426

429
429
431-466
431
437
437
440
442
444 Circuit Concepts
445
446 and Analysis
447
448
449 INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
449 1.1 Network
450 1.2 Potential and Potential Difference
1.3 Resistance and Conductance
451
1.4 Ohm's Law
452 1.5 Battery or Cell
454 1.7 Series and Parallel Circuits
454 1.8 Work, Power and Energy
1.9 Joule's Law of Electric Heating
454 1.10 Summary
455
455
455 1.1 NETwORK
461 A network is an electrical circuit comprised of elements like resistors, inductances,
capacitors, voltage/current sources, etc. The network elements can be of different
464
kinds such as active or passive, linear or non-linear, unilateral or bilateral, etc.

608 Network elements are individual components such as registor, inductor, capacitor,
diode, voltage source, current source, etc. The network elements are interconnected
610 such that the circuit meets the desired design. An element of a network having two
614 terminals is known as a branch.

1.1.1 Active and Passive Elements

An active element is the one which can store energy and or supply energy. Current
source or voltage source is an active element. Inductors can store electromagnetic
energy and capacitors can store electrostic energy, therefore, Inductors and Capacitors
are also known as active elements. A resistor dissipates energy when energized and it
does not store any energy, therefore, resistor is known as passive element.
 2 E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g

Elements

U n i l a t e r a l

dirn.
B i l a t e r a l
and
equally
well in eitlher
oOns, it Circuit Concepts and Analysis 3
bilateral Call
1.1.2
c o n d u c t s

are ents,
current C a p a c i t o r s

o
In an
element,
if I n d u c t o r s
and

for t w o
directions
of the
t ater
when bonded together have some loosely bound electrons, ie. free electrons. This
situation disturbs the electrical charge balance of the atom. When an atom looses an
Resistor,

different
In ideal
diode does
es not
clement are diode.
allow e l e c t r o n , the atom becomes positively charged and such atom is known as positive 1on
voltage
relations

element
such as
a
curren
ent n ca
In case, an electron is added to an atom, it is negatively charged atom and such
atom
unilateral

calledan two
d i r e c t i o n s .

i s known as negative ion. Any material is called electrically charged if some positive
in one ofthe Elements
ions and or negative ions exist.
N o n - L i n e a r

1.1.3
Linear
and
related near equation-
through a linea. algebrai Silver, copper, aluminium and z1nc material have free electrons, therefore, it is
and voltage is known easy to make them move. Such a materials are known as conductor. Some materials
has current
linear, it n as
element is n o t
A linear
If a n
element
a rele ike glass,mica andporcelain have closely bound atoms and have no free electrons. It
differential

C
or

are
integral.
linear
elements.
element is very difficult to remove electrons from atoms in such cases. These are non-metallic

Ideal R,L,
the
materials and are known as insulator. The direction of electric current is opposite of the
direction of electron flow in the conductors or insulators.
(a) Tdeal R e s i s t o r to cur
ent,
therefore, it is a An electric current is the movement of electrons along
propOrtional
is
an 1deal register
a definite path in a
across
Voltage
l i n e a r element. conductor The unit of electric charge is coulomb. Electric current is the movement of
= i r volt
unit charge per unit time. Unit of current is ampere.
and i is the rent
currenmt

iS voltage
a
across a resistor R
(2).
flowing through Current, i()=
Where

resistor
v

R. Unit IS
of R
resistance in ohm the dt
.(1.1)
where, i(1)= Instantaneous current in amperes
(6) Ideal Inductor q = Electric charge in coulombs
with a Tlow of a current, In
an
a.

