Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 324

By
Prof. P. Muthukumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
 Course outline
Introduction: Review of Thermodynamics, Limitation of Thermodynamics, Heat transfer, Modes of Heat transfer

Conduction: 1-D and 2-D steady conduction; 1-D unsteady conduction-Lumped capacitance and analytical methods; Fins.

Convection: Fundamentals, order of magnitude analysis of momentum and energy equations; hydrodynamic and thermal

boundary layers; dimensional analysis; free and forced convection; external and internal flows;

Heat transfer with phase change – Boiling-Pool boiling, tube boiling; Condensation – Laminar film condensation

Heat exchangers: LMTD and NTU methods; heat transfer enhancement techniques.

Radiation: Stefan-Boltzmann law; Planck’s law; emissivity and absorptivity; radiant exchange between black surfaces.

Mass transfer: molecular diffusion; Fick’s law; analogy between heat and mass transfer; evaluation of mass transfer

coefficients by dimensional analysis.

Text Books: Grading Scheme

• [1] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals Of Heat And Mass Transfer, 7th Ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2018. Quiz 1 and 2 - 15 %
• [2] J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2007. Tutorial - 20 %
References: Mid Sem - 25 %
• [1] A. Bejan, Convective Heat Transfer, 3rd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2004. End Sem - 40 %
• [2] F. Kreith and M. S. Bohn, Principles of Heat Transfer, 6th Ed., Thomson,2007
• [3] Y.A. Cengel and A.J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill Education(India), 4th Edi., 2011
What is heat transfer?
“Energy in transit due to temperature difference”

Objective
To determine the temperature distribution [T =T(x,y,z,t)] and rate of heat transfer within the object, subjected to known temperature
and/or heat flux conditions on the surface.

Physical principle
Conservation of energy; the first law of thermodynamics

Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states only, it can’t state the following,

• How (with what modes) heat is transferred

• Rate of heat transfer
• Temperature distribution within the body

That is where Heat Transfer comes into context

Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Transfer of heat occurring through intervening matter without
bulk motion of the matter. Occurs through mechanism of inter-
molecular interactions (due to movement of free electrons in
metals, random molecular motion in liquids and gas, lattice
vibration in crystals). Transfer of heat from the more energetic to
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles.

Convection
Heat transfer due to a flowing fluid. The heat is transferred
through bulk transfer of a non-uniform temperature fluid .
Combination of conduction (random molecular motion ) and
advection ( bulk motion or macroscopic motion)

Radiation
Essentially electromagnetic wave propagation. Transmission of
energy through space without the necessary presence of matter.
It can be important even in situations in which there is an
intervening medium. Not much influenced by temperature
difference.
Applications of Heat Transfer

Human body temperature Condenser Coils- Microprocessor Cooling Gas turbine

maintenance Refrigerators

Glass wool insulation in Heat treatment Cooling towers Fire tube boilers
steam line
Conduction
 Heat and Sound
Heat and sound are forms of energy. Heat can be transferred by radiation, conduction and convection and can be also
transferred through vacuum. Sound is created by vibration and cannot travel through a vacuum
Heat Sound
Temperature describes the random motions of the Sound are non-random behaviours. Behaviours between
particles that comprise some object. Behaviours particles are correlated, and these correlations don't dissipate
between vibrating particles are not correlated nearly as quickly as they do with temperature.
Temperature does not have ordered movements. Sound consists of ordered movements, travelling through a
medium as a wave (although it can also stand still, as in a
standing wave). Sound eventually becomes random, as it is
Sound is a form of energy that causes particles to vibratescattered
back andaround
forth in many directions, and ultimately ends as
heat
Thermal vibrations are random amplitude is very small Sound frequencies are within audible range.
(approx 10 -11 m) and the frequency very large (1012 Hz
at room temperature though obviously it depends on Sound carries high kinetic energy and can be used to producing
the atomic mass). Human hearing extends to about 104 cooling and work. Even electricity also.
Hz so there is no chance of "hearing" 1012 Hz

