Lesson 1 & 2: Freedom of the human person
- Freedom or Liberty
o is a social and political concept
which has great significance in how
people participate in society.
- The concept of freedom has emerged as
o an important philosophical issue in
18th-century Europe during the Age of
Enlightenment.
- Enlightenment thinkers believed
o that early man existed in a “natural
state” and had absolute freedom.
However, the establishment of societies required
people to surrender some of their freedoms in order
to live in harmony with others and ensure the
survival of society.
- Freedom in a political and social context
means
o the freedom of an individual from
oppression, compulsion, or coercion
from other persons, an authority
figure, or from society itself.
- Liberalism
o upholds the preservation of individual
rights and stresses the role of the
government in protecting these civil
liberties.
- Libertarianism
o believes that the individual, not the
government, is the best judge in
upholding and exercising rights.
- Socialism
o considers freedom as the freedom to
acquire economic resources and the
ability to work and act according to
one’s desires.
- Theological views define freedom as
o freedom from sin and living a life of
righteousness.
- Christians define freedom in
o the context of living in accordance
with the will of God.
- Natural rights
o refer to rights which are innate in the
person such as the right to life. These
rights are considered universal and
alienable.
- Legal rights
o are rights that are based on society’s
customs and laws, and are enacted by
legislation and enforced by a
government. The enjoyment of this
right is based on citizenship.
Human freedom is expressed in two ways:
- free will and free action.
- Free will
o is the capacity to choose from
alternative courses of action or
decision.
- Free action
o the freedom to perform an action
without any obstacles or hindrances.
Different views regarding the nature of free will
and how it influences human action:
- Faculties Model
o refers to free will as the use of our
mental faculties. It assumes that we
have free will due to our intellect and
that each human action is based on
rationality and sound judgement.
- Hierarchical Model
o argues that free will is based on
human wants and desires. An
individual is faced with various wants
and desires that need to be met. A
person exercises free will when he or
she identifies one desire as acceptable
and decides to act on it.
- Reasons- responsive view
o believes that man has free will
because he is able to entertain reasons
not to enact a certain decision and act
upon them when the need arises.
What can prevent us from exercising our
freedom?
- Human freedom has its constraints. Constraints
on free action include external obstacles such
as prohibitions, laws, and other social controls
imposed by society.
- A person can also be physically prevented
from performing an action by disability or
sickness, or by coercion by another person.
- Other external factors that may restrict free
action include the weather, accidents, or
poverty.
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- Constraints on free will include certain
methods that cloud a person’s judgment such
as manipulation and brainwashing.
Intersubjectivity
The Parable of the Good Samaritan
Luke 10:25-37 (New International Version)
- On one occasion an expert in the law stood up
to test Jesus. “Teacher,” he asked, “what must
I do to inherit eternal life?”
- “What is written in the Law?” he replied.
“How do you read it?” He answered, “‘Love
the Lord your God with all your heart and with
all your soul and with all your strength and
with all your mind’ and, ‘Love your neighbor
as yourself.’ “You have answered correctly,”
Jesus replied. “Do this and you will live.”
- But he wanted to justify himself, so he asked
Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” In reply
Jesus said: “A man was going down from
Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by
robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat
him and went away, leaving him half dead. A
priest happened to be going down the same
road, and when he saw the man, he passed by
on the other side. So too, a Levite, when he
came to the place and saw him, passed by on
the other side. But a Samaritan, as he traveled,
came where the man was; and when he saw
him, he took pity on him. He went to him and
bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine.
Then he put the man on his own donkey,
brought him to an inn and took care of him.
The next day he took out two denarii and gave
them to the innkeeper. ‘Look after him,’ he
said, ‘and when I return, I will reimburse you
for any extra expense you may have.’
- “Which of these three do you think was a
neighbor to the man who fell into the hands of
robbers?” The expert in the law replied, “The
one who had mercy on him.” Jesus told him,
“Go and do likewise.”
- Intersubjectivity
o The interaction between the self and
the other.
o It refers to the shared awareness and
understanding among persons.
o It is made possible by the awareness
of the self and the other.
o It is evident in our everyday social
interactions, the ability of humans to
agree and cooperate, the existence of
shared or “common” knowledge and
consensus, and in shared emotions
such as grief, joy, and love.
Simple awareness of the existence of the other.
- Example: when we see other people walking
along the street, we are aware that they are
other beings unique from us, and that they
exist outside of our own awareness.
o The awareness of the self as being
seen by others. Example: imagine that
one of the people you are watching
suddenly stops and looks straight at
you. You are immediately aware of
this person’s action as an other – this
stranger is looking at your direction.
You know that the stranger staring at
you is aware of you as a person. This
self-consciousness is a defining
characteristics of the self- other
relationship.
- Martin Buber
o Considers human existence as a
continual dialogue with the other, and
that the self becomes whole through
interaction with nature, with other
people, and with God.
o “ To yield to seeming is man’s
essential cowardice, to resist it is his
essential courage.”
o our relationship to other must be the
I-Thou relationship because we must
treat the other I a subject and not an
object
- Seeming
o it is a way of approaching the other
governed by the one desires to
impress on the other.
o It involves deliberately playing up or
hiding aspects of yourself to appear
more desirable or impressive
- Jean – Paul Sartre image
o Considers human relationship as
frustrating and are often inauthentic
and ambiguous.
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 o Humans tend to view others as a
means to achieve certain desires. This
views gives rise to feelings of
alienation – where the individual
ceases to view the other as a distinct
and authentic person, and considers
him as a mere object.
- Edith Stein
o Defines the self- other relationship as
being driven by empathy – the
awareness that the other is a person
with thoughts and feelings.
- Edmund Husserl
o Believes that intersubjectivity is more
than just shared understanding, but is
the capability to put oneself “in the
place where the other is.”
- Gabriel Marcel
o Defines genuine relationship based on
availability or the willingness of a
person to be present and be at the
disposal of another.
- Ethics of Care
o Emphasizes the moral dimension of
relationships and interactions.
o This perspective encourages
individuals to see to the needs of
other people, most especially the
vulnerable.