Inductor stores energy

in
assoc1ation

to the of change
rate of of deal induc-
current init.
t = time in seconds.

across it is proportional With above equation, we can see that ampere is nothing but coulombs per second.
tor, the voltage
v
=
L dildt volt. (V)
1.3 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCCE
the inductor, i isthe
the current flowin
current
flowing
Where, is the voltage
v
across

inductor in Henry (H).

through th Potential is like electric pressure which is responsible for current flow in a conductor.
inductance of the
inductor and L is the Similar to pressure, potential is also given with a reference and unit of potential is
volt. In this case, the potential of earth or ground is the reference. If the earthing or
)Tdeal Capacitor
A capacitor stores energy in the form of a charge separation when it is suitably
grounding is proper, this reference potential is zero. In the case of pressure, say water
across it. In an idealo flows from a higher pressure level to a lower pressure level. Similarly, current flows
electric field due to applying voltage
polarized by an from a higher potential to a lower potential. The difference between higher potential
tor, the current flowing through it is proportional to the rate of change of valt
and lower potential is known as "potential difference"
across 1t.
av
i =

C ampere (A) 1.4 RESISTANCE AND cONDUCTANCE

where, i is the current flowing through the capacitor, v is Voltage across the
The property of a conductor which opposes the fow an of electric
current as
resistance" is denoted by R. The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length and
isknown
capacitance of the capacitor in Farad (F). inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
R p ohm or Q .(1.2)
1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND CURRENT a

A molecule is the smallest where R resistance of the wire

particle of any material. Further subdivision of molecu = length of the wire in meter
are atoms. If the
molecules of a substance consist of similar atoms, it is known as ele
ment; and if the molecules of a substance consist of dissimilar a area of cross-section ofthe wire in meter
atoms, it is know or resistivity
material constant known as specific resistance
p
compound. of the material in ohm-meter.
An atom consists of electrons,
protons and neutrons. Each electron has neg Conductance is reciprocal of resistance and is denoted by G.
Cnarge, each proton has positive charge and neutrons have no charge at all. An a
Is
electrically neutral as it has number of electrons
equal to number of protons. n
 4 E l e c t i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g

mho or 3
1. =
Circuit Concepts and Analysis 5
GR p of

specific
c o n d u c t a n c e
or
conductivity

terial in
niho
Solution:

where opP temn

pe R 0.346 2

meter
or
S

r e
I

s
e

i
m

s t
e

a
n

n
per

c e
meter

or
conductance

1 he
fa
of a

colOur
conductor
conaductor

coding
is
is tenperature
is q u i t e Cor
in Table 11.1.
der
dependent
monly
monle

used
and tis
to
I
a
= 40 m
2 mm

specify
given
The temperature. l t 1s
2
with the
increases

a n d its
of t o l e r a n c e .

Resistance
=

10 m
of
resistance
Colour
Coding of
the
value
Table
1.1. R =p a
Multifier

No.
Colour
Digil
0
10
10
Tolerance Specific resistance,P Ra 0.346x2x10
40
Black
103 r 1.73 x
10 D-m.
Brown
Red 103
1.5 OHM'S LAW
Orange 104
Ohm's law states that the current flowing through a conductor at a
Yellow 105 constant temperature
is directly proportional to the potential difference between
its ends, see the Fig. 1.1(6).
Green 10
Blue 10 I oc V or I=
R
or V IR, .(14)
where I = curent in amperes.
Violet 108 R
9
Grey
9 10
V =potential difference in volts, ww
10. White and R =resistance in ohms (or 2).
Gold 5% Fig. 1.1 (b) Relationship of
11.
10% voltage and current.
12. Silver 1.6 BATTERY OR CELL
No-colour +20% Abattery or cell is a source of electrical power.
13.
given in three bands with a gap for
large gap toler.
tolerance band as The voltage difference between two terminals
The colour codes are
of a battery is known as electromotive force
shown in the Fig. 1.1(a). Internal Switch
(emt) when in open-circuit. If a load is resistance
Significant digits connected across the battery, the current o atery
flows from positive potential to negative adR
potential through the wire. The potential
difference across the terminals of the
in
battery
loaded condition is lesser than the value
4 Tolerance Fig. 1.2 Battery with internal
Multiplier
observed in the open circuit condition. The
Fig. 1.2 shows a battery in loaded condition resistance.
Fig. 1.1 (a) Resistance value given as colour coding. when switch is in closed condition.
If 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th are yellow, violet, The drop in emf across the
of the resistance is as follows: orange and silver respectively, the value battery terminals in the loaded condition is due to its
internal resistance.
Resistance value, R =47 x 10 2+ 10%
=47 kQ 10% E-V emf drop due to internal
=

resistance,
Example 1.1 where, E
= emf across battery terminals when in open condition.
The resistance of a conductor 2 V emf across battery terminals in loaded condition.
=

