Heat Transfer

GATE & ESE

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2
Contents
Chapter 1 Heat Transfer 05 - 16
Chapter 2 Conduction 17 - 71
Chapter 3 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer or
Unsteady Heat Conduction 73 - 80
Chapter 4 Heat Exchangers 81 - 99
Chapter 5 Radiation 101 - 127

3
4
 Heat Transfer

Chapter 1 – Heat Transfer

The energy in transition due to temperature difference is known as heat transfer.

Steel

Cs = 0.5 kJ/kg-K
m = 1 kg
Tsi = 1000°C

Water

Water Cw = 4.18 kJ/kg-K

m = 1 kg
Twi = 25°C

Tf

Heat loss by steel = heat gained by water

msCs (Tsi − Tf) = mw Cw (Tf − Twi)
10*0.5 (1000 − Tf) = 10*4.18* (Tf − 25)
Tf = 37.037°C

5
 Heat Transfer

t=?
t = 10 sec → Tw = ?
t = 20 sec → Ts = ? Q° = ?
The main difference between thermodynamic analysis and heat transfer analysis of a
problem is that in thermodynamics we deal with systems in equilibrium i.e., how much
heat is required to bring a system from one equilibrium state to another is the main
criteria in thermodynamics.
But in heat transfer, we deal with how fast the change of state occurs by evaluating the
rate of heat transfer i.e., thermodynamics doesn’t include time as a variable whereas
heat transfer includes time as a variable.

Applications of Heat Transfer

• Mechanical Engineering: boilers, heat exchangers, I.C. engine (fins)
• Civil Engineering: buildings
• Electrical Engineering: motor, transformers
• Metallurgy Engineering: furnace, heat treatment

Modes of Heat Transfer

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

Conduction

(1) Solid

Tn

Tc

(2) Metals
Tn Tc

6
 Heat Transfer

(1) Lattice vibrations → 30%

(2) Free electrons → 70%

Thermal Conductivity
• Diamond – 2100 W/m-k
• Silver Ag – 405 W/m-k
• Copper Cu – 385 W/m-k
• Aluminum Al – 200 W/m-k
• Steel – 17 – 45 W/m-k

The mechanism of heat transfer due to temperature difference in a stationary medium is

known as conduction and it is a microscopic phenomenon.
Conduction can occur in both solid and fluids (liquids and gases).
In metals, conduction occurs due to lattice vibrations (molecular vibrations) and also due
to free electrons and the percentage distribution in metals is 30% and 70% respectively.

Note: The reason why all electrically good conductors are also good heat
conductors is because of the presence of abundant free electrons.

E.g. Metals.
But the converse of the above statement is not true. The notable exemption is diamond
which is a non-metal and has the highest thermal conductivity. It is due to its perfect
molecular crystalline lattice arrangement.

Non-metals: → crystalline → diamond

→ graphite
→ amorphous → asbestos
→ wood
→ refractory bricks
Kcrystalline > Kamorphous
In solids: conduction → lattice vibrations
→ free electrons
Kmetals > Knon-metals
Kpure metal > Kalloy
Krefractory brick = 0.9 W/m-K
Kasbestos = 0.2 W/m-K
Kglass wool = 0.075 W/m-K
Kpolyurethane foam = 0.02 W/m-K

7
 Heat Transfer

Non-metals are used as insulators because of low thermal conductivity due to the
absence of free electrons and thereby prevent heat transfer.
Any pure metal will have more thermal conductivity than its alloy.
[kcu (pure) > kbrass (alloy)]

T↓, ρ↑

Hot Plate

T↑, ρ↓
Bulk transfer of fluid is + ve to density difference (buoyancy).
Not conduction (∝)

Cold Plate

T↑, ρ↑
Rms Velocity C ∝ √T

T↑, C↑

Molecular collisions ↑ → momentum transfer ↑ → heat transfer ↑

8
 Heat Transfer

Conduction
Conduction also occurs in fluids due to molecular momentum transfer. When the velocity
is high, high temperature molecules collide with low velocity, low temperature molecules
elastically. Momentum gets exchanged and hence heat transfer occurs.

Gases
In case of gases, with increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of molecules increases
and because of this, molecular collisions will also increase at high temperature. The
number of collisions are more and hence thermal conductivity will be more. Therefore,
with increase in temperature, the thermal conductivity of gas increases.

Kair = 0.026 W/m-K

Note: Kdiamond > KAg > Kw > KAl > Ksteel > Kredbrick > KAsh > Kglass wool

Ksolids >Kliquids > Kgases

The lower the molecular weight of gases, the higher the velocity will be and hence
thermal conductivity will be high for the gases with lower molecular weight.

K H2
He
Air

O2

CO2
SO2

Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which generally occurs between solids and
fluids due to temperature difference, associated with macroscopic bulk displacement of
the fluid, transporting heat energy.

Heat transfer + fluid flow = convection

9
 Heat Transfer

Fluid flows due

to buoyant forces TE Temp of Hot egg

Temp of
Hot Tα Surrounding
EGG Air

Figure: Free / Natural Convection

External agent T
∝
Hot
EGG

Figure: Forced Convection

• In case of free convection, the fluid motion is achieved by buoyancy forces arising due
to density changes of fluid due to its temperature change.
• In case of free convection heat transfer, the fluid motion is provided by an external
agency like a fan, blower or a pump.

Radiation
All bodies at all temperatures (above 0 K) emit radiation in the form of electromagnetic
waves and they travel with the speed of light. Radiation emitted over a wavelength of 0.1
μm to 100 μm is known as thermal radiation, since radiation in this particular range gets
converted to heat when absorbed by the body.

Note: For conduction and convection, a medium is required. Whereas for radiation
mode of heat transfer, no material medium is required. It can even propagate
under vacuum by electromagnetic waves.

10
 Heat Transfer

Sun
Vacuum

Earth

Atmosphere

Sun’s heat reaches earth due to radiation.

In solids, radiation can occur if it is transparent. If it is non-transparent (opaque), there
will be only conduction but no radiation.

Governing Laws of Heat Transfer

The Four Laws of Heat Conduction

Case – 1:

T1 T2 T1 T2
A Same A
Material

Q1 Q2
L1 L2

L1 < L2

Q1 > Q2

1
Q a L -----------(1)

11
 Heat Transfer

Case – 2:

T1 T2 T1 T2
A1 Same A2
Material

Q1 Q2
L L

A1 >A2
Q1 > Q2

Q α A -----------(2)

Case – 3:

1
T1 T2 T1 1
T2
A1 Same A2
Material

Q2
Q1
L L

∆T1 = T1 – T2
∆T2 = T11 – T21
∆T1 > ∆T2
Q1 > Q2

Q α ∆T -----------------(3)

A ∆T
Qα
L

K – Thermal conductivity of the material and is a function of temperature.

12
 Heat Transfer

Assumptions:

(1) Steady state

(2) 1 – D heat flow
(3) No heat generation
(4) The material must be homogeneous
(5) The boundary surfaces must be isothermal

“The law states that the rate of heat transfer by conduction in a given direction is
directly proportional to the temperature gradient and is also directly proportional to area
of heat transfer lying perpendicular to direction of heat transfer.”

T1
A
θ
dT
T2
dM

X=0 X=L

dT
Tan θ = = Temperature Gradient
dX
dT
= −ve → clausius statement → heat flow always in the direction of downhill of
dX
temperature.

−dT
Qx ∝
dX

Qx ∝ A

−AdT
Qx ∝
dX

−KAdT
Qx = → Fourier’s law of heat conduction
dX

13
 Heat Transfer

Thermal Conductivity
It is numerically equal to heat transfer through an area of 1m2 of a slab of 1 m thickness
when two faces are maintained at a temperature difference of 1°C or 1 k

K→
w w
or
m −k m −0C

Physically, thermal conductivity is a thermo-physical property of the material which tells

about the ability of the material to allow heat to get conducted through the body.

Newton’s Law of Cooling (Convection)

The law states that “the rate of heat transfer by convection between a solid body and
the surrounding fluid is directly proportional to the temperature difference between
them and is also directly proportional to area of exposure between the body and fluid”.

T
∝
TW

Tw > Tα

Q∝A
Q α (Tw − Tα) = ∆T
Q α A ∆T

Q = h A ∆T

H → convective heat transfer co-efficient (W/ m2-K)

Unlike thermal conductivity (k), h is not the property of a material but depends on some
thermo-physical properties of fluid.
h = f (ρ, μ, Cp, k)

14
 Heat Transfer

Where:
ρ - Density
μ - Dynamic Viscosity
Cp - Specific Heat
K - Thermal Conductivity

• In forced heat transfer

h = f (V, D, ρ, μ, Cp, k)
Where:

V - Velocity of fluid
D - Characteristic dimension

• In free / natural convection

h = f (g, β, L, ∆T, ρ, μ, Cp, k)
Where:
1  dV 
g =   const pressure
V  dT 
1
β = → Ideal flow
T

hforced > hfree

• Free convection in gases and vapors h → 3 to 25 W/ m2K

• Forced convection in gases and vapours h → 25 to 450 W/ m2K
• Free convection in liquids h → 300 to 700 W/ m2K
• Forced convection in liquids h → 600 to 4000 W/ m2K

Condensation → 300 to 25,000 W/ m2K

Boiling → 5000 to 50,000 W/ m2K
hdropwise > hfilmwise

Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation

The law states that “the radiation energy emitted from the surface of black body per
unit time and per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.”
Eb α T4

15
 Heat Transfer

Eb = σ T4 W/ m2

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10−8 W/ m2 − k4

If the surface of the body has area A then

Eb = σ AT4 W

• A black body is the body which absorbs all the thermal radiation incident or falling
upon it
• A thermally black body may not appear black in colour for the human eye

E.g.: Ice, snow

For non-black bodies E = ϵEb

E = Ꞓ σ AT4

Ꞓ = emissivity of the body

dT
Qx = − KA → Qcond ∝∆T
DX

Qconv = h A ∆T → Qconv ∝∆T

E ∝ T4→ Qrad ∝(T14 − T24)

Qcond or Qconv ∝ (T1 − T2)

Qrad ∝(T14 − T24)

At lower ∆T - conduction and convection ate the predominant modes of heat transfer

At higher ∆T - radiation
Radiation predominates over conduction and convection particularly when temperature
difference is very large.
The mode of heat transfer between hot flue gases and refractory walls of a large
pulverized fuel powered boiler is radiation (due to high temperature difference).

