid.
1. One polar end (hydrophilic) and one nonpolar end (hydrophobic)
2. Cholesterol is present in the plasma membrane and organelle membranes of
eukaryotic cells
3. Membrane proteins are individual proteins attached to the inner or outer
membrane surface (peripheral proteins) or embedded in it (intrinsic proteins).
4. When carbohydrates unite with proteins= glycoproteins, with lipids= glycolipids
on the surface of a plasma membrane. Glycocalyx = surface
CHO+proteins+lipids for cell-to-cell recognition cell behavior coordination
Figure 2.3. Fluid-mosaic model and the arrangement of cholesterol between lipid molecules of
a lipid bilayer. Above image. It depicts the double later of phospholipid molecules of the cell
membrane with the structures embedded in, on and through it. Below Image. Cholesterol
stiffens the outer lipid bilayer and causes the inner region of the bilayer to become slightly
more fluid. Only half the lipid bilayer is shown; the other half is the mirror image.
Functions of cell membranes:
1. Regulate material moving into and out of the cell and from one part of the cell to
another
2. Separate the inside of the cell from the outside
3. Separate various organelles within the cell
4. Provide a large surface area on which specific chemical reactions can occur
5. Separate cells from one another
6. Sites for receptors containing specific cell identification markers that differentiate
one cell type from another

Additional Concepts:
• The ability of the plasma membrane to let some substances in and let others out
is called selective permeability, essential for cellular homeostasis (latin
permeare or per, through + meare, pass)
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
despite fluctuations in the external environment (Greek homeo, always the same
+ stasis, standing)

Different types of movement across plasma membranes

 1. Simple diffusion-
molecules move
randomly from areas
where they are highly
concentrated to areas of
lover concentration

2. Facilitated diffusion- Polar

molecules may diffuse
through protein channels
(pores) in the lipid bilayer.
The porein channels offer a
continuous pathway for
specific molecules to move
across the plasma
membrane so that they
never come into contact
with hydrophobic layer or
the membrane’s polar
surface

3. Osmosis - the diffusion of

water across a selectively
permeable membrane from
an area of higher
concentration to an area of
lower concentration

Isotonic - solute concentration is

the same inside and outside. The
concentration of water molecules
is also the same inside and
outside of the cell
Hypertonic- the solute
concentration is higher outside the
RBC than inside.
Hypotonic – the solute
concentration is lower outside the
RBC inside.
 4. Filtration- process that
forces small molecules
across selectively
permeable membranes
with the aid of
hydrostatic (water
pressure) or externally
applied force such as
blood pressure. e.g. Frog
capillaries, kidneys (blood
pressure forces water out
of the blood vessles and
into the kidney tubules,
5. Active transport- move molecules
urine formation)
4. and other substances across a
selectively permeable membrane
against a concentration gradient-
that is from an area of lower
concentration to one of higher
concentration, requires ATP energy
6. Endocytosis – substance move across the plasma membrane which involves bulk movement of materials across
the plasma membrane, rather than the movement of individual molecules

a. Pinocytosis - (“cell drinking” from “pinein” – to drink) when a small portion of the plasma membrane indents
(invaginates) forming a small vesicle and moves into cytoplasm

b. Phagocytosis (“cell eating” from “phagein” to eat) similar to pinocytosis except that the cell takes in solid
material rather than liquid. A lysosome combines with the vesicle to form a phagolysosome

c. Receptor- mediated endocytosis – involves a specific receptor protein on the plasma membrane that recognizes
an extracellular molecule and binds with it. This reaction somehow stimulates the membrane to indent and create
a vesicle containing the selected molecule. A variety of important molecules (such as cholesterol) are brought into
cells in this manner.

7. Exocytosis: Golgi apparatus packages proteins and other molecules that the cell produces into vesicles fro
secretion. In the process of exocytosis, these secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular environment.
Cytoplasm, Organelles and Cellular Ccomponents