Determine the specific resistance mm in cross-section and 40 m long is 0.540 If I is the current flowing in the the loaded
condition, then
of the conductor material. E-V = Ir
 7
Circuit Concepts and Analysis
Electnca/Engineering
resistance of a series circuit is equal to
clear that equivalent
The above makes
sum ot the individual
resistance in the circuit.
IR+
RE arithmetic
If the resistances R;, Rg, R3
are connected in parallel to each
other and it is

ExR R+ a source voltage V. The net

R+r energized by
b a t t e r y f l o w s as shown
in Fig. 1.4.
current
resiIstance ofthe and 7, are the current flowing in WW
termina
II respectively
R,
intermal
are and
wihere
=

V
when
w h e n
its
1tS
terminals

ce of
joinedto an resistors Ri, R2
the net current I and I, I www-
VV to
to
1.6
1.0 r e s i s t a n .

the cell We know that

Example 1.2 2
I n t e r n a l

and follows:
cell
falls
from
Calculate
the
external resistance.
e x t e r n a l
r e s i s t a n

the and I, are

related as
I = I1+l +Iy
ww
ofa
the
2. circuit.
The
emf
resistance
o f3
flows
t h r o u g h

www Fig. 1.4 Parallel

applied across each
e x t e r n a l
which

The voltage 1s
law:
c u r r e n t

ofthe therefore, as per Ohm's

value
resistance,
S o l u t i o n :
F = 2V R
R-42
ww
T- 1.6V
1.60.4 A
y 2-10=1.0. Ans.
0.4 or

resistance of the circuit, then

If R is equivalent
CIRCUITS

P A R A L L E L

energiz by a
and

SERIES
AND connected
in series 1.7)
are
1.7 and Kg the circuit be I
in the RRR,
Suppose
three
resistances R, R2
1.3. Let
the
current ilowing
VV2and
age appliedis makes it clear that in a parallel circuit,
sum of inverse of
in Fig. respectively. The above equation
1, K2, Kz resistance of the circuit.
shown
Vas
voltage inverse of the equivalent
resistances is equal to
resistances
across
Ri, R2,R3.
voltage drops
resistances

across

, are
drops
However, in terms of conductances:
equal to the
sum
ofthe voltage ...(18)
G G+G+ G3
1 GR GR
where
R R

Example 1.3
electrical loads
V. It has the following
Fig. 1.3. Series circuit A house is supplied with electricity at 250
(1) 10 in number, 200 W lamps each
V= y+hth 10 in number, 1 kW radiations each
(i)
V =IR + IR + IR each taking 25 A
Or ii) 4 motors
of energy for the
If the electricity is kept in use for 5 hours a day, find the cost

or
R, tR,+R month of February, l1990 at the
rate of R 2.50 per unit.

Solution:no fol
Ohm's lawstates that=R, where R is the equivalent resistance ofthe ciret 20 x 100 2000 W =2 kW
R =R +R +R .(1.6) W
WR =10x1=10 kW
 E l e c t r i c e lE n g i n e e r i n

V W
ach numberload 1000 Circuit Concepts and Analysis 99
250X26.25 kW
25
1000
+ WR
t WM www
y= W OV
2+10+25=37 kW 10 5o a 20
load 1s Used
5 hrs daily
ly.
and
days
February,
1990 has 28
=
5 x 28
= 140 Solution
Total Hrs ofusage 37.0kWx 140 Hr Equivalent resistance of parallel circuit,

100
Energy consumed

- 5180 kWh
S180 =R 12,950
Rp io 10+2+5
consumed
=R2.50
X
10 50 20
Cost energy Equivalent resistance of the circuit,
Example 1.4 value 2 5 0 a 5+25+
A dc circuit
comprises
two
r e s i s t o r s ; resistor A

with a
of
third resistor
resistor Bof unkno
Coftol..SIstor
yalue
together
acr co V 10 V
connected in parallel,
voitage to be applied
value the
Sthe w e
with theparallel
branch. Find
across Cis 90 V and the toe whole cirod 10x34 10 68
IR1135 T135227
series
pad
of resistor if the
B
and the value
320 W 34

Solution: V 2.5x 27V.

