ali ally C Tlows thugh iThere 265

, they ae
pun
are
fpractically
hne
cdc ofh clecuC current no
Iree electrons in
u ton

mteuls
rlretrir al whne" an well as heat.
an

UUN, ilvet,
alununium cle Melals areconductivily is very high are
e e in applied acsoss a generally goxd conductors. called
lee cloctrons in
conduct1, a
large current When a
conductor For this flows
reason, they are through it. There are
a

good conductors of
nduc tors. Thove muute'riads whoxe
ir electrical
ulled nenulconduetors conductivity lies inbetween
lied atoNs nemieonductor, e.g
a
gerunium, silicon
a etc. When a small
conductors
very weuk current potential
neloeton tan be
meIeaNed by ideling through it. The
flows
tusare being wiuely useal in the controlled amount of conductivity
manulacture of a variety of suitable impurities.
clectronic devices.
RIATION OF RESISTIVITY
WITII
TEMPERATURE
R m V ml
mL
n Ae't ne't|a)
&esstnity of a
ateral, p=

Since n nd e are
constants, p
T
Ther lone, esistivity of the material depends
0 i inersely priportional to the numberupon the following factors
uaternual. Since the value of depends ofthe
free electrons per unit n volume (n)
of the
muateriual upon nature of the
depends
upon the nature material, the resistivity of
(40 is inverselv of material and not on its
dimensions.
poportional to the
average relaxation time
th the inerease in temperature and vice-versa.
(t). The value of t decreases
LMetals. In most of the metals, the value of n does not
change with
temperature so that

Now elavution time (T) is the average time

onwith positive ions of metallic conductor. Asbetween
the
two successive
collisions of a free
rations of positive ions also increases.
the temperature increases, the amplitude of
incTe ses the value of p. Hence, in caseConsequently. the relaxation time decreases. This in
of metals, the resistivity (and hence resistance
PUAINCeases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa.
is ound that resistivity of a
conductor increases linearly with
temperature and is given
P Po ll +a, ( -
PndPo are
d termpeTalure co-efticientresistivity atthe
temperatures r°C and ,°C respectively. The term a, is
of resistivity.
Clear Po do 1
a =

Po-) Po dr
, is defined as the fractional change in resistivity (dp /Po
eraha (dr per unit change in

ote hat a, is
positive for metals.
 semiconductors,
the value of n
(ie., free clecton
266 In case of t e m p e r a t u r e
of a semicond
ctor increase
value of ni
the
When
isd l e rth
S e m i c o n d u c t o r s .

very
2.
smallas of T
compared
to
metals.

decreases. Butthe
increase
of1 a
in the
semiconductor
greater
than the
and that that the
resistivity semicesin
ofa
nductor dec
increases
of n result is h e n c e resIstance)
value of t. The
net (and
in the the resistivity The
r e a d e r may te that
note
of fect
in temperature.
Therefore,
and Note that
vice-versa.

a, for lemper
Semicondac
conductors.

temperature metallic
increase in
the that o n to
is opposite insulator den.
ecreases eApote
semiconductors
resistance)
of an

negative. resistivity (and

hence mo many
3.
Insulators. The rise in
insulators creates re
freeee
A temperature number of free electro
increasein the
temperature.
the rise in
state. Often this
with increasedmolecular
the cooler the
that existed in caused by vice.
interference to the drift movement the increase in lemperature and
the insulatordecreases
with insulator, the
temperature dependenc
ence of re
resistivity of an semiconductor and an
Note. In case of a
12kT
is given by P Po e
Boltzmann constant (= 1.381 x 10 J mol K)
where k =

T Absolute temperature band in the atoms

band and valence
atr

between conduction
E =
Energy gap
material
is a semiconductor or
insulator. E,- I If
decides whether a material
The value of E, room temperature
is not high. Howe
material is a semiconductor
and the resistivity at
value resistivity is very high. Note of tha
1 eV, the material is an insulator and the
E,> insulator have infinite value of resistivity.
both the semiconductor and
ON RESISTANCE
5.19. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
X the resistance of a e
It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures,
conductor increases linearly with the rise in temperature. Therefore, resistance/temperatue
is a straight line as shown in Fig. 5.12.
Consider a metallic conductor having resistance R at 0°C and R, at ,°C. Then in the a
range of temperatures, the increase in resistance (i.e., R, - R)

() is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e..