1. Cytoplasm
2 parts: a) cytomembrane system – well-defined structures (ER, GA, vacuoles,
vesicles; b) cytosol – fluid suspends the structures of the cytomembrane system and
contains various dissolved molecules
2. Ribosomes
-non-membrane bound structures
-sites for protein synthesis
-contain ~equal amounts of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
-some attach to the ER; some float freely: cluster in groups connected by a strand of
messenger RNA (mRNA) called polyribosomes or polysomes
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): production and transport
-complex, membrane-bound labyrinth of flattened sheets, sacs and tubules that
branches and spreads throughout the cytoplasm
-continuous from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane
-series of channels that helps various materials to circulate throughout the cytoplasm
-storage unit for enzymes and other proteins, point of attachment for ribosomes
-Two types: a) rough ER: with attached ribosome, and b) smooth ER: site for lipid
production, detoxification of organic mol, storage of Ca ions in muscle cells
4. Golgi Apparatus (GA) or complex: packaging, sorting, export
-named after Camillo Golgi, 1898
-collection of membranes associated physically and functionally with the ER in the
cytoplasm
-flattened stacks of membrane-bound cisternae (closed spaces serving as fluid
reservoirs)
-sorts, packs, secretes proteins and lipids
-e.g. pancreatic cells secreting digestive enzymes, nerve cells: neutotransmitters
5. Lysosomes: Digestion and degradation
-(Greek lyso, dissolving + soma, body)
-membrane-bound spherical organelles that contain enzymes called acid hydrolases,
which digest organic molecules (lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides)
under acidic conditions
6. Mitochondria: power generators, powerhouse of the cell
-double-membrane-bound, spherical to elongate in share
-small space separates the outer membrane from the inner
-inner membrane folds and doubles in on itself to form incomplete partitiosn called
cristae
-cristae increases the SA available for the chemical reactions that trap usable energy for
the cell space between cristae: matrix, containing ribosomes, circular DNA, and others
7. Cytoskeleton: Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments, Microfilaments
-latticed framework extends throughout the cytoplasm, connecting various organelles
and cellular components
a) Microtubules: hollow, slender, cylindrical structures in animals cells
-subunit of globular proteins: tubulin
-Function: 1) movement of organelles, e.g. SV and in chromosome movt during cell
nucleus division 2) part of transport system within the cells e.g. in nerve cells 3) overall
shape changes that cells undergo during periods of specialization
b) Intermediate filaments – chemically heterogeneous group of protein fibers, the
specific proteins of which can vary with cell type
 -help maintain cell shape and spatial organization of organelles
-promote mechanical activities within the cytoplasm
c) Microfilaments – solid strings of protein (actin) molecules
-actin: most highly developed in muscle cells as myofibrils helping muscle cells shorten
of contract but in nonmuscle cells, providing mechanical support for cellular structures
and help contractile systems responsible for some cellular movements (e.g. amoeboid
movement)
8. Centrioles and Microtubule-organizing Center
-specialized nonmembranous regions of cytoplasm near the nucleus
-centers of dense material give rise to a large no. of microtubules with different functions
in the cytoskeleton e.g. gives rise to centriole
9. Vacuoles: Cell maintenance
-membranous sacs, part of the cytomembrane system
-various functions, e.g. protozoa and sponges have contractile vacuoles that collect
water and pump it to the outside to maintain the organisms’ internal envt; others for food
storage
10. Nucleus – Information Center
• Control and the information center for the eukaryotic cell
• 2 major functions:
a) directs chemical reactions in cells by transcribing genetic information from DNA into
RNA, which then translates this specific info into proteins (e.g. enzymes) that determine
the cell’s specific activities and
b) stores genetic info and transfers it during cell division from one cell to the next and
from one generation of organisms to the next
Parts/Contents
• Nuclear envelope – membrane separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm that is
continuous with the ER at a no. of points
-nuclear pore: over 3000 for direct contact with the ER; each is composed of an ordered
array of globular and filamentous granules (proteins) which forms the nuclear pore
complex which governs the transport of molecules;
• Chromosomes:
-nucleoplasm: inner mass of the nucleus; contain genetic material, chromatin
-uncoiled chromatin containing hereditary information in segments of DNA called genes
• Nucleolus: preassembly point for ribosomes
-nonmembrane bound structure in the nucleoplasm that is present in nondividing cells
-preassembly points for ribosomes and usually contain proteins and RNA in many
stages of synthesis and assembly

Below are images of the organelles and their parts (Miller-Harley 2001).
  Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Ribosomes in Rough ER
 Smooth ER

 Golgi Apparatus
 How proteins are transported
from ribosomes to ER to GA
via vesicles

 Lysosome formation and

function
 Mitochondria

 Cytoskeleton – Microtubule,
Intermediate Filament, and
Microfilament

 Nucleolus
Tissues
 group of similar cells specialized for the performance of a common function
 classified into four types:
1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscle
4. nervous

1. Epithelial Tissue
 -many structural forms
-generally, covers or lines something and typically consists of renewable sheets
of cells that have surface specializations adapted for their specific roles
-usually, a basement membrane separates it from underlying adjacent tissues
-Functions: 1) absorb (small intestine lining), 2) transport (kidney tubules) 3)
excrete (sweat glands) 4) protect (skin) and 5) contain nerve cells fro sensory
reception (taste buds) and so the size, shape and arrangement are directly
related
-Classified on the basis of shape and no. of layers:
1) simple: one layer of cells
2) stratified: two or more stacked layers
-individuals cells can be flat, cube or columnlike

2. Connective Tissues
-support and bind
-distributed throughout an extracellular matrix (unlike epithelial) which contains
fibers embedded in a ground substance with a consistency from liquid to solid
-Two General Types:
a) Loose: strong flexible fibers of the protein collagen are interwoven with fine,
elastic, and reticular fibers giving its elastic consistency making it a binding tissue
(e.g. binding the skin to muscle tissue)
b) Fibrous: the collagen fibers are densely packed and lie parallel to one another,
creating a very strong cords such as tendons (connect muscles to bones or to
other muscles) and ligaments (bones to bones)
Specific Examples:
• Adipose Tissue; loose connective tissue that consists of large cells that store
lipids; cells accumulate in large nos. to form fats
• Cartilage: hard yet flexible tissue that supports such structures as the outer ear
and forms the entire skeleton of such as animals as sharks and rays
Chondrocytes – cells lie within spaces call lacunae that are surrounded by a
rubbery matrix that chondroblasts secrete
• Bone cells: (osteocytes) lie within lacunae but the matrix around them is heavily
impregnated with calcium phosphate making it hard suitable for support and
protection
• Blood: a connective tissue in which a fluid called plasma suspends specialized
RBCs and WBCs and platelets; transports various subsstances