16
 Conduction

Chapter 2 – Conduction
Steady state 1 – D heat conduction without heat generation

Case – 1:

Plane slab (plane wall)

Assumption

• Steady state heat transfer

Q, T ≠ f (time)

• 1 – D heat transfer
T = f(x)
Qx ≠ f(x)

• No heat generation
Q gen = 0

• Thermal conductivity
k ≠ f (T)

i.e. uniform thermal conductivity

T1
TR

QX

X=0 X=L

dT L T2
Qx = −KA → ∫ Qxdx = ∫ −KAdT
dx 0 T1

17
 Conduction

L LT 2 L
Qx ∫
0
dx = −KA ∫
T1
dT = Qx(x) 0 = −KA(T) T1 T2

KA (T1 − T2 )
Qx =
L

Electrical Analogy of Heat Transfer

Electrical Circuit

Rele
i

∆v

i
∆V =
R ele Xi

∆V
i=
R ele

Electrical Thermal
∆V ∆T
i Q

L
Rele = Rth
KA

Thermal Circuit

Qx Rthen

∆T = Qx Rth ∆T

∆T KA ∆T
Qx = → Qx =
R then L

∆T
→ Qx =
L / KA

L
Rth = K/W
= Rth (Plane slab)
KA

18
 Conduction

Case – 2:

Composite clab

T1 1 2 A

Ti

T2
Qx

L1 L2

T1> Ti >T2

In the figure slope of (1) and slope of (2) are

 dT   dT 
  1 and  2
 dx   dx 

 dT   dT 
 1 >  2
 dx   dx 

K1 < K2

Converting to Electrical Analogy

Qx R1 Ti Qx R2
T1 T2

L1
RA1 =
K 1A

L2
RA2 =
K2A

As they are in series Rth = Rth1 + Rth2

19
 Conduction

T 1 − T2 T 1 − T2
Rate of heat transfer Qx = =
R th R th 1 − R th 2

T 1 − T2
=
L1 L
− 2
K 1A K 2A

T 1 − Ti Ti − T 2
For Ti : =
L1 L2
K 1A K 2A

Note: Heat flux = rate of heat transfer per unit area

Qx T 1 − T2
qx = =
A L1 L
+ 2
K 1 A K2A
A A

T 1 − T2
qx =
L1 L
+ 2
K1 K2

Convective thermal resistance

Qconv RAconv
Tw T∞

Tw – T∞

Qconv = hA (Tw – T∞ )

Qconv =
(Tw −T ∞ )
1
hA

Convective thermal resistance

1 ∆T
Rthconv = = (K / W)
hA Q

20
 Conduction

Conduction, Convection Heat Transfer Through a Composite Slab

T∞

A h2
Th T1 K1 K2
Ti
Hot gases T2

(Th) T∞
h1

L1 L2

Th QX T1 Ti T2 T∞

1 L1 L2 QX 1
h1A K 1A K2A h2A

Th − T∞
Rate of heat transfer Qx =
1 L1 L I
+ + 2 +
h1 A K 1 A K 2 A h2 A

Th − T1 T1 − Ti Ti − T2 T2 − Tα
Qx = = = +
1 L1 L2 1
h1 A K1 A K2 A h2 A

If asked for Ti then

Th − T1 Ti − Tα
Qx = =
1 L L2 1
+ 1 +
h1 A K 1 A K 2 A h2 A

Heat flux

Qx Th − Tα
= qx =
A 1 L L I
+ 1 + 2 +
h1 K 1 K 2 h2

21
 Conduction

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

It is the parameter which takes into account all modes of heat transfer into a single
entity and hence defines from equation:

Q = U A ∆T

Q
q= = U ∆T
A

∆T – total temperature difference in the entire network

i.e. Th – Tα

∆T
q=
1
U

Overall heat transfer coefficient

1 1 L L 1
= + 1 + 2 +
U h1 K 1 K 2 h2

U − W / m2 − K

“U” signifies the total resistance in the entire network i.e. higher the value of “U”, lesser
the total resistance, which means that the heat transfer is more.

Steady State 1 – D Heat Transfer without Heat Generation and Variable

Thermal Conductivity
All remains the same to the above case, except thermal conductivity varies with
temperature as

Kt = k0 (1 + βt)

K0 – thermal conductivity @ 0°C

T1 A
β – Material co-efficient T2

K0

T1 T2 T

22
 Conduction

T1 + T2
Tmean =
2

  T − T2  
Km = K0 1 + β  1 
  2 

KmA∆T
Q=
L

T1 T2
dx

From Fourier’s law of conduction

dt
Qx = −KA
dx

∫ Qxdx = ∫ −KAdT

L t2
Qx ∫ dx = − A ∫ K dT
0 t1

L t2
Qx ∫ dx = − A ∫ K 0(1 + βT )dT
0 t1

T2
 T 
Qx [ X ]0 = − AK 0  T + β 2 
L

 2  T1

 β 
Qx L = − AK 0  T2 − T1 + ( T2 2 − T1 2 ) 
 2 

− AK 0 β
Qx = [ T2 − T1 ] 1 + ( T1 + T2 )
L  2 

AK 0 β
Qx = [ T1 − T2 ] 1 + ( T2 + T1 )
L  2 

23
 Conduction

AKm [T1 − T2 ]
Qx =
L

 T − T2  
Where: K m = K 0 1 + β  1 
  2 

NOTE: while calculating heat transfer, use the same equations that were used
with constant k by replacing k with km.

Temperature at any Distance X from the Left Face

If k is uniform

Tx

T1 K

T2

x
x=0 x=L
L

T1 − T2
Tx
T1
x L− x T2

By using geometry (similar triangles)

T 1 − T2 Tx
=
L L−x

T 1 − T2
Tx = (L − x )
2

Tx = T2 + Tx

T 1 − T2
Tx = T2 + (L − x )
L

24
 Conduction

By drawing equivalent circuit:

T 1 − T x T x − T2
=
x L−x
KA KA

 T − T2 
Tx = T1 −  1 x
 L 

If K is not uniform i.e. a function of temperature

Tx
T1 T2

x=0 x=L

KT = K0 (1 + βT)

dT
Qx = − KA
dx

X Qx Tx
∫0 A
dx = − ∫ −KdT
T1

Q x Tx
∫ dx = − ∫ K 0 ( 1 + βT )dT
A 0 T1

Nature of temperature profile

T1 T2

β = +ve
Convex

β = –ve T1 > T2
Concave Qx

x=0 x=L

25
 Conduction

For uniform thermal conductivity

β = 0, k = constant

dT
= Const (Straight Line)
dx

kT = k0 (1 + βT)

kT = k0 + k0 βT

dk dT
= 0 + k 0β
dx dx

dk dT
= k 0β
dx dx

Non-Uniform Thermal Conductivity

Case – 1:
β = + Ve (non-metals)

dk dT
= k 0β
dx dx

dk dT
As ↑= ↑
dx dx

As T↓ → K↓

dT
As K ↓ ↑ (convex)
dx

Case – 2:
β = −Ve (metals)

dk dT
= − k 0β
dx dx

As dk ↑ = dT ↓
dx dx

dT
K = const
dx

26
 Conduction

β=0 T↓ k = const dT Linear

= const
dx

β = +Ve (non-metals) T↓ K↓ dT Convex

↑
dx

β = −Ve (metals) T↓ K↑ dT concave

dx
↓

Steady State 1 - D Conduction through Variable Area

T2

K
T1
dx
x1 x2

x=0

x=L

Rx
 R2 - R 1 
 x
 L 
R2
R1 x L–x

dT
Q = −k A -------------- (1)
dx

T1 > T2

R1 → A1 = ΠR12

27
 Conduction

R2 → A2 = ΠR22

R2 − R1
Rx → R1 + x
L

Ax = Π(Ri − Cx)2 -------------- (2)

From equation (1)

Qdx = −K A dt

QL T2
∫0 A
dx = − ∫ KdT
T1

L 1 T1
Q∫ dx = − K ∫ dT
Π (R i + C x )
0 2 T2

Q −1 
 L 0 = −K [ T ] T1
T1

Π  (R i + C x ) 

 
Q −1 1  L
 +  X = K [ T1 − T2 ]
Π  R1  R1  R2 − R1
R + R − XL
 1  2 L  

Q L R 2 − R 1 
  = K [ T1 − T2 ]
Π R 2 − R 1  R 1R 2 

K ( ΠR 1R 2 )(T1 − T2 )
Q=
L

Temperature at any Section x from the Inlet End R1

Tx
T2
T1
R2
R1

x=0
x=L
x

28
 Conduction

dT
Q = −K A
dx

Q
dx = −K dT
A

x Q Tx
∫
0 A
dx = ∫ −K dT
T 1

x 1 Tx
Q∫ dx = − K ∫ dT
0 A T 1

For a variable slab

T2

T1

hx
a b

x=0

x=L
x

Depth − d

A1 = ad

A2 = bd

b − a
Hx = a +  x
 L 

 b −a 
Ax = a +  xd
  L  

b −a
Assume:  =C
 L 

Ax = [a + Cx] d

29
 Conduction

L 1
Q∫ dx = − K
0
( a + Cx ) d
T2
∫T1
dT

Steady State 1 – D Heat Conduction through Variable Area and Variable K

T2

T1

Qx

dT x=0
Q = −K A
dx
x=L

Q dx = −K A dt

Q
∫ A
dx = ∫ −K dT

1
Qx ∫ dx = ∫ −K dT
A

K = f(T)

A = f(x)

Radial Conduction Heat Transfer through a Hollow Cylinder

T1
T2 r1

r2

30
 Conduction

At r = r1 → T = T1
At r = r2 → T = T2

Assumptions

• Steady state T, Q ≠ f (time)

• 1 − D radial T = f(x), Q ≠ f(r)

• No heat generation

• Uniform thermal conductivity

T2

T1
r1
r2
dx

T2
L

Fourier’s law of conduction:

Q = −K A dT
dx

Unlike conduction heat transfer through a plane slab, here the area of heat transfer
changes in the direction of heat flow.

At the inside surface area of heat conduction (r1) = 2πr1L

At the outside surface area of heat conduction (r2) = 2πr2L

At any radius the area of heat transfer A = 2πrL

Qr dr = −K A dT

dr
Qr ∫ = − K ∫ dT
A

31
 Conduction

r2 1 T2
Qr ∫ dr = − K ∫ dT
r1 2ΠrL T 1

Qr r2 1
∫ dr = − K [ T ]T 2
T

2Π l r 1 r 1

Qr r 
ln  2  = K [ T1 − T2 ]
2Π l  r 1 

K [T1 − T2 ] 2ΠL
Qr =
r 
ln  2 
 r1 

Equivalent Thermal Circuit

Qr Rth
T1 T2

r 
ln  2 
r
R thcyl =  1 
2ΠKL

• In case if the thickness is very less, as R1 approaches R2 then the logarithmic ratio
approaches zero, making the conduction resistance offered by the cylinder very small.
• Even if the thermal conductivity of the material of the cylinder is very high then too
resistance will approach zero.

32
 Conduction

Radial conduction heat transfer through a composite cylinder

T3
r3
T2 K2
K1
2
1
r1 T
1

r2

Thermal circuit

T1 T2 T3

r  r 
ln  2  ln  3 
 r1   r2 
2Π K 1L 2ΠK2L

Rate of heat transfer

T1 − T3
Qr =
 r2  r 
Ln   Ln  3 
 r1  +  r2 
2ΠK 1L 2ΠK 2L

If asked for T2

T1 − T3 T2 − T3
=
r2 r3
r1 r2
Ln Ln
2 Π K 1L 2 Π K 2L

Temperature profile

dT
Qx = −K A
dx

dT
A = Const
dx

33
 Conduction

dT
2ΠrL = Const
dx

dT
r = Const
dx

dT
as r↑ → ↓
dx

[Area increases and temperature gradient required is less]

r2

T2
T1 r1

Logarithmic
in nature

Conduction, Convection Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder

, Th
T3
a ses h i
G
Hot
T2
T1
r1
h0
r3
r2 d T ∞,
d flui
Col
Qr

Th T1 T2 T3 T∞

1 r  r  1
ln  2  ln  3 
hi 2Πr1L  r1   r2  h0 2Πr3L
2Π K 1L 2ΠK2L

34
 Conduction

Th − T ∞
Qr = --------- ( 1 )
r  r 
ln  2  ln  3 
1 r r 1
+  1 +  2 +
hi 2Πr1L 2Πk 1L 2Πk 2L h02 Πr3L

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Ui → based on inside heat transfer area of cylinder

Uo → based on outside heat transfer area of cylinder

Q = Ui Ai ∆T = Uo Ao ∆T

∆T ∆T
Q= =
1 1
U i Ai U 0 A 0

∆T ∆T
= --------- ( 2 )
1 1
U i 2Πr1L U 0 2Π r 2L

From (1) & (2)

r  r 
r1lnln  2  r1lnln  3 
1 1 r
 1+  r2  + r 1 1
= +
U i hi K1 K2 r 3 h0

r  r 
r3lnln  2  r3lnln  3 
1 1 r3 r
 1+  r2  + 1
= +
U i hi r 1 K1 K2 h0

Overall heat transfer co-efficient

1 1 1
= +
U Ui U0

35
 Conduction

Critical radius of insulation

Consider a solid wire of radius ri inside which heat is being generated by the passing
electric current. Let an insulation having thermal conductivity K(W/mK) be wrapped
around the wire up to radius ro. The heat generated in the wire is radially conducted
to the insulator and then from the surface of the insulator, heat is convected to the
ambient fluid @ T∞ with a convective heat transfer coefficient h.
With increase in thickness of the insulation, what happens to the heat transfer rate?

n
io
at
s ul
in

K Ti

r h
T∞

r0 to
n
c tio
e
o nv ient
C b
am

T1 Qr T∞

r  1
ln  0  Rconv =
 r1  hx 2Πr0L
2ΠKL

Ti − T ∞
Qr =
r 
In  0 
 r1  + 1
2 ∏ Kl h 2 ∏ r 0L

As Qr↑ R↓

1
i.e. Qr α
R

r 
ln  0 
r 1
Rtotal =  1+
2ΠKl h2 Πr0L

36
 Conduction

Rcond = f (r0) → as r0↑ − Rcond↑

Rcond = f (r0) → as r0↑ − Rcond↓

If the thickness of insulation is increased, conductive resistance increases and at the

same time the surface available for convective heat transfer increases due to which the
convective resistance decreases. Hence, the total effective resistance may increase.

