5

Electric Current and

Resistance
NTRODU CTION

In the previous chapters, we dealt with electrostatics i.e. we studied

the behaviour of charges at
est In this chapter, we shall discuss curent electricity ie. charges in motion. We know tha
force acts on a charged particle placed in
electric field. If the charge on the
an

t will move in the direction_of clectric field. On the otHer hand, if chargeparticle positive
is

on the particle
negative, it will move in a direction opposité to the electnc field. This flow of charge in a defin1te
direction 18s called electric current and is important in
many ways. For example. it is the electre
current by means of which electrical energy is transfered from one
plaçe to another for utilisation.
The operation of all electrical appliances we use such as heater, electric
iron. incandescent lamp.
etc. depends upon the flow of electric current
through them. In this chapter. we shall deal with
various aspects of curent
electricity
5.1. CRRENT ELECTRICITY
Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of +5V and +3V respectively shown
S1
as
Fig
in
).Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B. Since the bodies are
separated by
ai. the charges on the bodies are stationary or static. The branch of physics which deals wuh
charpes at rest is called electrostatics.

Free
clectrons

sv

Wire

Fig. 5.1
wo bdies are connected through a wire as shown in Fhg 5I (u, then tree ekvtras
ha m body B to bdy A Lconventional current is fnam A Thus thw current(ue
Oe ng in a definite direction) will continue ull the twu halies attain the ane pocntial
i o badies attain the same potential, current low ccaes Iherefre we arne al a ven
onclusion that current will flow in a conductwr cnuil podenIal diference
ause
body B has cess of electrons as compared to body A

253
 Principles of Physics
254
no current will low between these
exists. If noexists between two points in a circuit,
p.d. said to develop electrom
difference between two points is
A device that maintains potential
etc. The branch of physics
which deals with
rges char
force (e.m.f.) e.g.. battery, generator,
motion is called curent electricity.

5.2. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.)

should flow through a conductor, we must maintain potens
If we want that electric current entual
difference (p.d.) across its ends.
devel.
A device that maintains patential diferencebetween two points in a circuit is said to velup
an electromotive force (e.m.f) consists of two dissimilar
device is that of a cell. A cell metal
simple example of such a
The
dil. H,SO) as shown in Fig. 5.2
immersed in an electrolyte (say i,
plates (say copper and zinc) become positively charged and zinc pla
The chemical action in the cell causes copper plate to plate
the positive and negative charpe
negatively charged. Note that chemical energy has *separated ges
a potential difference to
exist between the terminals of the cel.
causing
The maximum p.d. (e) between the two plates of a cell on open-circuit (i.e. cell delivering no
of the cell [See Fig. 5.2 (i)].
current) is called electromotive force (e.m.f.)
R
w

Votai cell

Copper
Copper Zinc Zinc

Dil. HSO,
Dil. H,SO4
(ii)
( Fig. 5.2
electron is attracted
plates are joined through a wire as shown in Fig. 5.2 (i),
an
If the two

from zinc plate through the wire to copper plate. The charges
on the plates are reduced by o

electron. The chemical action of the cell now transters one electron from copper plate to zinc pair
to maintain original p.d. Thus
internally through the cell. Thus, plates acquire original charge
process goes on so long as the
circuit is complete or long as there is chemical energy availabe.
so
a unit charg
The e.m.f. of a cell can also be defined as the energy supplied by the cell to drive
once around the complete circuit and is given by ;

e9E.d
where E =electric field ie. force per unit charge

dl = small path segment vector

can
Since e.m.f. of a cell is the potential difference between its plates on open circuit, one
expect that SI unit of e.m.f. is volt. to
1V joule of energy is supplied by the cell a
Thee.mj. of a cell is said to bewholè
coulomb of charge once around the circyit.
plied
In order to separate positive and negative charges, energy is needed. This required energy is SuP

by the chemical action. Thus a cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Electric Current and Resistance 255

