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HEAT TRANSFER
III B. TECH II SEMESTER
PREPARED BY,
2
Thermodynamics & Heat
Transfer
Study of
Heat and Work transfer Thermodynamics
(quantitatively)
Study of
“How heat flows” Heat Transfer
every activity involves
heat transfer
3
Conduction
The transfer of energy in a solid or fluid via molecular contact
without bulk motion
Solids > Lattice vibrations
MODE Fluids > Molecular collisions
T dT
q
dx
T T0
x
PHYSICAL MATHEMATICAL
PHENOMENON EQUATION
Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
Conduction (contd.)
dT T
q qx k
dx x
• The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient
• The proportionality constant, k, is defined as the thermal
conductivity, a thermo physical property.
5
Thermal Conductivity, k
Conduction -1
Silver = 410 Wm K
(contd.)
-1
METALS NON-METALS
k/ksilver
k/ksilver
Silver 1
Air 0.19
Gold 0.7
Water 0.0014
Copper 0.93
Granite, Sandstone 0.011
Aluminum 0.86
Average rock 0.012
Brass (70% Cu:30% Ni) 0.33
Limestone 0.007
Platinum, Lead 0.25
Ice 0.015
Mild steel (0.1% Cu), Cast iron 0.12
Glass (crown) 0.0058
Bismuth 0.07
Concrete (1:2:4) 0.0042
Mercury 0.04
Brick 0.0038
Snow (fresh or average) 0.005
Soil (sandy, dry) 0.002
Soil (8% moist) 0.0033
Wood 0.0045
6
Convection occurs in liquids and gases.
Convection
Energy is carried with fluid motion when convection occurs.
Q hA(Tw Ta )
PHYSICAL MATHEMATICAL
PHENOMENON EQUATION
7
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Convection (contd.)
Q hA(Tw Ta )
• The quantity h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K).
• It is dependent on the type of fluid flowing past the wall and the velocity
distribution.
• Thus, h is not a thermo physical property.
9
Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves
Radiation
A,Ts
E Ts
4
PHYSICAL MATHEMATICAL
PHENOMENON EQUATION
10
Stefan-Boltzman Law
Radiation (contd.)
Eb T s
4
11
One Dimensional Heat
Conduction
k Heat flow out
T ( x, t )
[Aq]x – [Aq]x+ Δx + A Δx g = A x c p
t
1 [ Aq]x x [ Aq ]x T ( x, t )
g c p
A x t
12
One Dimensional Heat
Conduction
k Heat flow out (contd.)
1 [ Aq]x x [ Aq ]x T ( x, t )
g c p
A x t
As Δx 0, the first term on the LHS, by definition, becomes the derivative of
[Aq] with respect to x
1 T ( x, t )
Aq g c p
A x t
1 T T ( x, t )
Ak g c p
A x x t
13
One Dimensional Heat
Rectangular Coordinates
Conduction (contd.)
T T ( x, t )
k g c p n=0
x x t
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 T T (r , t )
rk g c p n=1
r r r t
Spherical Coordinates
1 2 T T (r , t ) n=2
r k g c p
r r
2
r t
A Compact Equation
1 n T T (r , t )
r k g c p
r r
n
r t
14
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
15
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
0 L x
16
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Heat
Supply Plate
Conduction
flux
T
q0 k T
x
W/m2 x 0 k q0
x x 0
Conduction Heat
flux Supply T
k
T
qL k qL
x xL
W/m2
x xL
0 L x
17
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
T
T
qa k
k
r
qb T
r r a
r b
k qa
r r a
a b r
Heat
T
k qb
Supply
W/m2 r r b
18
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Conduction Convection
Plate
T
Fluid
k h2 (T2 T )
Flow x xL
xL
T1, h1
Convection heat flux Conduction heat flux
from the fluid at T1 to from the surface at
the surface at x = 0 x= 0 into the plate
Convection Conduction
T T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k Fluid h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k
x x 0 Flow x x 0
T2, h2
19
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Conduction Convection
Plate
T
Fluid
k h2 (T2 T )
Flow x xL
xL
T1, h1
Convection heat flux Conduction heat flux
from the fluid at T2 to from the surface at
the surface at x = L x = L into the plate
Convection Conduction
T T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k Fluid h2 (T2 T x L ) k
x x 0 Flow x xL
T2, h2
20
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Fluid
Flow Hollow Cylinder or
T1, h1 hollow sphere
T
k h2 (T2 T )
r r b
r b
Convection heat flux Conduction heat flux
from the fluid at T1 to from the surface at
b the surface at r = a r= a into the plate
a
Heat r
T Supply
T
h1 (T1 T r a
) k
r
h1 (T1 T r a ) k
r a
r r a
Fluid
Flow
21
T2, h2
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Fluid
Flow Hollow Cylinder or
T1, h1 hollow sphere
T
k h2 (T2 T )
r r b
r b
Convection heat flux Conduction heat flux
from the fluid at T2 to from the surface at
b the surface at r = b r= b into the plate
a
Heat r
T Supply T
h1 (T1 T r a
) k
r
h2 (T2 T r b ) k
r a
r r b
Fluid
Flow
22
T2, h2
UNIT II - CONDUCTION
23
Steady State One Dimensional
Rectangular Coordinates
Heat Conduction
2T
0 Governing Equation
x 2
T ( x) c1 x c2
T2 T1
T ( x) x T1
L
K . A.(T1 T2 )
0 L Qx
T = T1 T = T2 x L
L
R
K .A 24
Steady State One Dimensional
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
Heat Conduction
1 d dT (r ) g
r 0
0 Governing Equation
r dr dr k
dT (r )
dr 0
at r 0 T (r ) T2 at r b
b g0
T (r ) r c1 ln r c2
2k
0 r g0 r
2
Solving, T (r ) 1 T2
4k b
dT (r ) g 0 r
q(r ) k
T = T1 T = T2 dr 2
25
Steady State One Dimensional
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
Heat Conduction Solved Example
For r=1cm
g0 = 2 x 108 W/m3
k = 20 W/(m.°C)
T2 = 100 °C
b
What will be the
1. Centre temperature T(0)
0 r 2. Heat flux at the boundary surface (r=1cm)
Equations to use (derive)
g0 r
2
T (r ) 1 T2
T = T1 T = T2 4k b
g0r
q(r ) Solution
2 T(0) = 350 °C