R-R Ro
() is directly proportional to the rise in temperature, i.e.
R Ro «
(i) depends upon the nature of the material.
Combining the first two, we get,
or
R Ro R
where a is constant of R =R=a R, '
a
. (i)
co-eficient of resistance. Its proportionality and is called
temperature value depends
material and temperature. upon the nature of the
T e m p e r

Reamanging eq. (i), we get, R, =

R, (1
Fig 512

Defnition of a. From
+ a
eq. (i), we
get,
a R
RX Increase in resistance/ohm ong
°C rise in
temperature
 Hesistance
and
Curent
267
vrc
e . t e m p e r a t u r e
eoefficient of resistance o d
(onuduc tor is the inerrae
esistance per C rise in temperature in resustane
ws that unit of a will be
Iuttle retlection :
ohms/ohm "C ir., /
"C Thus copper has a
of resistance of O.004/ "C. lt means that il a
coppei wire has a resistance
hture
lincrease by 0.004 S2 1or TC TIse inevery
creas .

ltvmay be
be noted
that mctals havee positive temperature, will becone ie., it
C.
.al onductors and insulators have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance
temperature co-efficient of resistance. It may
that value of a is very small for alloys. Since alloys have high value of resistivity and
of they are used Tor making standard resistance coils
XpOn
t h e resistance of a conductor is R2 at rC and R, al 'C (1, < 1,). hen.
R = R, [I + a (, - , )

Hee n l e 5.5. A copper wire of area of X-section 1 mm* is carrying a current of 10A. If the
Ansity of conduction electrons is 10°m, find the drift velocity of the conduction
1S.

Solution. I =n Ae va
l= 10 A; A = I mm* = 10 m: e = 1.6 x 10"C; n = l0* m
Here
10
Drift velocity,
oms d
Va
nAe 10x10x1.6x10 1/160 ms
Note that drift speed of conduction electrons is surprisingly small as compared to their thermal

ample 5.6.A copper wire of area of X-section 4 mm is 4 m long and carries a current
Howee 10A. The number density of free electrons is 8 x 10* m". How much time is required by
that tron to travel the length of wire?
Solution. I = n A e va

ere I = 10A; A = 4 mm = 4 x 10 m: e = 1.6 x 10 C; n = 8 x 10 m

10
am Drift velocity, Va =
19 1.95 x 10 ms
ature nAe
8x10 x (4x 10) x 1.6 x 10
Time taken by the electron to travel the length of the wire is
the 4 hours
2.05 x 10* s =5.7
1.95x 10
ample 5.7. (a) Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper
ross-sectional area 1.0 x 10 m carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each
is 9.0 x 10
contributes
S
roughly one conduction electron. The density of copper
atomic mass is 63.5 u. (b) Compare the drift speed obtained above with, ()

copper atoms at ordinary temperatures, (ii) speed of propagation of electric

s the
o
ng conductor which causes the drift motion.

on. (a) Density of conduction electrons, n Avogadro's numberx density

Atomic mass

6.023 x I02
x 9 x 10' =8.54 x10 m

63.5x 10
We know that, / = n A eva
Te A
"8.54 x 102 m A =10 m: = I.6 x 10C: 1= 15
1.5
Drift
velocity. Va nAe (8.54x 10*) x 10
x(l.6x 10 )

= 1.I 10
 Prindiples oPhiy
274
ified value
specifiec
5.20. CARBON RESISTORS

in a
circuit is
to
provide
electrical
a

and electronic sisaretancethe n

A component whose
function
in
ith aa
with hi
Tedbinding
resistors mixed
used carbon

resistorsmalen
are
commonly
The most powdered small-siz
made from
Ihese
a resistor. eng.
resistor is to each
resistors. A carbon wire attached million ohms.
tube with a ohm to
several
a small
aked into a fraction
of an carbon
resistor

Tactured in values from resistors.