Note. Unfortunately, the early scientists called e.m.f. a force instead of incorporating the word
work into the terminology. However, e.m.f. has unit of work and not unit of force.
5.3. ELECTRIC CURRENTT
The flow of charge in a definite direction in a conductor is called electric currenu. The electric
current is measured by the flow of charge through any cross-section of the conductor ina unit time.
Thus if g is the charge flowing through any cross-section of
the conductor in time t, then,
E
Electric current, I =2.
When a cell is connected across the ends of a conductor
(See Fig. 5.3], electric field is set up in the conductor. The
electric field exerts force on the free electrons, causing the free
electrons to drift towards the positive terminal of the cell. This
constitutes electric current in the conductor. As a convention,
Fig. 5.3
the direction offlow of positive charge is taken as the direction
electrons in metal, then
of current flow. If moving charges are negative, as with free
a

direction
of current is opposite to the flow of negative charges. This convention does not
make any difference in the actual operation of the electrical appliances.
If the charge flowing through a conductor is not steady but varying with time, then electric
current at any time (i.e., instantaneous current) is given by ;

Instantaneous current, i = 2
dt
Unit of electric current Electric current, I = qlt
SI unit of
The SI unit of charge is one coulomb and that of time is one second. Therefore,
a special name of ampere. If q 1C and r = ls, =

curent is 1 coulomb/sec which has been given

then I= 1/1 = 1 ampere.
wire if at any cross-section, one coulomb
One ampere of current is said to flow through a

of charge flows in one second. that 5 C per second flows past

Thus, if 5 ampere current is flowing through a wire, it means

any cross-section of the wire.

Thus when we say that current through a wire
Note. 1C charge on 6.25 x 10 electrons.
=

second flow past any cross-section of the wire.

1A, it means that 6.25 x 10° electrons per
I = = where e = 1.6 x 10* "C

5.4. CURRENT CARRIERS

Those substances
direction is called electric current.
The flow of charged particles in a definite metals. However, those
which permit the flow of charges through
them are called conductors, e.g.,
are called insulators, e.g., glass,
mica, etc. It
which do not permit the flow of charges
uDstances a conductor if p.d.
is maintained across its ends.
S reminded that current will only flow through
there are a large
In solid conductors (e.8., metals),
Current carriers in solid conductors. free
) field (i.e., p.d) is applied to the conductor, the
electric
mber of free electrons. When direction (in a direction opposite
to the field) to constitute
CIectrons start drifting in a particular solid conductors
current carriers in
Hence, free electrons are the
iectnc current.
A conducting liquid
Some liquids are electricity.
conductors of
Current carriers in liquids. The electrolytic solution provides positive ions
CuSO).
edan electrolyte (e.., solution of electric field (i.e., p.d.) is applied,
When external
andnegative ions (e.R., SO,-). negative ions in the opposite
direction to constitute
direction and
POSive ions move in one
ions
and negative) are the current
(positive
carriers.

cnc Current. Hence, in conducting liguids,

 256
Principles of PhysicsX
(ii' Current carriers in gases. Under ordinary conditions, gases are insulators. However
a gas under low pressure is subjected to high electric field (i.e., high p.d.), ionisation of gas when
mol
ecules takes place. i.e.. electrons and positive ions are formed. Hence, current carriers
rs in
ions.
gases are free electrons and positive
Note. It is possible to have a stream of electrons move across empty space, as from cathode .
plate in a vacuum tube. This is also current. In general, the flow of charged particles (positive or

negative) definite
in a direction constitutes electric current.

5.5. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS A SCALAR QUANTITY

As both charge and time are scalars,
() Electric current, I =qlt.
therefore, electric current is a scalar quantity.
indicate the 7A
3A
in wire by an arrow to
(ii) We show electric current a
direction of flow of positive charge. But such arows are not vectors
because they do not obey the laws of vector algebra. This point can be AA
B
currents
explained by referring to Fig. 5.4. The wires OA and OB carry Fig. 5.4
is 3 4
of 3A and 4A respectively. The total current in the wire CO
+ =

7A irrespective of the angle between the wires OA and OB. This is not surprising because the
charge is conserved so that magnitudes of currents in wires OA and OB must add to give the

magnitude of current in the wire CO.