5
Heat corresponds to random movements of atoms and molecules. Sound consists of ordered movements, travelling through
a medium as a wave (although it can also stand still, as in a standing wave).
 Conduction Heat Transfer
x
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (1-D)
𝒅𝑻
𝑸∝
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻 T1
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒙
𝑸 𝒅𝑻 W
𝒒= = −𝒌 A
𝑨 𝒅𝒙 m2 k
(negative sign denotes heat transfer in the direction of decreasing q
temperature) T2
Differential Form
Assumptions:
q = - kAdT/dx, W
• Steady state heat conduction
k = Thermal Conductivity, W/mK
• Isotropic and homogenous material
A = Cross-sectional Area, m2
L
• Constant thermal conductivity
T = Temperature, K or °C
• Linear temperature profile
x = Heat flow path, m
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity defined by Fourier’s Law is the intrinsic thermo-physical property of a material which relates its ability to
conduct heat.

The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature

Material k, W/m °C Material k, W/m °C Material k, W/m °C

Diamond 2300 Mercury (l) 8.54 Helium (g) 0.152
Silver 429 Glass 0.78 Soft rubber 0.13
Copper 401 Brick 0.72 Glass fiber 0.043
Gold 317 Water (l) 0.613 Air (g) 0.026
Aluminium 237 Human skin 0.37 Urethane, rigid foam 0.026
Iron 80.2 Wood (oak) 0.17 Asbestos 0.12

𝒅𝑻
𝑸/(−𝑨 )=𝒌
𝒅𝒙
Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature

Solids Liquids Gases

General Heat Conduction Equation
Objectives of conduction analysis

The primary objective is to determine the temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), in a body.

The secondary objective is to determine the heat transfer rate.

T(x,y,z,t) depends on:

• Material properties (k, cp, ρ)
• Boundary conditions
• Initial condition
• Geometry of the body (shape, size)

Why we need T (x, y, z, t)?

• To estimate heat flux at any location (using Fourier’s equation)
• Compute thermal stresses, expansion, deflection due to temp. etc.
• Design heat exchanger or any thermal device
Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates
Consider the differential control volume shown below. Heat is assumed to flow through the element in the positive directions as
shown by the 6 heat flux vectors.

Assumptions:

• Material is homogeneous

• Material is isotropic

• Uniform heat generation

Applying the law of conservation of energy pertaining to this control volume, we get
The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces at the x, y, and z coordinate locations are indicated by
the terms qx qy, and qz, respectively.

The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series expansion where, neglecting
higher order terms, we get
𝜕𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 −−−− − 𝑎
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑞𝑦
𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 −−−− − 𝑏
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞𝑧
𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = 𝑞𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 −−−− − 𝑐
𝜕𝑧
An energy source term within the control volume associated is represented as,

• •
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 −−−− − 𝑑
•
Where, 𝒒 is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium (W/m3).

In addition, changes in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored within the control volume term may be expressed as,
• 𝜕𝑇
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 −−−− − 𝑒
𝜕𝑡
 𝝏𝑻
Where, 𝝆𝒄𝒑 𝝏𝒕 is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal) energy of the medium per unit volume

Now, expressing conservation of energy for the given control volume is expressed as,
• • • •
𝑬𝒊𝒏 + 𝑬𝒈 − 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑬𝒔𝒕 −−−− − 𝑓
• •
Hence, recognizing that the conduction rates constitute the energy inflow, 𝑬𝒊𝒏 , and outflow, 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 and substituting equations
(d) and (e), we obtain

𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧 •

− 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 (𝜕 𝑇Τ𝜕 𝑡) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 −−−− − 𝑔
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The conduction heat rates may be evaluated from Fourier’s law

𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 −−−− − ℎ
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 −−−− − 𝑖
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 −−−− − 𝑗
𝜕𝑧
Substituting equations (h,i,j) into Equation (g) and dividing out the dimensions of the control volume (dxdydz), we obtain the
general 3-D conduction equation in Cartesian Coordinate.
𝝏 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 • 𝛛𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒒 = 𝝆𝒄𝒑 −−−− − 𝑘
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒛 𝛛𝒛 𝛛𝒕

It is often possible to work with simplified versions of Equation (k) For example, if the thermal conductivity is constant, the heat
equation is
•
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 2+ 𝜕𝑦 2+ 𝜕𝑧 2
+ =
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
𝑘
Where, α = 𝜌𝑐 is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s).
𝑝

Where, k= thermal conductivity (W/m-K), Cp = specific heat capacity (J/kg-K) and ρ = density (kg/m3)

thermal conductivity ability to conduct heat

Thermal Diffusivity α = =
heat storage capacity ability to store heat

Thermal Diffusivity of the material and represents how fast heat propagates through a material.
Higher the thermal diffusivity, lesser then time taken for diffusion of heat.
Steady State Heat Conduction
•
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘
This is the Poisson equation of heat conduction.
Steady state Heat Conduction without heat generation
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
This is the Laplace equation of heat conduction.
Unsteady state Heat Conduction without heat generation
𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

One Dimensional steady state heat conduction

𝑑 𝑑𝑇 •
𝑘 +𝑞 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1-D steady state heat conduction without heat generation

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Heat conduction: Cylindrical Coordinate

The general form of the heat flux vector, as given by

Fourier’s law, is

𝜕𝑇 ′′ 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 ′′ 𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟′′ = −𝑘 ; 𝑞𝜙 = − ; 𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume, the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained

•
1𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 + 2 + + =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Figure: Heat conduction in cylindrical coordinate

Heat conduction: Spherical Coordinate

The general form of the heat flux vector, as given by

Fourier’s law, is

𝜕𝑇 ′′ 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 ′′ 𝑘 𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟′′ = −𝑘 ; 𝑞𝜃 = − ; 𝑞𝜙 = −
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟sin𝜃 𝜕𝜙

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume ,the following general form of the heat equation is
obtained

Figure: Heat conduction in spherical coordinate

•
1 𝜕 2
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 + + 𝑘sin𝜃 + =
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 2 sin𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Boundary and Initial Conditions
We have set up a differential equation, with T as the dependent variable. The solution will give us T(x,y,z,t).
Solution depends on boundary conditions (BC) and initial conditions (IC).

How many BC’s and IC’s ?

Heat equation is second order in space. Hence, 2 BC’s are needed for each coordinate.

- 1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction
- 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction
- 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir.

Heat equation is first order in time. Hence one IC needed

Types of Boundary Conditions

Dirichlet condition: The value of the dependent variable (temperature) is specified at the boundary.

Neumann condition: The value of gradient of dependent variable (heat flux) is specified at the boundary.

Mixed condition or Robin BC: The solution is a linear combination of Dirichlet and a Neumann boundary condition.
Boundary conditions for the heat conduction equation at the surface
(x = 0)
Constant surface temperature condition

(Dirichlet condition) 𝑇(0, 𝑡) = 𝑇𝑠

Constant surface heat flux condition

𝜕𝑇
(Neumann condition) − 𝑘 | 𝑥=0 = 𝑞𝑠′′
𝜕𝑥

Insulated/Adiabatic surface condition

𝜕𝑇
| = 0 O(Neumann condition)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0

Convective surface condition Figure: Different boundary conditions encountered in heat transfer
𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 𝜕𝑥 | 𝑥=0 = ℎ 𝑇∞ − 𝑇 0, 𝑡 (Robin BC)
One Dimensional Steady State Heat
Conduction
 𝝏 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 • 𝛛𝑻
1. The plane wall 𝛛𝒙
𝒌
𝛛𝒙
+
𝛛𝒚
𝒌
𝛛𝒚
+
𝛛𝒛
𝒌
𝛛𝒛
+ 𝒒 = 𝝆𝒄𝒑
𝛛𝒕
Assumptions:
• 1D problem
• Steady State heat conduction
• No heat generation
• Homogeneous & isotropic material