Since a
code for
carbon
convenient
to use a colour
Colour numeri-
small, it is
more
the
s physically quite value than
to imprint A BC D
resistance generally four
code indicating the scheme,
there are

the In this of the

resistor
Fig. 5.13
on the body
case.
cal value on
and
colour bands A, B,
C and D printed bands (A, B
three colour tells about the *
5.13. The first
a s shown in Fig. while the fourth band (D)
value of the
resistance resistance
values and cola
C) give the
table below shows the
colour code for codt
The
percentage.
Colour Code for Toler
tolerance. Resistance
Values
Colour Code for Gold
Green 5
Black 0 Silver 10
Brown Blue No colour 20
2 Violet
Red
8
Orange 3 Grey
4 White 9
Yellow colour bands (A, Bad
we refer to
the first three
i) To read the resistance value, first two digits of the resistance n
The first two colour bands (A,
B) specify the
(C) gives the number of zeros that follow the fint
and the third colour band
three colour bands (A, B, C) on the
resistor are red, tme
the first
digits. Suppose of the resistance is 21,
000 2.
Then value
orange respectively.
Red 2
Brown 1 Value = 21,000 2
Orange 000
of theu
band D gives the value of tolerance
in percentage. If colour
(i) The fourth
is t 10 pera
band is gold, tolerance is 5 per cent and if silver, then tolerance
tolerance is assumed to be 20 per cent.
the fourth band is omitted, the
1

B reat Britain Very T Good

WD
Red Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey
Black Brown Orange
Note. In order to remember the colour code, the above sentence may be neipd
Find
Example 5.25. The colour coded carbon resistors are shown in Fig. 5.l
resistance values. ecoada
The
Solution. Refer to Fig. 5.14 (i). The first colour represents the digit 5. fore, then
presents the digit 6. The third colour represents the digit 4, i.e., four zeros. TDet
repr Hence
of the resistance is 560000 2. The fourth gold strip indicates +5%
tolerance.

resistor is
specification of the
560000 9 5%
colurcat

Due to manufacturing variaions, the resistance value may not be the same asindicaied 10
a resistor marked 10S, t 107% tolerance means that resistance value is between**
 Current and Resistance
275
Green Blue Gold Red
Blue Silver

Yellow
Red
(
Fig 5.14
Refer to Fig 5.14 (). Following above proccedure, the resIstance
specification of this resistor
22.000000Q 10
Fumple ,26. How will you represent a resistance of 3700 t 10% by colour code?
solution The value of the carbon resistance 3700 Q t 10% 37x 10 Q 10%
=
=

The colours of bands corresponding to numbers 3 and 7 are

orange and violet respectively
ne coloar band corespond1ng to muluplier 10 red. For 10% tolcrance,
is
colour band silver is
Ds the soqpence of colour bands this carbon resistor orange, violet, red and
on
is
silver.

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1.A voltage of 30 V applied across a colour coded carbo resistor with
is
first. second
and third rings of blue. black and yellow colours. What is the current
the fcsistor? flowing through
[0.5x 10 A]
2 The carbon resistor has coloured
strips with scquence brown, black. brown and gold.
What is the value of the resistor?
T100 5%) Q]
3A carbon resistor marked in coloured bands in the
is
sequence blue. green, orange
and gold. What is the resistance and tolerance value
of the resistor?
65x 10 0; t 5%]
4. Dra the colour code scheme of 42 k2 + 10% carbon resistance
Iyellow, red, orange and silver]
$21. NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS
Those conductors which do not obey Ohm's law (l V) are called non-ohmic conductors.
«

8- vacuum ubes, transistors, electrolytes, etc. A non-ohmic conductor may have one or more of
efollowing properties
The V-I graph is non-linear i.e. VII is variable.
The V-I graph may not pass through the origin as in case of an ohmic conductor.
Anon-ohmic conductor may conduct poorly or not at all when the p.d. is reversed
The non-linear circuit problems are generally solved by graphical methods.
S.1Sillustrates the graphs of non-ohmic conductors. Note that V-l graphs for these
omic onductors are not a straight line.

Junction Neon Dde

diode gas valve
0 0

Fig. 5.15