R Rmin
Logarithmic
Rcond

Rconv
Rectangular
Hyperbola
Q r0

To decrease
HT
Electrical Steam
Wire Pipes

r0
To increase HT rc

Rtotal = Rcond + Rconv

r 
ln  2 
r 1
=  1+
2ΠKL h2 Πr0L

R1, k, L, h → const

Rtotal = f(ro)

dR total
= 0 ( min )
dr0

  r2  
 ln   
d   1 r 1 
+ =0
dr0  2ΠKL h2 Πr0L 
 
 

37
 Conduction

1 ri 1 1 1
* + −
2ΠKL r0 ri 2ΠKL ri

K
rc = → critical radius of thickness for cylinders
h

2K
rc = → for sphere
h

For sufficiently thin wires whose radius is less than the critical radius of thickness, any
insulation wrapped around it will result in an increase of heat transfer rate. This happens
because when more and more insulation is wrapped around the wire, there is a rapid
decrease in convective thermal resistance as compared to the increase in conductive
thermal resistance.
The overall effect being the decrease in the thermal resistance, hence, the heat transfer
rate increases.
This continues to happen up to the critical radius of thickness of insulation beyond
which further insulation addition will decrease the heat transfer rate. In case the radius
of wire initially selected is already more than the critical radius of insulation then any
insulation wrapped around the wire reduces the heat transfer rate.

Radial heat transfer rate through a hollow sphere,

4 Πk r 1r2 (T1 − T2 )
Qr =
r2 − r 1

Thermal Circuit

Qr

T1 (Rcond)sphere T2

r2 − r 1
(R cond )sphere =
4 Πk r 1r2

38
 Conduction

For a Composite Sphere

T2 T3
K2

T1 K1
r1
r3
r2

Qr

T1 T2 T3

r2 − r1 r3 − r2
4ΠK 1r1r2 4ΠK2r2r3

r2 − r1 r −r
=Rth + 3 2
4ΠK 1r1r2 4ΠK 2r2r3

T1 − T2
Qr =
R th

T1 − T3
Qr =
r2 − r1 r −r
+ 3 2
4ΠK 1r1r2 4Π K 2r2r3

Intermediate temperature

T1 − T3 T − T3
= 2
r2 − r1 r3 − r2
4ΠK 1r1r2 4ΠK 2r2r3

Conduction, Convection in a Hollow Sphere

T3

T2
r3 K2

r2 T1 K1
hiTi
r1

39
 Conduction

Th T1 T2 T3 T∞

1 r2 − r1 r3 − r2 1
h ( 4Πr12 ) 4ΠK 1r1r2 4ΠK2r2r3 h ( 4Πr32 )

1 r2 − r1 r −r 1
Rth = + + 3 2 +
4 ( r1 ) 2h 4ΠK 1r1r2 4ΠK 2r2r3 4 ( r3 ) 2h

∂  ∂T 
(Ꞓin − Ꞓout)x =  −kx dy dz dx
∂x  ∂x 

∂  ∂T 
(Ꞓin − Ꞓout)x = kx dx dy dz
∂x  ∂x 

Similarly

∂  ∂T 
(Ꞓin − Ꞓout)y = ky dx dy dz
∂y  dy 

Similarly

∂  ∂T 
Ꞓin − Ꞓout)z = kz dx dy dz
∂z  ∂z 

Let “ q ” be the uniform heat generation rate (w/m3)

g

Total heat generated within the element

q
Qg = x dx dy dz
g

Rate of energy stored in the system

∂T
Ꞓstored = m Cp
∂t

∂T
= ρ x dx dy dz x Cp
∂t

40
 Conduction

From energy balance,

Ꞓin − Ꞓout + Ꞓgen = Ꞓstored

(Heat conducted into the element) − (heat conducted out from the element) + (heat
generated within the element) = (rate of heat change within the element)

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂ ∂T
[kx ] dx dy dz + [ky ∂T ] dx dy dz + [kz ] dx dy dz + qg dx dy dz = ρ dx dy
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

∂T
dz Cp
∂t

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
[kx ] + ∂y [ky ∂y ] + [kz ] + qg = ρ Cp → Mother Equation (no assumption)
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂t

Assumption

• The material is isotropic

kx = ky = kz = k

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
[kx ]+ [ky ]+ [kz ] + qgen = ρ Cp
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂T
k + k + k + q gen =
ρ Cp
∂x 2
∂x 2
∂x 2
∂t

• Uniform thermal conductivity - the value of “k” remains same with temperature
(position)

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂T
k + k + k + q gen =
ρ Cp
∂x 2
∂x 2
∂x 2
∂t

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ρ C p ∂T
+ 2 + 2 + q gen =
∂x 2
∂x ∂x K ∂t

α → thermal diffusivity

K
α=
ρ Cp

41
 Conduction

q gen 1 ∂T
∇2T + =
k α ∂t

Case - 1:

Steady state T ≠ f(x)

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q
+ + + gen = 0
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
k

q gen
∇2T + = 0 poisson’s equation (steady flow with uniform heat generation)
k

Case - 2:

No heat generation, qgen = 0

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
+ + + → diffusion equation
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
α ∂t

Case - 3:
Steady state and no heat generation

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

∆2 T = 0 → Laplace equation

Thermal Diffusivity (α):

It is a thermo-physical property of the material, defined as the ratio of thermal
conductivity of the material and its thermal capacity.

k
α=
ρ Cp

j
sec − m − k
kg J
.
m3 kgk
Where: k → thermal conductivity
ρCp → thermal capacity

42
 Conduction

A
K
B
A
L
L
A L B
B A
B

k3 > k2 > k1 > k4

Cp
A B

B A B
A Cp1 Cp2 Cp3

Cp2 > Cp1 > Cp3

ρ
A B A B

A B
ρ1 ρ2 ρ3

ρ3 > ρ2 > ρ1

Heat capacity (ρ Cp) actually represents the ability of the material to absorb or store
heat, whereas thermal conductivity (k) represents the ability of the substance to allow or
transfer heat through it.

1
3
2

43
 Conduction

k2 > k1 > k3

Cp1 = Cp3 > Cp2

ρ3 = ρ1 > ρ2

α2 > α1 > α3

Significance of Thermal Diffusivity (α):

It signifies the ability of the material to allow heat energy to get diffused through the
material. The higher the conductivity of the material and the lesser is the heat capacity,
the more is the diffusivity.
Therefore, if thermal diffusivity of a body is more, then it will quickly approach the
temperature of the thermal environment when it is suddenly exposed to it.

100°C

IRON
Water

Suddenly

Air at 25°C

KI > kw

(ρ Cp)I < (ρ Cp)w

αI > αW

Iron will quickly reach air temperature of 25°C when compared to water.

kw > kair

(ρ Cp)air <<< (ρ Cp)W

αair > αwater

Generally, for metallics, solids and gases, thermal diffusivity will be high.

44
 Conduction

One-Dimensional Conduction with Heat Generation in a Cylinder

r=0
r
R
dr

r=R

Assumption:

• Steady state conditions

T, Q ≠ f(time)
• One-dimensional (radial)
T = f(x), Qr = f(x)
• Uniform heat generation
Qr+dr
• Uniform “k”

dr
Qr r

Qgen

Heat conducted into the elemental strip

dT dT
Ein = Qr = −k Ar = −k 2ΠrL
dr dr

Heat conducted out from the elements strip

∂Qr
Eout = Qrtds = Qr + dr
∂r

∂Qr ∂Qr
Ein − Eout = Qr − Qrtds = Qr − (Qr + dr) = − dr
∂r ∂r

−∂ ∂T
(Ein − Eout )r = [− k 2Πr L ] dr
∂r ∂r

45
 Conduction

∂ ∂T
(Ein − Eout )r = Qr − Qrtds = 2ΠkL (r ) dr
∂r ∂r

Let “qg” be the uniform heat generation rate (w/m3)

Qg = qg*2ΠrdrL

From energy balance:

Ein − Eout + Egen = Estored

Qr − Qstdr + Qg = 0

d dT
2ΠkL (r )dr + Qg 2ΠrdrL = 0
dr dr

1 d dT qgen
(r )+ =0
r dr dr k

The Generalized Heat Conduction Equation in Cylindrical Coordinate System

∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q gen 1 ∂T
+ + + + =
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t

∂ 2T 1 ∂T qgen
+ + =0
∂r 2 r ∂r k

1 ∂T  ∂T  q gen
r + =0
r ∂r  ∂r  k

1-D Steady State Conduction in Sphere with Uniform Heat Generation

r=R

r=0
dr
Qr
r
Qgen
Qr+dr

46
 Conduction

Assumptions

(1) Steady state condition

T, Q ≠ f(time)

(2) 1−D (radial)

T = f(r), Qr = f(r)

(3) Uniform heat generation

(4) Uniform “K”

From energy balance:

Qr + Qgen − Qrtds = 0

∂Qr
Qr + Qgen −[ Qr + dr] = 0
∂r

∂ ∂
qgen * 4 Π r2 * dr − [−k * 4 Π r2 ]dr = 0
∂r ∂r

∂ 2 ∂T
K [r ] + r2 qgen = 0
∂r ∂r

1 ∂ 2 ∂T qgen
(r )+ =0
r ∂r
2
∂r k

Steady State 1–D Heat Generation for Plane Slab

Case – 1: Both surfaces maintained at the same temperature

T0

qgenL2
2k

h, T∞

h, T∞
qgenL
h

x = –L x=0 x=L

47
 Conduction

Assumptions:

(1) Steady state

(2) 1–D
(3) Uniform qgen
(4) Uniform K

Boundary condition:

Both surfaces at same temperature

at x = L → T = Ts
at x = −L → T = Ts

For satisfying the above boundary condition, both sides of the slab should be exposed to
the same ambient conditions.

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ρCp ∂T
+ 2 + 2 + qgen =
∂x 2
∂x ∂x K ∂t

∂ 2T qgen
+ =0
∂x 2 k

∂ 2T qgen
=−
∂x 2
k

Integrating on both sides

∂T q
= − gen XC 1 ------------- ( 1 )
∂x K

Again integrating

q gen x 2
T= − + C 1 X + C2 ------------- ( 2 )
K 2

Applying the boundary conditions

X = L (or) −L → T = Ts

q gen L2
Ts = − + C 1L + C2
K 2

48
 Conduction

q gen L2
Ts = − + C 1L + C2
K 2

C1L = −C1L

2C1L = 0

q gen x 2
C1 = 0 → T= − + C2
K 2

From max: temperature within the slab

∂T
=0
∂x

From (1)

∂T q
= − gen X + C 1
∂x K

q gen
0=− X
K

X=0

Max temperature occurs at x = 0 i.e. at the centerline of the slab.

q gen x 2
T= − + C 1 X + C2 ------------- ( 3 )
K 2

Let “T0” be the max temp

at x = 0 → T = T0

from (3):

T0 = 0 + 0 + C2

C2 = T0

49
 Conduction

From (3):

q gen
T=− X 2 + T0
2K

q gen
T − T0 = − X 2 ------------- ( 4 )
2K

We have x = l (or) − L → T = Ts

q gen
T − Ts = − L2 ------------- ( 5 )
2K

4
Equations [ ]
5

2
T0 − T  x 
=   ----------- (6)
T0 − Ts  L 

Non-dimensional representation of temperature distribution:

q gen
T0 − T = x2
2K

q gen
T0 − Ts = L2
2k

q gen
T0 = L2 + Ts
2K

From energy balance, under steady condition:

Total heat generated in the slab = total heat conducted from both the surfaces = total
heat convicted to ambient fluid on both sides

 dT 
qgen x A x 2L =  −Ka | x = L or − L  = 2 x h x A ( Ts − T∞ )
 dx 

qgen x A x 2L = 2 x h x A (Ts − T∞)

q gen
Ts − T∞ = L
2K

Surface (or) wall temp

50
 Conduction

q gen
Ts = L + T∞
h

Centerline or max temperature

q gen q gen
T0 = L2 + L + T∞
2k h

Case – 2: Both Surfaces are at Different Temperatures

Tm

2
T1
1
xm
2, T∞2 T2

h1 T∞1
x=0 x=L
+ve x

T1 > T2

q gen
T=− x 2 + c1 x + c2
2K

at x = 0 → T = T2

at x = L → T = T1

C1 = ?