26 6
q(r) = 10 W/m2
Steady State One Dimensional
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Heat Conduction
Determination of Temperature Distribution
T ( r ) c1 ln r c2
b
T2 T1
T2 Solving, c1
a ln(b / a)
ln(a)
c2 T1 (T2 T1 )
T1
0 ln(b / a)
r T (r ) T1 ln( r / a)
T2 T1 ln( b / a)
27
Steady State One Dimensional
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Heat
Expression Conduction
for radial heat flow Q over a length H
28
Steady State One Dimensional
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Heat
Expression Conduction
for thermal resistance for length H
ln( b / a)
R
2kH
k
Above equation can be rearranged as,
ln(b / a) (b a) ln[2bH /(2aH )]
R
2kH (b a)2Hk
b
T2 t A1 A0
a R where, Am
T1 kAm ln( A1 A0 )
0 here, A0 = 2πaH =area of inner surface of cylinder
r
A1 = 2πbH =area of outer surface of cylinder
Am = logarithmic mean area
t = b – a = thickness of cylinder
29
Steady State One Dimensional
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
HeatforConduction
Expression temperature distribution
d 2 dT (r )
r 0 in a < r < b
dr dr
c1
a T ( r ) c2
0
r r
ab
where, c1 (T1 T2 )
ba
b bT2 aT1
c2
ba
a br b r a
T (r ) . .T1 . .T2
r ba r ba
30
Steady State One Dimensional
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
ExpressionHeat Conduction
for heat flow rate Q and thermal resistance R
dT (r )
Q (4r ) k
2
dr
2 c1
a (4r ) k 2 4kc1
0
r r
ab
using, c1 (T1 T2 ) from last slide
ba
b
ab T1 T2
Q 4k (T1 T2 )
ba R
ba
where, R
4 kab
31
Example (Furnace Wall)
Composite Medium
REFRACTORY LINING 1
REFRACTORY LINING 2
BRICK WALL
FURNACE Ambient
FURNACE WALL
32
Example (Condenser Water Tube)
Composite Medium
Tube Wall
Scale
Cooling Water
33
Composite Slab (resistance in series)
Composite
L L
Medium
L 1 2 3
Fluid
Flow
Tb, hb
Ta
T0 Q
T1
Q
Tb
Fluid T2
Flow T3
Ta, ha
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb Ta Tb
Q Q W
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb R
1 L L L 1
Ra ; R1 1 ; R2 2 ; R3 3 ; Rb R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak3 Ahb
34
Composite Slab (resistance in parallel)
Composite
Insulated
Medium
T1 T2
B Q W
R
R RA Req. p RE
T1 A C E T2
1 1 1 1
Req. p RB RC RD
D
Insulated
T1 RA RB RE T2
Rc
RD 35
Composite Cylinder
Composite Medium
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
k2 k3 Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
Q
k1 Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
ha 1 1 r 1 r
Ra ; R1 ln 1 ; R2 ln 2
hb 2r0 Hha 2Hk1 r0 2Hk 2 r1
1 r 1
R3 ln 3 ; Rb
2Hk3 r2 2r3 Hhb
Ta Tb
Q W
R
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 36
Composite Spheres
Composite Medium
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
ha Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
1 1 r1 r0 1 r2 r1
k1 Ra ; R ; R
4r02 ha 4k1 r1r0 4k 2 r2 r1
1 2
k2 k3
1 r3 r2 1
R3 ; Rb
hb 4k3 r3 r2 4r32 hb
Ta Tb
Q W
R
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 37
Critical Thickness of Insulation
Composite Medium
H Convection
into an
Heat Loss, q
ambient at
T∞,h0
r1
T1
ro
rc
Insulation Radius, r
38
Critical Thickness of Insulation
Composite Medium
The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by
Ti T
Convection Q
H into an Rins R0
ambient at
T∞,h0 1 r 1
Rins ln 0 R0
r1 2kH ri 2r0 Hh0
T1
ro dQ 2kH (Ti T ) 1 k
2
0
2
dr0 ln(r0 / ri ) k /(h0 r0 ) r0 h0 r0
For Cylinder For Sphere
k 2k
r0c r0c
h0 h0
39
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Composite Medium Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
7.6 cm 2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
Ta=330°C
ha=400 W/(m2.°C) R2 33.65103 C / W
Insulation
t =2 cm Rb 4.21103 C / W
K=0.2 W(m.°C)
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 39.89 103 C / W
41
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Composite Medium Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
7.6 cm 2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
Ta=330°C Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 Tb
ha=400 W/(m2.°C) Q
Insulation
Ra R1 R2 Rb
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.°C)
Thotgas QRa 12.0C
Ttube QR1 3.3C
K = 15 W/(m °C) Tinsulation QR2 253.0C
Ambient air
Tb=30°C Toutside QRb 31.7C
hb= 60 W/(m2.°C)
42
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Composite Medium 2 x 4 wood studs have actual dimensions of
4.13 x 9.21 cm with k = 0.1 W/m.°C
Calculate,
1.Overall heat transfer coefficient
GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection 2.R value of the wall
h=15 W/m2 C
Rbrick Tair
Tair inside
outside
Rconvection Rconvection
outside Rsheath Rsheath inside
Rstud
outside inside
43
Note: ‘k’ is expressed in W/m °C
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Composite Medium Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
44
Note: ‘k’ is expressed in W/m °C
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Composite Medium Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
Rtotal 7.337 C / W
45
Note: ‘k’ is expressed in W/m °C
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Composite Medium Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
47
Note: ‘k’ is expressed in W/m °C
Solved Example (Critical Thickness of Insulation)
Composite Medium Calculate, the critical thickness of rubber and the
maximum heat transfer rate per metre length of
conductor.
The temperature of rubber is not to exceed 65 °C (due
Ambient at to heat generated within).