5.6. TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

The electric current may be classified into three main classes: (i) steady current (i) varying
current and (iii) alternating current.
(i) Steady current. When the magnitude of current does not change with time, it is called
a steady current. Fig. 5.5 (i) shows the graph between steady current and time. Note that value
of current remains the same as the time changes. The current provided by a battery is almost a Ta-

steady current.

T/2
V3T/4 T
T/4

() (i) (iii)
Fig. 5.5
varying it is called
(ii) Varying current. When the magnitude ofcurrent changes with time, a

current. Fig. 5.5 (i) shows the graph between varying current and time. Note that value of cure
varies with time.
iii) Alternating current. An altermating current is one whose magnitude changes con
Due to technical and economical reasons,
ously with time and direction changes periodically. in Fig. *
currents that have sine waveform (or cosine waveform) as shown
produce alternating
current because current flows in alternate directions in the circuit,
(ii). It is called alternating T sex
period of the wave) in one direction and from 7/2 to
from 0 to TI2 second (T is the time
in the opposite direction.
 Current and Resistance
Electric 257
ample 5.1. Each second 10" electrons now from right to left across a eross-section
re attached to the two terminals of a battery. Calculate the magnitude and direction of
wire
the wire.
current in

Solution. Electric current, 1 = 9ne

Here n =10";: e = 1.6 x 10"C; I= Is

I = (10')x(1.6x 10") = I.6x 10 A

The direction of current is from lefi to right, i.e., opposite to the direction of electron flow.

Fample 5.2. A 60 W light bulb has a current of 0.5A passing through it. Calculate (i)
the number of electrons passing a cross-section of the bulb, (iü) the number of electrons that
cross-section in one hour.
pass that
Solution. ) I = 1ne

I 0.5x1 3.1 x 10 electrons/s

e 1.6x 10-19
) Charge passing the cross-section in one hour is
4 = h = (0.5) x (60 x 60) = 1800 C

Now
1800
n =
electrons/hour
e 1.6x10-19
.I x
l0
Example 5.3. In hydrogen atom, electron revolves around the nucleus along a path of
radius 0.51 Å making 6.8 x 10* revolutions per second. Calculate the equivalent current.
Given charge on electron = 1.6 x 10" C.
Solution. Here e = 1.6 x 10" C: f= 6.8 x 10 rev./sec; r = 0.51 Å = 0.51 x 10 m.
If T is the time period of the electron, then it crosses a point on its circular path once in T
Seconds.

. Equivalent current, / = Charge e

Time
= ef= 1.6x 10" x 6.8 x 10 = 1.088 x 10A
Example 5.4. The charge flowing in a conductor varies with time as

= at- b e r
6
where a, b and c are positive constants. Find (i) initial current (i) the time after which the
Current reaches the maximum value and (ii) the maximum or minimum value of current.

Solution. Current, i = at-b+e |=a - br + e?. ()

i) Att 0,i =a -bx0+cx(0 =

For i to be maximum or minimum dilai =

,.
di I hle
0 =-b +
=
= -

b + ct or ct
dt
blc) in eq. (i), have,
ulingthe value of r ( = we

b
b
i i == -bxD4
4a-bx, "2
 258
Princples d Phyucs
Since the value of i is les than at r = 0, it must be minimum

Minimum valuc of current

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1One bilion electrons P another point Q in 10-
pass from a point to s
Wh
current in amperes ? What is its direction ?

