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1.1 (Describe different types of concrete)

Plain or Ordinary Concrete
Plain or ordinary concrete is one of the most commonly used types of concrete. In this
type of concrete, the essential constituents are cement, sand and coarse aggregates designed,
and mixed with a specified quantity of water.
The ratio of essential constituents may be varied within wide limits. A very
commonly used mix design, commonly known as Nominal Mix Design, is 1:2:4.
Plain concrete is mostly used in the construction of pavements and in buildings, where
very high tensile strength is not required. It is also used in the construction of Dams.

Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced concrete is also called RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete). In this
concrete type, steel in various forms is used as reinforcement to give very high tensile
strength.
In fact, it is because of the combined action of plain concrete (having high
compressive strength) and steel (having high tensile strength). The steel reinforcement is cast
in the form of rods, bars, meshes, and all conceivable shapes.
Every care is taken to ensure the maximum bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete during the setting and hardening process. Thus, the resulting material (RCC) is
capable of bearing all types of stress in any type of construction. RCC is the most important
concrete type.

Precast Concrete
Precast concrete refers to numerous types of concrete shapes that are cast into molds
either in a factory or at the site. However, they are not used in construction until they
completely set and hardened in a controlled condition.
Some of the examples of precast concrete are; precast poles, fence posts, concrete
lintels, staircase units, concrete blocks, and cast stones, etc.
These structural and decorative members are prepared in a well-equipped place where
all arrangements are made for;
• Perfect proportioning of the ingredients of concrete.
• Thorough mixing of the cement, aggregate, and water to obtain the mix of the
desired design and consistency.

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• Careful handling during transport and placement in the perfect design molds.
• Perfect curing, under the controlled conditions of temperature and humidity. Even
steam curing is used to obtain precast products having high strength in much less
time.
• The latest trend in the construction industry is to shift more and more to
prefabricated concrete units in building construction.

Pre-stressed Concrete
Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) is concrete in which internal stresses are developed in a
predetermined manner such that the stresses induced due to external loading gets balanced
with these internal stresses of concrete. This is generally achieved by tensioning the
reinforcing steel.
Concrete in its normal state has a high amount of compressive strength. However,
compared to its compressive strength, concrete has almost no tensile strength. Therefore, if
normal concrete is used to build the slabs, it would sag under the compressive pressure of the
weight upon it, and eventually cracks and crumble. To remedy this weakness in concrete, the
method of pre-stressing is applied.
In PSC, high strength concrete is combined with high strength steel such that full
section is effective in resisting tension and compression. A pre-stressed concrete structure is
different from a conventional reinforced structure due to the application of an initial load on
the structure prior to its use.

Light-weight Concrete
Light-weight concrete is any kind of concrete that has a density of less than 1920
kg/m3. Lightweight concrete is created by using lightweight aggregates. Aggregates are
ingredients that add to the density of the style of concrete. These lightweight aggregates
include natural materials like scoria or pumice, artificial materials like clays and expanded
shales or processed materials like vermiculite and perlite. Its most important property is that
it has very low thermal conductivity.
Common uses for lightweight concrete include creating long spanning bridge decks
and building blocks. It can also be used to protect steel structures.

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1.2 (Describe the constituents of concrete)

Concrete is made up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand, or gravel)
and Portland cement. Cement, usually in powder form, acts as a binding agent when mixed
with water and aggregates. This combination, or concrete mix, will be poured and harden into
the durable material.
There are three basic ingredients in the concrete mix:
• Portland Cement
• Aggregates (rock and sand)
• Water
Portland Cement- The cement and water form a paste that coats the aggregate and sand in
the mix. The paste hardens and binds the aggregates and sand together.
Aggregates- Sand is the fine aggregate. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse aggregate in
most mixes.
Water- Water is needed to chemically react with the cement (hydration) and too provide
workability with the concrete. The amount of water in the mix in pounds compared with the
amount of cement is called the water/cement ratio. The lower the water cement ratio, the
stronger the concrete. (higher strength, less permeablility)

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1.3 (Explain how the fineness and chemical make-up of cement s affect the properties of
concrete)
Fineness of cement is a characteristic property of cement that signifies the particle
size of cement and its specific surface area. Greater fineness of cement means the particles
are finer and had more surface area. In case of very coarse cement, under some conditions it
can cause a serious bleeding problem on some construction projects.
Fineness of cement has generally following effects on properties of concrete;
1. Increased rate of hydration
2. Reduction in bleeding
3. Increased modulus of elasticity
4. Increased drying shrinkage
5. Decreased effect of freezing and thawing
6. Decreased detrimental effects

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7. Water requirements
Table (1.1) is shown below for approximate setting time at different temperature;
Table (1.1) Approximate setting time at different temperature
Approximate Setting Time
Temperature
(hours)