C2 = ?

dT
= 0 → T = Tmax
dx

X = ----?

dT
1. qgen * A (L − xm) = − K A | x = L h1 A (T1 − T∞1)
dx

dT
2. qgen * A (xm) = − K A | x = 0 = h2 A (T2 − T∞2)
dx

51
 Conduction

Case – 3: One Surface is Insulated

T0 Ts
qg
L2
2K

Ts h1, h∞ qg
L
h

x=0 x=L T∞
+ve x

Assumptions:

(1) Steady State

(2) 1−D(x)
(3) Uniform heat generation
(4) Uniform k

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ρCp ∂T
+ 2 + 2 + qgen =
∂x 2
∂x ∂x K ∂t

∂ 2T qgen
+ =0
∂x 2 k

∂ 2T qgen
=−
∂x 2
k

Integrate

∂T q
= − gen X + C 1
∂x K

Again integrate

q gen
T =− X 2 + C 1 X + C2
2K

Because

at x = 0, surface is insulated

52
 Conduction

Q|x = 0

dT
−K A =0
dx

dT
|x=0=0
dx

(at x = 0 , max temperature occurs)

∂T q
= − gen X + C 1
∂x K
At x = 0

∂T
= 0 = 0 + c1
∂x

c1 = 0

Let “T0” be the max. Temp

at → x = 0 → T = T0
T0 = 0 + 0 + c2

C2 = T0

q gen
T = − x 2 + T0
2k

q gen
T0 − T = x2
2K

at x = L → T = TS

q gen
T0 − Ts = L2
2k

2
T0 − T r 
= 
T0 − T s R 

(Non-dimensional representation of temperature distribution)

From the steady state energy balance,

53
 Conduction

dT
qg * A * L = −K A | x = h * A (TS − T∞)
dx

qg * A * L = h * A (TS − T∞)

qg
Ts = L + T∝
h

qg
T0 = qg L2 + L + T∞
2k h

1-D Steady State Heat Generation Conduction in Cylinder

Case – 1: Solid cylinder

Assumptions:

(1) Steady state condition

Qn, T ≠ f(time)

(2) 1-D (radial)

T = f(r), Qr = f(r)

(3) Uniform “qgen”

(4) Uniform “K”

qgen
Ts

h, T∞

r=R qg
T0 R2
4k
Ts
Parabolic qg
R
T∞ 2h

Governing equation for conduction heat transfer in cylindrical coordinate system

54
 Conduction

∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q gen 1 ∂T
+ + + + =
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂φ2 ∂z 2 k ∝ ∂t

∂T q r2
r = − gen + C1
∂r k 2

∂T q r C
= − gen + 1 ------------ ( 1 )
∂r k 2 r

∂ 2T 1 ∂T q gen
+ + =0
∂r 2 r ∂r k

1 ∂  ∂T  q gen
r =−
r ∂r  ∂r  k

∂  ∂T  q gen
r =− r
∂r  ∂r  k

q gen r 2
T = − + c1 lnr + c2 --------- ( 2 )
k 4

(Temperature distribution)

Where:
C1, C2 are constants of integration and can be obtained from boundary conditions.

From the energy balance under steady state condition:

Heat generated within the cylinder = heat conducted from the surface of the
cylinder = heat convected to the ambient fluid

dT
qgen * Πr2L = −K(2ΠrL) * | r = R = h(2ΠrL) (TS − T∝) ------- (3)
dr

dT
qg * ΠR2L = −K(2ΠRL) * |r = R
dr

dT −qg
|r = R = R
dr 2k

From equation (1)

r=R

55
 Conduction

dT −qg C
|r = R = R+ 1
dr 2k R

From equation (2)

At r = 0 → ln r = ∞

Tr = 0 → ∞ (which is practically not possible)

From equation (2)

−qg 2
T= r + c2
4k
dT
For maximum temperature =0
dr

From equation (1)

−qg
0= r+0
2k

r=0

i.e. at the centre line of the cylinder, we have maximum temperature, let “T0” be the max.
temp. at r = 0

T0 = 0 + C2

C2 = T0

−qg 2
T= r + T0
4k

(Parabolic in nature)

qg 2
T0 – T = r ----------------- (4)
4k

At r = R, Surface temperature T = Ts

qg 2
T0 – Ts = R ----------------- (5)
4k

4
Equation ( )
5

56
 Conduction

2
T0 − T r 
= 
T0 − T s R 

(Non-dimensional representation of temperature distribution)

From equation (3)

qg x ΠR2L = h (2ΠRL) (Ts − T∞)

qg
Ts − T∞ = R
2h

Surface or wall temperature

qg
Ts = R + T∞
2h

From equation (5)

qg 2
T0 = R + Ts
4h

qg 2 qg
T0 = R + R + T∞
4h 2h

(Centerline temperature or max temp)

Case – 2: Hollow Cylinder with inside Surface Insulated

ri
r0

T0
Ts

1 ∂  ∂T  qg
r + =0 T∞
r ∂r  ∂r  k

Integrating the above equation

57
 Conduction

∂T −qg c
= r+ 1
∂r 2k r

Integrating the equation

−qg 2
T= r + c1 ln r + c2
4k

From the steady state energy balance

dT
qg * Π(r02 − ri2) * L = −k2Πr0 * L |r = r0 = h * 2Π r0 L (Ts − T∞)
dr
at r = ri → T = T0

at r = r0 → T = Ts

Case – 3: Hollow Cylinder with Outside Surface Insulated

ri

r0

T0

TS

From the steady state energy balance

dT
qg * (r02 – ri2) * L = + k2Πri x |r = ri
dr

(+ Heat is flowing radially inwards) (r↑ → T↑)

at r = r0 → T = T0

at r = ri → T = Ts

58
 Conduction

Case – 4:

T0

Tsi

2 Ts0

1 rm
T0
h i, T ∞i T
si

ri

r0 h0, T∞0
Ts0

-qg 2
T= r + c1 ln r + c2
4h

at r = ri → T = Tsi
at r = r0 → T = Ts0

Overall energy balance:

dT  dT 
qg x Π ( r0 2 − ri 2 ) x=
L + k 2 Π ri L x +  −k 2 Π r0 x L  =
dr r = ri  dr  r = r0

hi x 2Π ri L ( Tsi − T∝ i ) + h0 x 2Π r0 L ( Ts0 − T∝ 0 )

And the individual energy balance

dT
1. qg x Π ( rm2 − ri 2 ) x L =
+ k 2 Π ri L x + hi x 2 Π ri L ( Tsi − T∝i )
dr r = ri

dT
2. qg x Π ( r0 2 − rm2 ) x L =
− k 2 Π r0 L x h0 x 2 Π r0 L ( Ts0 − T∝0 )
=
dr r = r 0

59
 Conduction

Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces (Fins)

T0
∝
h, T∝

From Newton’s law of cooling

Q = h A (Ts − T∞)

To increase the rate of heat transfer, the temperature difference can be increased but
in most of the cases this is not possible because most of the time, temperatures are
fixed. It can also be increased by increasing “h” i.e. by forced convection, this may lead
to higher cost and hence, a suitable option is to increase the surface area by using
extended surfaces to base area either by extruding or welding.
Fins are the projections protruding from a hot surface into a fluid and they are meant
for increasing the rate of heat transfer from the hot surface to fluid, by increasing the
surface area of heat transfer.
E.g.:
(1) Air cooling I.C. engine
(2) Refrigerator condenser tubes
(3) Automobile radiators
(4) Electric transformers
(5) Electronic devices Base wall

To b
Ambient fluid

Qconv ∞
h, T∞

x
Root of
the fin Qx
+v dx t
x=0 e
x
Qx
+
dx Tip of the fin

x=L

60
 Conduction

∞
h, T∞

x=L
x=0
T = T0

+ve x

The mechanism of heat transfer through fin is that a.) heat gets conducted into the fin
at its root and then b.) while conducting along the length of the fin i.e. along x, direction
heat is also simultaneously connecting to ambient.

Analysis of fins

To find temperature distribution within the fin and heat transfer rate through the
fin:

Assumptions:

(1) Steady state condition

Qn, T ≠ f(time)
(2) 1-D (x)
T = f(x), Q = f(x)
(3) No heat generation within the fin
(4) Uniform “K”
(5) No bonding resistance

Qconv

Qx + dx
Qx

x dx
x=0 x=L

Consider a small elemental strip of length “dx” at a distance “x” from the surface.
From the steady state energy balance of the small elemental strip:
Heat conducted into the differential elemental strip at x i.e. Qx = heat conducted out
from the differential elemental strip at “x + dx” i.e. Qx + dx + heat convected to the
ambient from the surface.

61
 Conduction

Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv

dT
Heat conducted into the elemental strip in x − direction, Qx = −k A
dx
∂Qx
Heat conducted out from the elemental strip in x – direction, Qx + dx = Qx + dx
∂x
Heat convected to ambient from the elemental strip = h Aconv (T − T∝)

Aconv = 2(b + t) dx

= pdx

Where p – perimeter
From the steady state energy balance,

Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv

∂Qx
QX = Q X + dx + h p dx ( T − T ∝ )
∂x

∂  dT 
∂x 
−k A
dx  dx + h p dx ( T − T ∝ ) =0


d 2T
−k A + h p ( T − T ∝ ) =0
dx 2

d2T hp
− ( T − T ∝ ) =0
dx2 kA

hp
Let m2 = and θ = T − T∞
kA

hp ∂θ ∂T
m= =
kA ∂x ∂x

∂2θ ∂2T
=
∂x 2 ∂x 2

∂ 2θ
− m2 θ =0
∂x2
(Governing equation)

The solution for the above 2nd order differential equation is

62
 Conduction

θ = c1e−mx + c2 emx

Where: c1 & c2 are constants of integration & can be obtained from boundary conditions
One common boundary condition for all the fins is at the root or base temperature is T0

i.e at x = 0 → T = T0

The second boundary condition depends on the type of fin (3 different cases)

Case – 1: Infinitely Long Fin (Very Long Fin)

The temperature of the tip of the fin will be essentially that of the fluid.

x=0 x=L →∝

T = T0 T = T∝

T − T∞ = c1 e−mx + c2emx

(1) At x = L → ∞ --------------- T = T∞

T − T∞ = c1 e−mL + c2emL

C2 = 0

(2) At x = 0 ------------------- T = T0

T − T∞ = c1e–m0 + 0

C1 = T0 − T∞

T − T∞ = (T0 − T∞) e−mx

T −T∝
= e −mx
T0 − T ∝

Or

63
 Conduction

θ
= e −mx
θ0

T = T∞ + (T0 − T∞) e–mx

(Temperature distribution within the fin)

Temperature decreases exponentially along the length of the fin.

T0
Exponentially decreasing

T∝

T0

hp
K1 > K2 > K3 m=
kA

1
m1 < m2 < m3 m∝
k

If m is more then it decreases at a faster rate.