[1.6 x 10A; direction of current is from o

In the
electrolysis of silver chloride. a charge of 4 x 1° C is flowing
electrolyte. Calculate the number of silver (Ag") ions flowing through it. thro
The current [2.51
through a wire depends on time as I =+ar where l, =
10 A
4As. Find the a
charge that flows across a section of the wie in 10
4. An
electric current of 2.0 uA exists in a
seconds. [300
across a cross-section of
discharge tube. How much charge
the tube in 5 minutes?
A n electron moves in a circie [6x 1 a
of radius 10 cm
with a x constant speed S 10 ms
Fin
electnc cuTent a
point on the circle. Given e 1.6 x 10 C.
a =
[1.27x 10|
5.7. CU RRENT CONDU CTION IN METALLIC
CONDUCTORS
Metals have a large number of free
electrons, about 10 per m. In the absence of
fheld, these electrons are in a
state of random motion due to thermal ele-i
of these electrons is energy. The average spe
sufficiently high (= 10 ms) at room temperature. However. these
are distobuted randomly in all directions so that there velocs
is no net movement of charge in
particular direction. Consequently, no current is established in the conductor in the
electric field absenc:
When poential difference is applied across the
ends of a conductor (say copper wire) as shown in Fig
5.6, electric field is applied at
every point of the copP
per wire. The electric field exerts force on
electrons which stan accelerating towards the
the free
positive
terminal (ie., opposite to the direction
of the field) As Copper wire
the free electrons move. they "collide
again and again
with positive ions of the metal Each colli5ion destroys
the extra velocity pained by the free electrons.
Fig. 5.6
The averaze time that an electron spends between
two collisions is called the relaxaion time (T). Its value is of the order of
10 second
AJthough the free electrons are continuously accelerated by the electric field, collisions p
vet their velocity from becorning large. The result is that
electric field provides a small cons
velocity wards positive terminal which is superimposed on the random motion of the electroas
This constanit velocity is called the drift velocity
The average velocity with which fre electrons get drifted in a metallic conduci
irfluence of electric fueld iu ealleddrift velociy (v,) The drift velocity of free clectron
order of 10 '
Wha happens o an elecuon afer codhon with an um? t moves off in some new and quite random
direction However, it till experiences the applied electrc fheld, o it continues to accelerate agin,
gaining a velocity in the direction of the positive terminal It again encounters an ion and loscs
direced maion This stuatin is repated ayaun and again for every lree clectron in a metal
 Curent and Resistance
Electric 259
Thus when a metallic conductor S subjected to electric field (or potential difference), free
trons move towards the positive terminal of the source with drift
the drift velocity is entirely responsible for electric current in thevelocity
metal
though Small
Note. The reader may wonder that if electrons drift so slowly, how room light turns on quickly
hen switch is closed? The answer is that
propagation of electric field takes place with the speed
licht.
lig
feverywhere
When we apply electric field (i.e., potential
difference) to a wire, the free electrons
in the wire begin drifting almost at once.
5.8. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND DRIFT VELOCITY
Consider a metallic conductor connected to a battery as shown in Fig. 5.7.
Let I= length of the conductor
V = p.d. across the conductor
m = mass of electron
e = charge on electron
= drift velocity of the free electrons
relaxation time
Magnitude of electric field, E =VII +1 Ea Fig. 5.7
Under the influence of electric field, each free electron
acceleration a of the electron is given by; experiences a force of -e E. The
f mxao fexE kocc
bc
e ktie
m
Since relaxation time is t, the drift velocity of the free electron is given by;
aT- cEt
m

= Et
m
The negative sign shows that direction of drift velocity is
Note that drift velocity is directly proportional to
opposite to that of the electric field.
the applied electric field.
Drift speed, v =

5.9. RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY

Consider a portion of a copper wire through which current I is
flowing as shown in Fig. 5.8.
Clearly, copper wire is under the influence of electric field.
Let A = area of X-section of the wire
- Copper wire
n = electron density, i.e., number

e =
of free electrons per unit volume
charge on each electron
(33 P E
Vadrift velocity of free electrons
In one Fig. 5.8
second, all those free electrons within
a
di'stance V, to the right of cross-section at P (i.e., in a volume Av) will flow through the cross-
Section at P as shown in Fig. 5.8. This volume contains n
Av, electrons and, hence, a charge (n
e . Therefore, a charge of n eA v, per second passes the cross-section at P.
I = neA Va
Since A, and
n e are constant, I oc
Vd
 260 Principles of Physics
Hence, current flowing through a conductor is directy proportional to the drift velo. cSX
(nThe drift velocity of free electrons is very small. Since the number of free clectro
ity
metallic conductor is very large, even small drit velocity of free eclectrons gives rise
rise to
to sul
current sutliciem
() I =
neAva =
neA T

I = ne AtE
m

5.10. ELECTRON MOBILITY

The mobility of free electron is defined as the drift velociny of electron per unit electri d
applied. It is denoted by pe

Electron mobility, H. drift velocity

electric field
a= H E
The SI unit of electron mobility is m's v- or ms NC.
(i) We can express electron mobility (H,) in terms of relexation time (T).

