CHAPTER 6: COMPACTION • The unit weight is calculated after each test, then the dry unit

Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics) weight and optimum moisture content are determined.

DEFINITION:
• The densification of soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy.
• Increases the strength characteristics of soils, thereby
increasing the bearing capacity of foundations constructed over
them.
• Decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures
and increases the stability of slopes of embankments.
• The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its
dry unit weight.

COMPACTION FUNDAMENTALS:
• Water acts as a softening agent on the soil particles, enabling
them to slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position. Standard Proctor Test
• The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the
moisture content increases. When the moisture content is MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST:
gradually increased and the same compaction effort used, the • ASTM D-1557 and AASHTO T-180
unit weight and dry unit weight gradually increases. • The soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a
• Beyond a certain moisture content, any increase in the mass of 4.54 kg.
moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight. The • The drop of the hammer is 457 mm, instead of 30.5mm.
moisture content where the maximum dry unit weight is • Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified
attained is referred to as “optimum moisture content”. Proctor test results in an increase in the maximum dry unit
3 3 weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum dry unit
ω(%) γ (lb/ft ) ω(%) γ (lb/ft ) weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum
d d moisture content.
9.9 101.1 15.1 107.1
10.6 102.2 17.4 105.8 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION:
12.1 104.6 19.4 103.5 1. Effect of soil type - grain-size distribution, shape of the soil
13.8 106.2 21.2 100.7 grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of
clay minerals present.
2. Compaction energy per unit volume, E:
𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇
( )𝒙( )𝒙( )𝒙( )
𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓
𝑬=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅

COMPACTION EQUIPMENT:
1. Smooth-wheel roller
▪ Suitable for proof-rolling subgrades and for finishing
operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils.
▪ Provides 100% coverage under the wheels with ground
contact pressures as high as 310–380 kN/m2.
▪ Not suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction
when used on thicker layers.

MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS:

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit
weight is obtained when no air is in the void spaces—that is, when
the degree of saturation equals 100%. Hence, the maximum dry unit
weight at a given moisture content with zero air voids is given by:
𝑮 𝜸
𝒔 𝒘 𝒚𝒘
Zero-air-void unit weight = 𝜸𝒛𝒂𝝂 = 𝟏+𝝎𝑮 = 𝟏
𝒔 𝒘+
𝑮𝒔

STANDARD PROCTOR TEST:

• ASTM D-698 and AASHTO T-99
• The mold is attached to a baseplate at the bottom and to an
extension at the top.
• The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted in three equal layers by a 2.5-kg hammer that
delivers 25 blows to each layer at a drop of 30.5mm. Smooth-wheel Roller
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired roller. ▪ The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights.
▪ Heavily loaded wagons with several rows of 5. Hand-held vibrating
tires which are closely spaced—four to six in a row. plates.
▪ The contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 ▪ Used for
to 700 kN/m2, and they produce 70% to 80% coverage. effective
▪ Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey soil compaction of
compaction. granular soils
▪ Compaction is achieved by a combination of pressure and over a limited
kneading action. area.
▪ Vibrating
plates are also
gang-mounted
on machines,
which can be
used in less
restricted
areas.
Plate compactor

PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF COMPACTED SOILS:

1. Permeability - voids are reduced, hence, the permeability is
also reduced.
2. Shear Strength - Shear strength of soil compacted to dry of
optimum is more than those compacted to wet of optimum at
lower strains.
3. Compressibility - This varies according to the applied
pressure. For low-pressure range, compressibility is more for
soils which are compacted to wet of optimum than soil
compacted to dry of optimum. For high pressure ranges,
compressibility is more for soils which are compacted to dry of
optimum than soil compacted to wet of optimum.
4. Soil Structure - Soils compacted to dry of optimum have
Pneumatic Rubber Tire Roller
flocculated structure due to the attraction between soil particles
3. Sheepsfoot Roller because of low water content. Soils compacted to wet of
▪ Drums with a large number of projections whose area may optimum have dispersed structure due to repulsive force
range from 25 to 85 cm2. between soil particles because of high water content.
▪ Most effective in compacting clayey soils. 5. Swelling of Soil - When the soil is compacted to dry of
▪ The contact pressure under the projections can range optimum, the soil is in need of water and it swells easily when
from 1,380 to 6,900 kN/m2. contacted with water. When water is compacted to wet of
▪ During compaction in the field, the initial passes compact optimum, the soil particles are oriented in a dispersed manner
the lower portion of a lift. The top and middle portions of a and swelling does not occur. So, to avoid swelling, soils should
lift are compacted at a later stage. be compacted to wet of optimum.
6. Shrinkage of Soil - Shrinkage is more for the soil compacted
to wet of optimum than dry of optimum. In case of dry of
optimum compaction, soil particles are in random orientation
and they are in stable condition. But in case of wet of optimum,
soil particles are in parallel orientation and they are unstable
which makes it easy for packing of particles causing shrinkage.
7. Stress-Strain Behavior of Soil - Soils compacted to dry side
of optimum will take more stress for little strain hence, stress-
strain curve of this type of soil is much steeper and elastic
modulus is more. Brittle failure occurs in this case. Similarly,
soils compacted to wet of optimum will produce more stress
even for smaller stress. Hence, Stress-Strain curve, in this
case, is much flatter and plastic-type failure occurs at a larger
strain. These types of soils have low elastic modulus.
8. Pore Water Pressure - Pore water pressure is high for those
soil whose water content is high. Hence, soils compacted to
Sheepsfoot Roller
wet of optimum compaction will exhibit more pore water
4. Vibratory roller. pressure than soil compacted dry of optimum.
▪ Very efficient in compacting granular soils.
▪ Can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to
the soil.
SPECIFICATIONS, FIELD CONTROL AND MEASUREENT OF ▪ the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it
IN-SITU DENSITY: a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated
▪ Dry of optimum compaction - amount of water added < vessel, from which the volume can be read directly
optimum moisture content
▪ Wet of optimum compaction - amount of water added >
optimum moisture content