If k is more temperature drop will be minimum

1
K∝
dT
dx

64
 Conduction

Heat Transfer Rate

In any fin case, the rate of the heat transfer through the fin is nothing but the rate of
heat conduction into the fin at its root or base.
Heat transfer rate through the fin = heat conducted into the fin at its root or
base = Qroot or base

dT
Q fin = − K A
dx x =0

The temperature distribution in an infinitely long fin is

T = T∝ + (T0 − T∝) e–mx

dT
= T∝ + ( T0 − T∝ ) e − mx ( −m )
dx

dT
= ( T0 − T∝ ) 1 ( −m )
dx x =0

= −m (T0 − T∝)

Qfin = −k A [−m (T0 - T∝)]

hp
=K A ( T0 − T∝ )
kA

Q fin = hpKAc ( T0 − T∝ )

Heat transfer rate through infinitely long fin is

Q fin = hpKAc ( T0 − T∝ )

Where: p – perimeter
Ac – cross sectional area

Note: Aluminium is the most prominent fin material due to its lightweight, cheap
and good thermal conductivity.

65
 Conduction

Case – 2: Insulated Tip

Fin is finite in length and its tip is insulated.

x= 0

Qtip = 0

x=L

i.e. Q convection from tip = 0

Q conduction into tip = 0

Insulated tip doesn’t mean that the tip is insulated, it means that heat transfer to the tip
area is negligible compared to heat transfer from the loge surface area.

dT
− KA =
0
dx x =L

dT
=0
dx x=L

From the substitution of boundary conditions, the solution for temperature distribution
is

Q T − T∝ Cos hm (L − x )
= =
Q0 T 0 − T ∝ Cos hmL

Heat transfer rate through the fin,

dT
Q fin = − KA
dx x =0

Qfin = hpKAc ( T0 − T∝ ) Tan hmL

[Fin with insulated tip (default case)]

66
 Conduction

Condition for a Fin to be Called a Long fin

(Qfin)infinitely long = ( Q fin ) infinitely long = hpKAc ( T0 − T∝ )

(Qfin)insulated tip = ( Q fin ) insulated tip = hpKAc ( T0 − T∝ ) Tan hmL

For infinitely long fin Tan hmL = 1

→ mL ≥ 5
If mL ≥ 5 then the fin can be treated as an infinitely long fin.

Case – 3: Convection at the Tip (Uninsulated Tip)

Fin is finite in length and it loses heat by convection from the tip.

Qconv

1. At x = 0, T = T0, θ = θ0

2. From energy balance.

Heat conducted = heat convected from the tip

dT
− Ka = h A ( TL − T∝ )
dx x = L

Qconv

Insulated

Lc

With these two boundary conditions we can obtain the temperature profile and heat
transfer rate.

67
 Conduction

As calculations are becoming very lengthy, it is simplified by using a concept of corrected

length based on experiments.

Corrected length Lc

Lc → is defined as heat transfer from a fin of length (Lc) where the insulated tip is equal
to heat transfer from the actual fin of length L with convection at fin tip.

t
Lc = L + → rectangular fin
2

d
Lc = L + → circular / pin fin
2

Q T − T∝ Cos hm (Lc − x )
= =
Q0 T 0 − T ∝ Cos hmLc

Qfin = hpKA ( T0 − T∝ ) Tan hmL c

Performance Parameters

(1) Fin efficiency: It is the ratio between the actual heat transfer rate taking place
through the fin and the maximum possible heat transfer rate that would occur when
the entire fin is at its base temperature or root temperature.

70 60 40 35 30
Let
Qactual
T0 = 100°C

T∝ = 25°C

100 100 100 100 100 100

Qmax. possible (Ideal)
T0 = 100°C h × (P × L) × (T0 − T∝)
T0 T0 T0 T0 T0 T0

68
 Conduction

Q actual
η fin =
Q possible or ideal

Case – 1: Infinitely long fin

Actual

x=L→∝
T∝
Ideal

T0

Qactual  = hpKA ( T0 − T∝ )

Qideal  = hpL ( T0 − T∝ )

Q actual hpKA (T0 − T∝ )

η = =
hpL (T0 − T∝ )
fin
Q actual

1
η fin = L
hp
KA

1
η fin= → infinitely long fin
ML

Case – 2: Insulated tip

Tanh mL
ηfin =
mL

69
 Conduction

Case – 3: Uninsulated tip (convection at end)

Tanh mLc
ηfin =
mLc

1
η= L
hp
KA

ηfin ∝ K

Good thermal conductivity material should be used for the fin for high efficiency.

(2) Fin effectiveness: When fins are attached to the base area, the conductive
resistance increases and convective resistance decreases because of the increase in
surface area.

The total resistance may increase or decrease i.e. heat transfer may also increase or
decrease. Hence, to know the performance of fin, fin effectiveness is defined as the
ratio between heat transfer rate with fin and heat transfer without fin.

Q fin
Ꞓ=
Q without fin

Case – 1: Infinitely Long Fin

Qconv

Q
con
d

Qconv

Qwith fin  = hpKA ( T0 − T∝ )

Qwithout fin  = hp ( T0 − T∝ )

70
 Conduction

Q hpKA (T0 − T∝ )
Ꞓ=
with fin
=
Q without fin hp (T0 − T∝ )

1
Ꞓ= → infinitely long
hp
KA

Case – 2: Insulated Tip

Tanh mL
Ꞓfin =
hA
KA

Case – 3: Uninsulated Tip

Tanh mLc
Ꞓfin =
hA
KP

1
1. Ꞓ ∝ → We can use only fins when h is less. This is the reason we use fins only
h
for air and gases and not for liquids. Therefore, fins are not worth keeping when h is
relatively high.

Effectiveness of fin signifies how much benefit we get by keeping the fin or rather
whether fin work is kept or not.

2. Ꞓ ∝ P → P will be more for thin fins. So thin fins are closely spaced and are
A A
preferably made of very good conducting material. Generally, effectiveness greater
than 2 is preferred.

71
 Conduction

72
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

Transient Conduction Heat

Transfer
OR
Unsteady Heat Conduction
Lumped System Analysis
It is an analysis in which temperature varies only with time but not with space i.e. in
lumped system analysis, temperature is only a function of time.

T, Q = f(time)
T ≠ f(space)

The criteria for lumped heat analysis is

Biot number should be less than 0.1

Bi < 0.1

Copper

Flesh

1000°C

1000°C

100°C
100°C 100°C 100°C
100°C
250°C 200°C
300°C

∂T Valid for
=0
∂r ∂T ≠ 0
Lumped
T= ∫(t) Analysis ∂r
Invalid for L.S Analysis

73
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

Biot number (Bi):

It is defined as the ratio of internal conductive resistance to external convective

resistance
Or
It is also defined as the ratio of temperature drop due to conduction to the temperature
drop due to convection.

internal conduction resistance ICR

B = =
i external conduction resistance ECR

R
B = cond
i R
conv

T1 > T2 K
h , T∞
T1
T2

T1 T2 T∞

L 1
TCR = ECR =
KA hA

T1 − Tα
Q=
L 1
+
KA hA

T1 − T2 T2 − Tα
Q= =
L 1
KA hA

L
T 1 − T2
Q= = KA
T2 − Tα 1
hA

L
R cond T1 − T2
Bi = = = KA
R conv T2 − Tα 1
hA

74
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

L
hL
B i = KA =
1 KS
hA

hLc
Bi =
K solid

hL
Nu =
K fluid

K → thermal conductivity of solid

L → characteristic dimension

∂T < ∂T
∂r 1 ∂r 2

K1 > K2

Bi1 > Bi2

Low biot number signifies that the body is offering very little conductive resistance for
any internal heat transfer within the body. This is because of the high k value of the body
and smaller in size.

75
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

Characteristic Dimension for Different Shapes

Characteristic dimension L is defined as the ratio of volume of the body to surface area.

(1) Plane Slab

t L
V L xb xt
Lc = =
A 2 xL xB

t
Lc =
2

(2) Cylinder

L
V ∏r L2
Lc = =
A 2 ∏ rL

r
Lc =
2

(3) Sphere

76
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

4
∏ r3
V 3
Lc = =
A 4∏ r2

r
Lc =
3

Consider a body of mass m, volume v, density ρ, specific heat Cp, and surface area A,
which, at the initial temperature of Ti (heated in a furnace), is suddenly exposed to an
ambient fluid of convective heat transfer coefficient h at a temperature Tα.

Ti > Tα

Ti (t = 0 sec)

h, T∞

Convective heat
transfer to ambient
fluid

Assumptions:
1. Lumped system analysis
T ≠ f (space), Q ≠ f (space)
Q, T = f(time)
2. No heat gen
qgen =
3. Uniform “K”

Since the body keeps on losing heat by convection to the ambient fluid, the internal
energy of the body keeps on decreasing as the time progresses.
We have,
At time t = 0 sec, the initial temperature of body T = Ti
Let ‘T’ be the temperature of body at any time ‘t’
From energy balance at any instant of time ‘t’

77
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

The rate of heat transfer to ambient fluid by convection = decrease in internal energy of
the body

dT
hA (T − T∝ ) = − m Cp
dt

−hA dT
dt =
mCp T − T∝

Integrating both sides

t −hA t dt
∫ t =0 ρVCp
dt = ∫
Ti T − T∝

−hA
(t)0 t = {ln [T − T∝ ]} TTi
ρVCp

−hA T − T∝
t = ln ( )
ρVCp Ti − T ∝

T − T∝ −hA
= e− → temperature
Ti − T ∝ ρVCp
distribution

Hence in transient or unsteady state condition, the temperature changes exponentially

with respect to time.

T∞ Heating

∂T = +ve
∂t

Ti

Exponentially
∂T = -ve
∂T ∂t
∂t 1
T∞ ∂T Cooling
∂t 2
t(sec)
T1 T2

78
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

t1 < t2

 ∂T   ∂T 
  > 
 ∂t 1  ∂t 2

∂T
t↑= ↓
∂t

∂T
The rate of cooling changes with respect to time. Initially, the rate of cooling is very
∂t
high because the rate of convection heat loss is very high due to the large temperature
difference prevailing between the body and fluid. The time progress rate of cooling
decreases because the rate of convection decreases due to low temperature difference.
During the end of cooling, the body may take a lot of time even for 1˚C drop in
temperature.

Time constant of a thermocouple:

T − T∝ −hA
= e− t
Ti − T ∝ ρVCp

ρvCp
→ Sec
hA

 ρvCp 
The quantity   is known as the time constant of thermocouple. For quick response
 hA 
 ρvCp 
of the thermocouple, the time constant   should be as small as possible.
 hA 

T − T∝ −hA
= e− t = e −1
Ti − T ∝ ρVCp

 T − T∝ 
 = 1 − e = 1 − 0.368
−1
1−
T
 i − T ∝ 

Ti − T∝ − T + T∝ = 0.632 (Ti − T∝ )

Ti − T = 0.632(Ti − T∝ )

The time required to reach 63.2% of initial temperature difference is known as sensitivity
of the measuring equipment.

79
 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer

Hot gases
flowing Thermocouple bead

The thermocouple bead must have a very low time constant to record temperature
of flowing gases (for quick response). For this purpose, the bead must be as small as
possible, even its density ρ, specific heat Cp must be small and convective heat transfer
coefficient h must be high.
 ρvCp 
Similarly, the clinical thermometer should have less   to gain body temperature
 hA 
quickly.

80
 Heat Exchangers

Chapter 4 – Heat Exchangers

Hot fluid at Hot fluid at
high temp. IN low temp. OUT

Cold fluid at Cold fluid at

low temp. IN high temp.
OUT

A heat exchanger is a steady flow adiabatic (open system) device in which the two
flowing fluids exchange or transfer heat between themselves without losing or gaining
any heat from the ambient.