Current, = 18A. B=h
ww.- Voltage drop across parallel resistance,
100 400
Voltage, = A= 25
pd
Vp221 227
90V Vp 400 8
4320
18
I250 227x50 227A
= 240 V. Ans. 1.8 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Voltage across the parallel resistances Work done in Joules =Force in newtons x distance in meters.
=
V-90 =240-90 150 V. or W Fxd .(1.9)
I50 Power Rate of work done in Joules/second or Watts
6A.
25 oipsfo rii botiggne dW
Or
dt OPT08 a0WAesu0.(L10)
p18-6=12A. In electrical systems, the work done in Joules is the energy required to transfer a
150
R= = 12.5 W. change Q coulombs across a potential diference of V volts i.e
12 W VO
Example 1.5
For the Power= energy V tatse at
circuit shown in time
V and I figure, bg tne method of series-parallel combination,i
ode e Current I=
t
 Circuit Concepts and Analysis 11
10 Electrical Engineering

P - W=1R=
..(1.12) H
PRIJoules RL Calories.
180 Calories.
Hence, P = PR
as 1 Calorie = 4.18 Joules.
2 ..(1.13)
follows: We can approximate 4.18 = 4.2, therefore,
P R which is as
for power
used unit

The horse p o w e r
is a frequently
...(1.14) H Calories .(1.22)
746 Watts 4.2
L.15)
=

(British)
hp = 735.5 Watts
hp(Metric)
Kinetic energy
is defined a s : sUMMARY
.16) .Current: An electric current is the movement of electrons along a definite path
Kinetic energy 5m
in a conductor. The positive direction of current flow is the fow of positrve
ot
m=
mass
of the
material
charge direction, therefore, direction of electric current is opposite direction
where mass.
electron flow. The unit of current is ampere.
velocity ofthe
v=

Gravitational potential e n e r g y = m g h
.1.17) Potential: Potential is defined as electric pressure which is responsible
for
between one higher
material
current flow, The unit of potential is volt. The difference
of the difference.
mass
and another low potential in a circuit is known as potential
=

where
m
9.81 m/s potential
acceleration i.e.,
g= gravitational .Resistance and conductance
which m a s s is
lifted.
h = height by time R =P ohm or 2
=
power
x
Resistance,
Electric energy

...(1.18) Siemen
W Vlt=I/Ri= R Conductance, G mho or 3 or
OI
of electrical energy. Ohm's law: V=IR
is given in terms of 'unit'
electrical energy which is effective
In normal usage, Internal resistance: Battery or cell has internal resistance
is defined as:
Unit of electrical energy when it is loaded. Normally, internal resistance is negligible.
Watts x hour
...(1.19) .Resistances in series and parallel:
kWh
1000 Resistance in series:
1000 x 60 W min
kWh 1000 Wh ROW 8. R = R t+ R2 + R3
1000 x 60 x 60 W sec

3.6 x 10 W sec Resistance in parallel:

= 3.6 x 10° Joules 1
...(1.20) +
or
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
R R RR
HEATING G G t Gz+ G.
1.9 JOULE'S LAW OF ELECTRIC
Joule's law of electric heating status that: Power, P= VI =PR = Watts.
Electrical power and energy:
) Heat is proportional to the square of current, i.e., Hc P.
(i) Heat is proportional to the resistance of the circuit, i.e., HcR. Joules.
Energy, W
=
Power x
time =Vlt=F Rt = R
(ii) Heat is proportional to the duration ofthe time, i.e., Hoc t. Electric

Heat produced, H=PRt (1.21)

.Heating: Joules law of electric heating:
We know that the above equation is same as Eqn. (1.17). The heating effect can IRt Calories.
also be interpreted in calories as follows: H =F Rt Joules = 4.