100° F (38° C) 1-2/3

90° F (32° C) 2-2/3

80° F (27° C) 4

70° F (21° C) 6

60° F (16° C) 8

50° F (10° C) 11

40° F (4° C) 14

30° F (-1° C) 19

20° F (-7° C) Set will not occur

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1.4 (Explain how the properties of aggregates affect concrete)

Concrete is a mixture of cementious material, aggregate and water. Aggregate is
commonly considered inert filler, which accounts for 60 to 80 percent of the volume and 70
to 85 percent of the weight of concrete. Although aggregate is considered inert filler, it is a
necessary component that defines the concrete’s thermal and elastic properties and
dimensional stability.
Aggregate is classified as two different types, coarse and fine. Coarse aggregates are
usually greater than 4.75 mm (retained on a No.4 sieve), while fine aggregate is less than 4.75
mm (passing the No.4 sieve). Other physical and mineralogical properties of aggregate must
be known before mixing concrete to obtain a desirable mixture. These properties include;
1. shape and texture
2. size gradation
3. moisture content

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4. specific gravity
These properties along with the water/cementitious material ratio determine the
strength, workability, and durability of concrete.

Shape and texture

The shape and texture of aggregate affects the properties of fresh concrete more than
hardened concrete. Concrete is more workable when smooth and rounded aggregate is used
instead of rough angular or elongated aggregate. Most natural sands and gravel from
riverbeds or seashores are smooth and rounded and are excellent aggregates. Crushed stone
produces much more angular and elongated aggregates, which have a higher surface-to-
volume ratio, better bond characteristics but require more cement paste to produce a workable
mixture.
The surface texture of aggregate can be either smooth or rough. A smooth surface can
improve workability, yet a rougher surface generates a stronger bond between the paste and
the aggregate creating a higher strength.

Size gradation
The grading or size distribution of aggregate is an important characteristic because it
determines the paste requirement for workable concrete. This paste requirement is the factor
controlling the cost, since cement is the most expensive component. It is therefore desirable
to minimize the amount of paste consistent with the production of concrete that can be
handles, compacted, and finished while providing the necessary strength and durability.
The required amount of cement paste is dependent upon the amount of void space that
must be filled and the total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of
uniform size the spacing is the greatest, but when a range o sizes is used the void spaces are
filled and the paste requirement is lowered. The more these voids are filled, the less workable
the concrete becomes, therefore, a compromise between workability and economy is
necessary.

Moisture content
The moisture content of an aggregate is an important factor when developing the
water/cement ratio. The moisture content can range from less than one percent in gravel to up
to 40 percent in very porous sandstone and expanded shale. Most fine aggregate is often in
the wet state with surface moisture up to five percent. This surface moisture on the fine
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aggregate creates a thick film over the surface of the particles pushing them apart and
increasing the apparent volume. This is commonly known as bulking and can cause
significant errors in proportioning volume.
Surface moisture of aggregates affects the following concrete properties:
• Mix-design of concrete
• Soundness of concrete
• Strength/abrasion resistance

Specific gravity
• The specific gravity of aggregates indirectly measures its density; hence it is
the most essential parameter of strength or quality of the aggregates. Higher
the specific gravity, higher is the strength. It is due to higher specific gravity
there would be higher compressive strength of aggregates and hence it passes
on to the concrete.
• Lower specific gravity indicates high porosity. Such aggregates are weaker in
comparison to the aggregates of higher specific gravity.
• It is of important consideration when you deal with light weight aggregates.
• Some harmful particles are lighter than the good particles in aggregates.
Hence, by tracking the specific gravity of aggregates, one can get to know the
change of material or possible contamination in it.
• During the production of aggregates by using the difference in specific
gravity, harmful particles can be separated from the goods by using a heavy
media liquid.
• In the cement concrete, the percentage of voids and the solid volume of
aggregates can be calculated with the help of its specific gravity.
• In the concrete technology, specific gravity of aggregates is essential in
calculation of compacting factor in connection with the workability
measurements.
• Looking to the above importance, one has to be reasonably cautions while
using light weight aggregates and its impact on compressive strength of
concrete has to be counted in detail.

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1.5 (Explain the role of water used in concrete)

Role of mixing water in Concrete
• It acts as a lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregate & makes the mixture
workable.
• It acts chemically with cement to form the binding paste.
• It is employed to damp the aggregate surface in order to prevent them from
absorbing water vitally necessary for chemical action.
• It facilitates the spreading of aggregate.
• It helps to flux the cementing material over the surface of the aggregate.
• It enables the concrete mix to flow into moulds.