E.g.:
(1) Radiator

Hot air
Hot coolant
to ambient
from engine

Cool air
from radiator
Cool fluid to
fan
engine

(2) Condenser [hot steam → ambient water] (6) Cooling tower

(3) Super heater [hot flue gases → steam] (7) Jet condenser
(4) Economizer [hot flue gases → feed water] (8) Oil cooler
(5) Air preheater [hot flue gases → input air to furnace]

81
 Heat Exchangers

Applying the 1st Law of Thermodynamics to any Heat Exchanger

For open system → steady flow energy equation (SFEE)

c2 P c P
U1 + P1 V1 + + 1 + Q = U2 + P2 V2 2 + 2 + W
2g ρ g 2g ρ g

Q – W = ∆H + ∆K E + ∆ P E

Where:

U - Internal energy
PV - flow energy
U + PV - enthalpy

(∆H)fluid = 0

(∆H)hot fluid + (∆H)cold fluid = 0

–(∆H)fluid = (∆H)cold fluid

Rate of decrease in enthalpy of hot fluid = rate of increase in enthalpy of cold fluid

Mh Cph ∆Th = mc Cpc ∆Tc

mh Cph (Thi – Tho) = mc Cpc (Tco – Tci)

Rate of heat transfer or energy balance equation for heat exchanger.

Classification of Heat Exchangers

Based on Contact:
Direct Transfer Type/indirect Type Heat Exchanger
In the direct transfer type heat exchanger, both hot and cold fluids do not come in
contact with each other but the transfer of heat occurs between them through the pipe
wall of separation between them.
TC

RConv
Cold fluid

Hot fluid
RCod

Cold fluid
RCov

Th

82
 Heat Exchangers

Heat is first convected from hot fluid to the pipe wall then conducted through the pipe
wall and then finally gets convected to cold fluid.

E.g.:
(1) Super heater
(2) Economizer
(3) Air preheated
(4) Condenser

Direct Contact Type Heat Exchanger

In direct contact type heat exchanger, both hot and cold fluids physically mix up with
each other and then transfer heat.

E.g.:

(1) Cooling tower

(2) Jet condenser

(Air + water vapour) To ambient = Hot+/humid air

Cool water

Hot air Hot air

Regeneration type or storage type heat exchanger

Hot fluid in Cold fluid in

High Heat capacity

Cellulose Matrix

Cold fluid out Hot fluid out

83
 Heat Exchangers

Hot and cold fluids alternatively (only one at a time) flow through the matrix. Hot fluid
heating up the matrix and cold fluid picking up the heat from the matrix:

Hot fluid in Hot fluid out

Rotating type
regenerative
heat exchange
Cold fluid in Cold fluid
out

E.g.: Ljungstrom air preheater in gas turbine power plants.

Classification of Direct Transfer Type Heat Exchanger

Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Thi . Tho
mh

Separating wall

Tci . Tco
mh

Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

.
mh
Tho
Thi
Separating wall

Tco .
mc Tci

84
 Heat Exchangers

Cross Flow Heat Exchanger

Tho

.
mh

.
Tco
Tci mc

Thi

Hot and cold fluids flow in perpendicular direction.

Overall heat transfer coefficient:

L
Th > Tc

hi Th Tc
ro ri Th Q Q Q Tc
hO

r 
In  o 
1  ri  1
K hi × 2πriL 2πKL ho × 2πroL

r 
lnln  o 
=
R th
1
+  ri  + 1
h i ∗ 2 Π ri L 2 ΠkL ho ∗ 2 Π ro L

Th − Tc
Q=
R the

Q↑ = Rth ↓

For Rther ↓ = 1. ri ≅ r0 → Ai ≅ A0

2. K↑

1 1
R th = + ( Ai ≅ A0 )
hi A i hi A 0

85
 Heat Exchangers

 1 1  1
R th =  + 
 hi h 0  A

Q = U1 A1 ∆T = U0 A0 ∆T = UA ∆T

∆T
Q=
1
UA

1  1 1 1
= + 
UA  hi h0  A

1  1 1 
= + 
U  hi h 0 

Fouling Factor (F)

Over a period of time, the heat transfer rate of the heat exchanger decreases. This
is because scales are formed on the surface of the pipe and this offers additional
resistance to the heat flow. To account for this resistance, a fouling factor is introduced.
Fouling factor is a parameter which takes into account the thermal resistance offered by
any scaling or deposits.

FO
FL

Scaling/chemical deposit

1 1 1
= + Fi + + Fo
U hi h0

1 1
= +F
U dirty U clear

86
 Heat Exchangers

U → W / m2 − k

F → m2 − k / W

Temperature Profiles of Hot and Cold Fluids

(1) Parallel Flow

.
Thi mh
dQ Tho

dA

. Tco
Tci mC

Thi
∆Ti = Thi − Tci
Tho
∆T = ∆Th − ∆Tc Limiting Case
Tco ∆To = ∆To − ∆Tco
Tci

∆T = Tn – Tc

∆T = f(x)

dQ = UA ∆T

(Local heat transfer rate)

Q = f(x)

87
 Heat Exchangers

(2) Counter Flow

Thi . Tho
mh

dQ

.
Tco mc Tci

Thi
Tho
∆Ti = Thi − Tco
∆To = Tho − Tco
∆T = Th − Tc

Tco Tci
Limiting Case
x

Tco > Tno → only possible in counter flow

The variation of ∆T with respect to x is more predominant in a parallel flow heat
exchanger than that in a counter flow heat exchanger. Hence, the heat transfer in a
parallel flow heat exchanger is considered to be thermodynamically more irreversible
than the heat transfer in counter flow heat exchanger. The reason being that entropy
generated in the thermodynamic universe because of the heat transfer in a parallel flow
is greater than that in a counter flow.
Therefore, a counter flow heat exchanger is thermodynamically more efficient than a
parallel flow heat exchanger.

Mean Temperature Difference: (MTD / ∆TM)

This is the parameter which takes into account the variation of ∆T with respect to x for
the entire heat exchanger and is defined from the equation

Q = U A ∆TM ----------------- (1)

Where:

Q → total heat transfer rate between hot and cold fluid

A → total heat transfer area of heat exchanger

88
 Heat Exchangers

U → Overall heat transfer co-efficient

Thi . Tho
mh

dx dQ

dA
x .
mc
Tci Tco

Thi

Tho
∆T = Th − Tc
Tco

Tci

∆T = f(x) → dQ = f(x)

Consider a differentially small heat transfer area “dA” through which the differential heat
transfer rate between cold and cot fluids is “dQ”

dQ = UdA ∆T
Where: ∆T = Th – Tc

For total heat transfer rate, integrate on both sides

outlet outlet
∫
= dQ
inlet ∫
outlet
UdA ∆T

outlet
=Q U∫ dA ∆T -------------------(2)
inlet

Comparing equation (1) and (2)

1 outlet
=
∆TM
A ∫inlet
dA ∆T (Mean temperature difference)

89
 Heat Exchangers

Mean Temperature Difference for a Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

. Tho
mh

Thi dx

dQ
x .
mc
Tci Tco

Thi

dTh
∆T/x = 0i = ∆Ti − Tci
∆T Tho ∆T/x = L = ∆TO

= Thi − Tci Tco = Tho − Tco

dTc

Tci

At inlet i.e. x = 0 → ∆Ti = Thi − Tci

At outlet i.e. x = L → ∆To = Tho – Tco

Consider a small differential element of length dx through which, the differential heat
transfer rate between hot and cold fluid is dQ
dQ = U dA ∆T
U → overall heat transfer co-efficient
dA = B dx

B → width of the heat exchanger (perpendicular to the plane of paper)

∆T = Tn – Tc
d(∆T) = d Tn – d Tc

Heat transfer through small differential element = enthalpy decrease of hot fluid across
dx = enthalpy increase in cold fluid across dx

dQ = –mn Cpn (dTn) = –mc Cpc (dTc)

−dQ dQ
d ( ∆T )
= −
mn Cpn mc Cpc

90
 Heat Exchangers

 1 1 
d ( ∆T ) = − UB dx ∆T  + 
 mn Cpn mc Cpc 

∆TO d ( ∆T )  1 1  L
∫∆Ti
( ∆T )
= −UB  + 
 mn Cpn mc Cpc 
∫O
dx

 1 1 
Comparing = − U A  + 
 mn Cpn mc Cpc 

The fluids are assumed to be flowing at pressure, the rate of heat transfer between hot
and cold fluids is equal to the rate of change of enthalpy of either of the fluids.

Q = mn Cpn (Tni – Tno) = mc Cpc (Tco – Tci)

 ∆T   T − Tno Tco − Tci 

In  o  = − U A  ni + 
 ∆Ti   Q Q 

U A ( ∆T0 − ∆Ti )
Q=
 ∆T 
in  o 
 ∆Ti 

On comparing with Q = U A ∆TM

( ∆T0 − ∆Ti )
( ∆TM ) parallel flow =
 ∆T 
in  o 
 ∆Ti 

Where:

∆Ti = Thi − Tci

T0 = Th0 − Tc0

91
 Heat Exchangers

LMTD for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

(Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference)

. Tho
mh
Thi
dx

. Tci
mc
Tco

Thi
∆T/x = 0 = ∆Ti
dTh
= Thi − Tco Tho

Tco ∆T/x = L = ∆TO
∆T

dTc = Tho − Tci

Tci

At inlet i.e. x = 0 → ∆Tx = 0 = ∆Ti = Thi – Tc0

At outlet i.e. x = L → ∆Tx = L = ∆T0 = Th0 – TCi

dQ = mh Cph (dTh) = – mc Cpc (dTc)

( ∆T0 − ∆Ti )
( ∆TM )counter =
 ∆T 
ln  0 
 ∆Ti 

Where: ∆Ti = Thi – Tc0

∆T0 = Th0 – TCi

Note:

(1) In parallel flow heat exchanger, always ∆Ti > ∆T0

(2) In counter flow heat exchanger, may be ∆T0 > ∆Ti
(3) For the same inlet and outlet temperatures of both hot and cold fluids log mean
temperature difference of the counter flow heat exchanger is always more than the
mean temperature difference of the parallel flow heat exchanger

92
 Heat Exchangers

Special Cases

Case - 1: When one of the Fluids is Undergoing Change of Phase

Condenser

Steam Steam
Thi Tho Thi Tho
Tco Tco

Cooling Cooling
water water
Tci
Tci

PARALLEL COUNTER

As Thi = Tho

(LMTD)parallel = (LMTD) counter

Steam Generator (Boiler)

Thi Thi

Tho Tho
Tco Tco
Tci
Tci

PARALLEL COUNTER

As Tci = Tco

(LMTD)parallel = (LMTD) counter

Hence, it doesn’t matter while designing a heat exchanger whether it is a parallel or

counter flow when one of the fluids is undergoing phase change.

93
 Heat Exchangers

Case - 2: When Both the Fluid has Equal Capacity Rates in Counter Flow Heat
Exchanger

Equal capacity i.e. mc Cpc = mh Cph

From energy balance,

mc Cpc (Tc0 – Tci) = mh Cph (Thi – Tho)

Thi – Tho = Tc0 – Tci

Thi – Tc0 = Tho – Tci

∆Ti = ∆To

( ∆T0 − ∆Ti )
(∆T)counter = LMTD =
 ∆T 
ln  O 
 ∆T i
 
0
= Applying L-Hospital rule we get
0

(∆T) counter = ∆Ti = ∆To

(Equal capacity, counter)

Tho

Tco ∆Tm = Constant Linear temp. profiles

Tho

Tci

Design of Heat Exchangers

(1) LMTD method: in the design of heat exchanger, it is required to fluid the area of heat
exchanger/transfer and hence to obtain the dimensions of the piping.

94
 Heat Exchangers

Given data,

(1) Both the mass flow rates of hot and cold fluids (mn & mc)
(2) Both the specific heats (Cph & Cpc)
1 1 1 
(3) Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)  = + 
 U h i ho 
(4) Any three temperatures among the four

To Find the Area of Heat Exchanger (A)

Step - 1: Calculate the fourth unknown temperature from the energy balance equation.

mhCph (Thi – Tho) = mc Cpc (Tco – Tci)

Step - 2: Draw the temperature profiles of hot and cold fluids based on type of heat
exchanger to be designed and obtain mean temperature difference (∆Tm).

( ∆T − ∆Ti )
( ∆Tm ) = 0
 ∆T 
ln  0 
 ∆Ti 

Step - 3: Calculate the rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluids from enthalpy
change of either of the fluids.