A Christian perspective

- Considers human relations in the context of

community and between God
- Humans naturally seek fellowship with each
other, to love one another, support each other,
and minister to one another.
- Among the strongest bonds are those that
involve parents and their children, friends, and
the bond between man and wife.
- The relationship between God and man is
defined as a fellowship and covenant.
- In the Old testament, God’s relationship with
mankind began with the Creation, when God
Lesson 3: The Human person in society
established man’s ideal relationship – the
- Society
union between man and woman. o refers to a large, independent, and
- In the New testament, Jesus Christ has organized group of people living in
redefined God’s covenant through His death the same territory and sharing a
and resurrection. common culture and heritage.
People within society impart to each other
knowledge, skills, and behaviors through their
various everyday interactions. These interactions
are often governed by written and unwritten rules
that reflect the shared ideas, views, and values of
the members of society.

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The simplest and earliest societies are the
- Hunting- and-Gathering
o societies that adopt a lifestyle
dependent on resources readily
available from their surroundings.
o These societies are often described as
“primitive” since they utilize the
simplest technology.
o Example: nomadic tribes such as the
San in Africa and small tribes found
in remote locations throughout the
world.
- Agricultural societies
o are those engaged primarily in
agricultural activities such as farming,
fishing, and livestock- raising as a
primary way of life.
- Industrial societies
o are centered on mechanized
production and the exchange of goods
and services.
- Modern societies are technologically
o advanced societies characterized by
industry, mass production, and
advance communication and
transportation.
Social Philosophy
- focuses on studying society and its influence
on the human person.
- It applies philosophical concepts in a social
context and looks into how social interactions
shape people’s perception, experience, ideas
and values.
- Topics related to social philosophy include
social ontology, social ethics, democracy,
human rights, equality, and justice.
- The ideas and discussions in social philosophy
often influence other social sciences such as
psychology, political science, sociology, and
linguistics.
How is society formed?
Humans are considered to have a natural tendency
to cooperate and organize, and society is a natural
outcome of this human tendency to socialize.
During the Enlightenment, social philosophers
pondered on the natural laws that govern human
societies, and in their discussions, several
philosophers put forth their ideas regarding the
formation of societies.
Examining humans in their natural state afforded
these philosophers an opportunity to discuss the
origins of society and relate them to other concepts
such as man’s intrinsic nature and liberty.
Various views emerged to explain the
developments that brought about the emergence of
human society.
Thomas Hobbes
- “Man in his natural state is governed by his
desires and these often lead to conflict with his
fellowmen.”
- Society is the means by which men seek to
control their natural tendencies and impose
order.
- Individuals who establish societies enter into a
o “social contract”- an agreement where
individuals sacrifice some of their
wants and submit to a higher
authority.
- In this way, society is able to function and
meet the needs of the many, ensuring the
survival of humanity.
John Locke
- Proposed his own ideas on the social contract
with a different assumption. Unlike Hobbes,
Locke considered man in his natural state as
more cooperative and reasonable, and that
society is formed through the consent of the
individuals that organized it, a concept known
as the consent of the governed.
- Locke’s social contract is a covenant among
individuals to cooperate and share the burden
of upholding the welfare of society.
- The authority established to run society should
reflect the ideals of the people who organized
it. Should this authority fail to uphold its
obligation or live up to the ideals of the people,