Elecron mobility. 4, eEtlmet

=

Em m

where e is the charge on electron, m is the mass of electron and T is the relaxation time of electron,
(ii) We can also express electric current in terms of electron mobility.
neA v = n e A (P, E) (:* Va = H E)

I =
ne AH, E
5.11. CURRENT DENSITY
Current density is defined as the electric current per unit cross-sectional area (area nomal
to current) at any point in a conductor
Consider a wire of cross-sectional area A and carrying current I. In this case, the current density
is constant for all points within the conductor. The magnitude of current density is given by
Current density, J =

Obviously, the SI unit of density is Am.

current

Current density ( ) is a vectorquantity whose magnitude is given by eq. () above and whose
direction is in the direction of electric field.
neA A Va
or VA = ne Va
J = ne Va
Thus, current density is a fundamental quantity and is related to the charge density (n).
charge on current carriers (e) and drift velocity (v) of current carriers.

Notes. (i) J neva =nel

ne Et
J =
m
V V VA
(ii) I =
R pIA) pl
 C u r e n ta n d R e s i s t a n c e
ce
261
IV

and E= VI)
OE

shws
a
h atl onductivity
condur () is the ratio of the magnitude of current density
This riectric field to the
d of ydied
If current densit is nof uniform then general relation is

A the cument through small area dA

wheTe

nship hetween voltape across and current

The relatios
through conductor
a
was first discovered
entist Georpe Simon
amon (Ohm This
relationship is called Ohm's law and may he statcd
Thecurrent () flowing though conductor directly a
is

mv () acrmsseends provided the physical conditions proportional to the potential

its

change. ie,
(temperature, strain. etc ) do
V

Constant R
is a constant of
propotionality and Is called resustance of the conductor
mplc., if in Fig 59 (). the pd between
ponts A and B of the conductor V and
uing is
urent
1, then VIl will be constant and
cqual to R, resistance of the conductor
is

n d B IMV is doubled up. current will

between
also be doubled that
up so ratio V// s constant

()
Fig. 5.9
a graph is drawn between applied potential difference (V) and current () flowng
through
theconcactox, it will be a straight line passing through the ong1n as shown in Fig 59 (). Note
that slope of the graph gives the resistance of thc conductor (tanf= VIl = R)
Thoseconductors (e e. metals) which ohey Ohm's law are called ohmic conductors It may
noNed that Ohm's law (a hnear V-I graph or constant resustance) Is truc only for ohmic
condactors
Note Ohm's law (R VIl
constant) Is a statement ahout the clectncal behaviour of an ohmic
= =

t h e material is not ohmic, relation betweenV and / will not be linear so that R Is not
Nevertheless, R VIl serves as the definition of resistance whether the maternal s ohmic
-chm
ang Valong Y-axis and I
along X-axis.
 262 Principles of Physir
5.13. VALIDITY OF OHM'S LAW
ysics
Consider a metallic wire of length l and uniform area of cross-section A as shown
own in
Let V be the applied p.d. across the ends of the conductor and I t h e -
Fig S.10
resulting current.

Drift velocity, va
Here e (= 1.6 x 10-"C) is the charge on electron and m is the mass
of electron. Now E ( = VI) is the magnitude of the electric field estab-
Fig. 5.10
lished in the conductor and T is the relaxation time.

We know that / = n e A Vd

I = n eA 1nAct
ml
or
nAe't
The quantity ml/n Ae't is constant at a given temperature for a given conductor. It is cal.
resistance R of the conductor. alled
m = Constant = R
nAe't
This proves the validity of Ohm's law.