30°C, 8.5 W/m2K
Critical thickness
q = heat generated
The temperature distribution can also be written
x=0
T Tw
2
x
Tw 1
T0 Tw L
x
Tw
L
L
49
Conduction-Convection Systems
Fins / Extended Surfaces
• Biot Number
d dT
x kA hP(T T ) 0
dx
Z dx dx
L d 2T hP
2
(T T ) 0
dx kA
d 2 hP
2
m 2
0 where, m & T T
dx kA
51
Conduction-Convection Systems
Boundary Conditions
LONG FIN
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2
( x) 0 in x 0
dx SHORT FIN
( x) T0 T 0 at x 0 (end insulated)
( x) 0 as x
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2
( x) 0 in 0 x L
dx SHORT FIN
(x) T0 T 0 at x 0 ( end not insulated)
d (x)
0 at x L
dx
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2 ( x) 0 in 0 x L
dx
(x) T0 T 0 at x 0
d (x)
k he ( x) 0 at x L
dx 52
Conduction-Convection
Types of Fin Boundaries
Systems
Temperature Distribution Heat transferred by fin
Type of FIN
T T
boundary Q
Tb T
Long Fin
e-mx (Tb-T∞)(hPkA)0.5
(TL= T∞)
Short Fin Cosh m(L-X)
(hPkA)0.5 (Tb-T∞) tanh (mL) *
(end insulated) Cosh (mL)
Short Fin Cosh[m( L X )] (hL / mk ) Sinh[m( L X )] (T T ) tanh( mL) (hL / mk ) (hPkA) 0.5
1 (hL / mk ) tanh( mL)
b
(end not insulated) Cosh (mL) (hL / mk ) Sinh(mL)
Specified End TL T
Sinh(mx) Sinh[m( L x)] Cosh(mL) 1
Temperature Tb T [(Tb T ) (TL T )] (hPkA) 0.5
Sinh(mL)
At x=L; T=TL Sinh(mL)
53
Conduction-Convection Systems
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
Qtotal = [ηβ+(1-β)] a h θ0 ≡ η‘ a h θ0
Where, η‘ = βη +1 – β = area – weighted fin efficiency
β = af / a
54
Conduction-Convection Systems
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
Fin Efficiency, η
Each curve is specific for
specific fin configuration
L (2h/kt)0.5
Q with fin
Effectiven ess
Q without fin
Although the addition of fins on a surface increases surface area, it also increases
thermal resistance over the portion of the surface where fins are attached. Therefore
there may be situations in which the addition of fins does not improve heat transfer.
56
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example
A steel rod is exposed to ambient air. If one end of the
rod is maintained at a temperature of 120 °C, calculate
the heat loss from the rod
57
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
Circular disk fins of constant thickness are attached on a 2.5 cm OD
L tube with a spacing of 100 fins per 1m length of tube.
Fin Properties: Aluminium k = 160 W / m.°C, t = 1mm L = 1 cm
Tube wall temperature = 170 °C; Ambient temperature = 30 °C
Heat transfer coeff. of ambient , h = 200 W/m2. °C.
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
t 2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
CIRCULAR DISK FIN 3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
Fin Efficiency
Fin efficiency is determined using the graph shown aside.
The following parameters are calculated, firstly:
Fin Efficiency, η
ro/ri 2h 2 200
L 1 10 2 0 .5
kt 160 10 3
ro 1.25 1
1.8
ri 1.25
L (2h/kt)0.5 The fin efficiency is determined from graph
0.9 58
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
Calculate,
L 1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
59
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
Calculate,
L 1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
60
Transient Conduction
• If the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the
temperature within the body begins to change over time.
61
Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance
Q Lumped Heat Analysis
• The convective heat loss from the body (shown aside) has its
magnitude equal to decrease in internal energy of solid.
dT
Volume V Q hA(T T ) pcV
dt
Area A
dT hA
dt
T∞ T T pcV
T hA
On Integration, ln(T T ) t C1
T=T0 at t=0 pcV
T∞
62
Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance
Biot Number
• It is a non-dimensional parameter used to test the validity of the lumped heat
capacity approach.
internal resistance hL c
Bi
convective resistance k
• The characteristic length (Lc) for some common shapes is given below:
Lc
A.2L
L
R 2 .L R
Lc
2.A 2R.L 2
Sphere (radius R) Cube (side L)
(4 / 3)R 3 R L3 L
Lc Lc
4R 2 3 6L 2
6
• The lumped heat capacity approach for simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes can be used if Bi < 0.1
63
Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance
Response time of a Temperature measuring Instrument
T T
exp (hA / pcV ).t
T0 T
• For a rapid response of temperature measuring device, the index, (hAt/ρcV) should
be large to make the exponential term reach zero faster.
• This can be achieved by decreasing wire diameter, density and specific heat or by
increasing value of ‘h’.
• The quantity (ρcV/hA) has the units of time and is called ‘time constant’ of system.
Hence at time t=t* (one time constant),
T T
e 1 0.368
T0 T
• At the end of time period t* the temperature difference between the body and
ambient would be 0.368 of the initial temperature difference.
• In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2 percent.
• This reduction in 63.2 percent of initial temperature difference is called ‘sensitivity’
• Lower the value of time constant, better the response of instrument.
64
Systems with Negligible Surface
Resistance
• When convective heat transfer coefficient at the surface is
assumed to be infinite, the surface temperature remains
Large Flat Plate with
Negligible Surface Resistance
constant at all the time (t>0) and its value is equal to that of
ambient temperature.
• The systems exhibiting above said conditions are considered
to have ‘negligible surface resistance’
• An important application of this process is in heat treatment of
T0(x) for
t=0 metals by quenching, viz., the dropping of a metallic sphere
Ts Ts = T∞ (t>0) initially at 300 °C into a 20 °C oil bath.
• Mathematical formulation of this case is :
x 2T 1 T
0 x L
L
x 2
t
T T0 (x) at t 0 for 0 x L (initial condition)
T Ts at x 0 for t 0 Boundary
T Ts at x L for t 0 Conditions
65
Heat flow in an Infinitely Thick Plate
Semi-infinite body
Semi-Infinite Plate • A semi-infinite body is one in which at any instant of time there
is always a point where the effect of heating / cooling at one of
its boundaries is not felt at all.
• At this point the temperature remains unchanged.