3. Muscle Tissue
-for movement
-a contractile process
-three kinds: 1) smooth 2) skeletal 3) cardiac

4. Nervous Tissue
-for communication
 -composed of several different types of cells:
1) neurons: impulse-conducting cells: 2) involved with protection, support and
nourishment are called neuroglia; 3) cells that form sheaths and help protect,
nourish and maintain cells of the peripheral nervous system are called
peripheral glial cells

General Types of Tissues (images from Miller-Harley 2001)

Organs
 Functional units of an animal’s body that are made up of more than one type of
tissue
 Heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys

Organ Systems
 Association of organs that together perform an overall function
 The highest organization is the: organismic level
 In the higher vertebrate:
a) integumentary
b) skeletal
c) muscular
d) nervous
e) endocrine
f) circulatory
g) lymphatic
h) respiratory
i) digestive
j) urinary
k) reproductive
Cell division and Inheritance
Concepts:
1. The genetic material is organized into chromosomes. Chromosome may be
represented differently in males and females. However, the number of
chromosomes is constant for a given species.
2. Mitosis is the form of cell division that results in growth and repair processes. It
ensures an orderly and accurate distribution of chromosomes during cell cycle.
Cytokinesis results in the division of the cytoplasm.
3. Meiosis is the form of cell division that results in the formation of gametes. It
reduces the chromosome number by half and allows for the random distribution
of one member of each pair of parental chromosomes to the offspring.
4. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA is the genetic material of the cell. Its double helix
structure suggests how it can replicate itself and how it can code for the
sequences of amino acids that make proteins.
5. Proteins synthesis involves two processes. Transcription is the production of a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that is complementary to a gene in DNA.
Translation is the assembly of proteins at the ribosomes based on the genetic
information in the transcribed mRNA.
6. Changes in DNA and chromosomes increase the variation within a species and
account for evolutionary process.
7. Principles of classical genetics explain the inheritance patterns of many animal
traits, including dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
8. Many alternative forms of a gene may exist in a population, and these alternative
forms may interact in different ways.
9. Patterns of inheritance observed at an organismal level are explained at a
molecular level by the presence or absence of functional enzymes.

Assessment:

Short Quiz: (link for the google form will be given in case)
Direction: Fill in the blanks for the movement of molecules through the cytomembrane
system. (2 points each item).
1. _________________________ that ribosomes synthesize are sealed off in
little packets called 2. _____________________ . 3. __________________ pass from
the 4. __________________ , and then to the 5. ___________________ and fuse with
it. In GA, proteins are concentrated and 6. _____________________ . Proteins then are
packaged into 7. __________________________ and released into the 8. __________
close to the plasma membrane. Secretory vesicles fuse with 9. _______________ and
release contents to the outside via 10. __________________________ .

Homework:
Topic: Organ Systems
Direction: In the google classroom, you will be assigned an individual work. You will be
given a specific set of organ system and discuss it with the following guide questions.
Format is TNR, 12, A4-size, 1-inch margin. Write your name, subject and section, and
date submitted.
1. Describe concisely the overall function of the system. File name should be as
follows: HW1_LastName_OrganSystems
2. Enumerate the major parts of the system.
3. Give the main function of each part in relation to the overall function of the
system. If there are other functions being performed, identify them.
4. Explain the interconnectedness of the system to other systems, if any.
Lesson 3: Evolution: A Historical Perspective
and the Modern Synthesis
Objectives:
1. Define evolution
2. Discuss pre-Darwininan, Darwinian and modern synthesis

Content and Discussion:

General Description/Definition:

Organic Evolution
 introduced by Charles Darwin
 refer to as “descent with modification” which means species change over time
 evolution by itself does not imply any particular lineage or any particular
mechanism, evidence for change in organisms over long time periods is
overwhelming
 natural selection is the mechanism for evolution

Evidences of Evolution in 4 Disciplines

1. Biogeography –
 Study of the geographic distribution of plants and animals
 Studies why organisms distributed as they are
 Shows that life-forms in different parts of the world have distinctive
evolutionary histories: 1) similar groups of organisms live in different
places separated by impenetrable barriers 2) organisms separated by
geographical barriers are very different in spite of similar
 Studies why oceanic islands have relatively few, but unique, resident
species: island colonization and subsequent evolutionary events (different
from ancestral mainland groups)

In modern evolutionary biology, geologic events such as volcanic activity, great

landmasses movement, climatic changes and geologic uplift are important in creating
and removing barriers to the movements of plants and animals. See images below for
examples evolution influenced by biogeographic factors.
 Miller-Harley 2001

Figure 3.1. Geographical distribution of lions. a. African lion (Panthera leo) has a similar ecological role
as b. mountain lion (Felis concolor) of north and south America. Their similar form suggests a distant
common ancestry. Obvious differences, however result from millions of years of independent evolution.
c. distribution of lions found in Africa and North, South America.