it will be discarded and replaced with a new
one.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
- Social contract led him to advocate the concept
of the “general will”.
- He believed that even if the people are the ones
who organized society and established an
authority or government, in extreme cases, the
government is able to impose its will on the
people. This is based on the assumption that
the people have empowered the government to
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 act on their behalf, and that it is considered to
be the best judge of what is most beneficial for
society.
More recent views on the social contract give
emphasis to individual decision-making in society.
John Rawls
- redefined the social contract and explained that
human beings approach social cooperation in a
rational manner in order to meet their
individual self-interests.
- Rawls introduced a version of the natural state
which he called the original position
to explain social formation. He imagined humans
as having a “veil of ignorance” or no knowledge of
one’s own characteristics such as gender, race or
social status.
Veil of ignorance
- In this state, humans would naturally seek a
just and fair society in an effort to look out for
their own interests.
David Gauthier
- described man’s self-interest as a significant
factor in building and maintaining societies.
People choose to cooperate since it is beneficial to
meet their self-interests. But this selfish interest
benefits society as a whole, since the actions of
individuals in meeting their individual needs also
further the interests of the other members of
society.
How does society influence the person?
Society has a significant influence in almost all
aspects of an individual’s life. Becoming part of a
group can often result in significant changes in the
prevailing behavior of an individual.
Socialization
- the process by which an individual learns the
prevailing behaviors, attitudes and values
within his society.
Through socialization
- a person adopts a set of ideals and behavior
considered appropriate within his own society.
It is a continuing process that permeates
through almost all aspects of human
interaction.
Various social institutions such as the family,
community, school, government, church, and even
mass media are agents of socialization that mold
the personality of the individual.
Though individuals retain their own unique traits,
society directly and indirectly influences certain
aspects of individual behavior, which results in
some changes in a person’s views and behavior.
In society, individuals were assigned certain roles
based on our social status, gender, and other traits.
Social roles
- entail a set of expected behaviors that must be
performed by a person.
Additionally, people who belong to a specific
social group tend to behave in a certain way, and
continuous interaction within their group reinforce
such behavior.
The interactions between different groups within
society are often influenced by their views and
ideas of the “other group”, and these determine
whether the action would be positive or negative.
normative democratic theory
- is a perspective which considers a democratic
society as morally desirable. Philosophers
point out that living within a democratic
society can result in positive changes in the
behavior of the individuals.
- It enables people to imbibe democratic ideals
and encourages behaviors that embody
democracy such as the willingness to stand for
one’s rights, independent thought, initiative,
the ability to emphasize and consider the views
of others, and careful decision-making.
Cultural influences in society also affect individual
behavior.
Western society
- is recognized to be more individualistic and
secular and Westerners often embody these
values in their behavior. Thus,
- Westerners are more likely to be seen as being
assertive and direct in their dealings with
others.
Asian societies
- are more rigid and formal in their social
dealings as they value respect, familial
relations, and social status. This, in turn, is
seen in the behavior of most Asian people who
approach social interactions with a degree of
deference toward other people.
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 Reincarnation