Ts • Mathematical formulation is :
2T 1 T
Qo at t=0
To
x t
2
x
with initial and boundary conditions,
T T0 at t 0 for all x
T Ts at x 0 for all t 0
T T0 as x for all t 0
66
Systems with Finite Surface and
Internal Resistance
Mathematical formulation :
Infinitely Large Flat Plate
of Finite Thickness (2L) 2T 1 T
x 2
t
T T0 at t 0 (for - L x L)
h T
h 0 at x 0 (centre line)
x
T h
T∞ T∞ (T T ) at x L
at t=0 x k
-x
x
x=-L
x=0
x=L
67
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat
Conduction Problems
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Time History
Mid Plane
hL/k
T(x,t) - T∞
Ti- T∞ 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.5
0.8
0.9
1
68
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat
Conduction Problems
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Time History
Any Position, x
1
x/L
0.2
0.4
T(x,t) - T∞ 0.6
Ti- T∞
0.8
0.9
1
0
0.1 100
Biot Number, hL/k 69
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat
Conduction Problems
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Heat Flow
hL/k
0.001 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 10 20 40 50
Q/Qo
h 2
Bi 2
Fo
k2 Where, Qo cV (To T )
70
Lumped System Analysis
Solved Example
Determination of Time required to cool
4 mass 5.5
Volume V R 3 2.037 10 3
3 density 2700
Aluminium Ball R 3V / 4 0.0786 m
1/ 3
Radius
ρ = 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K 5.5 kg Tinitial=290°C Characteristic
R
L c 0.0262 m
k = 205 W/mK Length 3
T T hA
exp .t
T0 T cV
T 95C
T 15C
T0 290C
Tfluid = 15°C hA 3h 3 58
h = 58 W / m2. °C 9.1 10 4 / s
cV cR 2700 900 0.0786
95 15 80
exp( 9.1 10 4.t )
290 15 275
3.4375 exp( 9.1 10 4.t )
Time required to cool the
aluminium ball to 95°C ? t 1357 s
71
Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
Thermocouple Wire a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Lc = V/As = (1/6)D = (1/6)x0.001 = 1.67x10-4 m
Bi = hL/k = (210x 1.67x10-4) x 35 = 0.001 < 0.1
Gas T∞ Therefore, lumped system analysis is applicable.
h=210 W/m2 °C Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
ρ = 8500 kg/m3 In order to read 99% of initial temperature difference
k = 35 W/mK Ti – T∞ between the junction and the gas, we must
c = 320 J/kg K have T T
0.01
T0 T
How long will it take for the
thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
?
72
Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
Thermocouple Wire a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Time
T T
Gas T∞
0.01 exp (hA / pcV).t
h=210 W/m2 °C Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
T0 T
ρ = 8500 kg/m3 hA s h 210
k = 35 W/mK 0.462 s 1
c = 320 J/kg K cV cLc 8500 320 1.67 10 4
73
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
?
SOIL Tsoil = 10 °C
Condition : Tpipe wall should not fall below 0 °C
What burial depth is needed to
prevent freezing of the pipe ? 75
Temperature Distribution in
Semi-infinite Solid
T(x,t) - Tsurface
Tinitial- Tsurface
x
Error Function,
2 t 76
Determination of Burial depth
T ( x, t ) T0 0 15
( x, t ) 0.6
Ti T0 10 15
For ( x, t ) 0.6, 0.6 (from graph)
78
Application of Heisler Charts
Aluminium Slab
Thickness=10cm
Tinitial=500°C
α = 8.4x10-5 m2/s
ρ = 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 215 W/mK
Tfluid = 100°C
h = 1200 W / m2. °C
T T
0.68
T0 T
T 100 0.68(500 100) 372C
80
Determination of Surface Temperature
For x/L = 1 and Bi = 0.28,
T T
0.88
T0 T
T 100 0.88(372 100) 339.36C
81
Energy Loss
h2αt/k2 = (12002x8.4x10-5 x 60) / 2152 = 0.157
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28
Q
0.32 97.2 10 6
A
31.110 J / m
6 2
83
UNIT III – CONVECTIVE
HEAT TRANSFER
84
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Modes
forced
flow induced by external agency e.g. pump
eg. forced-draught air cooler, evaporators
natural
fluid motion caused by temperature-induced
density gradients within fluid
Examples
air flow over hot steam pipe, fireplace
circulation, cooling electronic devices
85
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Warm (lighter) air rises
Figure: Natural
convection flow
over a heated
steam pipe
86
Modelling Convection
Forced convection generally most-effective transport of
energy from solid to fluid.
.Q Engineer's prime
concern
rate of convection
Solid
T
s Flowing
fluid enables sizing of
Tb equipment
87
Modelling Convection
Experimentally found that:
Main problem
predict h value for:
• variety fluids & flow rates
• range of shapes
88
Resistance Concept
Rate equation •
Q
surface
Ts
fluid
Tb
Written in same form as Ohm’s Law:
1
hA
Potential Difference V
Current flow I =
Resistance R Ts
Ts Tb Ts Tb
•
Q
Q hA Ts Tb
Tb
1/ hA R
(Ts-Tb)= driving force
(1/hA) – thermal resistance (R) for convection heat transfer.
89
TYPICAL UNITS FOR h
-2 -1 -1 -2 -1
S.I.: W m K or J s m K
-1 -2 -1
British: Btu hr ft (F deg)
-2 -1 -1 -2 -1
Conversion: 1 W m K = 0.176 Btu hr ft (F deg)
Typical Values
free convection (air) 5 - 60
forced convection (air) 25 - 300
forced convection (water) 200 - 10,000
boiling water 2,000 - 25,000
condensing steam 4,000 - 110,000
90
Illustration 27.1
Air at 20°C is blown over an electrical resistor to keep it cool.
The resistor is rated at 40,000 ohm and has a potential
difference of 200 volts applied across it.
The expected mean heat transfer coefficient between the
resistor surface and the air is 50 W m-2K-1.
What will be the surface temperature of the resistor, which
has a surface area of 2 cm2?