Figure 3.2. Six biogeographic

regions. Barriers, such as oceans,
mountain ranges, and deserts
separate biogeographic regions of
the world. a. Sahara and Arabian
deserts separate the Ethiopian and
Palearctic regions, b. Himalayan
mountains, c. Deep ocean channels
separate the Oriental and Australian
regions, d. Mountains of southern
Mexico and Mexico’s tropical
lowlands separate the Nearctic and
Neotropical regions.
2. Paleontology –
 Greek palaios, old + on, existing + logos, to study
 Study of fossil record, provides some of the most direct evidence
 Fossils: evidence of plants and animals that existed in the past that have
become incorporated into the earth’s crust (e.g. rock or mineral)

Figure 3.3. First fossil ever found.

Figure 3.4. Reconstruction of an

evolutionary lineage from evidence
in the fossil record. Evolution of a
horse from a dog-sized animal with
four prominent toes on each foot. A
single middle digit of the toe and
vestigial digits on either side of that
remain in modern horses.
3. Comparative Anatomy –
 Subdiscipline of zoology that is fundamentally based on the resemblance
of one structure of an animal to that of another animal due to a common
evolutionary origin
 Structures derived from common ancestry is called homologous (e.g.
bones of vertebrate appendages)

Figure 3.5. Homologous structures.

Vertebrate appendages have a
common arrangement of similar bones
even though the function of the
appendages may vary.

• Convergent evolution- occurs when two unrelated organisms adapt to similar

conditions, resulting in superficial similarities in structure
• Analogous – similar function but dissimilar origin (e.g. wing of a bird and wing of
an insect are both adaptations for flight)
• Vestigial – retained structures that have lost their usefulness thus poorly
developed (e.g. boa constrictors have minute remnants of hindlimb bones left
over from a reptilian ancestors)

Figure 3.6. Analogous structure. Not

all simialarities indicate homology,
some are just analogous.
 4. Molecular Biology –
 Structure and function are based on the genetic blueprint found in all living
animals: the DNA molecule
 Related animals = similar DNA (derived from ancestors)
 Proteins, mutation rates

In summary, biogeography, paleontology, comparative anatomy and molecular

biology have all generated impressive documentation of evolution since the initial
studies of Darwin. Evolutionary theory has influenced zoology like no other single
theory which has impressed fundamental unity of all biology.

Theories of Evolution
1. Pre-darwinian
2. Lamarck
3. Charles Darwin
4. Alfred Russel Wallace
5. Modern Synthesis

1. Pre-darwinian –
 Ancient Greeks and philosphers
 Empedocles (495 – 435 B.C.) and Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.): concepts of
change in living organisms over time
 Georges-Louis Buffon (1707 – 1788) studied comparative anatomy
 Erasmus Darwin (1731 – 1802), physician who questions origin and
change; believed in the common ancestry of all organisms

2. Lamark –
 Jean Baptise Lamarck, French zoologist
 Animal Classification
 Theory of how change occurs: “species are not constant and that existing
species were derived from preexisting species”
 1800’s, Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics- use of an organ
resulted in that organ becoming highly developed and that disuse resulted
to degeneration
 Now, found to be an incorrect theory since neck elongation did not
originate as changes in the genetic material

Figure 3.7. Lamarck’s theory of

evolution as shown by the neck
elongation of giraffe
 3. Charles Darwin – (1809-1882)

Figure 3.8. Voyage of the HMS Beagle. Darwin went to the Galapagos Island where he
observed animals and soon proposed the theory of evolution.
 Galapagos Island as basis for his theory of evolution by natural selection
 The inset shows two of the islands 1) Ferdinandina and Isabela (Wolf,
Darwin, Alcedo)
 He spent 5 weeks on the Galapagos Islands, a group od volcanic islands
900 km off the coast of Ecuador

Early Development of Darwin’s ideas of Evolution

• Geology
-Uniformitarianism (James Hutton): forces of wind, rain, rivers, volcanoes and geological
uplift shape the earth today just as they have been in the past
1) The earth could be much older than 6000 yrs
2) If the face of the earth changed gradually over long periods, could not living
forms also change during that time?
• Fossil Evidence
-Fossils of an extinct hippopotamus-like animal now called Toxodon, and horselike
animal, Thoantherium (different from animals living in the region)

In the Galapagos Island, Darwin observed animals including:

1) Tortoises distinct differences inspite of being similar, Geochelone elephantopus
2) Finches - Adaptive radiation which is the formation of new forms from an
ancestral species in response to the opening of new habitats
Figure 3.9. Observations of Darwin. a)
short-necked tortoise, b) long-necked
tortoise c) finches

Adaptations are characteristics that increases the potential of an organism or species to

successfully reproduce in a specified environment. Fitness is a measure of the capacity
for successful reproduction in a given environment.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

1. Individuals making up a population of a species are not identical.
2. Some variations are heritable.
3. All populations have the potential to populate the whole earth.
4. Different ancestors leave different numbers of descendants.
5. The number of descendants that an individual leaves depends, not entirely but
crucially, on the interaction between the characteristics of the individual and its
environment.