Quality of mixing water in Concrete

• It should be fresh & clean.
• It should be free from organic impurities injurious amounts of acids or
alkalies, hygroscopic, greasy & oily substance.
• It should be free from iron, vegetable matter, or any other substance which is
likely to have an adverse effect on concrete or reinforcement.
• It should be fit for drinking purpose.
• The PH value shall generally be between 6 and 8.

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1.6 (Compare the effects of different admixtures on concrete)

Water Reducing Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures, the name itself defining that they are used to minimize
the water demand in a concrete mix. Workability is the important property of concrete which
is improved with the addition of water but if water is added more than required the strength
and durability properties of concrete gets affected. In addition to increase in workability it
also improves the strength of concrete, good bond between concrete and steel, prevents
cracking, segregation, honeycombing, bleeding etc.
Water reducing admixtures are also called as plasticizers and these are classified into
three types namely plasitcizers, mid-range plasticizers and super plasticizers. Normal

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plasticizer reduces the water demand up to 10%, mid-range plasticizers reduce the water
demand up to 15% while super plasticizers reduce the water demand up to 30%.
Calcium, sodium and ammonium lignosulphonates are commonly used plasticizers.
Some of the new generation super plasticizers are acrylic polymer based, poly carboxylate,
multicarbovylathethers etc.

Retarding Admixtures
Retarding admixtures slow down the rate of hydration of cement in its initial stage
and increase the initial setting time of concrete. These are also called as retarders and used
especially in high temperature zones where concrete will set quickly.
The quick setting in some situations may lead to discontinuities in structure, poor
bond between the surfaces, creates unnecessary voids in concrete etc. Retarders are useful to
eliminate this type of problems.
Commonly used retarding admixture is calcium sulphate or gypsum. Starch, cellulose
products, common sugar, salts of acids are some other retarders. Most of water reducing
admixture are also acts as retarding admixtures and they are called as retarding plasticizers.
Accelerating Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures are used to reduce the initial setting time of concrete. They
speed up the process of initial stage of hardening of concrete hence they are also called as
accelerators. These accelerators also improves the strength of concrete in it early stage by
increasing the rate of hydration.
Earlier hardening of concrete is useful in several situations such as early removal of
formwork, less-period of curing, emergency repair works, for constructions in low
temperature regions etc.
Some of the accelerating admixtures are triethenolamine, calcium formate, silica
fume, calcium chloride, finely divided silica gel etc. Calcium chloride is the cheap and
commonly used accelerating admixture.

Air Entraining Concrete Admixture

Air entraining admixtures are one of the most important inventions in concrete
technology. Their primary function is to increase the durability of concrete under freezing
and thawing conditions. When added to concrete mix, these admixtures will form millions of
non-coalescing air bubbles throughout the mix and improves the properties of concrete.

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Air entrainment in concrete will also improve the workability of concrete, prevents
segregation and bleeding, lower the unit weight and modulus of elasticity of concrete,
improves the chemical resistance of concrete and reduction of cement or sand or water
content in concrete etc.
Most used air entrainment admixtures are vinsol resin, darex, Teepol, Cheecol etc.
These admixtures are actually made of Natural Wood resins, alkali salts, animal and
vegetable fats and oils etc.

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1.7 (Explain why tests are used to determine the properties of concrete and its
constituents parts)
Slump cone test
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency
of concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the
work. Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of
concrete during construction.
The slump test is the simplest workability test for concrete, involves low cost and
provides immediate results. Generally, concrete slump value is used to find the workability,
which indicates water-cement ratio, but there are various factors including properties of
materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value.

Compaction factor test

Compaction factor test is the workability test for concrete conducted in laboratory.
The compaction factor is the ratio of weights of partially compacted to fully compacted
concrete. It is used to determine the workability of concrete. The compaction factor test is
used for concrete which have low workability for which slump test is not suitable.
The test is sufficiently sensitive to enable difference in workability arising from the
initial process in the hydration of cement to be measured. Each test, therefore should be
carried out at a constant time interval after the mixing is completed, if strictly comparable
results are to be obtained. Convenient time for releasing the concrete from the upper hopper
has been found to be two minutes after the completion of mixing.

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Grades of types of concrete test

There are various grades of concrete available, each with their own purpose and
benefits. It’s important to get the right concrete mixes and strengths for project because
different grades can significantly affect the concrete’s performance, which will impact the
efficiency of the structure of finished project.
A set of the mix for concrete should be well defined either in terms of the proportion
of cement, fine, and coarse aggregate in terms of the 28 days compressive strength
requirements.
• 1:3:6 mix for mass concrete dam
• 1:2:4 mix for general RCC work
• 1:1.5:3 mix for front faces of dam water work column
• 1:1:2 mix for piles (Type of concrete tests)
The two types of concrete are either created with a nominal or design mix.