Air
20°C
h = 50 W m K
R = 40,000
Potential = 200 V
91
SOLUTION
Energy Balance
Generation = heat loss by convection
Rate of heat generation
PQ
2
V V
P VI V
R R
V2 2002
Q 4
1 watt
R 4x10
92
Determining the size (H/T area) of the
exchanger
Q h1A T1 T2
T2 T3
kA h 2A T3 T4
x
(10.25)
Q
T1 T4
overall driving force
1
x
1 resis tances
h1A kA h2 A
(10.26)
93
Determining the size (H/T area) of the
exchanger
Q
Ti To
ln o
r
1
ri
1
hi A i 2kL ho A o
Q
Ti To
R1 R2 R3
Figure 2: Heat transfer between
two flowing fluids separated by a (10.27)
cylindrical wall
94
Overall heat-transfer coefficient
As a short-hand method of describing heat-
exchanger performance, we use the overall heat-
transfer coefficient,
Q hA Ts Tb
Qduty Uo AT
(10.28)
T T
Qduty
1 R
where Uo A
Uo overall heat-transfer coefficient W / m 2K
95
Determining the size (H/T area) of the
exchanger
96
Illustration 27.2
Consider the kettle below. For the conditions given, find the flame
temperature for the following values of the heat transfer coefficients:
hi (boiling) = 4000 W m-2K-1 ho (gas flame) = 40 W m-2K-1
.Q T
3
hi T2
Water
Flame ho T1
• T0 T1 T2 T3 = 100°C
Q = 1.88 kW To
1 1 BOILING
? x
ho WATER
k hi
FLAME
97
Solution
Plane slab- area constant, eliminate A:
1 1 x 1
Uo A ho A kA h1A
1 1 1.2x10 3 1
Uo 40 204 4000
Uo 39.6 W m-2K -1
98
Solution
Q 1883 W (as before)
A = 3.14x10-2 m2 (as before)
Qduty Uo A To T3
.Q T
3
hi T2
Water
Qduty
To T3 Flame ho T1
AUo To
1883
To T3 1514K 1514 C
o
3.14x10 39.6
2
99
Determining the size (H/T area) of the
exchanger
Qduty Uo ATavg (10.28)
• The term Tavg in equation 10.28 represents the temperature
difference between the hot and cold streams averaged.
• For single-pass exchangers, the appropriate form of Tavg is
the log-mean temperature difference, Tlog mean (often
abbreviated LMTD), defined as
Log mean temperature difference Tlog mean
T1 T2
Tlog mean (10.29)
ln T1
T2
100
Determining the size (H/T area) of the
exchanger
Qduty Uo ATavg
Qduty
A
Uo Tlog mean (10. 30)
101
Example
Saturated Steam,
Saturated water,
280oF, mstream Hot 280oF, mstream
Cold
Oil, 110oF, 960 lbm/min Oil, 35oF, 960 lbm/min
102
Example
How much area is required for the counter-current heat
exchanger in Example 10.5?
1
Saturated Steam,
Saturated water,
280oF, mstream Hot 280oF, mstream
2
Cold
Oil, 110oF, 960 lbm/min Oil, 35oF, 960 lbm/min
245 170
Tlog mean 205o F
ln 245
170
103
Example
From table 10.5
Uo 150 Btu / hr ft 2 F
o
53,280 Btu/min 60min
A 104 ft 2
150 Btu
hr ft 2 oF 205o F 1hr
104
Example
How much area is required for the co-current heat exchanger
in Example 10.5?
1
Saturated Steam, Saturated water,
280oF, mstream
Hot 280oF, mstream
2
Cold
Oil, 35oF, 960 lbm/min Oil, 110oF, 960 lbm/min
170 245
Tlog mean 205o F
ln 170
245
105
Example
From table 10.5
Uo 150 Btu / hr ft 2 F
o
53,280 Btu/min 60min
A 104 ft 2
150 Btu
hr ft 2 oF 205o F 1hr
106
UNIT IV – RADIATION
107
General Considerations
General Considerations
• Attention is focused on thermal radiation, whose origins are associated
with emission from matter at an absolute temperature T >0
• Emission is due to oscillations and transitions of the many electrons that
comprise matter, which are, in turn, sustained by the thermal energy of the
matter.
• Emission corresponds to heat transfer from the matter and hence to a
reduction in thermal energy stored by the matter.
• Radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by matter.
108
General Considerations (cont)
For an opaque solid or liquid, emission originates from atoms and molecules
within 1 m of the surface.
• The dual nature of radiation:
– In some cases, the physical manifestations of radiation may be explained
by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
– In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.
109
General Considerations (cont)
110
The EM Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• of
Thethe spectrum
amount of radiation emitted by. an opaque
surface varies with wavelength, and we may
speak of the spectral distribution over all
wavelengths or of monochromatic/spectral
components associated with particular wavelengths.
111
Directional Considerations
Directional Considerations and the
Concept of Radiation Intensity
• Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all
directions associated with a hypothetical
hemisphere about the surface and is
characterized by a directional distribution.
• Spectral Intensity: A quantity used to specify the radiant heat flux (W/m2) within
a unit solid angle about a prescribed direction (W/m2sr) and within a unit
wavelength interval about a prescribed wavelength (W/m2sr m)
• The spectral intensity I,e associated with emission from a surface element dA1
in the solid angle d about , and the wavelength interval d about
is defined as:
I ,e , ,
dq
dA1 cos d d
113
Directional Considerations (cont)
• The rationale for defining the radiation flux in terms of the projected surface
area (dA1 cos ) stems from the existence of surfaces for which, to a good
approximation, I,e is independent of direction. Such surfaces are termed
diffuse, and the radiation is said to be isotropic.
The projected area is how dA1 would
appear if observed along , .
– What is the projected area for = 0 ?
– What is the projected area for = /2 ?
• The spectral heat rate and heat flux associated with emission from dA1
are, respectively,
I ,e , , dA1 cos d
dq
dq
d
dq" I ,e , , cos d I ,e , , cos sin d d
114
Radiation Fluxes
E ( ) I ,e ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
0 0
• The total emissive power (W/m2 ) corresponds to emission over all directions
and wavelengths (hemispherical).
E E ( ) d
0
E ( ) I ,e ( ) cos sin d d I ,e ( )
2
0 0
E E ( )d I ,e ( )d I e
0 0
115
Radiation Fluxes (cont)
Irradiation
• The spectral intensity of radiation incident on
a surface, I,i , is defined in terms of the unit
solid angle about the direction of incidence,
the wavelength interval d about ,
and the projected area of the receiving
surface, dA1cos .
• The spectral irradiation (W/m2 m) is then
2
G ( ) I ,i ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
0 0
G ( ) I ,i ( ) cos sin d d I ,i ( )
2
0 0
G G ( )d I ,i ( )d I i
0 0
116
Radiation Fluxes (cont)
Radiosity
• The radiosity of an opaque surface accounts
for
all of the radiation leaving the surface in all
directions and may include contributions to
both
• With Iand
reflection ,e+r designating
emission. the spectral intensity associated with radiation
emitted by the surface and the reflection of incident radiation, the spectral
radiosity (W/m2 m) is
2
J ( ) I ,e r ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
0 0
J ( ) I , e r ( ) cos sin d d I ,e r ( )
2
0 0
J J ( )d I ,e r ( )d I e r
0 0
117
The Blackbody
Blackbody Radiation
• The Blackbody
An idealization providing limits on radiation emission and absorption
by matter.