Governing Equation

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solving which gives us,

𝑇 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
Figure: Heat conduction in plane wall with surface convection
We apply the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L,
which are, 𝑇 0 = 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇 𝐿 = 𝑇𝑠,2
Once the constants of integration are substituted into the general equation, the temperature distribution is obtained
𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,1 + 𝑇𝑠,1
𝐿

The heat flow rate across the wall is given by

𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠,2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑠,1 𝐿Τ𝑘 𝐴

Thermal Resistance
Analogous to electric resistance, defined as

temperature difference 𝛥𝑇
Thermal Resistance = =
heat transfer rate 𝑞
𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝐿
For plane wall, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = =
𝑞𝑥 𝑘𝐴

From Newton’s law of cooling, heat transfer by convection at the surface is given by,

q = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 1
The thermal resistance for convection 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = =
𝑞 ℎ𝐴
Applying thermal resistance concept to the plane wall, the equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection boundary
conditions is shown in the figure below

Under steady state conditions, since q 𝑥 is constant

throughout the network, it follows that

𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇∞,2

𝑞𝑥 = = =
1Τℎ1 𝐴 𝐿Τ𝑘 𝐴 1Τℎ2 𝐴

In terms of the overall temperature difference 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2

and the total thermal resistance Rtot, the heat transfer rate
may also be expressed as

𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2
𝑞𝑥 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

Since the resistances are in series, it follows that Figure: Equivalent thermal circuit, total resistance

1 𝐿 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ෍ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = + +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴
Heat Conduction through composite wall
Consider three blocks, A, B and C, as shown are thermally in a series
arrangement

The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by

𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2 𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,2

𝑞𝑥 = = = 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑇
σ 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶 1
+ + + +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ1 𝐴

Where 𝑈𝐴 = (1Τ𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 ) & U = (1Τ𝐴𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 )is the overall heat transfer

coefficient.

In the above case, U is expressed as Figure: heat conduction through composite wall

1
𝑈=
1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶 1
+ + + +
ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 ℎ2
Thermal Resistance: Series – Parallel Combination
It can be seen that thermal resistance for slab B and slab C are in parallel.
Assumption:
• Face between B and C is insulated
• Uniform temperature at any face normal to x
The equivalent thermal resistance for these two parallel
resistance is given by,

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐵 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐶

Total thermal resistance is given by,

1 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐴 + + + 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐷
𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐵 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝐶

Under steady state conditions, Figure: series –parallel combination of thermal resistance

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞𝑥 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
Thermal Contact Resistance
No two surfaces in contact has perfect continuity along the interface. There will be air pockets in between. This leads to
discontinuation of heat flux lines at the interface of two joining bodies in contact.

temperature drop at the interface

Thermal contact resistance =
avearge heat transfer rate

From considerations of energy conservation, the heat flow

between the two bodies in contact, bodies A and B, is found
as

𝑇1 − 𝑇3
𝑞=
𝑋𝐴 1 𝑋
+ + 𝐵
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 ℎ𝑐 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴

1
Here ℎ𝑐 𝐴
is the contact thermal resistance.

Figure: Contact thermal resistance

2. Radial Conduction through Cylinder
Consider the cylinder shown. The heat losses through the ends is
negligible.

Assume no heat sources within the wall of the tube.

If T1>T2, heat will flow outward, radially, from the inside radius, R1, to
the outside radius, R2.

The process will be described by the Fourier Law.