4. Alfred Russel Wallace –

 Explorer of Amazon Valley, led a zoological expedition to the Malay
Archipelago
 After writing his theory, he sent it to Darwin
 Both were published in the Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnaean
Society in 1859
 Almost the same theories with Darwin but with notable differences
 Every evolutionary modification was a product of selection, thus, had to be
adaptive for the organism
 Darwin: natural selection may not explain all evolutionary changes
  Stopped short of attributing human intellectual functions and the ability to
make moral judgments to evolution

“I shall always maintain [the theory of evolution by natural selection] to be actually yours
and yours only. You had worked it out in details I had never thought of years before I
had a ray of light on the subject.”
-Wallace to Darwin

5. Modern Synthesis –
A. Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
B. Evolutionary Mechanism
C. Species and Speciation
D. Rates of Evolution
E. Molecular Evolution
F. Mosaic Evolution

Definition of modern synthesis of evolution:

How does natural selection operates?
1. Acting upon the phenotype (physical traits) of the individual organism
2. Acting upon the genes (genotype)
• Population – individuals of the same species that occupy a given area at the
same time and share a unique set of genes
• Organic Evolution – change in the frequency of alleles in a population or the
change in the total genetic makeup of a population (gene pool)

*Notice that the definition of organic evolution has changed from the Darwinian theory.
In modern synthesis,
 Understanding genetics: why variations exist and how to pass on
 Genetic variation: may confer advantage to individuals
 Crossing-over, multiple alleles and mutations add to variations
 No two individuals are genetically identical except for twins
 Chance combinations of genes

A. Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
 1908, Godfrey H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg
 The mixing of alleles at meiosis and their subsequent recombination do not alter
the frequencies of the alleles in future generations, if certain assumptions are
met
 Assumptions:
1. The population size must be large.
2. Mating within the population must be random.
3. Individuals cannot migrate into, or out of, the population.
4. Mutations must occur.
B. Evolutionary Mechanisms:
 Four Types: genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and selection
 Evolution is a result of some individuals in a population surviving and being more
effective at reproducing than others in a population, leading to changes in gene
frequencies.
 Smaller the population, more significant chance there may be,

1. Population Size, Genetic Drift and Neutral Selection

 Genetic Drift- a) chance events influencing the frequencies of genes in
population; b) often called the neutral selection because gene frequencies are
changing independently of natural selection; and c) chance may result to a
particular allele increasing or decreasing in frequency
 Inbreeding- likely to reduce genetic variation within a population

Figure 3.10. Genetic Drift. The results

of genetic drift can either be 1) loss of
genetic diversity (left column), and 2) a
new, equally adaptive allele may
become established in a population
(right column).
Two special cases of genetic drift have influenced the genetic makeup of some
populations:
1. Founder effect- new colony emerges from the founding individuals that is likely to
have a distinctive genetic makeup with far less variation than the larger
population

Figure 3.11. Founder Effect (image by

MGQDiaz, UPLB)

Example: The Dunkers

 Small, isolated, religious community (marriage within group)
 Emigrated from German Rhineland to Pennsylvania
 Examination of certain traits such as ABO blood type in their population reveals
very different gene frequencies from the Dunker population of Germany

2. Bottleneck effect- When the number of individuals in a population is drastically

reduced

Figure 3.12. Bottleneck effect (image

by MGQDiaz, UPLB)

Example: Cheetah population

 Depleted populations have reduced genetic diversity to the point hat even if
populations are restored, a remnant of the original gene pool is seen
 Figure 3.11. Cheetah population as an example of bottleneck effect (Miller-Harley 2001)

2. Gene Flow/Migration
• Immigration or emigration results in changes in gene frequencies
• Can decrease genetic variation in a pop by working towards same direction as
other evolutionary forces
• Can increase variation if it puts back in the pop the genes because of other
processes

3. Mutation- are changes in the structure of genes and chromosomes

HWE assumes: No mutation occurs or mutation equilibrium exists (when a mutation

from the wild-type allele to a mutant form is balanced by mutation from the mutant back
to the wild type)
• Origin of all new genes and a major source of genetic variation
• Increases the likelihood that variations will be present
• Random events
• Deleterious, neutral or harmful
• Mutation pressure- measure of the tendency for gene frequencies to change
through mutation

4. Selection- wide variety of mechanisms that affect the reproductive success of a

genotype
 • Could occur at the gametic or zygotic levels
• Actually acts on the phenotype and not on the genotype
• Selection pressure- tendency for natural selection to occur and upsent HWE

Three Modes of Selection

1. Directional Selection- occurs when individuals at one phenotypic extreme are at
a disadvantage compared to all other individuals in the population
e.g. industrial melanism of Biston betularia in England
 Gray 99% prior to industrialization but after industrialization gray phenotype id
deleterious and black frequency increases to 95%
 Gray was considered the extreme phenotype and was deleterious
2. Disruptive selection-involves circumstances selecting against individuals of an
intermediate phenotype which produces distinct subpopulations.
Snails with a range of shell colors of white and dark brown with 2 backgrounds
(pulverized mollusk shell and rock outcroppings), so intermediate is selected
because it is least able to camouflaged in both backgrounds
3. Stabilizing selection- when both phenotypic extremes are deleterious, phenotypic
range is narrowed
During long periods of environmental constancy, new variation arises which are
less fitted and tested compared to the existing variation

Figure 3.12. Three

modes of selection
The Controversy: Neutralist or Selectionist
 Most recognize that both natural selection (external factor) and neutral selection
(genetic factor i.e. mutation) occur but not equally important in all circumstances
 E.g. during long periods when envt are relatively constant, and stabilizing
selection is acting on phenotypes, neutral selection may operate at the molecular
level (certain genes could be randomly established)
 As envt changes, directional or disruptive selection operates resulting in gene
frequency changes

C. Species and Speciation

Biological Species Concept - a species is a group of populations in which genes are

potentially exchanged through interbreeding producing fertile offspring.