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1.8 (Explain the procedures used to determine the properties of concrete and its
constituent parts)
Test procedure of Slump cone test
• The inner surface of the mould is cleaned thoroughly.
• The mould is placed on a smooth horizontal dry surface.
• Concrete is filled in the slump cone in a layer of 80 mm thickness.
• Each layer is compacted with 25 strokes using a rod 600 mm long and 16 mm
in diameter.
• After filling the mould with concrete, the concrete struck off to level using a
trowel.
• Any mortar leaked out between the mould and base plate is wiped out.
• Now the mould is carefully lifted upward vertically leaving the concrete.

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Figure (1.1) Slump cone test on Concrete

Table (1.2) Types of Slump for various works

No Types of Concrete Slump (mm)

1 Concrete for Road construction 20 to 40

2 Parapets, piers, slab, beams 40 to 50

3 Concrete for canal liming 70 to 80

4 Concrete for arch and side wall of tunnel 90 to 100

5 Normal R.C.C work 80 to 150

6 Mass Concrete 25 to 50

7 Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25

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Test procedure of Compaction factor test

• Place the concrete sample gently in the upper hopper to its brim using the hand
scoop and level it.
• Cover the cylinder.
• Open the trapdoor at the bottom of the upper hopper so that concrete fall into
the lower hopper so that concrete fall into the lower hopper. Push the concrete
sticking on its sides gently with the road.
• Open the trapdoor of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall into the
cylinder below.
• Cut of the excess of concrete above the top level of cylinder using trowels and
level it.
• Clean the outside of the cylinder.
• Weight the cylinder with concrete to the nearest 10 g. This weight is known as
the weight of partially compacted concrete (W1).
• Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in layers
approximately 5 cm deep, each layer being heavily rammed to obtain full
compaction.
• Level the top surface.
• Weight the cylinder with fully compacted. This weight is known as the weight
of fully compacted concrete (W2).
• Find the weight of empty cylinder (W).
Thus, compaction factor is defined as the ratio of “weight of partially compacted
concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete”.
(𝑊1−𝑊)
Compaction Factor Value = (𝑊2−𝑊)

Compaction factor values for concrete are as follows:

C.F = 0.85 low workability
C.F = 0.92 medium workability
C.F = 0.95 high workability
The compaction factor values range from 0.7 to 0.95. Higher the compacting factor,
higher the workability of concrete.

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Figure (1.2) Compaction factor test on Concrete

Test procedure of Grades of types of concrete test

The letter M means mix grade, which is followed by a number that indicated its
compressive strength, for example, M 10. The mix proportions ratio of concrete details the
proportion of cement, sand and water it needs to make that particular strength of concrete.
For example, M 20 grade of concrete is the mix ratio 1;1.5:3. The “1” is cement, “1.5” is
fine aggregated and “3” is coarse aggregate. This mix applies to all grades of concrete.
Coarse aggregates are made of rock quarried from ground deposits.
There are many different types of concrete mix and grades available depending on the
type of concrete work as shown in table (1.3).

Table (1.3) Classification of Grades of Concrete

Mix Proportion Characteristic
Designation (Cement:Sand:Coarse Compressive strength Group
aggregate) in N/mm2
M5 1:5:10 5
Lean concrete
M 7.5 1:4:8 7.5
M 10 1:3:6 10
M 15 1:2:4 15 Ordinary concrete
M 20 1:1.5:3 20
M 25 1:1:2 25 Standard concrete

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M 30 30
M 40 40
M 50 50
Design mix
M 55 55
M 60 60
High strength concrete
M 80 80

Test procedure of Vee-Bee consistometer test

• The slump mold is filled with concrete in three layers.
• The glass plate rider is brought to the level so as to just touch the top of the cone
when swung. Vertical scale reading at this level is noted.
• The cone is lifted up and the slump of concrete is found noting the reading in the
vertical scale as the glass plate rider is brought in level with the top of slumped
concrete.
• The vibrating table is set to motion and the vibration is continued until the
whole concrete spread out in the cylindrical container.
• The interval of time taken for the concrete to spread out fully is noted.

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Links:
https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete.htm/what is concrete made of? Definition &
ingredient
https://www.iamcivilengineer.com/2018/01/effect-of-fineness-of-cement-on-concrete-
properties.ht,m/?amp=1 Effect of fineness of cement of concrete properties
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/effects-of-aggregate-properties-on-concrete
https://civilnoteppt.com/role-and-quality-of-mixing-water-in-concrete/Role and Quality of
mixing water in concrete
https//www.civilknowledge.com/types-of-concrete-tests-civil-concretetest/9 important civil
concrete test

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