The governing differential equation is:

1𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝑟 =0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

According to Fourier’s Law, Figure: conduction through hollow cylinder

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) Where, A =2𝜋rL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The temperature distribution in the cylinder can be determined by solving the Governing Differential Equation subjected to appropriate
BCs
The general solution is given by,
𝑇(𝑟) = 𝐶1 ln(𝑟) + 𝐶2

Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑟
𝑇(𝑟) = ln( ) + 𝑇2 𝑇1 = 𝐶1 ln𝑟1 + 𝐶2 &𝑇2 = 𝐶1 ln𝑟2 + 𝐶2
ln(𝑟1 Τ𝑟2 ) 𝑟2

Hence, the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as it is
for the plane wall under the same conditions.

Evaluating expression for the heat transfer rate

2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑞𝑟 =
ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 )

For radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of the form

ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 )
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
Conduction through Composite cylindrical walls
Consider now the composite system in the given figure, assuming 𝑇∞,2 > 𝑇∞,1

Under steady state, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as,

𝑇∞,2 − 𝑇∞,1
𝑞𝑟 =
1 ln(𝑟1 Τ𝑟2 ) ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟3 ) 1
+ + +
ℎ1 (2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿) 2𝜋𝐿𝑘1 2𝜋𝐿𝑘2 ℎ2 (2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿)

This result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer

coefficient. That is,

𝑇∞,2 − 𝑇∞,1
𝑞𝑟 = = 𝑈𝐴 𝑇∞,2 − 𝑇∞,1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A3= 2𝜋𝑟3𝐿, 𝑈𝐴 = 1Τ𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑇∞,2 − 𝑇∞,1
𝑈3 =
𝑟3 1 𝑟3 𝑟3 1
+ ln(𝑟 Τ𝑟
1 2 ) + ln(𝑟 Τ𝑟
2 3 ) +
𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑘2 ℎ2
Figure: conduction through composite cylinder
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also be defined in terms of A1
3. Radial Conduction through Sphere
Assume no heat sources within the wall of the spheres. If 𝑇∞,1 > 𝑇∞,2 heat will flow outward, radially, from the inside radius, r1, to the
outside radius, r2.
The differential equation governing heat diffusion is:
1 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝑟 =0
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The general solution is given by,
1
𝑇(𝑟) = 𝐶1 − + 𝐶2
𝑟
Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution,
we then obtain
1 − 𝑟1 Τ𝑟
𝑇(𝑟) = 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2
1 − 𝑟1 Τ𝑟2
Heat transfer rate,
𝑑𝑇 4𝜋𝑘(𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 ൯
𝑞𝑟 = −𝑘𝐴 =
𝑑𝑟 1Τ𝑟1 − 1Τ𝑟2
Thermal resistance is given by, Figure: 1-D radial conduction through sphere
1Τ𝑟1 − 1Τ𝑟2
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
4𝜋𝑘
Critical Thickness of Insulation
Wall insulation is required in various process equipment, reactors, pipelines etc. to minimize the heat loss from the system to
the environment or heat gain from the environment to the system (like cryogenic systems).

Whereas, heat loss is to be maximized for current conducting electrical wires.

Table : Thermal properties of a few of the insulations being used in the chemical process industries

Approximate thermal Density

Material Temperature (°C)
conductivity(W/(m°C)) (kg/m3)

Asbestos -200 to 0 0.074 469

−7 to 38 0.031 64
Glass wool
38 to 93 0.041 64
Fibre insulating board 21 0.049 237
Hard rubber 0 0.151 2000
Polyurethane foam −170 to 110 0.018 32

Source: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103032/
We wish to examine the variation in heat loss from the pipe with the change in insulation thickness, assuming that the length of the
pipe is infinite.

• Pipe radius: R
• Insulation radius: r
• Thickness of the insulation (r-R)
• Fluid Temperature: T
• Ambient temperature is Ta
𝑟
• 2𝜋𝐿(𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ) ln 𝑅 1
𝑞= 1 𝑟 1 and 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = +
ln +𝑟ℎ 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 2𝜋𝑟𝐿ℎ
𝑘 𝑅

where, k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation material.