Caveats:
1. Some organisms do not reproduce sexually (e.g. microbes)
2. When applied to fossil material (dead organisms)
3. Populations of similar organisms may be so isolated from each other the gene
exchange is geographically impossible

So, taxonomists should use morphological, physiological, embryological, behavioral,

molecular and ecological concepts. Remember that ALL of these have a genetic basis.

Speciation- formation of new species

-reproductive isolation: subpopulations are prevented from interbreeding
-natural selection and genetic drift can result in evolution
Reproductive Isolating mechanism
1. Pre-zygotic (or Premating) - prevents mating from taking place (e.g. geographic
barriers and behavioral barriers such as courtship in birds and temporal barriers
such as different breeding periods)
2. Post-zygotic (or Postmating) - mating occurred but prevents successful
fertilization and development (e.g. conditions in the reproductive tract, hybrids
are sterile, mismatched chromosomes, produced inviable gametes,
developmental failures of the embryo)

Allopatric Speciation
 occurs when subpopulations become geographically isolated from one another
Parapatric Speciation
 occurs in small, local populations called demes
 E.g. all of the frogs in a particular pond or all of the sea urchins in a particular
tidepool make up a deme
 Individuals of a deme a re more likely to breed with one another than with others
 Same envt, same pressure
 Demes – not completely isolated from each other
 Relative isolation means its members experience different selection pressures
than other members of a population

Sympatric Speciation
 occurs within a single population in the same area
 -though organisms are sympatric, they still may be reproductively isolated from
one another.
 -plant species producing viable forms with multiple sets of chromosomes
 -uncommon to animals but some species of bats and insect and fish display this

D. Rates of Evolution
 1) Phyletic gradualism- evolutionary change as occurring gradually over millions
of years which traditionally interprets the tempo or rate of evolution
 Stasis (or equilibrium)- studies of fossil record show that many species do not
change significantly over millions of years
  2) Punctuated equilibrium- long periods of stasis interrupted by brief periods of
change

Figure 3.13. Two

general rates of
evolution.

E. Molecular Evolution
 Evolutionary relationships among organisms by studying DNA and protein e.g.
cytochrome c
 Gene Duplication- accidental duplication of a gene on a chromosome; one way
that extra gene material can arise e.g. vertebrate hemoglobin (carries O2) and
myoglobin (O2 storage molecule in muscle cells)
F. Mosaic Evolution
 A species is a mosaic of different molecules and structures that have evolved at
different rates.
 Some are conserved; Some changed rapidl e.g. design of a bird (feathers, bills,
body form);
 Particular parts are less conservative and have a higher rate of change e.g.
wings have been modified for hovering, soaring and swimming while legs for
wading, swimming and perching

Assessment:

Short Quiz:
1. What is the general definition of evolution in Darwinian era?
2. In modern synthesis, define evolution.
3. Enumerate disciplines as evidences for evolution.
4-11 Identify which Evolutionary/genetic mechanism each item refers to.
4. range of mechanisms
5. could occur at the gametic or zygotic levels
6. can decrease genetic variation in a population as well as increase that variation if
genes where put back
7. Dunkers
8. cytosine changes into guanine in a gene segment
9. the case of cheetah population
10. affects the reproductive success of a genotype
11. What is a species?
Lesson 4: Ecology: Preserving the Animal
Kingdom
Objectives:
1. Cite some interactions prevailing between animals and its abiotic
environment
2. Define population
3. Enumerate interspecific interactions among animals
4. Give the unique attributes of communities
5. Demonstrate actions to resolve ecological problems

Content:

A. Animals and their Abiotic Environment

B. Populations
C. Interspecific Interactions
D. Communities
E. Ecological Problems

A. Animals and their Abiotic Environment

Habitat
 Refers to the environment including all living and nonliving characteristics of the
area in which the animal lives
 Abiotic- oxygen, inorganic ions, light, T, current, wind velocity
 Tolerance range - certain range of values for any envt’l factor that animals can
thrive
 range of optimum- a certain range of values within the tolerance range where the
animal is most successful
 Figure 4.1. Tolerance
range of an animal

Energy
 Refers to the ability to do work (foraging, cellular activities)
 Heterotrophic- animals ingesting other animals
 Autotrophic- photosynthesizing or other carbon-fixing activities that supply their
own food source

Figure 6.2. Energy budgets of animals. The

gross energy intake of an animal is the sum of
energy lost in excretory pathways plus energy
assimilated for existence and productive
functions. The relative sizes of the boxes in
this diagram are not necessarily proportional
to the amount of energy devoted to each
function. An animal’s gross energy intake, and
thus, the amount of energy devoted to
productive functions, depends on various
internal and external factors (e.g. time of year
and reproductive status).