Q = mh Cph (Thi – Tho) = mc Cpc (Tco – Tci)

Step - 4: Obtain heat exchanger area from

Q = UA ∆Tm

Effectiveness
Effectiveness is defined as the ratio between actual heat transfer rate between hot and
cold fluids taking place and the maximum possible heat transfer rate that can occur
between them.

Qactual
Ꞓ=
Qpossible

95
 Heat Exchangers

Qactual = mn Cpn (Tni – Tno) = mc Cpc (Tco – Tci)

Qactual → actual heat transfer rate between hot and cold fluids

Qmax → max possible heat transfer rate

= (m Cp)smaller x (Tni – Tno)

Where: (mCp)smaller = smaller heat capacity rate between hot and cold fluid

(mCp)smaller = min [mn Cpn, mc Cpc]

(1) If mh Cph < mc Cpc then

Qmax = mh Cph, (Thi – Tci)

Qactual
Ꞓ=
Qmax

mn Cpn , (Tni − Tho )

Ꞓ=
mn Cpn , (Tni − Tci )

(Tni − Tho )
Ꞓ=
(Tni − Tci )

(2) If mc Cpc < mn Cpn then

Qmax = mc Cpc (Tni – Tci)

Qact
Ꞓ=
Q max

mc Cpc , (Tco − Tci )

Ꞓ=
mc Cpc , (Tni − Tci )

(Tco − Tci )
Ꞓ=
(Tni − Tci )

In case both the fluids have equal capacity rate then any one of the above two formulas
of effectiveness can be used.

96
 Heat Exchangers

Number of Transfer Units (NTU)

It is the ratio between UA and the smaller capacity rate between the two fluids.

UA
NTU =
(mCp )smaller

NTU being directly proportional to the area of the heat exchanger, it indicates the overall
size of the heat exchanger.

Capacity Rate Ratio (C)

C=
(mCp ) smaller
(mCp ) bigger

0≤C=≤1

Ꞓ = f (NTU, C)

Ꞓ
0

C

1

C

NTU

For parallel flow heat exchanger

1 − e − ( 1 + c ) NTU
Ꞓparallel =
1+C

For counter flow heat exchanger

1 − e − ( 1 − c ) NTU
Ꞓcounter =
1 − C e − ( 1 − c ) NTU

97
 Heat Exchangers

Case - 1: When any one Fluid is Undergoing Phase Change

i.e. C = 0

1 − e − ( 1 + c ) NTU
Ꞓparallel =
1+C

Ꞓparallel = 1 – e –NTU

1 − e − ( 1 − c ) NTU
Ꞓcounter =
1 − C e − ( 1 − c ) NTU

Ꞓcounter = 1 − e −NTU

Ꞓparallel = Ꞓcounter = 1 – e −NTU

Case - 2: When both the fluids have equal capacity rates

i.e. C = 1

1 − e − ( 1 + c ) NTU
Ꞓparallel =
1+C

1 − e − 2 NTU
Ꞓparallel =
2

1 − e − ( 1 − c ) NTU
Ꞓcounter =
1 − C e − ( 1 − c ) NTU

0
=
0

Applying L-hospital rule we get

NTU
Ꞓcounter =
1 + NTU

98
 Heat Exchangers

Effectiveness - NTU Method

The effectiveness - NTU method of problem solving in heat exchangers is practically
useful when both the exit temperatures of hot and cold fluids are unknown for a given
heat exchanger area.

Given data:

(1) Both the mass flow rates of hot and cold fluids (mn & mc)
(2) Both the specific heats (Cph & Cpc)
(3) Area of heat exchanger (A)
(4) Overall heat transfer co-efficient (U)
(5) Only two inlet temperature [Tci & Tni]

Obj: to find the outlet temperature [Tno & Tco]

Step – 1:

Calculate both the capacity rates of hot and cold fluids

i.e. mn Cpn and mc Cpc and hence

(mCp )smaller
Obtain capacity ratio = C =
(mCp )bigger

Step – 2:

Calculate NTU
UA
NTU =
(mCp )smaller

Step – 3:
Calculate effectiveness of heat exchanger.

Step – 4:
Calculate only one exit temperature of fluid based on which fluid has a smaller capacity
rate.

Step – 5:
Calculate other exit temperatures from the energy balance equation.

99
 Heat Exchangers

100
 Radiation

Chapter 5 – Radiation
Provost Law
According to this theory, every substance above 0 K emits radiation in the form of
electromagnetic waves travelling with the speed of light.
Thermal radiation is in the range of 0.1μm to 100μm and it comprises a part of the U. V.
region, completely visible and infrared rays. Only these regions are in thermal radiation
because when radiation is absorbed in this region, it gets converted to heat.

Solar radiation Infrared region

(Visible region) human being

100µm

0.1µm 100µm

1
λ ∝
T

Radiation Heat Transfer

This is the mode of heat transfer which doesn’t require any material medium for its
propagation, since it occurs by electromagnetic waves travelling with the speed of light,
even through vacuum.

Basic Definitions

Total Hemispherical Emissive Power (E)

It is defined as the radiation energy emitted from the surface of a body per unit time and
per unit area in all possible hemispherical directions integrated over all wavelengths.

j
E → → W / m2
Sec − m 2

101
 Radiation

Total Emissivity (E)

E Eb

Non black body Black body

E
Ꞓ =
Eb

Always

Eb > E

0< Ꞓ≤1

It is defined as the ratio between total hemispherical emissive power E of a non-black

body and total hemispherical emissive power of a black body Eb - both being at the
same temperature.

Note: Black body is the body which absorbs all the thermal radiation incident or falling
upon it. Black body is not only a good absorber but also an ideal emitter.

E.g.: A narrow cavity in a hollow container

Container treated
as a black body

Container treated as a black body

A tiny hole in a furnace can also be treated as a black body.
A thermally black body need not appear black in color to the human eye.
E.g.: Ice, snow.

102
 Radiation

Monochromatic (or) Spectral Emissive Power (Eλ)

The radiation energy emitted from the surface of the body per unit time, per unit area in
the wavelength region λ to λ = dλ. Therefore Eλ is defined as the quantity which when
multiplied by d gives the radiation energy.

dE = Eλ dλ

dλ

0.1µm 100µm

∞
E = ∫ dE
0

∞
E = ∫ Eλ
0

dλ

Eλ

Area

∞
Area = ∫
0
Eλ dλ = E

λ)
Monochromatic Emissivity (Ꞓλ
It is defined as the ratio between monochromatic emissive power of a non-black body
and monochromatic emissive power of a black body both being at the same temperature
and wavelength.

Eλ
Ꞓλ =
Eb, λ

103
 Radiation

E λ = Ꞓλ Ebλ

∝ ∝ ∝
E ∫ ∫Eλdλ (Ꞓ λEλ b) xd λ ∫ Ebλd λ
Ꞓ= = 0
= 0
= Ꞓx 0
= Ꞓλ
Eb ∝ ∝ ∝
∫ Ebλdλ
0 ∫ 0
Ebλdλ ∫
0
Ebλd λ

Ꞓλ ≠ f( λ ) = const

B Black body
Grey body
Eλ

Real
body C
A
Eλ1 Eλ2
a c
Ebλ1 Ebλ2

λ1 λ2 λ

Grey Body

For grey body

Eλ 1 Eλ2
=
Ebλ 1 Ebλ 2

Ꞓλ ≠ f( λ )

Eλ 1
= Ꞓλ1
Ebλ 1

104
 Radiation

E χ2
= Ꞓλ2
Eb χ2

A body whose monochromatic emissive power is independent of wavelength is known as

a grey body.

∝), Reflectivity (ρ
Absorptivity (∝ ρ), Transmistivity (ττ)

100 Units of radiation

energy incident unit
30 Units of energy is
reflected

50 Units of incident energy

absorbed by the body

20 Units is transmitted through the body/surface

Absorptivity (∝)

50
∝= = 0.5
100

A fraction of radiation energy incident upon a surface which is absorbed by it is called as

absorptivity.

Reflectivity (ρ)

30
ρ= = 0.3
100

Fraction of radiation energy incident upon a surface which is reflected by it is known as

reflectivity (ρ).

105
 Radiation

Transmissivity (τ)

20
τ= = 0.2
100

Fraction of radiation energy incident upon a surface which is transmitted by it is known

as transmissivity (τ).

∝+ρ + τ = 1

For opaque surface: τ = 0 (do not transmit any energy)

∝+ρ = 1

For black body: τ = 0, ρ = 0

∝=1

For white body: which reflects all the radiation energy incident on it

ρ=1

τ = 0, ∝ = 0

Note: the above properties mentioned change with the wavelength of incident
radiation, surface roughness of the body and also with the temperature of the
body.

E.g.: The window glass of a car is very much transparent to short wavelength solar
radiation but becomes opaque to long wavelength re-radiation given by the car, thereby
trapping the heat energy inside the car.

106
 Radiation

Opeque to long
wavelength re-radiation

Transparent to Green house gases

low wavelength
radiation

Opaque to long
Wavelength re-radiation

As the surface roughness of the body decreases (by polishing) and the reflectivity
increases.

Law of Thermal Radiation

Kirchhoff’s law: The law states that “whenever a body is in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings, its emissivity is equal to its absorptivity”.

Ꞓ =∝
Proof:

Surroundings
qi W/m2 - Incident
radiation

Non black
body
E enclosure
radiation
emitted

Consider a sample of a non-black body of the surface area ‘A’ kept in an enclosure and
allowed the body to come into equilibrium with the enclosure.
Let ‘qi’ be the radiation energy incident upon the sample per unit time and per unit area.
Therefore total radiation energy incident upon the sample = qi x A

107
 Radiation

If ‘∝’ is the absorptivity of the body then radiation energy absorbed by the body = qi x A ∝
If ‘E’ is the emissive power of the body

Radiation energy emitted by the body = E x A

= Ꞓ Eb A

Since the body is in a steady state thermal equilibrium condition

Energy absorbed by the body = energy emitted by the body

qi A ∝ = Ꞓ Eb A ------------- (1)

Replace the non-black body with an identical-shaped black body and allow it to come
into equilibrium with the enclosure.
Writing energy balance for black body under a steady conditions is

qi A b ∝ b = Eb A ------------- (2)

(1)
Equation
(2)

qi A ∝ Ꞓ Eb A
=
qi A ∝ b Eb A

∝=Ꞓ

Hence proved, “a good absorber is also an ideal emitter”.

Ficks Law of Radiation: The law states that “the monochromatic or spectral emissive
power of a black body is dependent on both absolute temperature of the body and also
on the wavelength of emission”.

Eb λ = f ( λ ,T)

T – Kelvin

2 ∏ C1
Eb λ =
( λ 5e C 2 / λT − 1 )

W/m2–sec-μm

108
 Radiation

Where: C1, C2 are constants

The above functional relationship can be graphically represented as

Eb, λ

(W/m2 - sec - µm)

T1
T3 T2
λ
λ m1 λ m2 λ m3
(µm)

T1 > T2 > T3

λm1 < λm2 < λm3

T↑ → λm↓

λm = Const

1. As the temperature of the body increases, the area under the curve increases i.e.
hemispherical emissive power of the black body increases
2. At a given temperature as the wavelength(λ) increases, monochromatic emissive
power (Eb, λ) first reaches a max and then decreases
3. As the absolute temperature of a black body increases, most of the thermal radiation
will be shifted to a shorter wavelength region

Stefan–Boltzmann Law
The law states that “the total hemispherical emissive power of a black body (Eb) is
directly proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature of the body”.
Eb ∝ T4 → T – Kelvin

Eb = σ T4

Where: σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant

σ = 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2−K4

109
 Radiation

∝
Eb = ∫ Eb d d λ
0

But from Planck’s law

∝ 2 ∏ C1
Eb = ∫ = dλ
0 ( λ 5e C 2 / λT − 1 )

Eb = σ T 4

For a non-black body

E = Ꞓ Eb = ꞒσT4

Intensity of Radiation
Intensity of radiation (i) along a specific direction is defined as the radiation energy
emitted from the surface of the body per unit, time per area and per unit solid angle.

i = W/m2-str

dE

dφ

110
 Radiation

dE
i=
dφ

∏
E= ∫0
id φ W / m2

Lambert’s Cosine Rule

in i

Normal to the
surface

Where: “in” – intensity of radiation in normal direction or normal intensity

“i” – intensity of radiation along the direction making an angle θ with respect to
normal direction

i = in Cosθ

Note:

1. A diffuse surface will have the same intensity of radiation in all directions. i.e. for
diffuse surface, “i” is independent of direction

Same intensity in
all directions

Diffuse surface

Black body by default is a diffuse surface

111
 Radiation

2. Black body by default is a diffuse surface

∏
E = ∫0
id φ

Black body → diffuse body

i ≠ f(θ)

∏
E = i ∫ 0
dφ

E = iΠ

W/m2

Shape Factor/View Factor/Configuration Factor

"100" units of radiation "40" units of radiation

energy is by body ➀ energy is leaving ➀ is
leaving reaching body ➁

➀
➁

"500" units of radiation

energy leaving➁ is "1000" units of
reaching body ➀ radiation energy is
leaving by body ➁

40
F12 = = 0.4 → fraction of radiation energy reaching body (2) leaving from body (1)
100
50
F21 = = 0.5 → fraction of radiation energy reaching body (1) leaving from body (2)
100
Fmn → fraction of radiation energy reaching body (n) leaving from body (m)

112
 Radiation

0 ≤ Fmn ≤ 1

F11 = 0

F11 = 0

F11 > 0

If any surface is flat or convex, the self shape factor is zero.