– For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit
more radiation than a blackbody: the ideal emitter.
– A blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
– A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation: the ideal absorber.
• The Isothermal Cavity
(a) After multiple reflections, virtually all radiation entering the cavity is absorbed
(b) Emission from the aperture is the maximum possible emission achievable for
the temperature associated with the cavity and is diffuse.
118
The Blackbody (cont)
(c) The cumulative effect of radiation emission from and reflection off
the cavity wall is to provide diffuse irradiation corresponding to
emission from a blackbody (G =E,b) for any small surface in the cavity.
119
Planck Distribution
120
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
where, in general,
F0
0
E ,b d
f T
T 4
121
Band Emission
• Table 12.1
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
122
Band Emission (cont)
Note ability to readily determine I,b and its relation to the maximum
intensity from the 3rd and 4th columns, respectively.
If emission from the sun may be approximated as that from a blackbody at
5800K, at what wavelength does peak emission occur?
Would you expect radiation emitted by a blackbody at 800K to be discernible
by the naked eye?
As the temperature of a blackbody is increased, what color would be
the first to be discerned by the naked eye?
123
Emissivity
Surface Emissivity
• Radiation emitted by a surface may be determined by introducing a property
(the emissivity) that contrasts its emission with the ideal behavior of a blackbod
at the same temperature.
• The definition of the emissivity depends upon one’s interest in resolving
directional and/or spectral features of the emitted radiation, in contrast
to averages over all directions (hemispherical and/or wavelengths (total).
I , e ( , , , T )
, ( , , , T )
I ,b ( , T )
I ( , , , T ) cos sin d d
2
E ( , T ) ,e
( , T ) 0 0
E ,b ( , T ) 2
I ( , T ) cos sin d d
2
,b
0 0
124
Emissivity (cont)
(T )
E (T )
0
( , T ) E ,b ( , T )d
Eb (T ) Eb (T )
• To a reasonable approximation, the hemispherical emissivity is equal to
the normal emissivity.
n
Note:
Low emissivity of polished metals and increasing emissivity for unpolished
and oxidized surfaces.
Comparatively large emissivities of nonconductors.
125
Emissivity (cont)
Why does n increase with increasing T for tungsten and not for aluminum oxide?
126
Abs, Ref & Trans
G ,ref .
Reflection from the medium
G ,abs .
Absorption within the medium
G ,tr .
Transmission through the medium
Radiation balance
G G ,ref G ,abs G ,tr
127
Abs, Ref & Trans (cont)
128
Absorptivity
Absorptivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional absorptivity:
Assuming negligible temperature dependence,
I ,i ,abs ( , , )
, ( , , )
I ,i ( , , )
• The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity:
2
, ( , , ) I ,i ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
E ,abs ( )
( ) 0 0
E ( ) 2
I ,i ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
0 0
To what does the foregoing result simplify, if the irradiation is diffuse?
If the surface is diffuse?
• The total, hemispherical absorptivity:
G
abs
0
( )G ( )d
G
0
G ( )d
If the irradiation corresponds to emission from a blackbody, how may the
above expression be rewritten?
The absorptivity is approximately independent of the surface temperature,
does
but if the irradiation corresponds to emission from a blackbody, why
depend on the temperature of the blackbody?
129
Reflectivity
Reflectivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional reflectivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence:
I ,i ,ref ( , , )
, ( , , )
I ,i ( , , )
( ) 0 0
E ( ) 2
I ,i ( , , ) cos sin d d
2
0 0
Gref
0
( )G ( )d
G
0
G ( )d
• Limiting conditions of diffuse and
spectral reflection. Polished and
rough
130
surfaces.
Reflectivity (cont)
131
Transmissivity
Transmissivity
The spectral, hemispherical transmissivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence,
G ,tr
G
• The demo experiment shows that the black material absorbs more
irradiation than the aluminum does.
133
Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s law equates the total, hemispherical emissivity of a surface
to its total, hemispherical absorptivity:
However, conditions associated with its derivation are highly restrictive:
Irradiation of the surface corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the
same temperature as the surface.
, ,
Why are there no restrictions on use of the foregoing equation?
134
Diffuse/Gray Surfaces
Diffuse/Gray Surfaces
• With 2
0 0 absorber) is a good
2
0 0
,i absorber) is a poor
to ?
Under what conditions may we equate emitter.
• With
0
E ,b ( )d
Eb (T )
and
0
G ( )d
G
to
Under what conditions may we equate ?
135
Radiation Exchange Between
Surfaces:
Enclosures with Nonparticipating
Media
CHAPTER 13
SECTIONS 13.1 THROUGH 13.4
Basic Concepts
Basic Concepts
• Enclosures consist of two or more surfaces that envelop a region of space
(typically gas-filled) and between which there is radiation transfer. Virtual,
as well as real, surfaces may be introduced to form an enclosure.
137
View Factor Integral
cosi cos j
dqi j I i cosi dAi d j i J i dAi dAj
R2
cosi cos j
Fij 1 A Aj dAi dA j
Ai i R 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
2
D tan s 2D
2 2
Fij 1 1 D 1
s s D
139
View Factor Relations (cont)
2
1 R 2j
S 1
Ri2
Ri ri / L R j rj / L
140
UNIT V – HEAT EXCHANGERS
141
Classification of heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices that provide the flow of thermal
energy between 2 or more fluids at different temperatures.
They are used in a wide variety of applications. These include
power production, process, chemical, food and manufacturing
industries, electronics, environmental engg. , waste heat
recovery, air conditioning, reefer and space applications.
Heat Exchangers may be classified according to the following criteria.
•Recuperators/ regenerators
•Transfer process: direct and indirect contact
•Geometry of construction; tubes, plates, and extended
surfaces.
•Heat transfer mechanism: single phase and two phase
•Flow arrangement: Parallel, counter, cross flow.
142
Recuperation/regeneration HE
Conventional heat exchangers with heat transfer between
2 fluids. The heat transfer occurs thro a separating wall or
an interface.
In regenerators or storage type heat exchangers, the same
flow passage alternately occupied by one of the two fluids.
Here thermal energy is not transferred thro’ a wall as in
direct transfer type but thro’ the cyclic passage of 2 fluid
thro the same matrix.