Temperature
 An animal expends part of its existence energy in regulating body temperature
 Temperature influences the rates of chemical reactions in animal cells (metabolic
rate) and affects animal’s overall activity
 Not constant due to heat loss and gain
  Torpor- time of decreased metabolism and lowered body T that occurs in bats,
hummingbirds who must feed constantly when they are active
 Hibernation- time of decreased metabolism and lowered body T that may last for
weeks or months. e.g. rodents, shreds, bats
 Winter sleep- in larger animals; large energy are reserved through periods of
winter inactivity
 Aestivation- period of inactivity that must withstand an extended periods of drying
(e.g. invertebrates, reptiles amphibians)

B. Populations
-defined as the group of individuals of the same species that occupy a given area at the
same time and have unique attributes

Population Growth
 Change over time as a result of birth, death and dispersal
 Survivorship curves- characterize a population based in death of individuals
 Population growth- the potential for a population to increase in numbers of
individuals in an exponential growth
Four factors influencing reproductive potential
1. Number of offspring produced
2. Likelihood of survival to reproductive age
3. Duration of the reproductive period
4. Length of time to maturity

Environmental resistance – refers to the constraints that climate, food, space and other
environmental factors place on a population

Population Regulation
- to regulate the population, its density is considered
Factors:
1. Density-independent factors- influence the no. of animals in a population without
regard to the no. of individuals per unit space (density)
2. Density-dependent factors- more severe when population density is high than
they are at other densities

Intraspecific Competition
 Competition occurs when animals utilize similar resources and in some way
interfere with each other’s procurement of those resources
 Intraspecific competition refers to competition among members of the same
species; often intense

C. Interspecific Competition

Members of other species can affect all characteristics of a population. Interspecific

interactions include herbivory, predation, competition, coevolution and symbiosis.
Animals often do not interact with other animals in only one way. The nature of
interspecific interactions may change as an animal matures, or as seasons or the
environment changes.

Herbivory- animals feed on plants by cropping portions of the plant

Predation- feed by killing and eating other organisms
Interspecific competition- when members of different species compete for resources,
Effects: 1) one species may be forced to move or become extinct
2) two species may share the resource and coexist
Coexistence can occur when species utilize resources in slightly different ways and
when the effects of interspecific competition are less severe than the effects of
intraspecific competition. (Figure 6.3)

Figure 6.3. Coexistence of

Competing Species. Robert
MacArthur found that five
species of warbles (a-e)
coexisted by partitioning spruce
trees into preferred foraging
regions (shown in dark green).
a) Bay-breasted warbler. b)
Cape May warbler. c)
Blackburnian warbler. d) Black-
throated green warbler. e)
Myrtle warbler

Coevolution – defined as the evolution of ecologically related species is sometimes

coordinated such that each species exerts a strong selective influence on the other.
Moreover, species are competing for the same resource or during predator-prey
interactions (e.g. flowering plants-tubular and red and animal pollinators like
hummingbirds-poor sense of smell, see red very well, long beak)
Symbiosis- two different species living in continuing, intimate associations
1. Parasitism- one organism lives in or on a second organism, called host;
-multiple hosts: final host (sexual stages of the parasite), intermediate
host (asexual reproduction may occur)
2. Commensalism- one member of the relationship benefits and the second is
neither helped nor harmed
3. Mutualism- benefits both members

Other Interspecific Adaptations

Camouflage- an animal patterns help hide the animal or a developmental stage form
another animal
Kinds of Camouflage:
1. Cyrptic coloration- an animal takes on color pattern in its environment to prevent
the animal from being seen by other animals
2. Countershading- common in frog and toad eggs (darkly pigmented on topu and
lightly pigmented on the bottom)
3. Aposematic coloration- animals protect themselves by being dangerous or
distasteful to predators via conspicuous coloration (e.g. bright-colored snakes)
4. Mimicry- resemblance to one or sometimes more than one other species and
gains protection

Example:

Figure 6.4. These 6 species of

Heliconius are all distasteful to
bind predators. A bird that
consumes any member of the
six species is likely to avoid all
six species in the future

D. Communities
- defines as different populations of species living in an area

• Dominant species- responsible for establishing community characteristics

• Community (species) diversity or richness- variety of animals they contain
• Factors: resources, high productivity, climatic stability, moderate levels of
predation, mod levels of disturbance
 • Ecological niche- includes all attributes of an animal’s lifestyle: where it looks for
food, what it eats, where it nests and what conditions of T and moisture it
requires
• Competition exists when the niches of 2 species overlap
• Illustrates: 1) community members tend to complement in resource use and 2)
role of animal in the envt

Community Stability
• Succession- a process in which the dominant members of a community often
change a community in predictable ways
• Pioneer community- first community to become established in an area. Death,
decay and additional nutrients add to the community.
• Seral stage- each successional stage (over thousands of years nutrients
accumulate, and the characteristics of the ecosystem change)
• Sere- entire successional sequence
• Climax community- final community which can tolerate its own reaction and
usually have complex structure and high species diversity

Trophic Structure of Ecosystems

Ecosystems – refer to communities and their physical environment. There is flow of

energy, that which enters into the ecosystem in the form of sunlight, is incorporated into
the chemical bonds of molecules within living and decaying tissue, and eventually lost
as heat.