- the belief that a person’s spirit begins a new

life in another body; and eternal oblivion.

Eternal Oblivion

- the belief that the person’s consciousness is

completely erased upon death.

How people deal with death is often influenced by

culture.

Death

- is a life event which is surrounded by the most

ceremony and symbolism in many cultures.
- This may be due to the fact that death is often a
powerful event that causes deep emotions
among people.

The traditions and rituals surrounding bereavement,

burial, and remembrance of the deceased are seen
as a means by which people make sense of the loss
of a loved one.
Lesson 4: The human person as Oriented In Philippine society, death
towards their Impending Death
- Is considered an experience that involves not
Death only the family but also the community.
- is the end of all biological functions that
sustain a living organism. The wake
- In medical terms, the death of a human being is
- is often an opportunity for immediate and
associated with “brain death” or the ceasing of
extended family members, friends, and
all brain functions.
acquaintances of the deceased, and other
- The causes of death include aging, disease, and
members of the community to come together
fatal injury.
in memory of the deceased.
is considered to be a natural occurrence, and as a
Voluntary contributions for the family of the
person advances in age, the certainty of death is
deceased (abuloy) are collected to help defray the
seen in the gradual decline of the human body.
costs of the funeral and other needs.
- This process is called aging or senescence.
The funeral procession is also an important practice
- Changes that characterize senescence include
and members of the community who witness this
the decline of the senses such as sight and
are expected to adopt a respectful and sombre
hearing, gradual loss of vitality and mobility,
attitude as the procession passes.
mental decline, and increased frailty and
susceptibility to injury and disease. Various beliefs and superstitions surround every
activity related to death from the period of
Cultures have varied ideas, values, and beliefs
mourning until burial.
regarding death and these are reflected in traditions,
funerary practices, religion, and philosophy. Filipinos also hold their departed love ones in high
regard and treat their memory with respect, and the
Beliefs regarding death often include a belief in the
deceased are continually remembered through
persistence of the human soul or spirit, and the
death anniversaries, occasional visits to the
existence of an afterlife where the souls of the dead
cemetery, and religious observances. These events
reside. Other beliefs related to death include