5.14. RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

Resistance ofa conductor is defined as the ratio of p.d. applied across its ends to the resalting
lting
Current through the conductor, ie.,
R
If we look at the above relation, we find that "resistance" is properly named. For a given
potential difference, the greater the resistance to current flow, the smaller is the current ( =VIR)
In fact, resistance is opposition offered by the substance to the flow of electric current. This
and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of chare
opposition occurs because
carriers, i.e., free electrons
atoms
in this case. Certain substances (e.g., metals such as silver, copper,
flow of electric current and are called conductors.
aluminium, etc.) offer very little opposition to the
to the flow of electric curent
On the other hand, those substances which offer very high opposition
etc.
are called insulators, e.g., glass, rubber, mica,
R = VI7
Unit of Resistance
1A. Therefore, SI unit of resistance is VIA
The SI unit of p.d. is 1V and that of current is
which has been given the special name Ohm (symbol 2).
Ohm 12 = 1 V/A
a
A conductor is said to have a resistance of 1
Ohm ifa p.d. of ]V across its ends causes
current of lA to flow through it.
Dimensions of V
Dimensions of resistance =

Dimensions of l
Energy/Charge MLT
IC

ML'T [MLTA1
Ax AT
 Curent and Resistance
E e c t cC u 263
nal ohm. It is defined as the resistance
of 106.3 cm long
Internationa
mercury column of I mm
area and mass 14.4521g ar 0°C
se
Nole. It ay be noted that resistance is the electric friction
offered by the conductor
production ofheat with the flow of electric current. The
a n dc a u

or molecules of the conductor, each collision

moving free electrons collide
Mithatoms
resulting in the liberat of a minute
quantutyo f heat

ACTORS
15. UPON
FACTORS UPO HICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS
conductor
resistance R of
a
The
i s directly proportional to its length, i.e., R « |
(i) is inversely ortional to its area of X-section, i.e., R o« 1/A
depend pon the nature of the material
(ii')
with temperature.
(v) changes
From the
first three points (leaving temperature for the time
being), we have.
R oc

R P
here 0 (Greekletter 'Rho') is a constant of
proportionality and is known as resistivity or
e
ecin resistance of the conductor. Its value
depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
Resistivity or Specific Resistance.
m
above that R = -
We have seen p
I m-
Ifl= 1 m; A = 1 mí, then R = p Fig. 5.11

Hence specific resistance (or resistivity) of a material is the resistance

ofwire of the material having area of X-section of I m* [See Fig. 5.11].
offered by I m length
For example, resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10° Q-m. It means that if you take a copper
the
wire I m long and having an area of X-section of Im, then resistance of this piece of copper wire
will be 1.7 x 10 2.
Another definition of p. If we take a cube of the material of each side Im, then area
of cross-
secdion of each face is Im and length between
opposite faces is Im.
Hence resistivity may be defined as the resistance between the
opposite faces of a metre cube
of the material.

Unit of Resistivity. We know that R

=P A
or RA

Ihe SI unit of length is Im and that of area is Im.

2
Unit of p ohm xm-Ohm-m
m
c resistuvity of substances varies over a wide range. To give an idea to the reader, the
tollowing table may be referred
 264
Principles of Physics-X
S.No. Material Nature Resistivity (2-m) at
1.
room temperature
Copper metal 1.7 x 10*
Iron metal 9.68 x 10*
Manganin alloy 48 x 10*
Nichrome alloy 100x 10*
Pure silicon semiconductor 2.5x 10
b. Pure germanium semiconductor 0.6
7. Glass insulator 10 to 104
Mica insulator 10 to 105
The reader may note that
resistivity of metals and alloys is very small.
materials good conductors of electric current. On the other hand, resistivityTherefore,
are
of
thes.
extremely large. As a result, these materials hardly conduct any current. There is also an insulators i
resistivity of these substances lies between conductors andintermediate
class of semiconductors. The
Relation between resistivity and electron insulator
mobility. There is a simple relation between
resistivity (p) and electron mobility (H).
We know that : I = ne A Va
or
n e va = ne pe E
(V H, E)
E
Now J =o E =
A
E
P
= ne
H, E
or
nepe
5.16. CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance
(G). If a conductor has
resistance R, then its conductance G is given
by :
G = 1/R