Example is the ones used for pre heating air in large coal
fired power plant or steel mill ovens.
Regenerators are further classified as fixed and rotary.
143
Transfer process
According to transfer process heat exchangers are classified
as direct contact type and indirect contact type.
In direct contact type, heat is transferred between cold and
hot fluids through direct contact of the fluids (eg. Cooling
towers, spray and tray condensers)
In indirect heat exchanger, heat energy is transferred thro’ a
heat transfer surface,
144
Direct Contact Heat Exchangers
In the majority of heat exchangers heat is transferred through
the metal surfaces, from one fluid to another.
The fluid flow is invariably turbulent.
The transfer of heat has to overcome several thermal
resistances that are in "Series“
Under normal service conditions tubes may well have a deposit
of scale or dirt. Next to this a layer of stationary fluid adheres.
Between this stationary layer of fluid and the general flow there
is a boundary (or buffer) layer of fluid
The thickness of the stationary and boundary layer depends on
the flow velocity and the type of surface.
In all cases the thermal resistance of these "films“ is
considerably greater than the resistance of the metal.
145
Heat Exchangers
The classic thermodynamic heat exchangers are classified as
either:
PARALLEL FLOW
146
Heat Exchangers
or
CONTRA FLOW.
147
Heat Exchangers
Most practical heat exchangers are a mixture of
both types of flow. Some multi-pass arrangements
try to approximate to the contra-flow. The greater
the number of passes the closer the approximation.
148
TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGERS
Shell:-
Generally cast iron or fabricated steel.
Tubes:-
Very often are of aluminum-brass, for more advanced heat
exchangers cupro-nickel or even stainless steel may be
used. The tubes are often expanded in to the tube plate but
can be soldered, brazed or welded. In the tube stack the
tubes pass through alternate baffles that support the tubes
and also direct the fluid so that all the tube surfaces are
swept, making maximum use of heat transfer area.
The number of tubes always has a fouling allowance. After
final assembly the tube stack is machined to fit in the shell
bore (the shell is also machined) to allow easy withdrawal.
149
TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGERS
Tube-Plates:-
Material would be to suit the tube material and method of
fixing. Usually assembled so that the water boxes can be
removed without disturbing the tube fastening.
Water Boxes:-
Cast iron or. fabricated steel, always designed to keep
turbulence and pressure loss at a minimum. Coated for
corrosion protection.
150
TYPICAL OIL COOLER
151
152
TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGER
Packing nut
153
TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGERS ;Types
•Expansion Bellows In Shell:-
Requires an allowance for pipe-work to move. Shell support
required when installing or when maintenance work is done.
Allows the use of welding or brazing of tubes.
•Floating Header:-
Allows removal of stack for cleaning. Requires a machined
shell interior. Possibility of leaks so a leak detection system
needed. This is Expensive
•Fixed 'u' Tube:-
Cheapest to manufacture Tube stack easily removed. Only
uses one tube plate.
Can not be single pass. Non-standard tube so spares are
expensive.
•Bayonet Tubes.
Usually used for sophisticated fuel oil heaters
154
Gasketed PHEs
Gasketed plate heat exchangers (the plate and frame )
were introduced in the 30s mainly for the food industries
because of their ease of cleaning, and their design
reached maturity in the 60s with the development of more
active plate geometries, assemblies and improved gasket
materials. The range of possible applications has
widened considerably and, at present, under specific and
appropriate conditions, overlap and competes in areas
historically considered the domain of tubular heat
exchangers. They are capable of meeting an extremely
wide range of duties in as many industries. Therefore
they can be used as an alternative to shell and tube type
heat exchangers for low and medium pressure liquid to
liquid heat transfer applications.
155
Gasketed PHEs
Design of plate heat exchangers is highly
specialized in nature considering the variety of
designs available for plate and arrangement
that possibly suits various duties. Unlike tubular
heat exchangers for which design data and
methods are easily available, plate heat
exchanger design continues to be proprietary in
nature. Manufacturers have developed their
own computerized design procedures
applicable to their exchangers they market.
156
Gasketed PHEs
157
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Allow the use of contra-flow design, reducing heat
transfer area.
The liquid flows in thin streams between the plates.
Troughs, pressed into the plates produce extremely high
turbulence, this combined with large heat transfer areas
result in a compact unit. The plate form can produce
turbulent flow with Reynolds Numbers as low as ten. This
type of flow produces a very low fouling rate in the heat
exchanger when compared with the tubular type. The
heaters are suitable for circulatory cleaning in place, (CIP)
as there are no dead areas.
Only the plate edges are exposed to the atmosphere so heat loss is
negligible, no insulation is required.
158
PHEs
The plates are available in different versions of trough
geometry, this gives flexibility in the "thermal length".
For instance, when a washboard type plate is assembled
adjacent to a chevron type the thermal length will depend on
the chevron angle. Plate heat exchangers can not deal with
high pressures due to the requirement for plate gaskets.
They can not deal with the large volume flows associated with
low pressure vapours and gasses.
For same distance of travel larger time of heat exchange
between the two fluids : “high thermal length”
159
PHEs
Plates
160
PHEs
Washboard
type plate
Gasket
Chevron type
161
PHEs
Low thermal length
High Thermal length
162
163
Parallel Flow
164
Contra-Flow
165
Para Flo Contra Flo
Vs
166
Guided Flow Fuel 0il Heater
OIL IN
Conde
nsate S
out t
e
a
m
i
n
167
Guided Flow Fuel 0il Heater
The guided flow heater uses a bayonet tube
arrangement to
a. Limit tube wall temperature
b. Prevent tube wall distortion.
The oil flow is guided by baffle plates to ensure all
surfaces are swept by oil with no dead pockets. The
extended heating surface obtained by the fins,
results in small volume heat exchanger.
Due to lower metal temperature in contact with oil
there is less damage of oil cracking or carbonizing
168
Heat transfer analysis assumptions
•Heat exchanger operates under steady state condition
•Heat losses to/from the surroundings are negligible
•There are no thermal energy sources or sinks in the heat
echangers are fluids as a heater, chemical reaction etc.
•Temperature of each fluid is uniform over every cross
section of the counter and para flo HE. Ie. Proper transverse
mixing and no gradient normal to the flo direction.
•Wall thermal resistance is disributed uniformaly in the entire
heat exchanger.
•There are no phase change in the fluid streams flowing thro’
the exchanger or phase change occurs at single temperature
169
Heat transfer analysis assumptions contd.