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and practices provide opportunities for people to
remember their deceased loved ones and to ponder
on the reality of death in their lives.
How does the prospect of death give significance to
our lives?
Philosophers have long pondered death and what
lies beyond it.
Though death is an inevitable phenomenon in life,
philosophers have observed that people often treat
the subject with dead.
Most human actions are seen as being intended to
delay or even deny the prospect of death. As a
result, a number of philosophical views have arisen
regarding the best attitude or perspective regarding
death, and how to deal with reality of death in our
lives.
A major question that philosophers consider when
discussing death is what happens to the person
when he dies.
- The dualist perspective believes that the mind
or spirit, being incorporeal, persists after the
body’s demise. The complete annihilation of
the body, therefore, does not mean that the
person no longer exists because his spirit
endures after death.
- This thinking gives rise to the idea of an
afterlife, whether it is believed that the spirit of
the dead survives and continues to persist.
Near death experience
People who were close to death reported
experiences of an afterlife. These experiences often
include the person having an “out-of-body
experience,”
“out-of-body experience,”
- where the person views his body or the events
surrounding his apparent death from a
distance.
Eternal Oblivion
- The belief that death totally extinguishes the
consciousness of the person. This perspective
denies the existence of a noncorporeal,
immortal aspect in man, and considers death as
the end of a person’s existence.
Mortality salience
- Man’s awareness of the inevitability of death.
Ego integrity
- Refers to a person achieving his life’s purpose
or having come to terms with his life.
Death
- also serves as a motivation for people to think
of how they can best live a meaningful life.
Many people strive to leave behind a legacy either
in the form of an inheritance, a reputation, or a
significant achievement.
Others strive to achieve certain goals within their
lifetime in a desire to live without regret.
How should one face death and loss?
Throughout our life, we have faced various
experiences related to death.
The most powerful experience with death is often
those of loved ones, particularly friends and family
members.
Another aspect of facing death is when a person
becomes aware of his impending demise.
This applies to people with terminal illnesses and
those who have debilitating or serious medical
conditions which adversely affect their lifespan or
quality of life.
Grief
- is the natural reaction to death and dying. The
experience of grief often involves a multitude
of emotions such as sadness, anxiety, anger,
and guilt.
Bereavement
- is the state of loss brought about by death.
Mourning
- is the process by which persons deal with
death.
Psychological studies on grief have yielded several
views on how humans deal with death, dying and
loss.
The earliest description of the phenomenon of grief
was put forth by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross.
- Her findings and insights lead her to propose
that dying people, as well as the people closest
to them, go through five stages of grief.
Denial
- the dying person initially expresses disbelief
regarding his situation; those who hear of the
death of a loved one often refuse to believe the
news at first.
Anger
- the person expresses frustration with his
siptuation. Dying people often vent their anger
and frustration on the people closest to them,
and often express that their situation is
“unfair.”
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- People in grief also experience anger and
indignation, often thinking that the deceased or
dying person did not deserve such faith.
Bargaining
- the dying person often voices his wish that his
life be prolonged, and that he is willing to do
whatever it takes to survive.
- People at this stage also tend to think that
things will improve if they behave in a certain
way or make changes in their lives.
Depression
- the dying person experiences intense sadness
and exhibits disinterest in life and its normal
routines.
- A person may become withdrawn, sullen, and
express hopelessness or helplessness.
- The dying person may experience certain
emotional and mental problems depending on
the gravity of his situation.
Acceptance
- this is the last emotional stage of grief when
the person finally comes to terms with his
impending death and has embraced his
mortality.
- Dying people who have achieved this stage
were found to be calm and emotionally stable,
and are often a source of emotional support for
their grieving family members.
- the person experiences a period of grief, but
this eventually gives way to recovery and a
return to normalcy.
Chronic Depression
- the grieving person experiences intense and
chronic depression which continues along after
the death or traumatic experience has passed.
- The depression may persist for several years,
and the affected person often needs
counselling and support to overcome this.
Delayed Grief
- the person may seem to be well-adjusted but
experiences feelings of grief, anxiety, and
distress at a later time.
Death and grieving are difficult transitions in life
but with adequate support and the proper
perspective, one can face this important aspect of
human existence with acceptance, calm, and
dignity. The realization of the significance of death
in our lives can give way to a new resolve to strive
to achieve meaning and relevance in our lives.

Kubler-Ross’s theory
- establish that these stages need not to be
experienced in sequence, and that some people
do not go through all of the stages when
experiencing grief.

A more recent theory on grief was proposed by

George Bonnano
- who views that grief does not necessarily
proceed along conventional stages as proposed
by Kubler-Ross.
- He considers humans as being naturally
resilient, and that grieving should not
necessarily be defined by sadness or anxiety.
- Bonnano’s view is that people proceed along
four trajectories of grief.
Resilience
- the person remains emotionally stable despite
the loss, and continues with his normal
activities.
- Bonnano believes that this is the most ideal
emotional course when experiencing grief.
- For him, grieving people can still be happy and
go about their normal routines
Recovery