The SI unit
of conductance is mho (i.e., ohm spelt backward). These days, it is usual
to use siemen as the unit of conductance. It is denoted by the symbol S.
a
practice
Electrical conductivity. The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its electrical
conductivity. It is denoted by the symbol o. If a conductor has resistivity p, then its conducivity
is given by:

We know that G = = Clearly, the SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemen

metre (Sm).
5.17. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ON ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
On the basis ofelectrical conductivity. the materials are classified as () insulators, (i) conducton
and (iii) semiconductors.
() Insulators. Those materials whose electrical conductivity is negligible are called
insulators eg. mica. glass, wood, rubber etc. When a smai polential difference is applied acros
 Current and
Resistance 265
Electric
no current flows throug it. There are practically no free electrons in an
an
insulator, practically conductors of electric curTent as well as heat.
insulator. For this reason, they are poor

Those materials conductivity is very high are called

whose electrical
Conductors.
aluminium etc. Metals are generally good conductors. When a
conductors e.g. copper, silver, current flows through it. There are
difference is applied across a conductor, large
a
small potential this reason, they are good conductors of
large numberof free electrons in a conductor. For
current as well as heat.
electric
whose electrical conductivity lies inbenween conductors
(ii) Semiconductors. Those materials silicon etc. When a small potential
insulators are called semiconductors e.g. germanium,
and it. The
weak current flows through conductivity
across semiconductor,
very a
difference is applied
a

can be increased by adding

controlled amount of suitable impurities.
semiconductor
of a
manufacture of a variety of electronic devices.
Semiconductors are being widely used in the
TEMPERATURE
5.18. VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY WITH

R ml
nAest ne'tA
m
Resistivity of a material, p =

nest

Since m and e are constants, p o

Therefore, resistivity of the material depends upon the following factors

) h is iversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) of the
material. Since the value of n depends upon the nature of the material, 1he resistivity of
a material depends upon the nature of material and not on its dimensions.
(i) I is inversely proportional to the average relaxation time (T). The value of t decreases
with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
1. Metals. In most of the metals, the value of n does not change with temperature so that

P
Now relaxation time (T) is the average time between two successive collisions of a free
electron with positive ions of metallic conductor. As the temperature increases, the amplitude of
vibrations of the positive ions also increases. Consequently, the relaxation time decreases. This in
turn increases the value of p. Hence, in case of metals, the resistiviry (and hence resistance
R pl/A) increases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
It is found that resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with temperature and is given
by P Po + a, (t - t6

where p and po are the resistivity at temperatures r°C and o°C respectively. The term a, is
called temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
1
P _ _ dp
Clearly, a, =

Po(t-%) Po dt

Therefore, a, is defined as the fractional change in resistiviry (dp lp) per unit change in
lemperature (dt).
Note that a, is positive for metals.
 266 Principles d Pryse
2. Semiconductors. In case of semiconductors, the value of n (1e., free clectron de

very small as metals. When the tenperature of a semiconductor

compared to increases,denmt
the y)
of n increases and that of t decreases. But the increase in the valuc ofn is greater than
than the de. the
in the value of t. The net result is that the esistivity of a semiconductor decreases with the detee
incTee
in temperature. Therefore, the resistivity (and hence resistance) of a semiconductor decreate
the increase in temperature and vice-versa. The reader may note that effect of termperati
semiconductors is opposite to that on mctallic conductors. Note that , for semiconductr
negative.
3. Insulators. The
resistivity (and hence resistance) of an insulator decreases exponentiat
with the rise in temperature. A temperature rise in insulators creates many more free electrons tially
that existed in the cooler state. Often this increase in the number of free clectrons more than off
than
the interference to the drift movement caused by the increased molecular activity. Hence
resistivity of an insulator decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
Note. In case of a semiconductor and an insulator, the temperature dependence of
resistivt
isgiven by:
P = pe/2AT

where k = Bolizmann constant (= 1.381 x 104"J mol K")