113
 Radiation

F12 = 1

When one body/surface is completely surrounded by another body, the shape factor of
inner body with respect to outer body is equal to 1.

A1

A2

A1 >>> A2

F12 ≅ 0
F21 = 1

Reciprocating Relation Between Shape Factors

➀
➁
A1
A2

A1 > A2
F12 < F21
A1↑ →F12↓

A1 F12 = A2 F21

Summation Rule
There are ‘n’ radiating surfaces, exchanging radiation energy
F11 + F12 + F13 + -------------- + F1n = 1
F21 + F22 + F23 + -------------- + F2n = 1
--------------------------------------

114
 Radiation

Fn1 + Fn2 + Fn3 + -------------- + Fnn = 1

Summation rule for shape factors

F11 = 0
F12 = 1
F21 = 0.5
F22 = 0.5
1. A1 F12 = A2 F21
ΠR2 x 1 = 2 ΠR2 x F21
1
F21 = = 0.5
2

2. F21 + F22 = 1
0.5 + F22 = 1
F22 = 0.5

2R

➀
R

F11 = 0
F12 = 1
F21 = 0.5
F22 = 0.5

115
 Radiation

1. A1 F12 = A2 F21

2ΠR x L x 1 = 2 Π (2R) x L x F21

F21 = 0.5

2. F21 + F22 = 1

0.5 + F22 = 1

F22 = 0.5

➀R

2R

F11 = 0
F12 = 1

1
F21 =
9

8
F22 =
9
1. A1 F12 = A2 F21

4ΠR2 x 1 = 2 Π (3R)2 x F21

1
F21 =
9

2. F21 + F22 = 1

1
+ F22 = 1
9

8
F22 =
9

116
 Radiation

a a

a
a

F11 = 0
F12 = ?
F22 = 0

F12 = F21

F11 = 0

F11+F12+F13+F14+F15+F16=1

➂
➀
a

➅
➃ ➁
a

a ➄

F12 = F21 ; F13 = F31 ; ----------

1
F12 = F13 = F14 = F15 = F16 = = 0.5
2

Radiation heat exchanger between two small grey surfaces:

Here, small means compared to the distance between them, their dimensions are small.

117
 Radiation

T1
A1
α1
Ꞓ1

T2
A2
A2
Ꞓ2

The radiation energy emitted by (1) is Ꞓ1 A1 σ T41

The fraction of radiation energy falling on (2) emitted by (1) is Ꞓ2 A2 σ T42 F12
The radiation energy absorbed by (2) Ꞓ1 A1 σ T41 F12 ∝2

Similarly
The radiation energy absorbed by (1) is Ꞓ2 A2 σ T42 F21 ∝1

Net radiative heat transfer between (1) & (2) is

Q12 = Ꞓ1 A1 σT41 F12 ∝2 − Ꞓ2 A2 σ T42 F21 ∝1

Q12 = Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2 (A1F12) σ T41 − Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2 (A2F21) σ T42

Q12 = Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2 A1F12 σ(T41 − T42)

“Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2” is known as the equivalent emissivity between two areas smaller.

Radiation Network

Irradiation (G)
Irradiation (G) is defined as the total thermal radiation incident upon a surface per unit
area and per unit time.

118
 Radiation

J W
G→ →
Sec − m2 m2

Radiation falling on the surface from the surroundings

Radiosity (J)
It is defined as the total thermal radiation leaving the surface per unit time and unit area.

G PG

Ꞓ Eb

J = energy emitted by the surface + energy reflected by the surface

J = Ꞓ Eb + ρ G

τ
∝+ρ+𝛕=1

For an opaque surface

𝛕=0

119
 Radiation

∝+ρ=1

ρ=1−∝

For Kirchhoff’s law ∝ = Ꞓ

ρ=1−Ꞓ

J = ρ G + ꞒEb

ρ G = J − ꞒEb

J − ꞒE b
G=
ρ

J − Ꞓ Eb
G=
1−Ꞓ

Net radiation heat transfer/exchange between a surfaces of area “A” and the
surroundings.

Qnet
qnet = =J−G
A

Qnet J − Ꞓ Eb
qnet = =J −
A 1 −Ꞓ

Qnet J − Ꞓ J − J + Ꞓ E b
=
A 1 −Ꞓ

Qnet Ꞓ Eb − Ꞓ J
=
A 1−Ꞓ

Qnet Ꞓ (E b − J )
=
A 1−Ꞓ

Eb − J
Qnet =
1−Ꞓ
A Ꞓ

120
 Radiation

Equivalent Radiation Circuit

Eb

Eb J
1− Ꞓ
AꞒ
Surface resistance

J2 A2

J1 A1

➀ J2 A2 F21 ➁
J1 A1 F12

Consider two finite surfaces of areas A1 & A2 having radiosities J1 & J2 exchanging heat
radiation as shown in figure.

Out of the total radiation energy leaving surface 1, the energy that reaches surface 2 is
J1A1F12

Similarly, out of the total radiation energy leaving surface 2, the energy that reaches
surface 1 is J2A2F21

Hence the net radiation heat exchange between surface 1 and surface 2 is

Qnet = Q1-2 = J1A1F12 – J2A2F21

(A1F12 = A2F21)

Q12 = A1 F12 (J1 – J2)

J1 − J2
Q12 =
1
A 1F12

121
 Radiation

Equivalent radiation circuit is

J1 J2

 1 1 
 (or) 
 A 1F12 A 2F21 
Space
resistance

 1 1 
 (or)  (Space resistance)
 A 1F12 A 2F21 

Hence, the complete radiation resistance for radiation heat exchanger between 2
surfaces is

A1

T2 Eb1 = σT14

J1

1 − Ꞓ1
J2
A Ꞓ1
A2 1
T2 (or)
A 1F12
Eb1 = σT24 1 − Ꞓ2
A2 Ꞓ 2 1
A 2F21

Ed 1 − Eb2
Q12 =
R th

Ed 1 − Eb2
Q12 =
1 −Ꞓ 1 1 1 − Ꞓ2
+ +
A 1 Ꞓ 1 A 1 F12 A2 Ꞓ 2

122
 Radiation

σ (T41 − T42 )
(Q12 )net =
1− 1Ꞓ 1 1 −Ꞓ 2
+ +
A 1 Ꞓ 1 A 1 F12 A2 Ꞓ 2

In case both the surfaces are black

Ꞓ1 = 1, Ꞓ2 = 1

Eb1 Eb2

1 1
(or)
A 1F12 F12 F21

 1 1 
 or 
 A1F12 A2F21 

(T41 − T42 )
Q1−2 =
1
A1F12

Applications of Network Method

Case – 1: Two Infinitely Large Parallel Plates

T1 ➁

Ꞓ1

T2

Ꞓ2

123
 Radiation

F11 = 0

F12 = 1

F21 = 1

F22 = 0

Assuming steady state conditions

Eb1 = σT14 J1 J2 Eb1 = σT24

1 − Ꞓ1 1 1 − Ꞓ2
(or)
A Ꞓ1 A 1F12 A2 Ꞓ2

1
A 2F21

Eb1 − Eb2
(Qnet )1-2 =
1 − Ꞓ1 1 1 − Ꞓ2
+ +
A1 Ꞓ 1 A1 F12 A2 Ꞓ 2

σ (T41 − T42 )
=
1 − Ꞓ1 1 1 − Ꞓ2
+ +
A 1 Ꞓ1 A 1 F12 A2 Ꞓ 2

Since very large parallel plates,

Radiation flux → A1 = A2 = 1m2

Radiation heat flux,

σ (T41 − T42 )
(qnet ) 1 −2 =
1 − Ꞓ1 1 −Ꞓ 2
+1+
Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2

σ (T41 − T42 )
=
1 1
−+1−+1+1+
Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2

124
 Radiation

σ (T41 − T42 )
(qnet ) 1 − 2 = → parallel plates
1 1
1−
Ꞓ1 Ꞓ2

Case – 2: Infinitely Long Concentric Cylinders

T2
11 >
T1 ➁

➀ T1

F11 = 0 ;

F12 = 1 ;

Assuming steady state conditions

Eb1 = σT14 J1 J2 Eb1 = σT24

1 − Ꞓ1 1 1 − Ꞓ2
A Ꞓ1 A 1F12 A2 Ꞓ2
(or)
1
A 1F Ꞓ 1

σ (T41 − T42 )
(Qnet ) 1 − 2 =
1−Ꞓ 1 1 1 −Ꞓ 2
+ +
A1 Ꞓ 1 A 1F12 A2 Ꞓ 2

σ (T41 − T42 )
(Qnet ) 1 −2 =
1 1 1 1 1
+ + − +
A1 Ꞓ 1 A 1 A 1 A2 A2 Ꞓ 2

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 Radiation

σ (T41 − T42 )
(Qnet ) 1-2 =
1  1 A 1 A 
 + 1− + 1
A 1  Ꞓ 1 A2 A2 A2 

σ A 1 (T41 − T42 )
(Qnet ) 1 −2 =
1 A 1
+ 1( − 1)
Ꞓ 1 A 2 Ꞓ2

(Concentric cylinder)

Radiation shield

T1 T2

➀ ➁

Ꞓ3

A1 = A2 = A3 = 1m2

F13 = 1 = F31

F23 = 1 = F32

Assuming Steady State Conditions

Eb1 = σT14 J1 J3 Eb3 J3 J2 Eb1 = σT2

1 − Ꞓ1 1 1 −Ꞓ3 1 −Ꞓ 3 1 1 − Ꞓ2
A 1 Ꞓ1 A 1 F13 A3 Ꞓ3 A 3Ꞓ 3 A 3 F23 A 2 Ꞓ2

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 Radiation

Eb1 -Eb2
(Q 1-2)net =
1- Ꞓ1 1  1- Ꞓ 2  1 1- Ꞓ 2
+ +2   + +
A1 Ꞓ 1 A1F12  A2 Ꞓ 2  A2F22 A2 Ꞓ 2

σ (T41 − T42 )
Flux (q1-2 )net =
1 2  1 
− 1 + 1+ −2 + 1 +  +1
Ꞓ1 Ꞓ3  Ꞓ2 

σ (T41 − T42 )
(q1 −2 )net =
1 2  1 
+ −2 +  
Ꞓ1 Ꞓ3  Ꞓ2 

Each shield kept between plates will bring in 3 additional resistances into the network,
out of which 2 are surface and one is space resistance.
Hence, after keeping ‘n’ screens between the planes, there will be a total of 3(n+1)
resistances, out of which 2(n+1) are surface resistance and (n+1) are total space
resistance in the entire radiation network.

∝ + ρ + τ =1

Ꞓ =1 − ρ

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