170
HE pressure drop analysis. assumptions
In any medium, fluid pumping load is proportional to the pressure drop,
which is associated with fluid friction and other pressure drop
contributions from the flow path of fluids.
Fluid pressure drop has direct relations with exchanger heat transfer,
operation, size, mechanical characteristics, economy and other factors.
Heat transfer rate can be influenced by the saturation temperature
change in the condensing /evaporating fluid if large pressure drop is
associated with the flow.
Fluid pressure drop associated with the heat exchanger is the sum of
the pressure drop across the core /matrix, and the distribution devices
like pipe , header , manifolds etc.
Hence , ideally most of the pressure drop available shall be utilized in
the core as this shall improve the uniform flow distribution thro’ the
core.
171
Pressure drop analysis. Assumptions contd.
172
Fouling of heat exchanger
This refers to undesirable substance on the exchanger
surface. Fouling causes lower heat transfer and increased
pressure drop.
If liquids are used for sensible heat exchanging, fouling may
substantially increase the required surface area .
For critical appln., chances of the rate of fouling dictates the
design of the heat exchanger.
Strangely more heat exchangers are opened for cleaning
due to excessive pressure drop than for an inability to meet
the heat transfer requirement.
173
Condenser
A vessel in which a vapor is removed of its Latent Heat of Vaporization by
cooling at constant pressure. In surface condensers steam enters at an upper
level, passes over tubes in which cold water passes, condenses and falls as
water to the bottom and is removed by a pump.
Construction is similar to tubular HE with sizes varying from small u - tube
type double pass to large regenerative condensers for propulsion turbines.
Straight tubes can be (1)expanded into the end plates,
(2) expanded at the outlet and fitted with soft packing at the other, (3) or
fitted with soft packing at both ends.
Tubes are supported at many places by support plates to prevent tubes from
sagging and a baffle at the steam entrance prevent damage due to steam
impingement.
Corrosion is inhibited by sacrificial anodes or impressed current system
Tube failures can be due to
a.. Impingement
b.. Corrosion/erosion due to entrapped air,
c.. Excessive water flow.
D.. Stress/corrosion crack or dezincification etc.
174
BASIC FUNCTION
• Remove latent heat from exhaust steam and hence allowing the
distilled water to be pumped back to system, Create vacuum
conditions assisting flow of exh stm. and also allowing for low
saturation tempo and hence increasing recoverable heat energy from
the stm.
• Deaerate
Only latent heat should be removed as this increases thermal efficiency
Even when the steam is expanded to vacuum conditions some 60% of the
initial enthalpy at boiler conditions is thrown away in the condenser
Avoid low water speeds which causes silting. Too high a speed leads to
erosion.
Cathodic protection for plates and tubes by using soft iron / mild steel
anodes.
The effect can be increased with the use of impressed current using
anodes of larger size and different material.
Alternately coating of the tubes with a 10% ferrous sulphate solution too
helps.
Rubber bonding of water boxes.
Marine growth prevention
-chlorine dosage
-Electro chlorine generator making sodium hypochlorite ( switched off
when dosing with ferrous sulphate )
Erosion protection
-Inlet of tubes streamlined to smooth flow by expanding and bell
mouthing
- the fitting of plastic ferrules
-for aluminum-brass inserts fitted and glued
When laying up the following procedures should be carried out to prevent 177
CONDENSER CLEANING
Before draining ensure no special chocking arrangements are necessary
to prevent loading on springs or damage to the LP exhaust inlet gasket.
Water side
General inspection before cleaning
Place boards to protect the rubber lining
Use water jets or balls blown by compressed air through the tubes
Only brushes or canes as a last resort
When plastic inserts are fitted work from the inlet end
Test for leaks on completion
Clean or renew the sacrificial anodes
Remove the boards and clean vents and drains clear
Steam side
Inspect the steam side for deposits, clean with a chemical solvent
where required
Examine the baffles, tube plates and deflectors
Look for vibration erosion damage of the tubes
Inspect for possible air leakage 178
Leakage
The indications that a leak is in existence is that of high salinity
measured in the condensate and boiler combined with a rapid drop in
pH.
(In the earlier versions the first aid used to be the injection of sawdust
followed by a shut down at the soonest possible time).
There are three methods for leak detection;
Ultrasonic-Here, electric tone speakers are fitted in the steam space,
and a microphone passed down the tubes. Alternately, instead of
speakers a vacuum can be drawn with the microphone picking up air
leakage.
Fluorescent-The water side is cleaned and dried, chocks are fitted
and the steam side filled with water containing a quantity of
fluorescence. A UV lamp is then used on the water side.
Vacuum test- Draw a vacuum and cover the tube plate with plastic or
use the ultrasound microphone
179
Maintenance
The only attention that heat exchangers require is to ensure
that the heat transfer surfaces remain clean and flow
passages are clear of obstruction
Electrical continuity is essential; in sea water circulating pipe
work where sacrificial anodes are used.
To avoid the impingement attack care must be taken with
water flow velocities thro’ the tubes. For the cheap aluminum
brass the upper limit is 2.5 m/s. It is equally bad to have a
sea water velocity of less than 1m/s.
The practice of removing the tube stack and replace this
after rotating the stack by 180’ is followed for long time for a
steady performance of the condenser.
While installing the shell and tube heat exchangers,
clearance space is essential for the withdrawal of the stack
180
Regenerative Condenser
181
Charge air coolers
• The charge air coolers fitted to reduce the air
temperature after the turbocharger but before entering
the engine cylinder, are provided with fins on the heat
transfer surfaces to compensate for the relatively poor
heat transfer properties of the medium. Solid drawn
tubes with semi flattened cross section is favored. These
are threaded thro’ the thin copper fin plates and bonded
to them with solder for maximum heat transfer. The tube
ends are fixed into the tube plate by expanding and then
soldering.
Cooling of air results in precipitation of moisture which is
removed by water eliminators fitted at the air side. A
change of direction in the flow of air is used in some
charge air coolers to assist water removal.
182
Sp heat capacity of some metals
Electrical
Specific Thermal
Metal Density Conductivi
Heat Conductivity
ty
cp c k watt/cm
g/cm3 1E6/Ωm
al/g° C K
alpha-beta brass - a brass that has more zinc and is stronger than
alpha brass; used in making castings and hot-worked products
183
Reynolds Number
184
185