Compaction Formulas:
1. Relative Density, Dr
𝜸𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅) − 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝑫𝒓 = [ ]
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝜸𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆
𝑫𝒓 =
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏
2. R0:
𝜸𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑹𝟎 =
𝜸𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒙
3. Relative compaction, R
𝜸𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
𝑹(%) =
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒍𝒂𝒃)
x 100%
𝑹𝟎 Rubber Balloon Method
𝑹=
𝟏 − 𝑫𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝑹𝟎 )
3. Nuclear Method
▪ Used for determining the
Determination of unit weight of compaction in the field:
compacted dry unit
1. Sand Cone Method. weight of soil.
a) W1 = The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and ▪ Uses a radioactive
the sand filling the jar isotope source that gives
b) W2 = weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole off Gamma rays that
c) W3 = weight of the dry soil excavated from the hole radiate back to the
𝑾𝟐 meter’s detector.
𝑾𝟑 =
𝝎(%) ▪ Dense soil absorbs more
𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 radiation than loose soil.
d) W4 = combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the ▪ The instrument
remaining sand in the jar measures the weight of
e) W5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone wet soil per unit volume
𝑾𝟓 = 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟒 and the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil,
f) V = volume of the excavated hole then, the dry unit weight of compacted soil can be
𝑾𝟓 − 𝑾𝒄 determined by subtracting the weight of water from the
𝑽= moist unit weight of soil.
𝜸𝒅(𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅)
g) Dry unit weight of compaction made in the field: CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST:
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑾𝟑 ▪ ASTM D4429 – Standard Test Method for CBR
𝜸𝒅 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑽 (California Bearing Ratio) of Soils in Place
▪ ASTM D1883 - Standard Test Method for California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils
▪ AASHTO Designation: T 193-99 (The California Bearing
Ratio)
▪ a simple strength test that compares the bearing capacity
of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone
▪ primarily intended for, but not limited to, evaluating the
strength of cohesive materials having maximum particle
sizes less than 19 mm (0.75 in.)
▪ involves applying load to a small penetration piston at a
rate of 1.3 mm (0.05″) per minute and recording the total
load at penetrations ranging from 0.64 mm (0.025 in.) up
to 7.62 mm (0.300 in.)
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Given Gs = 2.75, calculate the zero-air-void unit weight for
a soil in lb/ft3 at w = 5%, 8%, 10%, 12%, and 15%.
2. Calculate the variation of dry density (kg/m3) of a soil (Gs
Sand-Cone Method = 2.67) at w = 10% and 20% for degree of saturation (S)
= 80%, 90%, and 100%.
2. Rubber Balloon Method 3. The results of a standard Proctor test are given below.
▪ similar to that of the sand cone Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
 and the optimum moisture content. Also, determine the
void ratio and the degree of saturation at optimum
moisture content.

4. The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the table

below. Determine the maximum dry density (kg/m3) of
compaction and the optimum moisture content.

5. A field unit weight determination test for the soil described

in Problem 4 yielded the following data: moisture content
= 10.5% and moist density = 1705 kg/m3. Determine the
relative compaction.
6. A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 m3 of
compacted soil. The void ratio of the compacted fill is
specified as 0.7. Four borrow pits are available as
described in the following table, which lists the respective
void ratios of the soil and the cost per cubic meter for
moving the soil to the proposed construction site. Make
the necessary calculations to select the pit from which the
soil should be bought to minimize the cost. Assume Gs to
be the same at all pits.

7. The maximum and minimum dry densities of a sand were

determined in the laboratory to be 1682 kg/m3 and 1510
kg/m3, respectively. In the field, if the relative density of
compaction of the same sand is 70%, what are its relative
compaction (%) and dry density (kg/m3)?
8. Following are the results of a field unit weight
determination test on a soil with the sand cone method:
• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1667 kg/m3
• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.117
kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 5.99 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 2.81 kg
• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.331 kg
• Moisture content of moist soil = 11.6%
Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the field.