T Absolute temperature
E = Energy gap between conduction band and valence band in the atoms of te

material
The value of E, decides whether a material is a semiconductor or insulator. If E, = 1 eV, the
material is a semiconductor and the resistivity at room temperature is not high. However, if
E> 1 eV. the material is an insulator and the value of resistivity is very high. Note that at OK
both the semiconductor and insulator have infinite value of resistivity.
5.19. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures, the resistance of a metallic
conductor increases linearly with the rise in temperature. Therefore, resistance/temperature graph
is a straight line as shown in Fig. 5.12.
Consider a metallic conductor having resistance R, at 0°C and R, at ,°C. Then in the normal
range of temperatures., the increase in resistance (i.e., R, - R)

) is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e.,

R, - Ro R

(i) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature, i.e.,

R -Ro
(in) depends upon the nature of the material.
Combining the first two, we get. Ro
R -R R,
or
R R, = a R, 1 .1)
where a is a constant of proportionality and is called temperature
the nature of the
co-efficient of resistance. Its value depends upon Temperature
material and temperature. Fig. 5.12
Rearranging eq. (i). get, R, we =
Ro (1 + a 1,)
Definition of a. From eq. (i). we get.

K = Increase in resistancelohm original resistance

Rx C rise in tempar
 Current and Resistance 267
Electric
Hence. temperature co-eflicient of resistance of a conductor is the ine rease in resistanee
t ohm onginal esistance per "C rise in temperature.
A htle reflection shows that unit of a will be ohms/ohms/ "C ie., / °C. Thus copper has a
emperature co efficient of resistance of 0.004/ oC. It means that if a copper wire has a resistance
f 12 at 0C. then it will increase by 0.004 2 for every 1°C rise in temperature, ie., it will become
I04 2 at IC. II may be noted that metals have positive temperature co-efficient of resistance
while semiconductors and insulators have negative temperature co-cfficient of resistance. It may
he noted that value of oa is very small for alloys. Since alloys have high value of resistivity and
low value of a, they are used for standard resistance coils.
making
Note. If the resistance of a conductor is R, at C and R, at C , < 1), then,

R, =
R, |1+a(, -4)
Example 5.5. A copper wire of area ofX-section 1 mm is carrying a current of 10A. If the
number density of conduction electrons is 10m, find the drift velocity of the conduction
electrons.
Solution. I =n A e Va
Here I= 10 A: A =I mm* 10 m; = e = 16 x 10" C; n =l0 m
10
Drift velocity, va = = 1/160 ms
nAe 10 x 10 x 1.6x 10
Note that drift specd of conduction clectrons is surprisingly small as compared to their thermal
speeds.
v Example 5.6. A copper wire of area of X-section 4 mm is 4 m long and carries a current
at of 10A. The number density of free electrons is 8 x 10 m. How much time is required by
an electron to travel the length of wire?
Solution. I = n Ae Va
Here I = 10A: A = 4 mm* = 4 x 10 m; e = 1.6 x 10 C; n = 8 x 10 m
EL
10
Drift velocity, va =
nAe 8x 10 x (4x10)x 1.6xt0 19
=
1.95 x
10 ms
nom Time taken by the electron to travel the length of the wire is
4
x 10" s = 5.7 hours
1044US
Va 1.95 x
Example 5.7. (a) Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper
wire of cross-sectional area 1.0 x 10 m carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each
copper atom contributes roughly one conduction electron. The density of copper is 9.0 x 10
kg/m', and its atomic mass is 63.5 u. (b) Compare the drift speed obtained above with, ()
thermal speeds of copper atoms at ordinary temperatures, (i) speed of propagation of electric
neld along the conductor which causes the drift motion.

Avogadro's number
Solution. (a) Density of conduction electrons, n x density
Atomic mass
6.023 x 1023
x9x 10 = 8.54 x102 m
63.5x10
We know that, I = n A eva

Here n = 8.54 x 102 m A = 10 m: e = 16 x l0"C; I = 1.5 A

sta

1.5
Drift velocity. Yd
Ae (8.54x 10)x 10 x(1.6x 10)
1.Ix 10ms