As we increase the insulation radius, the conductive resistance increases Figure: Heat dissipation from an insulated pipe
and convective resistance decreases i.e. it is a maxima-minima problem.

Optimum point can be found by setting first derivative of Rtot w.r.t r to be

zero.
𝑑𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1 𝑘
= 0 or, − = 0 or, 𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝑟𝐿 2𝜋ℎ𝐿𝑟 2 ℎ

In order to determine if it is a maxima or a minima, we calculate

the second derivative at r =(k/h)

𝑑2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑘
at 𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 2 ℎ

𝑑 2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 −1 1 ℎ2
= + = >0
𝑑𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑘𝑟 2 𝐿 𝜋𝑟 3 ℎ𝐿 at (r =k/h) 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 3 Figure: Critical thickness of insulation

Hence, Rtot is minimum or q is maximum at r= k/h.

This radius is known as critical radius of insulation and

corresponding thickness is called critical thickness of insulation.

In a similar manner, it can be shown for a sphere, critical

radius of insulation is r = 2k/h
Figure: Cost vs. insulation thickness
Conduction with heat generation
Applications:
• Current carrying conductor
• Chemically reacting system
• Nuclear reactors
Assumptions:
• 1-D analysis
• Steady state heat conduction
• Constant Thermal conductivity
• Uniform heat generation

Plane Wall
The governing differential equation is
•
𝑑2𝑇 𝑞
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘
𝑞 2
⇒ 𝑇(𝑥) = − 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 Figure: Plane wall with heat source
2𝑘
Invoking BCs, at x=+L, T=Ts,2 and at x=−L, T=Ts,1
•
𝒒 𝑳𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 𝒙 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 + 𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑻(𝒙) = 𝟏− 𝟐 + +
𝟐𝒌 𝑳 𝟐 𝑳 𝟐
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a common temperature, Ts,1 = Ts,2 = Ts. The temperature
distribution is then symmetrical about the midplane, the profile is given by, as shown in below figure
•
𝑞𝐿2 𝑥2
𝑇(𝑥) = 1 − 2 + 𝑇𝑠
2𝑘 𝐿
In that case, the maximum temperature exists at the midplane
•
𝑞𝐿2
𝑇(0) = 𝑇0 = + 𝑇𝑠
2𝑘
The temperature distribution is given by,

𝑇(𝑥) − 𝑇0 𝑥 2
=
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇0 𝐿
Ts can be estimated from convective energy balance across the
wall. It is given by,

𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 | = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ Figure: Plane wall with heat source, symmetric surface convection
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
•
𝑞𝐿
Substituting T(x) in above Eq with X = L limits, once can get, 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ + ℎ
Cylinder
Governing differential equation:
•
1𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞
𝑟 + =0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘
Boundary conditions: C1 = 0 at r = 0 and
•
𝑑𝑇 𝑞 2
at 𝑟 = 𝑟0 , 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 ; at 𝑟 = 0, =0 at 𝑟 = 𝑟0 ; C2 = 𝑇𝑠 +4𝑘 𝑟0
𝑑𝑟
Solution:
•
𝑞 2 𝑟2
𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑟 1 − 2 + 𝑇𝑠
4𝑘 0 𝑟0
Evaluating above equation at the centerline and dividing the result into same
equation, we obtain the temperature distribution in non-dimensional form,
2
𝑇(𝑟) − 𝑇𝑠 𝑟 Figure: Cylinder with heat source
=1− Where, T0 is the centerline temperature
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑟0
To relate the surface temperature, Ts , to the temperature of the cold fluid, 𝑇∞ , an overall energy balance is used.
•
𝑞 𝜋𝑟02 𝐿 = ℎ 2𝜋𝑟0 𝐿 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
·
Under steady state; heat
• generated = amount of heat
𝑞𝑟0
or, 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ + convected from the body
2ℎ