Important concepts:
• Food Chain- sequence of organisms through which energy moves in an
ecosystem
• Food webs- complexly interconnected food chains
• Trophic levels- groupings of organisms according to the form of energy used
• Keystone species- the very important species in the food web that when
depleted, all the other animals will collapse
Food Webs
• Producers (autotrophs)- obtain nutrition (complex organic compounds) from
inorganic materials and an energy source
• Consumers (heterotrophs)-eat other organisms to obtain energy
• Herbivores (10 consumers)-eat producers
• Carnivores (20 consumers) - eat herbivores and eat other carnivores (30
consumers)
• Decomposers-break down dead organisms and feces by digesting organic matter
extracellularly and absorbing products of digestion
Figure 6.5. Flow of energy through ecosystems. 1.5 million kcal of radiant
energy strike a square meter of the earth’s surface each year. Plants convert
less than 1% into chemical energy. Of this 60% is converted into a new
biomass and 40% is lost in respiration.
Figure 6.6. The Antarctic Food Web. An Antarctic food web: small crustaceans called krill support nearly
all life in Antarctic. 6 species of baleen whales, 20 species of squid, 100 species of fish, 35 species of
birds and 7 species of seals eat krill. Krill feed on algae, protozoa, other small crustaceans and various
larvae.
Cycling Within Ecosystems
• Unlike energy, all matter is cycled from nonliving reservoirs to living systems and
then back to nonliving reservoirs
• Matter is constantly recycled within ecosystems

Biogeochemical Cycles
• Nutrient- any element essential for life
• 97% of living matter is made of C,H,O,N (often in gaseous cycles); but carbon is
most abundant
• S, P, Ca – less abundant, equally important
• Nonliving reservoir: in the earth stored as coal, gas and oil
1. Sedimentary cycles- cycles involving these elements in the earth only
2. Hydrological cycle- water cycles through ecosystems
3. Carbon Cycle – movement and conversion and sequestration of Carbon into
the earth, water and atmosphere
But let’s only discuss the Carbon Cycle in detail:
• Carbon- plentiful in the earth and rarely a limiting factor
• Carbon dioxide- reservoir for carbon in the atmosphere or water
• Carbonic acid in the waters and calcium carbonate (from the shells of molluscs
and skeletons of echinoderms) in the waters
• Calcium carbonate deposits results to limestone formation. Geologic uplifts,
volcanic eruptions and weathering return this carbon back to the earth’s surface
and atmosphere
• Coal, oil and gas- in the earth
• Other carbon are tied up in fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels returns large
quantities of this carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide

E. Ecological Problems
1. Human overpopulation is the root of all environmental problems. The earth
has a carrying capacity and a limited supply of resources. When human
populations achieve that carrying capacity, populations should stabilize.
Otherwise, war, famine, and/disease will occur.

2. Pollution is any detrimental change in an ecosystem. Most are results from

human activities. Pollution- detrimental change in an ecosystem
• Water pollution- human wastes goes to groundwater, streams, lakes and
oceans
• Air pollution- Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is released as well and when
accumulated in the atmosphere will cause greenhouse effect.
• Acid deposition- sulfur dioxide and water combine to produce sulfuric acid

3. Resource depletion and biodiversity

• Overgrazing and deforestation
• Exploitation of tropical rainforest
• Conversion of forest into agricultural lands, and residential lands
 Figure 6.7. Tropical
rainforest Amazon on fire,
happened last 2019

as of August 14, 2020

at 6:37 PM

Assessment:
No quiz.

Unit test: Not Applicable since two major exams will be given. The first major exam will
be given as a midterm exam.
References:
• Hickman, Cleveland P., et al. 1988. Integrated Principles of Zoolgy. Quezon City:
Copyright by Times Mirror/ Mosby College Publishing and Printed by JMC Press,
Inc.
• Miller, Kenneth R. and Levine, joseph S. 2006. Prentice Hall Biology. Boston,
Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall.
• Miller, Stephen A. and John P. Harley. 2001. Zoology, Fifth Edition. The
McGraw-Hall Companies.

Extra Credit:
Students can earn extra points in two ways:
1. Define and present in class a not-yet-discussed zoological term pertaining to a
body part significant to any animal.

Example:
Proboscis –
A proboscis refers to an elongated or projecting appendage in the head region of
certain animals. In invertebrates, such as certain insects, annelids, mollusks, and
ribbon worms, the proboscis is a hollow tubular cephalic appendage. In
butterflies, in particular, their proboscis is connected to the oral region. Their
proboscis, therefore, serves as a feeding or a sucking organ. In certain
vertebrates, the proboscis is not attached to the mouth but may be formed as a
fusion of the nose and the upper lip (as in snouts). Common examples of
vertebrate proboscises are the elephant trunk and the elongated nose of the
proboscis monkey.

(insert photos of proboscis or a less than 60 second-video)

References:
 Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics & You – Olympus MIC-D: Darkfield
Gallery – Butterfly Proboscis. (2019). Fsu.Edu.
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/olympusmicd/galleries/darkfield/butterflyprob
oscis.html

 Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics & You – Olympus MIC-D: Darkfield

Gallery – Butterfly Proboscis. (2019). Fsu.Edu.
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/olympusmicd/galleries/darkfield/butterflyprob
oscis.html

 Zenker, M. M., Penz, C., Paris, M. de, & Specht, A. (2011). Proboscis
Morphology and Its Relationship to Feeding Habits in Noctuid Moths. Journal of
Insect Science, 11(42), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.011.0142

2. Submit a summary/review of at least one chapter of Darwin’s book, The Origin of

Species, and share in class.